BIO 358 - Full Semester Package

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Topic 1: How we are unique
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PARSIMONY = SIMPLE AND POWERFUL

Answer the q: how did humans come to be unique among all animals on earth
o Darwins unanswered q
Why do we care?
o Knowledge is power, fix problems, better world for people and
descendants, it is an important q to be answered.
o Unique social and sexual behaviors unexplained
Humans: how are we unique and how unique are we?
o started by looking at how Humans have changed planet earth to grow
food
ex: Japan changes landscape to grow rice, we have a large
agricultural footprint
we emit and expend a lot of energy such as light seen from orbit
humans have ecological dominance
The history of the human knowledge enterprise tells us that the only viable
explanations are scientific theories
a Focus in this course is the scientific understanding of ourselves
b The point of Science is about simplification
i Every scientific theory must be simple enough to be written on
the front of a tee shirt, if not, its wrong or not done yet.
ii Our goal is to construct a front of a tee shirt
theory/explanation of human uniqueness
Scientific theories are reductionist explanations the only explanations
there are
a Going to argue that all scientific explanations are reductionist, which
explains why the front of the teeshirt model works.
b For social scientists, reductionism is a derogatory term
c Reductionists pyramid, makes assumption: the universe consists of
many layers of complexity, and each level emerges simply from the
level below. Each level emerges from a small subset of the properties
of the level below.
i Because only a few of the level below properties matter, our
explanations remain simple no matter what level of complexity
1 An enormously powerful tool!!
Species and their history tools to test (reductionist) evolutionary theories
a The fundamental tool of science is doubt; science is hypothesis and
doubt!
b Species: opposite sex within species can mate and produce viable
offspring
c Any species changes over time
i Ex: population can be broken in two by geographical barrier,
then each separate population pursues independent trajectory,
accumulating genetic differences
ii Ex: geographical barrier removed, two populations reunited, two
things can happen: speciation, where each population changed
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too much and no longer able to produce viable offspring (ex:

lions and cheetahs), or non-speciation, where can merge again.
iii Phylogenetic analysis
Putting the human species into the bigger picture
a Goal is to join humans to the reductionists enterprise (reductionists
pyramid)
b We will attempt to do this with phylogenetic analysis
Seeing ourselves in evolutionary context yields surprising insights into human
uniqueness
a Humans are part of the primate class of animals
b Great apes are our closest relatives, chimps are the closest, sharing a
common ancestor ~6 million years ago
c Humans got wildly different in a blazing hurry; we didnt speciate a
long time ago and grow so much over a long period of time.
d Creative destruction: by proposing a clear hypothesis, even when its
wrong, we learn something; making progress by proposing hypotheses,
smashing them on the facts, and then making progress.
e Since humans became so unique in a blazing hurry, it suggests that
the reason is simple, can be one or even just a few events.
i We will argue that it was one event.
Precisely how can we use phylogenetic analysis to test theories of human
uniqueness?
a Did walking up on two legs make us unique?
i Darwins proposal, that bipedalism is what made us unique.
ii We can falsify this b/c unique human traits, such as brain
expansions and language, came about 2 million years ago, but
bipedalism occurred much earlier than that in
australopithecines, who walked on twos, but had same ape sized
brain for 4 million years after speciation from chimps.
1 Very unlikely that there was a 4 million year lag in what
made us unique
b Does our sexual behavior make us unique?
i Most animals dont engage in sexual activity that is not designed
to produce offspring, but humans do.
ii No true, b/c bonobos engaged in all sorts of sexual activity,
much less primitive species than us.
iii Humans are designed to pair bond, but birds do as well, so its
not a reason for uniqueness
c What about our massive social cooperation?
i We cooperate to build enormous things, but so do termites.
Termite colonies are gigantic, housing millions of termites.
ii Kinship independent social cooperation allows for uniqueness.
Kinship-independent cooperation is the unique human trick. Why is this
important?
a Humans are first animals to cooperate independently of close genetic
kinship. That joins humans to the reductionists pyramid.
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How well does the kinship-independent cooperation hypothesis account for us

and our properties?
a Accounts for the explosive emergence of human uniqueness
i Evolution of kinship independent social cooperation occurs at
beginning of uniquely human trajectory 2 million years ago.
1 A series of events allowed us to develop kinship
independent social cooperation for the first time on earth,
and everything else flows explosively from that.
b Accounts for our unique adaption to culture
i Culture isnt unique to humans
ii For non-human animals, culture learned from close kin, humans
learn from thousands of people, each of whom learns from
thousands of others.
iii Humans are the pedagogical animal.
iv Bigger brains explained by kinship independent social
cooperation and the adaptations that follow
c The humanities emerge from the unique ways humans use cultural
information
i Humanities emerge as a piece of human biology
ii Create literature, art, music, food, etc for non kin enterprise
d Our modern economic and political lives are products of our ancient
biology
i Economic and political lives are products of non kin cooperation
ii Failures in non kin cooperation explain, predict, and can help
prevent problems
The fundamental trick of kinship-independent social cooperation requires

management of conflicts of interest.
o The scale of human social cooperation is limited by the scale of the
capacity to manage non kin conflicts of interest
o The scale of human social cooperation increases, predictably and
intelligibly over time.
o Human adaptive sophistication is proportional to our scale of kinship
independent social cooperation.
Key Concept Question for Topic 1: choice f.
Topic 2: We know what life is a particular case of chemistry
Understand chemistry as it pertains to biology

The properties of non-human animal social behavior and ultimately human
social behavior emerge directly from the fact that we are a certain type of
chemical system
Reductionism is the way that actual science works, the way scientists think,
and this aggressive simplification gives science its tremendous power.
Hierarchically nested combinatoriality = reductionists pyramid?
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The first level of the reductionist pyramid atoms and chemistry emerge form
subatomic particles
a 3 subatomic particles + 4 rules = atoms
The chemical elements didnt appear by magic we are star dust
a Nuclear fusion vs chemistry, fusion vs interaction
i Nuclear fusion occurs only at high temps, nuclei fuse, caused
creation of elements from initial H atoms.
b Heavy elements were created in stars, stars explode (nova) when get very
old, and eject a lot of their matter into surrounding universe, then matter
cools into H gas clouds, which create new solar systems.
i Gas clouds have angular momentum, collapse and spin faster and
faster. Things going slowly collapse to middle and become stars,
some matter too fast to form into star, remains in orbit to become
planets with previous stars matter in it, just like Earth.
ii Earth is a cinder of star stuff from an earlier generation of stars
c Earth is unusual in its properties
An unexpected implication of life as a particular case of chemistry we may be
the only human organisms in the universe
a Our solar system is extremely unique and unusual
i highly enriched in heavy elements compared to others
b 1 in a thousand (composition of the solar system) X 1 in a billion (Prob. Of
Earth/Moon generating collision) = 1 in a trillion (Prob. Of the unique
origins of human-like creatures)
i There are only 100 billion stars in a typical galaxy, which means
that were probably unique in our galaxy, or if star count is off, we
could be unique in entire universe
Chemistry is simple
a Going up reductionist pyramid, 2nd level
b Differences in # of e- in chemical shells produce different properties
c All elements in each column are similar in properties
The second level of the reductionist pyramid Life emerges from chemistry
simply Part I: What are we made of?
a How many elements make us up?
i 8 elements, C H O = 93%, + N Ca P K S = 99.5%
b Organisms are like self-manufacturing shirts
i Contain structure, design (information), and execution
ii Atoms glucose like molecules long linear polymers single braid
larger braid yarn shirt
1 About 7 layers of Hierarchically nested combinatoriality
Life emerges from chemistry simply Part II: Catalysis, how chemistry makes
(simple) things happen (EXECUTION):
a How biological chemistry emerges from non-biological chemistry, 3 rd level
of pyramid
b Weak chemical bonds between molecules
i Macromolecules form set of weak interactions that influence each
others behaviors
c Catalysis = how biological organisms simply the chemistry of the universe
d
e
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Protein enzymes are catalysts in modern organisms

A catalyst = makes slow and complicated physical chemistry into simple
and fast biological chemistry
Life emerges from chemistry simply Part III: How chemistry encodes
information (DESIGN / INFORMATION):
a How to use linear molecules to encode information (DNA)
b How to encode information
i String monomers together into polymers. Monomers encode
information; especially direct the synthesis of catalysts. Polymers
have to copy themselves via complementarily rules. Self-coding
and copy-able information
c Biochemistry is surprisingly simple
d Remember CUT Pyramids (CUT = Pyrimidines, AG = Purines)
i A:T and A:U have 2 H bonds, G:C has 3 H bonds
e If to find another independently evolved system on another planet, odds
are that information will be no more complicated and not much simpler
than our way of encoding.
i Cant really get much simplier
Life emerges from chemistry simply Part IV: Life consists of chemical vehicles
built by chemically encoded design information:
a All organisms have 2 parts, and 2 parts only
i Chemically encoded design information, which has 2 properties
1 It can replicate itself
2 It can direct production of tools (catalysts) which support
replication
ii Vehicles
1 Physical substance, the chemically encoded design
information that builds chemical tools that assist replication
2 Built by design information and capable of (or for the
purpose of) replicating that design information.
Topic 2 Key Concept Question: choice d.

Time Line Review:
Origin of humans
Origin of animals
Origin of life on earth
Origin of the Solar System
Origin of heavy elements thru stellar life cycles
Birth of the Universe
~2 Million
~600 Million
3-4 Billion
5 Billion
5-10 Billion
15 Billion
Topic 3: How genes build animals
Important to understand details of natural selection

Biological organisms are a simple case of chemistry (Topic 2)
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The reductionist pyramid and (chemical) organism:

a Argued that can apply reductionist approach to understanding all
organisms
What kind of chemical system is an organism? complex vehicles built by
design information for the purpose of replicating that information:
a Catalysts take slow and complicated physical chemistry and turn it into
simple and fast biological chemistry
b Design information that builds tools to assist in the replication of that
design information
c Design information + tools(catalysts) = a VEHICLE
d All organisms are vehicles
i Built by design information for the purpose of replicating that
design information
ii Bodies and minds are tools built by design information for the
purpose of replicating that design information (for non-human
animals)
e Purpose (mundane purpose, the one we share w/ non-human animals):
i Emerges from vehicles
Biological organisms (chemical vehicles) are about information:
a Vehicles are about information
b Our bodies are designed to keep our bodies alive to survive and
reproduce(replication of design information)
i Its an illusion, all organisms are informational objects, not physical
objects
c To understand biological organisms, you dont follow their bodies, you
follow their information
d Its about the information, not about the physical object
i When you inherit genes from parents, its not the atoms and
molecules that count, its the information, b/c those atoms making
up the genes are renewed, and not the original atoms given from
parents, and therefore, its the information encoded thats
important.
The Second Law and the biological information
a Second Law of thermodynamics
i Any highly orderly structure gradually deteriorates, unless you
invest energy and resources in it.
ii Chemical information will not be replicated perfectly; mistakes will
happen (mutations).
What does the world look like to a chemical vehicle? It is Malthusian:
a The chemical world of organisms is Malthusian
b No matter how small you are, no matter how big your world is, that world
is crowded in Malthusian
i Replication is always competitive for biological organisms
Natural selection is inevitable for chemical vehicles in a Malthusian world:
a How purposeful behavior emerges from the above statement
b Basic logic of vehicle replication in a Malthusian world
i Replication over time, but replication is competitive
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ii Once in a while, mistakes occur in replication (2 nd Law of thermo),

and one mutation may improve efficiency of vehicle, who takes over
populationnatural selection, Darwinian evolution
1 Chemical replication, constrained by the 2 nd Law in a
Malthusian world
c Purposeful behavior of organisms
i How does purpose emerge?
ii Organisms that do things better and better and better, to us, seem
more and more and more purposeful.
1 No conscious intent is implied
a Ex, virus seems purposeful when takes over a cell to
make more copies of itself, but it has no mind.
2 Purposefulness is explained by the fact that organisms are
chemical vehicles replicating competitively in a Malthusian
world.
Is our theory of the fundamental chemistry of life complete?
a Transcription and translation
b Organisms are very simple if you know how they work; theyre not
complicated
c RNA world theory: Original organisms had RNA as both design information
and tools, then gave proteins and DNA (better tools and better information
encoding), but the process of making proteins remained RNA based (tRNA,
mRNA, Ribosomes).
Do we really understand complex organisms as a special case of chemistry?
a Combinatoriality and morphological complexity molecules to organelles
to cells to tissues to organs to systems to organisms
i Each layer is very simple
ii Atoms make molecules, molecules make organelles, organelles
make cells, different cell types make tissues, different organ types
make organs, organs make systems, multiple organ systems make
an organism; spark plugs to Maserati.
b The evolutionary logic of social behavior
i Design information produces purposeful vehicles
ii To understand the social behavior of animals, you keep your eye on
the design information; its about the information
Topic 3 Key Concept Question: choice a
Topic 4: How and how fast does natural selection actually work?
Goal is to look at how natural selection works in sexual animals

o Important to understanding social cooperation
We come from non-human animals, and have retained some of their
properties, but changed and added some properties, as well
Purpose
The logic of replication of chemical vehicles in a Malthusian world

selects for organisms who are purposeful.
To understand their social behavior you keep your on the design
information
o Genetic design information is the source and origin of purpose
o Minds, bodies, and behaviors are the agents of purpose
Organisms, sexual or asexual, are vehicles built by design information for the
purpose of replicating that design information, and creating tools for the aid
of replicating that information
o
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How genes build animals

a Gene = piece of design information
b Genomes = some of all information that builds us
c ~23,000 pieces of design information (genes) make up the genomes of all
mammals
i Fundamentally, our uniqueness isnt genetic, its social
d Design information sitting in animal gonads doesnt build animal around it,
other way around.
e Genetic control of morphology and behavior is simple
i Combinatorial control by small numbers of genes at all levels of
hierarchy is how the morphology and behavior of animals is
controlled
f New phenotypes are produced by a new genotype
i Genotype is the origin of purpose, and phenotype is the purposeful
behavior/anatomy
g The genetic control of morphology and behavior allows genetic change to
fine tune a behavior or an anatomy, or produce a catastrophic change in
behavior and anatomy, according to what selection selects for, what
phenotype or anatomy is selectively beneficial.
Understanding everything we see historicity.
a Selection event or Selection sweep
i Over 100s of thousands of years, thousands of selective sweeps
occur on every gene in the genome
b Historicity important in understanding us
How does sexual reproduction work?
a Organism is diploid, 2 copies of design information; gametes are haploid,
1 copy.
b Sexual populations are constantly combining and breaking up
combinations of genes
c
IV
Soma adult body, tools, Germline Gametes, Design information

i Vehicle = soma + germline
Cryptic variation and sexual reproduction
a We need to understand the nature of variation
b Allele two different copies of the same gene, differing slightly from one
another (1 base change would produce 2 different alleles, for example)
i Many different alleles leads to variation

Two types of variation
i Overt variation
1 Eye color is an example, many different alleles for the gene
encoding for eye pigment
ii Cryptic variation
1 Allows a rapid adaptive response when new selection is
presented
2 Can be a source of variation on which natural selection can
work
Visualizing evolution in a sexual animal population
a Differential reproductive success
b Cryptic variation floating around in populations
i Selection against cryptic variation coming together and producing
abnormal phenotype keeps it rare in the population
ii Selection for cryptic information, it becomes very common, which is
now natural selection works in sexual populations
The consequences of evolution in sexual populations exquisitely sophisticated
but quirkily idiosyncratic adaption
a Very sophisticated animals produced, works very well
Evolution by natural selection in sexual populations can be extremely rapid
a Human uniqueness consists not only of our properties, but of their
explosively, rapid emergence.
b Ex: strong selection over 10 20 thousand years (by people) transforms
the wolf into dogs.
c Evolution in sexual animals in very fast if there is a new source of
selection to shape the gene pool.
i What does it imply about our origins? Implies that some new kind
of selection occurred.
The most important insight of all natural selection builds all parts of the
vehicle, including brains and the detailed behaviors they control.
a Brains and behaviors they control are tools, just like anatomies, bodies,
molecules, and behaviors
i Hard to understand b/c a lot of our behavior isnt genetic, but
cultural
ii Non-human animal behavior is almost entirely controlled by design
information.
1 Ex: leaf cutter ants
2 Genes control behavior w/exquisite precision.
c
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Key Concept Question: Choice b
Topic 5: How evolution (natural selection) produces animals that

cooperate
Natural selection builds behaviors

Purposeful behavior emerges in a very straightforward way.
Source of purpose is genetic design information shaped by natural

selection
o social behavior is a subset of purposeful behavior
minds and specific behaviors are among the tools that vehicles build to help
replicate design information
o examples of genetic behavior: leaf-cutter ant & hog-nosed snake
o
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Natural selection builds behaviors as well as bodies reprise

a Purposeful information produced by minds, minds produced by genetic
design information, genetic design information is shaped by natural
selection in a Malthusian world
i Minds are the agent of purpose
ii Source of purpose is design information shaped by natural
selection in a Malthusian world.
b Minds = the proximate cause of a behavior
c Design information = ultimate cause
Social relationships between members of the same species involve
purposes in conflict
a Conspecific members of the same species
b To understand how we look at the world, we must first understand how
non-human animals look at the world.
c Natural selection is a blind, purposeless, mechanical process
Natural selection builds social behavior a look at asexual cooperation
a Vehicles with the purpose of replicating their design
information have conflicts of interest with conspecifics in a
Malthusian world.
i The interests of the design information predict the behavior of the
animal
ii Non-human conspecifics have extreme conflicts of interest
1 For one to replicate, it is often at the expense of another
b A dilemma kinship and conflicts of interest determine who will cooperate
with whom
i Kin-specific cooperation = kin-selection
ii Non-kin, non-human animals have conflicts of interest
1 This defines their social behavior
iii Close kin conspecifics can have a confluence of interest
iv Points ii and iii are the essential logic of non-human animal social
behavior
How kin-selection works in sexual animals like our non-human ancestors
genetic relatedness (r)
a r = relatedness
i a parameter that tells us what we need to know to understand the
logic of cooperation
b design information building minds to pursue the interests of the
design information
Generalizing this picture Thinking like a gene
a Each gene behaves as an individual
Siblings worth 50%, 1st cousins 12.5%, 2nd cousins 3.125% (and so on,
decreasing by a factor of 4)
c As pedigree relationship changes over generations, relatedness (r) drops
Genetic relatedness (r) allows us to understand animal behavior with spectacular
precision and detail.
a Social behavior of animals is predicted by Hamiltons Law, which uses r for
prediction of behavior
b Hamiltons Law: logic of non-human animal social behavior
i C < Br
1 If one animal pays a cost C to generate a benefit B for a
second animal, that behavior will evolve if and only if that
benefit B, discounted by relatedness, is still greater than the
cost.
ii Shows close-kin cooperation in non-human animals, and no non-kin
cooperation
c Wait! Isnt sexual reproduction cooperation between non-kin
conspecifics?
i At the moment of mating, adults animals have no conflicts of
interest, just perfect confluence of interest
1 They either both mate and reproduce, or they dont mate and
both fail to reproduce
a This is byproduct mutualism
ii When there is conflict of interest, non-kin dont cooperate, unless
its sexy time, and only close-kin will cooperate.
iii We expect animals to be built as if close-kin are valuable,
and non-kin are competitors and valued less
Good science confirms kin-selection theory in detail
a Non-human animal behavior is well predicted by assuming that animal
minds are built to purse the interests of replication of the design
information.
b
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Key Concept Question: choice d
Topic 6: Kin selected behavior in humans
Humans have some of the kin-selective behaviors of non-human animals, but

there are certain behaviors that we suppress.
Individual pieces of design information are the units of evolutions
Design information (ultimate cause) build minds that think in its behalf
(metaphorical statement)
Kin-selected competitive behavior vs kin-selected cooperative behavior
o Humans have suppressed Kin-selected competitive behavior and
have retained kin-selected cooperative behavior
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Kin-selection in non-human animals produces their breeding behavior

a Minds are built to look at r values
b Social breeding = one sibling breeds and the other helps
i Confluence of interest
Some of the most basic and universal features of human breeding behavior are
kin-selected
a Mammalian maternity is always certain
b Mammalian paternity is always uncertain
i This predicts that mammalian youngsters will have a different
relationship with their mothers than with their fathers
ii Mothers preferentially care for newborns, first 3 5 years are spent
mostly with mother
c Humans suppress, manage kin-selected competitive behavior
i The behaviors that are common in non-humans and very
uncommon in us are precisely the behaviors that provoke our
uniquely human ethical sense.
ii The ethically motivated suppression of kin-selected competitive
behaviors is a central and universal fact about human social
cooperation.
Homicide statistics give us a uniquely powerful approach to testing kin-selection
theory in humans
a Homicide by Daly and Wilson and the use of homicide statistics
i Husband and wife team.
b Beginning simply adults killing adults and the ancestral human
reproductive strategy
i Mammalian males have a strong incentive to compete for mating
opportunities that mammalian females dont have.
ii We expect adult violence to be preferentially committed by males,
but we expect it to be much rarer than violence in non-human
mammals
1 Human males are competing for resources necessary
for reproduction just like non-human mammalian
males.
iii Males are 20x more likely to commit homicide than females, and
this is cross-culturally universal
1 The peak of homicidal behavior is when reproductive effort is
maximal (15 40)
iv We see the exact same sex bias as we see in non-human animals
v Unmarried males are more likely to commit homicide than married
males, just like in non-human pattern.
c Non-kin infanticide in humans
i Humans are better step-fathers than non-human animals, but we
still show some patterns to them
1 Human children are 70x more likely to be killed by stepparents than natural parents.
a Same pattern, but not on the same magnitude as nonhuman animals
d
e
Reproductive value a crucial concept

i Goes up with age, peak at around 19/20, then back down.
ii Basically, how likely are you to have children in terms of age
Strategic killing of kin offspring
i The younger the child, the more likely it will be killed by natural
parent
1 Because these children would have had a lower reproductive
value in ancestral past than children who would have had a
higher reproductive value.
ii How does the reproductive value of the parent affect the parents
behavior?
1 Young adults at the beginning of their reproductive lives are
much more likely in killing their own kin offspring than older
parents.
a This is because young adults have offspring who are a
certain fraction of their reproductive output, and young
parents have their whole reproductive lives in front of
them. Older parents, near the end of their reproductive
lives, have offspring who are a much larger fraction of
their remaining reproductive output.
iii Ancestral patterns, with much lower frequencies, suppressed by
public ethical responses
1 A recurring pattern, and a central fact of the human public
domain.
Key Concept Question: choice b
Topic 7: Kinship independent cooperation and human uniqueness

I
II
Kinship-independent social cooperation the fundamental source of human

uniqueness
a Connect humans to the reductionist enterprise
b We share the aspect of private lives with non-human animals, but we
have public lives that they dont
i Uniquely social human cooperation occurs in this public domain
c Human kinship-independent social cooperation in the public domain is the
key to our uniqueness and everything else about us, our properties, and
ultimately, our history.
i This emerges simply, a simple first domino
d Non-human animals engage almost exclusively in kin-dependent social
cooperation
Kinship-independent social cooperation in non-human animals enforceability,
coercion and cost, Part 1
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Non-human animals do engage in kinship-independent social cooperation,

but in very, very small quantities. By studying these, we can learn about
our own cooperation.
The group selection fallacy and selfish herds
a The group selection fallacy and why our uniquely human minds are prone
to this fallacy
i B C = net benefit from cooperation
b Selfish herds non-human animal social behavior does NOT conform to
our uniquely human intuition
i Selfish herding = using other animals as predator shields
c Human cooperation is NOT just selfish-herding
i We do do something fundamentally different from other animals
Kinship-independent social cooperation in non-human animals enforceability,
coercion and cost, Part 2
a Males refrain from infanticide in Macaque societies
b Humans bring the cost of coercion of adults way down
The problem is not cooperation but conflict of interest
a At the moment of sexual mating, members of the same species have no
conflicts of interest
b Cooperation is easy, conflicts of interest are the problem
c If you have an animal that can control conflicts of interest, creating a vast
new domain of kinship-independent social cooperation, its mind and body
should be radically redesigned to exploit the adaptive opportunities of that
cooperation.
i Humans are exactly this animal!
d Somewhere along our 6 million year history, we evolved an inexpensive
coercion of adults, which, in turn, allowed the practical control of non-kin
conflicts of interest on a vast new scale.
Proximal killing, remote killing and the cost of coercive suppression of conflicts of
interest
Law of non-kin cooperation: b > c coope + ccoerc
a
i Benefits of kinship independent social cooperation B have to be
greater than the total cost C (both cost of cooperative enterprise (c
coop) and cost of coercive law enforcement (c coerc)).
b non-kin cooperation problem is NOT solved in proximal killers
i b < c coope + ccoerc
OR
ii b - c coope < ccoerc
c non-kin cooperation problem IS solved in remote killers
i b > c coope + ccoerc
OR
ii b - c coope > ccoerc
d Human ability to throw allowed to project threat at a distance
i Human body was redesigned to throw; toes, hips, sholders
ii Were the first animal in history to be able to do that, therefore first
animal to have access to inexpensive coercive threat, and
therefore, the first animal to develop kinship-independent social
cooperation.
1 This is the front of the tee shirt answer to our question.
iii Chimps, our closest living relatives, cant throw at all; can just kind
of fling stuff.
iv We are redesigned to throw, and it was the first domino
v Human capacity to kill from a distance gives groups of cooperators
unprecedented power to control free-riding on their social
cooperation
1 This creates a new kind of animal. We are this animal.
Topic 8: Human sexual behavior Part 1 (We are like and unlike other
animals)
Humans came to have their unique social cooperation because of death

from a distance, the ability to kill/threaten remotely.
o This lowers the cost of coercion, which prevents cooperation in nonhuman animals, and allows cooperation of humans to flourish.
We are unique because were the first animal to have access to inexpensive
law enforcement, an inexpensive capability to suppress non-human conflicts
of interest.
The following are unconscious sexual behaviors:

I
Human sexuality Why begin here?
a Our sexual behavior is very evocative
b Human children grow up depending on kinship-independent social
breeding
i Social breeding was seen earlier in bee-eater birds, but that was
non-human animal example and only kin engaged in social breeding
c It takes a village to raise a HUMAN child.
i Village = kinship-independent social cooperation
II
Contemporary anatomy and behavior as records past
a Adaptations as records of the past
i Tools include bodies and behaviors
1 This includes our sexual behaviors
b Sexuality evolves very rapidly it is a record of the recent past
i Most of our sexual behavior is fairly new, not ancient like our hands,
which resemble those of closely related species b/c some ancient
ancestor developed them.
ii Occult/hidden ovulation: females do not display when theyre
ovulating.
1 Humans share this property: females dont know when they
are, or when others around them are.
2 Supports strategic, promiscuous mating in females
iii Sexual equality was the ancestral condition
III
Mating systems
a We are provincial
i Humans are strategic maters; sometimes monogamous, sometimes
promiscuous
IV
1 Why do we flip between the two in ancient, ancestral past?

ii We are not really that aware of sexuality, we were all raised in the
modern state
b Mating systems defined
i Monogamy = sexual fidelity, one pair mating with only one another
ii Polygyny (poly = multiple, gyn = female) = one male mates
exclusively with more than one female
iii Polyandry = One female mates exclusively with a group of males
iv ii or iii can be called polygamy
v Polygynandry (or Promiscuity) = a closed group of multiple males
and multiple females, all mating with one another
c Humans are uniquely flexible
i We are evolved to be contingent maters
1 Sometimes mating monogamously, sometimes mating
promiscuously and back again over and over again over the
last 2 million years of our evolution
ii Why does this emerge uniquely in a kinship-independent social
cooperation?
d Our minds and bodies are a record of what our ancestors world was like
What about love and pair bonding?
a Humans are highly adapted to pair bonding
i But this does not imply that humans are adapted to sexual
monogamy
b Bird extra-pair mating. Ex: birds were thought to be monogamous, but
even though they pair bond (sometimes for life) they arent necessarily
sexually monogamous.
i Why do female birds live with one male, but have so many chicks
w/others?
1 Comes down to resources. Better nests through initial male,
but better genes through infidelity.
c Social monogamy a pair bonded couple (human or non-human) that
mates preferentially with one another, but may or may not mate outside.
i Like birds above
Female sexual anatomy a record of the past
Ancestral human condition was sexual democratic
a Basic organization
i Female genitalia is heavily muscled area.
ii During female orgasm, muscles contract, uterus mouth dips down
into fluid in vaginal cavity, and sucks up larger amounts of sperm
than initially reached cervix.
1 The female organism is an adaptive, strategic system to
control paternity when mating with multiple males, kind of
like occult ovulation.
a This hints that ancient females were at least
sometimes involved in promiscuous systems and were
defending their genetic interest in those systems.
b Cervical tenting, occult ovulation and control of paternity
VI
i The female system looks like its designed, in the ancestral past, to
participate in a promiscuous mating system, obscuring paternity
and controlling paternity when mating with multiple males
Male sexual anatomy
a Basic organization
i Millions of sperm made in testes, travels through tube, pick up
fluids, ejaculate through erect penis
ii Human Male testicle size suggests that we evolved in conditions of
at least female promiscuity or multiple mating
1 Our ancestors evolved in sperm competition
b
Control of sperm number

i Smooth muscle around tubes contracts before orgasm, which push
sperm into ducts, and how far back contractions go is relevant to
number of sperm deposited
1 Human males have control over this
ii Our ancestors were adapted to control sperm number, strategically,
as if they were competing an a competitive mating environment
Sperm removal
i Penis shape in human and non-human mammals are designed for
previous sperm removal
1 Human penis is ideally designed as a squeegee
ii Human mating is a lengthy process, compared to other species
mating
1 Male monopolizing female so she cant mate with other
males
2 More time to squeegee out fluid in vagina, including sperm
recently deposited by other male
The pair bond is the fundamental condition of the human species
i Sexual monogamy is less clearly so
Key Concept Queston: choice c
END OF EXAM 1 MATERIAL
Topic 9: Human Sexual Behavior Part 2
Humans are contingent breeders: both monogamous and promiscuous

The fundamental claim: Humans are sexual vehicles replicating in a
Malthusian world, just like all other animals, and therefore we have conflicts
of interest with non-kin, just like all other animals. Butwe can cheaply,
coercively manage those conflicts of interest, requiring cooperation
independently of kinship. Thats the theory.
We are the planets first kinship-independent social breeders
IX
Basic human sexual behaviors records of the past
Our contemporary minds and bodies are records of the past
a Female and male sexual responses are not identical
i Resources are important to both, but females are more tuned to
resources than males.
ii Dimorphism in the sexual response
b The Coolidge Effect
i Human males exhibit the Coolidge effect
ii Both sexes show the Coolidge effect
X
Sexual selection, sexual dimorphism and the human past
a Sexual selection has profound effects in non-human animals
b Females are carrying out a massive breeding experiment with the
males
i They modify the males genetically, ex: bird tail feathers
c Members of the same species can exert very powerful shaping
selection on other members of the same species
d Sexual selection part of social selection
e Humans are not very socially selected, unlike peacocks and pea
pheasants for ex
i Were relatively sexually monomorphic,
f Male beards are strongly sexually dimorphic
g Social selection is very powerful
XI
The world of mating and child-rearing in non-human animals
a Matrilocal
i Close kin females at core, non-kin males around
ii Females stay put, females born into group stay
iii When males are born and mature, they emigrate out to another
group, and new males come in from the outside
iv You cant keep mating with siblings b/c of strong inbreeding, so
one of the 2 sexes has to move
v Ex: lions, macaques, langurs
b Patrilocal
i Close kin males at core, non-kin females around
ii Less common, but seen in chimps and bonobos
iii A male core, males stay put, females born in the group move on
to neighboring groups when mature, new adult females come in
from neighboring groups
XII
XIII
Human kinship-independent social breeding, a first look It takes a village to

raise a child
a Humans are neither matrilocal or patrilocal, they combine both into
larger units that are either male centered, or more commonly, female
centered
b Kinship groups are mutually cooperative in humans, but mutually
hostile in non-human animals
Human life history How our large brains are produced any why it takes a
village
a Village is a new environment, and therefore, design information plays
by different rules, and animal is systematically altered.
b In village, we are subject to selection and to new opportunities
c Closest living relative, chimp, has brain 3.5 times smaller than ours
d Human mind is produced by the village
e Human neonate body weight is huge
i We are half the size of a gorilla, but our babies are twice the size
of a gorilla baby
f Our economic system is just the modern version of the human village
g It doesnt just take a village to raise a human child, it takes a village
just to give birth to a human baby
Key Concept Question: choice C
Topic 10: Human Sexual Behavior Part 3: Big brained babies

human life history is unlike any other animal.
IX
Overarching theory: humans are a new level of organization in the universe

for a single reason:
o Were sexual vehicles with conflicts of interest, just like all animals, but
we control those conflicts of interest, and as a result social cooperation
independent of kinship emerges in us for the first time ever.
Human village arises for a single reason: our access to inexpensive coercive
threat, which makes coercive suppression of conflicts of interest cost effective
for us
1st domino: remote killing, 2nd: human village, 3rd: human
reproductive and sexual behavior
Cheap coercive violence creates village, village creates the uniquely human,
powerful mind
Precocial and altricial animals how animals get to be smart

a Animals dont get smarter and smarter; some animals have gotten no
smatter than they were 10 million years ago
b Theres a cost of being smarter, and a benefit of being smarter
i When the cost and benefits get to equilibrium, animals stop getting
smarter
e
f
Brain size / Cognitive capacity

i The issues
1 Brains are expensive to maintain
a Brains are 2% of body mass, but burn 20% of
consumed calories, 50% calorie consumption during
childhood
b Need resources
i Ex: herbivores have smaller brains b/c adapted
for plant nutrition.
ii Tendency: herbivores have smaller brains than
carnivores
2 Growing brains are poor at sophisticated control of behavior
continued growth and optimal performance are incompatible
a Growing brains dont function as well as brains that
have stopped growing, ex: doing business in an office
undergoing construction
b Means youngsters (growing brains) need protection,
theyre born incompetent
c Carnivores can protect theyre young better than
herbivores
d Precocial: animals (herbivores) walking in minutes of
birth, need to be able to run away as soon as born b/c
cant be protected well by parents, (b/c brains are
small and cant keep growing them after born, and
dont have access to high calories)
e Altricial (opposite of precocial): animals (carnivores)
have access to higher quality good, bigger brains,
better protection, and can keep growing their brains.
i Humans are the most altricial animal that ever
existed
3 Brains need reliable programming (information) to work
an unprogrammed brain is just and expensive lump of tissue.
A. The Logic of Precociality
i B/c parents cant protect you, you have to be self-sufficient
immediately, which means you cant grow your brain, which means
your behaviors are less sophisticated, and depend on speed,
evasion, simple strategies to survive.
ii Precocial animals usually prey, non-ecologically dominant
iii Youngsters are up and running within minutes of birth.
B. The Logic of Altriciality
i Newborns are helpless and blind, unlike precocial animals
ii Parents can protect newborns, therefore brains grow after birth
Human village can provide a lot of resources and powerful protection,
more than for any non-human animal that ever lived.
i Part of the secret to our unique minds; resources and protection are
in abundance in the human village
XI
What big brains are for a first look at information sharing and the hostile
manipulation problem
a Issue #3: Brains need reliable programming (information) to work an
unprogrammed brain is just and expensive lump of tissue.
i Need access to information to be smart
ii 3 sources of information
1 Information comes from genetic design information
2 Information from individual experience
3 Cultural information
a Non-human animals transmit culture
iii We suppress conflicts of interest problem, and obtain reliable
information from others
iv We suppress hostile manipulation problem the use of information
to manipulate
v The human village also provides information
b 3 things that limit our smartness:
i Resources
ii Protection
iii Information
c The human village gives us all three of these things above on an
unprecedented scale
What does it take to raise a big-brained human human life history
a How does brain development evolve from extravagant resources and
extravagant protection?
b The human brain is 3.5X bigger than our closest living relative (chimp)
i Our brain size made possible by the evolution of the human village
c Village creates environment in which genetic selective events occur
d A. The implications of extended gestation
i b/c longer gestation, need more food and more protection
ii after birth, we keep growing our brains at an extraordinary pace
e B. The implications of babyhood
i Babyhood = Newborn babies brains grow at a fetal rate, for 9 11
months
ii Consequences: newborns cant hold up head for months, cant walk
until 9 12 months, unlike chimps who can do it earlier at 4 months
iii We invest in growing bigger brains in the beginning, so were
smarter adults, not smarter babies
iv A human baby needs 24 hour protection and support
1 a human village provides this, both protection and
resources
f C. Implication of childhood
i We wean early at around 3, but our brains keep growing. Chimps
wean later, and brain growth stops, adult teeth grow, and same diet
remains
ii We provide specialized, high-calorie food to children
iii To have access to high-calorie food, you need to be ecologically
dominant
1 Villages can provide this
XII
Means that we can support brain growth after weaning, no

other animal can do that or does that
iv Village takes over care of children when mothers can reproduce
again
v Human children dependent on both their mothers and human
village to survive
g 3 stages: extended gestation, babyhood, and childhood
i Brain grows at all three stages, so by the end we have huge brain
ii Each stage is absolutely dependent on human village to provide
resources, protection and information
iii Big human brain is therefore possible b/c of kinship-independent
social cooperation in the human village
The logic of the human village the fine points of kinship-independent social
breeding
a A. The risk/benefit logic of monogamy and promiscuity
i Key issue, our ancestors behaved adaptively
1 When risk-benefit, cost-benefit of monogamy was favorable,
they mated monogamously; when risk-benefit, cost-benefit of
promiscuity was favorable, they mated promiscuously; back
and forth
2 we have inherited adaptations to both strategies
ii Adult mortality risk is the variable that determines monogamy vs
polygynandry (promiscuity).
1 Low adult mortality risk environments humans choice
monogamy
2 High adult mortality risk environments humans choice
promiscuity
a Parents have high risk of dying before children grow to
adulthood
iii Our ancestors purchase life-insurance by mating promiscuously
iv Cost of life insurance (males): paternity uncertainty
1 Male gets a lot of reproductive opportunity, but gives up
paternity certainty
v Benefit of life insurance (males): 2 benefits
1 Offspring w/ other couples
2 Wife has call on other males
vi Benefits of life insurance (females)
1 Female has call on resources from other males who father
offspring. Mulltiple males will contribute, some likely to
survive
vii Cost of life insurance (female):
1 Resource distribution: males will give resources to females
who need them least (those not pregnant and not nursing,
b/c theyre a reproductive opportunity)
a In a promiscuous mating environment, females give up
optimal access to resources in return for life insurance
In a monogamous environment, females get more

optimal access to resources b/c males have paternity
certainty and invest resources where needed.
c Monogamy = optimal resources, promiscuity =
suboptimal
viii Each sex pays a price, and each sex gets a benefit
1 When need life insurance, you will drive towards monogamy,
when dont need it, youll drive towards promiscuity
ix Monogamy = low adult mortality risk
1 Each sex benefits
a Males get paternal certainty
b Females get optimal access to male resources
x Promiscuity = high adult mortality risk
1 Each sex buys life insurance by mating promiscuously
xi Our world = low adult mortality risk, and therefore monogamy
1 Our ancestors have higher risk, promiscuous mating is an
intelligent, strategic response to the dangers we no longer
face
B. Ethnography an introduction
i The Canela in Amazonia switched from promiscuity to monogamy
ii Humans are not monogamous or promiscuous breeder, were both!
iii It takes a village to produce the large human brain
Key Concept Question: choice d
Topic 11: How and when we became human: The fossil record Part 1
IX
Humans were contingent breeders: sometimes promiscuous, sometimes

monogamous, depending on adult mortality risks
Humans emerge b/c of access to inexpensive coercive threat, allowing us to
suppress non-kin conflicts of interest
Coercion and cooperation revisited

We are the first animal to be able to fulfill a fundamental inequality of nona
kin cooperation: b > ccoop + ccoerc OR b ccooper > ccoerc
i Were the first animal for whom the cost of coercion is small enough
that they dont overwhelm the net benefits of non-kin cooperation
as they do in non-human animals: b < ccoop + ccoerc OR b ccooper <
ccoerc
b Prediction: the first animal in the history of the earth to be able to kill from
a distance, should be the first animal to evolve non-kin cooperation.
i We are this animal. We evolve capability to throw with elite skill,
allowing killing from a distance, and developing kinshipindependent social cooperation.
XI
Individuals who can do the above impose strong social selection on one
another
i This causes rapid evolution, as in the case with dogs evolving from
wolves
Context of human evolution
a The first humans evolve in Africa, around 2 million years ago they go out
of Africa into Southern Eurasia, then about 50k years ago, another group
of Africans drive other groups to extinction (Neanderthals) and populate
the globe.
b We didnt evolve from chimps; we and chimps evolved from a common
ancestor (6 million years ago), and that ancestor was more like a chimp
and gorilla than human-like.
c ~2 million years, species named homo = man, before that, from 6
million to 2 million years ago, named australopithecus (austral = south,
pithe = ape, together = southern ape, discovered in South Africa)
d Hominids = collective branch from 6 million years ago to present, both
homo and australopithes are hominids
e A. Geophysical Background to Human Origins
i Rainforest vs Savannah; more animals in savannah than in
rainforest
ii Plate tectonics produces profound climate change, and its done so
in Africa
1 Africa used to be mostly rainforest, then dried out
iii Savannah is rich in biomass
1 Tropical sunlight converted into animal biomass
f B. Fossils and the Dated fossil record
i As bone is buried in deposits, minerals are exchanged, turning bone
to stone
1 Fossils are bone-like replicas of stone
ii Fossils usually formed in slow-moving water, water brings minerals,
minerals layer over bone
iii Strata can give both absolute and relative age
1 Tectonic activity is due to lava/magma under earths crust,
when magma escapes via volcanic eruption, it spread ash
everywhere, and ash can be dated!
2 Ash settles and creates layer cake, and can be dated b/c of
radioactive isotopes present (ex: K)
3 Radiometric dating give absolute age
4 Layers (tuffs) give relative age
Human Life History and the Fossil Record
a A. Human Life History Revisited Big Brains and Kinship-Independent
Social Cooperation
i Our life history has been redesigned as a consequence of our social
cooperation
ii In an organism that can suppress conflicts of interest, social
cooperation on a whole new scale evolves, including kinshipindependent social breeding
XII
iii The village will arise in an animal that can project threat from a
distance
iv The village will support the re-design of life history
b B. Human Brain Expansion Explodes with the origin of Homo ca. 2 mya
i Just after 2 mya brain size expands exclusively in our linage, not in
chimps or gorilla, but in hominids
1 Why? b/c of emergence of village, b/c of kinshipindependent social cooperation (altriciality)
supporting the redesign of our life history
The Fossil Record Allows Us to Test Theories of Human Uniqueness
a Hypothesis: Bipedalism is the source for our uniqueness?
i Well, it does free up the hands to do all sorts of things
ii Pelvis anatomy accurately tells us whether bipedal or quadrupedal
1 Footprints do, too
iii Emergence of bipedalism and brain expansion are 3 4 million
years apart, not a valid cause and effect relationship
iv We have falsified this hypothesis
Key Concept Question: choice B
Topic 12: How and when we became human: The fossil record Part 2
IX
Evidence points to elite throwing emerging first, then brain expansion comes
later, not the other way around.
Humans use inexpensive coercion to control conflicts of interest, then a new
social cooperation emerges (kinship independent social cooperation), and
everything else flows from that (ex: sexual and child-rearing behaviors,
evolution of the first humans)
Transition from non-human, small scale social breeding to uniquely human
kinship-independent social breeding, is dependent on the evolution of elite
human throwing.
Redesign of the human body to throw what do we expect?

a The archerfish is another animal that can kill from a distance; it spits
water bullets at insects to knock them down into the water. Their eyes
and nervous systems also take refraction into account.
i Why then havent they developed kinship-independent social
cooperation?
1 b/c they cant use this weapon against CONSPECIFICS
b we expect our body to be completely redesigned to make throwing
possible, just like the archerfishs mouth, eyes, nervous system, tongue
are redesigned to spit.
c We can understand animal body functions (throwing, skilled swimming,
fast running) by studying skeleton
XI
d We can recognize elite throwing in our skeleton

The australopith platform meeting Lucy
a Compare Lucy (autralopiths) to modern humans, and learn about throwing
and its evolution
Redesign of the muscles that torque the torso
a We can learn about redesign of muscles by studying their attachments to
the skeleton, which fossilizes
b Muscles torqueing the pelvis relative to the legs
i Gluteus maximus biggest muscle in body
1 When a trait (in this case, a muscle) is important, it becomes
a sexually selected trait; people start selecting mates based
on if they have that trait.
a WE DO THIS! BOTH MALES AND FEMALES
(PORNOGRAPHY)
2 Muscle fibers wrap around outside of pelvis, and down and
around the leg
3 Attaches to rim of pelvis, then wraps around back of the hip,
and connects to outside of knee
a Wrapped around the body
b This is useful for TORQUING the body (b/c attached
around)
ii Tensor fascia lata
1 Opposes the gluteus maximus; theyre arrayed oppositely
a Bilaterally paired muslces; accelerate and decelerate
the trunk
2 Detorques body after gluteus maximus does its job so that
you dont keep spinning after release projectile
3 Tensor fascia lata on one side cooperates with gluteus on
other side
4 Attached at the anterior point of apical crest of pelvis
c Muscles torqueing shoulders relative to pelvis
This acceleration is piled on top of lower body acceleration to achieve speed
of throw
i Obliques
1 Muscles run across diagonally, not up and down
2 They crisscross the abdomen diagonally, torqueing the upper
body relative to the pelvis
3 Internal and external oblique
a Internal attach to same place as tensor fascia lata, just
above them
b External attach to pubic arch
ii Latissimus dorsi
1 Also run diagonally on back, in order to twist body
2 Attached to same place as gluteus maximus, top of the back
of the apical crest
d Differences between modern human and australopith pelvis and pelvic
muscle attachments show that our pelvises are bigger and have larger
XII
XIII
XIV
XV
XVI
distances spinal column and location of muscle attachments to provide for

more leverage = stronger torque. Also, some locations have stronger
bones for attachments.
e Australopiths do not have a throwing pelvis
i Therefore, adaptation to throw is after Lucy.
The earliest members of Homo meeting the Nariokotome boy
a Nariokotome boy is a Homo Erectus
b Pelvis shows similarities to our pelvis, it looks modern, not like Lucys
(Australopiths)
c No members of autralopiths have a throwing pelvis, but first members of
HOMO already do
d Feet important to throwing, too.
Redesign of the feet
a Big toe in autralopiths is shorter than second tow, in humans its same
size or bigger than 2nd toe
b Ball of foot + big toe = surface we push off of for throw
c Australopiths did not have a ball on their feet
d Ball of foot is from 1st metatarsal
i The peroneus longus muscle attaches here
1 Attaches under the foot, to 1st metatarsal, goes back under
ankle and up to knee.
2 Torques foot and stabilizes foot during violent throwing
motion
e 1st metatarsal is big and robust in humans, but small in australopiths
f Homo erectus shows a modern foot (1.5 mya), with big, powerful big toe
and ball from 1st metatarsals
g Foot redesign confirms that before 2 million years, no throwing feet
(autralopiths), after 2 million years, yes throwing feet (homo)
What about ammunition?
a Manuports things out of geological context
i Almost all approximately size of baseball
ii Humans carried ammunition around
b We can date manuports to just before 2 million years ago
i Suggesting throwing is around 2 2.1 million years old.
c Around 1.8 million years ago = full blown homo, brain expansion
and all
What have we found? our theory as a theory of human origins
a Our hands have been redesigned, as well, to grip manuports, doesnt
show up in late australopiths, only first homos
b Shoulders have been redesigned, too, also only show up in first homos
c Every piece of evidence provides same exact picture
i Elite throwing is exactly where we predicted
Why did we first throw?
a If throwing made us unique, then why do we throw?
b Natural selection produces something b/c of an immediate benefit, not a
long term one.
i It doesnt think ahead
d
e
Power scavenging let professional hunters take down animal (cheetah,

leopard)and then you take it
i A good way to chase away the professional hunters after theyre fed
and calm is to throw rocks at it
Theres a lot of reason to believe that a late australopith (or early protohuman) started power scavenging
Proposal: In a local environment, an autralopith started to become a
professional power scavenger in a new way, by making sharp stone tools
and by taking advantage of bipedality to throw, and then theres extreme,
intense natural selection to throw better.
i This produces a fundamentally new kind of animal, humans
Our fundamental argument: we are a spectacular argument
i In a local environment, sometime 2 2.2 million years ago, a local
australopith population started to power scavenge with a new
strategy: throwing with elite skill
1 This strategy produced a secondary opportunity: exploiting
cheap coercion to control conflicts of interest.
2 The evolution of a new hunting adaptation inadvertently
produced a spectacularly new adaptive opportunity, and
humans exploded out of that accidental opportunity.
ii Our theory is consistent with archaeological and paleoathropological evidence; our theory is the best and most
complete description and account of the entire paleoanthropological record that weve had so far.
Key Concept Question: choice A
Topic 13: Human Language cooperation and information exchange

Part 1
VIII
The human body was redesigned from head to toe for elite throwing
a We followed this prediction with the fossil record, and found support for it
We speak so what?
o Humans sleep about 1/3 of their lives, awake about 2/3, and during
awake time, we take a lot of the time
o Language is cross-culturally universal behavior
o Linguistic exchange of information is just a special case of social
cooperation
o Conflicts of interest is what limits the exchange of information between
non-kin animals
Do we see what we expect? exchange of information with confluence of

interest
o Hamiltons Law predicts that if the conflict of interest problem is what
limits the exchange of information in non-human animals, then who
should exchange information?
Close kin
o In non-human animals: Close kin should exchange information, and
non-kin should not.
o In mammals, the most common exchange of information from mother
to offspring
Non-human animals are evolved to do this, to accept info from
mom and no-one else.
o Honey bees and their waggle dance.
Their bodies gesture direction
Organisms (vehicles) use information in pursuit of self-interest the hostile
manipulation problem
o Hostile manipulation problem = conflict of interest problem applied to
information
o Moths use chemo-receptors to find female pheromone, but bolas spider
tricks moths, mimicking female scent.
Bolas spider is producing misleading information, false
information: hostile manipulation of the male
o What do we expect from non-kin conspecifics?
SILENCE hostile manipulation problem prevents
communication
Non-kin conspecifics will assume that any signal a non-kin
produces is hostile manipulation and wont hear it.
Then, since no one is listening, no one evolves to produce
it.
Silence is exactly what we see
Hostile manipulation problem determines their communication,
and precludes much of their communication
There are two tiny exceptions
How did language confuse us? projection and evidence
o Hostile manipulation dominates non-kin communication in non-human
animals
o We communicate in part b/c you anticipate (project communicative
intent) onto others, and vice versa.
Its a logical error in the case of non-human animals, but works
great w/ humans
o Humans project communicate intent onto others and see
communication even when it doesnt exist.
Whale songs are not communication, though we thought it was
for a long time
What
o
Its actually males telling females Im smart, big and

strong, come mate with me
Its a sexually selected signal, like tail-feathers on a
peacock.
Its not language!
An exception to the silence between non-kin is for mating purposes,
b/c as mentioned in earlier lectures, during mating, males and females
have a brief confluence of interest
Ex: moth female producing pheromones to attract a male mate
Non-kin conspecifics with conflicts of interest never exchange fakeable information (contingent information, potentially false information)
Humans, though, do it all the time.
If confluence of interest = share contingent information
Worker bees dont have to worry that their nest-mates are
going to send them on a wild goose chase; they have a
confluence of interest, theyre close kin
Cubs and pups dont have to worry that their mothers are
going to mislead them b/c their mothers have an
incentive in making sure their offspring grow to healthy
effectiveness; again, they have confluence of interest and
share contingent information
does our theory predict about language?
The exchange of contingent information in the face of conflicts of
interest that are the issue.
Humans are the first animal to have solved that problem
b/c we have access to cheap coercion, something
completely new is possible for us: we can establish a
domain of communication involving non-kin adults.
o Non-human animals cannot do that, therefore their
communication is restricted to a small group of
individuals who have a confluence of interest (most
commonly close-kin)
Predicts that pre-human ancestors, including
australopiths, did not speak and engage in language like
we do
o The first humans who acquire capacity to project
threat from a distance and therefore cheaply
suppress conflicts of interest to manage hostile
manipulation should evolve language.
The capacity to control conflicts of interest should be the
sole limitation
o Means that language explodes very rapidly once
animal who can control conflicts of interest evolves
Elite throwing evolves ~2 mya, cranial volume (altriciality) or brain
expansion evolves at or just after elite throwing, and language-like
behavior evolves at or immediately after evolution of elite

throwing
The human vocal apparatus a first look

o A. How the vocal apparatus looks design and redesign
Air columns in mouth and throat are where sound resonates
Length and shape of column produce different tones
We have no conscious access to this
Human voice box is lower down than a chimps, this provides a
longer column for sound production
Humans are at greater risk for chocking on food than
chimps b/c of longer column
o B. How can we separate cause and effect in vocal redesign? the birds
Lyre bird has a very complicated voice-box, but cant do
anything with it
We can explain everything we see when we look at non-human
animals
Hostile manipulation problem dominates communication
between non-kin
Non-kin non-human conspecifics never exchange contingent
information in the face of conflicts of interest
Key Concept Question: Choice D
Topic 14: Human Language cooperation and information Part 2

IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
VII
Children interact with & LEARN from non-kin from the beginning (preschool, etc)
a Keeps going in adulthood, in old age
We are not qualitatively new, were quantitatively new
Non-kin conspecifics communicate contingent (falsifiable) information in the face
of conflicts of interest only with close kin
a Conflicts of interest prevent exchange of contingent information
Communication is easy; conflicts of interest are hard
Hostile manipulation
a Non-kin conspecifics have tendency to mislead one another (for
competition)
What, exactly, do we predict? back to the fossil record.
a Village = large kinship-independent social unit
i Arises b/c of our ability to throw w/elite skill
b Language evolves in the context of the human village
c We predict that language emerges immediately after ability to control
conflict of interest problem (elite throwing)
i b/c exchange of information is very useful
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IX
ii once able to control conflict of interest problem, there should be a

strong selection for language, and therefore language explodes
d hyoid bone redesign
i hyoid small bone, sometimes fossilizes, and we can use it to find
language in fossil records
e Neanderthal hyoid indistinguishable from ours, therefore, they probably
spoke
i Therefore, our common ancestor, homo heidelbergensis, must have
had one, as well
ii Therefore, there was speech 500 800 kya (when h.
heidelbergensis existed)
f Hyoid from 3 mya, at time of A. africanus shows similarities to chimp
hyoid, not our hyoid
i So, individuals up to 500 kya were speaking, and individuals 3 mya
were not, which is consistent with our theory
The structure of language isnt special its the structure of animal minds
a Linguists thought that language is new and its our source of uniqueness
b Language is hierarchically nested combinatorality
i But so is the structure of all animal brains (minds), all the time, and
humans make use of that underlying structure in language
c Iconic representation vs. symbolic representation
i Iconic = picture/statue of a spider, symbolic = word spider
ii Linguists argue that language is symbolic and non-human animal
communication is iconic.
1 This is false. All animal communication, under all
circumstances, at all times, human and non-human is always
symbolic
d Dolphin able to look at human body and interpret it abstractly, by analogy
e All animals, human and non-human, understand all other animals only in
one way:
i Symbolically
1 Animals interpret movements of their body as gestures and
then interpret those gestures
Language isnt magic the gestural theory of language
a Language is just a specialized, ramped-up, very efficient version of an
ancient, universal animal behavior: the capacity for symbolic gesture
b Speech is just an elaborate version of gesture, and all animals are capable
of it.
c A. Non-human animals are capable of sophisticated gestural
communication
i Ex: Koko the Gorilla
1 Ability for abstract, symbolic sign language
d B. Humans have gestural capability
i Being human isnt about speaking, its about communication in all
modalities, including sign.
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ii Just b/c someone cant hear or speak, but can sign, doesnt mean
theyre any less human
iii Humans are not speakers.we are elite symbolic gesture-rs.
iv We can claim that ancestral australopiths had Koko-like, symbolic
gestural capability
v With the evolution of an animal who could control conflicts of
interest problem, there was strong selection for that pre-human
capability to become human
e C. Speech is gesture
i When we listen to someone, we are watching them gesture
1 Unconsciously we are thinking if I do that with my voice
apparatus, I would mean this, and therefore, this person
must mean the same thing.
ii ALL COMMUNICATION IS GESTURE
The fossil record of gestural communication
a A. Human brain structure and language capability
i Broccas and Wernickes areas
1 Not speech areas, but elite, symbolic communication areas
ii Our brain is lop-sided & asymmetric, Broccas area dramatically
enlarged
1 Left hemisphere bigger than right
iii When signers have strokes in Broccas area, their signing ability is
impaired like a normal speakers speech would be affected,
supporting point i1. from above
b B. Fossil endocasts and the evolution of elite human communication
i Can brain asymmetry due to imprints of Broccas area in fossilized
skulls.
ii All homo species have this asymmetry, but Australopiths dont.
iii At the same time our brain is expanding (altricity), Broccas area is
enlarging, and therefore elite communication fits our theory
perfectly.
Back to non-human animals and communication
a Non-human animals have speech-like behavior, its just restricted to the
cases where they have confluence of interest
i exchange contingent information only with close kin confluence of
interest
b We expect to find language in non-human animals, just on a much smaller
scale
Key Concept Q: choice B
Topic 15: Culturally transmitted (Extragenetic) information and the

uniquely human mind/brain Part 1
VII
VIII
IX
Our unique human minds/brains emerge from the same theory, from which
sexual and child-rearing behaviors, evolution of first humans, and evolution of
language have emerged
We know very little about minds; we are ignorant about it
Mind/brains are proximate devices

a Mind/brain is a Black Box
b Understand mind/brain by understanding the purpose for which it was
designed
c The brain is one of the tools built by the vehicles design information for
the purpose of replicating its design information
i There is no reason the mind needs to understand ultimate
causation (just like we dont need to understand that we need to
eat b/c were a non-equilibrium thermodynamic chemical system)
d Ultimate vs. Proximate Causation
i We dont need to understand ultimate causation in order to carry
out the behavior
1 Ex: babies eat, carry out behavior w/o understanding why
2 People love and carry out loving behaviors, w/o thinking that
their design info wants to replicate successfully
ii The brain creates behaviors AS IF you understood ultimate
causation, with no need to actually understand it
1 Brain is considered proximate device, and acts as if you
understood
e Conscious vs. Unconscious ERROR
i Brain is a proximate device
ii Both conscious and unconscious are just as proximate
f All feelings we have are ALL PROXIMATE
Mind/Brains are simple devices, designed by natural selection
a Information is encoded combinatorially, giving simple look
b Amount of info our minds can store is astronomical
c Brains are like hands: they do what theyre designed to do
i Brains dont see the world in objective sense
1 Brains see the world in an adaptively useful sense
d Senses collect data, brain builds movie that runs in your head, this movie
is how we perceive world
Minds construct abstract movies we experience as the world
a This is done by using data that our perceptual systems provide
b We construct dynamic images of the world in a hierarchically nested
combinatorial way.
i We hierarchically nest simple, abstract images, and put meaning to
them
c Our minds assemble a picture of the world
d Our perceptual systems are very vulnerable to being deceived
Minds may be Darwin machines
a New ideas are shaped in our mind by Darwinian selection
i Immune system, as well

Creativity and imagination work by Darwinian selection, too
The mind is a Darwin machine: taking a problem as an information
structure, bouncing solutions off that problem, selecting the ones that
work
d Human social processing is also Darwinian (ex: stock market)
Minds produce species typical elite behavior
a Species-typical behavior
b What is intelligence?
c Brains are all built by design information for the purpose of replicating
that design information in a competitive Malthusian World.
b
c
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Key Concept Question: choice D
Topic 16: Culturally transmitted (Extragenetic) information and the

uniquely human mind/brain Part 2
II
III
Species-typical behavior
Genetic redesign of human minds is an effect NOT a cause

a Some scientists claim that its a cause
b We say the opposite: that when humans learn to control the conflict of
interest problem, and they have cooperative units, the product/effect of
that was our social cooperation which gave us access to more information.
Once this new information was used, our adaptive opportunities took off!
c Social Evolution has driven our Genetic Evolution from the very beginning
when we learned to manage conflict of interest problem
i Culturally transmitted information within large non-kin social unit
(village) put selective pressure on our genetics
d Those who could manage conflicts of interest within human village did
better
Transmission of cultural information is different in humans in a very specific way
a Mammals show transmission of cultural information
b Rats transmit cultural information
i Pine cone consumption in a systematic way is transmitted from
only mother to rat babies (pups), it is NOT genetic
ii Bear mothers show babies which plants to eat and how to catch
salmon
iii Orangutan mothers show babies which food to eat
c Non-human animals transmit substantial cultural tradition
i But non-kin adults dont learn from each other!
d Humans are genetically adapted thru cultural transmission of information
Our control of conflicts of interest gives us a vast cultural heritage
a We have access to more information because we solved the conflict of
interest problem and learned to trust others and share information
IV
Humans arent only ones to use tools

i Chimps use a combo of 2 tools to maximize # of termites they can
extract
1 Chimps transmit cultural info on how to do this
c Direct access to cultural information = when a mother passes information
to a child
d Indirect access to cultural information
i Whats the problem? What can be exchanged can be stolen
ii Indirect access would have never evolved if we never managed
conflict of interest problem first
Our cultural heritage also compels us ethically and socially
a We are not only an economic and pedagogical animal, but also a
moral/ethical animal
i Our minds are designed to manage the conflict of interest problem
b Pragmatic information
c We pursue higher purpose b/c its adaptive
d Good and evil is a property of only the human world
i The world consists of a war between good and evil
ii Kin-selected self-interest (evil) vs. coerced kinship-independent
social cooperation (good)
e Pragmatic information and social contract information are both culturally
transmitted
f Our minds have evolved to react to social contract information and to
control our ethical behavior (moral outrage and guilt)
i 3 parts of brain that are dramatically enlarged compared to chimps
(motor cortex, visual cortex, etc, are same size as in chimps)
1 Parietal lobe, temporal lobe, and prefrontal cortex
ii Destroying prefrontal cortex destroys uniquely human social
behavior
1 Sociopaths show abnormal activity in prefrontal cortex under
MRI
iii Enlarged human prefrontal cortex seems to be an adaptation to the
world of good and evil
iv Confabulations are proposed social negotiations
1 This is how we negotiate social contract information
a I did this b/c this is the social rational for what I did.
Is it ok?
v We use language not only to transmit pragmatic information, but to
also negotiate social contracts
g We transmit pragmatic information, continuously negotiated social
contract information, and identifier information
Key Concept Q: choice B
Topic 17: Introduction to a theory of history how and when humans

arose and spread around the world
The following is a review:
XII
Conflicts of interests are a fact of life in the biological world. They are universal.
a They dont go away, we simply manage them if we can, as long as its cost
effective
XIII
The organisms most likely to have the largest conflict of interest with each other
are members of the same species
a Theyre going to be looking for the same resources
XIV
Vehicles are built by design information for the purpose of replicating design
information
a In the animal world, animals are cooperate with close-kin KIN SELECTION
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Humans retain kin-selected cooperative behavior
a But suppress/manage kin-selected competitive behaviors
XVI
Remote killing along with elite throwing = kinship-indep social cooperation
XVII
Human village allowed for kin and non-kin cooperators
a Could share reliable information with each other
XVIII
Reliable contingent information
a Added massive amounts of access to indirect information relative to nonhuman animals
XIX
Ultimate vs. Proximate Causation
a Were not required to understand ultimate causation in order to behave AS
IF we do understand
XIV
What does history (and a theory of history) look like?

a A. What can we expect from what we have built now
i From what weve seen so far, our species has a single, simple
trick:
1 We use inexpensive, coercive means to suppress/control
conflicts of interest, and from that, everything emerges,
including our history
b B. What does human history look like? adaptive revolutions and
adaptive stasis
i Human adaptive sophistication changes in a very predictable
and specific way
1 It does not look like a linear increasing line over time
2 It has periods of explosive increase (vertical line) in
adaptive sophistication (or periods of adaptive
revolutions), followed by periods of no additional net
increase (horizontal line) in adaptive sophistication (or
periods of adaptive stasis)
3 We see periods of adaptive revolutions separated by
periods of adaptive stasis over and over again
a An adaptive staircase
4 Adaptive revolution is extremely fast, but not overnight.
Vertical line on graph b/c its rapid.
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XVI
C. What does our theory require about adaptive revolutions?

culturally transmitted information and the scale of cooperation
i The things we use and consume, but dont make(houses,
clothes, cars, etc) = indirect access to culturally transmitted
information
ii The amount of culturally transmitted information to which we
have indirect access is proportional to the number of people in
our economic system (the number of people with whom we
collaborate/cooperate)
1 The functioning of this economic system is dependent on
coercive threat
iii Coercive management of conflicts of interest gives scale
dependent adaptive sophistication
iv Our 2 million year old trick:
1 we are the pedagogical animal we transmit information
2 we are the economic animal we exchange the fruits of
information, under the umbrella of law enforcement of
coercive threat
v Conflicts of interest are scale independent
Coercive means for control of conflicts of interest are not scale
independent
vi Every adaptive revolution is preceded by a new weapon (for
coercive threat)
Forecast: The first human adaptive revolution the rise of Homo ca 2 mya
is the origin of the primary coalition
a The origin of humans should be preceded by a new weapon
i A way to kill from a distance so that fundamental inequality of
non-kin cooperation is fulfilled
b Coalition is technical term for village
The fossil record of human origins revisited the crucial extra details
a A. East Africa, origins of a new species
i Humans arose as an accidental consequence of evolving to
power scavenge
b B. What would a hunting hominid look like?
i Kin-selected cooperative hunting behavior evolving elite
throwing
1 Elite throwing would cause evolution of better throwers
ii Need teeth for cutting flesh off bone
1 Evidence of micro- fractures of rocks like obsidian for
razor sharp teeth
a Flint-knapping
c C. Australopithecus garhi a hunting (scavenging) hominid
i Hominids processed prey species 2.3 mya
1 Cut marks and dents on bones shows that tools were used
to cut meat and bone
ii REMEMBER: Evolution of elite throwing precedes brain expansion
iii Manuports found
iv A. garhis brain has aped sized brain, showing that throwing

comes first
D. Early Homo erectus at Dmanisi cooperation and throwing first
i 1.8 million years old
ii Shoulder bone, femur, first metatarsal all modern
iii Manuports found at this site
iv Brain size ranged from around size of chimp brain to slightly
bigger, therefore just around inception of brain expansion
v First elite throwing evidence we have is from 2.3 mya
vi First clear cranial expansion is from 1.8 mya
1 Elite throwing precedes brain expansion
Topic 18: The behaviorally modern human revolution
The behaviorally modern human revolution produced the first humans who seem
to behave like us
o Everyone alive today (behaviorally modern humans) is descended from a
small population of East Africans 50 60 kya
The difference between us is purely cultural
o Behaviorally modern human revolution is one of the adaptive revolutions
on the staircase of adaptive sophistication
Our theory makes some specific predictions about the behaviorally modern
human revolution
o Origin of Homo 2 mya is the first step of the adaptive sophistication
staircase
Elite throwing occurs right there
o Behaviorally modern human revolution 40 60 kya is the second step
There should be a new weapon right at this revolution, as with
every adaptive revolution.
o There is along adaptive stasis of no adaptive sophistication between first
and second adaptive revolutions
This stasis lasts for 1.6 1.7 million years, then 40 60 kya, the
second adaptive revolution and our immediate ancestors arise
o 50 100 kya, there were 2 species of humans: our ancestors and
Neanderthals
looked significantly different, but were fundamentally human
Had large brains
Engaged in kinship-independent social cooperation
o Why did our ancestors drive Neanderthals to extinction?
Not b/c we were genetically superior to them, but because of a
social accident
The behaviorally modern human revolution was apparently NOT a revolution in
individual intelligence
o Genetic hypothesis fails to explain II.e
The behaviorally modern revolution - -what did it look like?
A. Behaviorally modern human technology

Theres a whole new technological revolution with behaviorally
modern humans
Oldowan sharp flakes
Acheulean sophisticated, human artifact, the Swiss army
knife
Mousterian made by both Neanderthals and modern
humans
Modern humans made more advanced tech than Neanderthals
Examples are barbed harpoons
o B. Art a behaviorally modern human invention
We are willing to pay for adaptively neutral but aesthetically
satisfying things
Neanderthals dont do anything of the sort
Cave paintings from up to 35 kya
Sculptures and paintings are the works of specialists, people who
know how to do this, not everyone did it.
This is consistent with the expanded scale of economic or
social behavior
o C. Behaviorally modern human geographical range and ecological impact
Behaviorally modern humans have a new set of capabilities
They move out of Africa and spread all over, even to Australia
(Wallace Line) and New World (Bering Strait)
This takes sea-faring skills and walking over polar ice caps.
Animals go extinct as modern humans migrate b/c they change
ecosystems
The final symptom of the behaviorally modern human revolution suggests its
cause expansion of the scale of social cooperation
o Large cooperative projects begin to appear for the first time
A direct demonstration of an increase in scale of social cooperation
o Hopewell people in modern day Ohio
Show a lot of large and complex cooperative projects: mounds and
earthworks
Shows evidence of social revolution, not a genetic one.
How do we understand expanded social cooperation in behaviorally modern
humans?
o Primary Coalition = new term for ancestral village
o Interactions between coalitions
o Secondary Coalitions = many nested Primary Coalitions
o Secondary Coalitions and their much larger scale economic systems are
the thing that behaviorally modern humans first learn to do
This is the social revolution that gave us ecological dominance
So whats the weapon that shows up before this new
adaptive revolution?
o The atlatl
o
The atlatl - the first new weapon system in almost 2 million years occurs
precisely when and where it should to produce the behaviorally modern human
revolution
o Atlatl = spear-thrower
o Dramatically longer rang, more powerful
o Extends range of human coercive violence by a lot!
o Invented between 40 60 kya in Africa, which fits perfectly in our theory,
right at time of behaviorally modern human revolution
o We have a novel weapon showing up at just the right time and just the
right place, after 1.6 million years w/o a new weapon and w/o a new scale
of social cooperation, producing a new scale of social cooperation and a
set of symptoms that are easily interpretable as expanded indirect access
to culturally transmitted information.
Key Concept Question: choice A
Topic 19: The bow and the Neolithic (agricultural) revolutions Part
1
Biology, human biology, social revolutions and the adaptive staircase

o Our history is a product of our fundamental biology
o Once humans covered the world, humans stayed there
Agricultural revolutions and the adaptive staircase
o Almost all of the calories that feed us come from 5 domesticated
plants: corn, rice, potatoes, wheat, & soy beans
These plants have been altered genetically by us (like the same
way we altered dogs)
o Its been argued that our adaptive sophistication increased b/c we
domesticated plants, allowing larger social scales
Were going to argue that thats backwards: new weapons
allowed new scales of cooperation, and generated agriculture as
an effect
o Agricultural revolutions are the next (the 3rd) adaptive revolution
Its a serious of revolutions
~11k 1 kya
So whats the new weapon at the time of this revolution?
THE BOW
The atlatl and the bow two very different weapon systems
o Atlatl easy to make, difficult to use: hard to aim and hit target
Has a high individual opportunity cost b/c difficult to use
Have to practice all the time to get good at it
o Bow complex to make, easy to use: easy to aim and hit target
Has a low individual opportunity cost b/c easy to use
Agricultural revolutions and the adaptive staircase, again what, exactly,

do we predict?
o High opportunity cost of atlatl means that its very difficult for
individuals to remain proficient at it for law enforcement on a day-today basis
Its not cost effective
Therefore people didnt settle b/c high opportunity cost of
keeping law enforcement with the atlatl
o Public market exchange:
When individuals engage in cooperation in primary coalitions
Instantaneously reciprocal, ostentatiously public
Like using currency
Doesnt work when coalitions get very big, like secondary
coalitions
o How does public market exchange change when the bow emerges?
Low opportunity cost of the bow allows large permanent
settlements to form
Once permanent settlements form, individual specialization
occurs, and a whole new scale of adaptive sophistication
explodes
Specialists can exchange their goods in the public
market
b/c of permanent settlements, domestication of plants and
animals and agriculture emerges
How to test our predictions some of the technology of archeology
o A. How can we tell when and where the bow arose?
Arrow heads are very small and light, atlatl arrow heads a big
bigger and heavier
This allows us to identify bow vs. atlatl
o B. How can we spot domestication of plants and animals?
Humans started to domesticate wild aurochs (cattle ancestors)
and selected for smaller, placid animals
Wild aurochs were very large (2m), aggressive, with sharp
horns
Teosinte is predecessor of maze
Teosinte is very small, but with selection by humans, we
developed larger maze
o C. How can we tell when things happened? stratigraphy, radiometric
dating and dendrochronology
Stratigraphy digging thru strata for relative dating
The deeper something was, the older it was
Pottery styles change with time
Dendrochronology using preserved wood for absolute dating
Uses rings to date
Specific case 1: The Fertile Crescent, the Natufian and the first agriculture
Bow is invented ~14kya between Libya and Lebanon (North Africa &
Middle East)
o First agricultural revolution occurs as bow spreads in Fertile Crescent
In modern Iraq and Iran
o Tells garbage mounds accumulated under ancient settlements
We have a record beginning ~500 ya, going all the way down to
birth of the first towns
Agriculture (plant domestication) does not occur at the very
bottom of the tells, theres mostly wild foods.
The bow is at the bottom of the tells, as our theory predicts
The Natufian Culture
o From this first agricultural revolution, we get: wheat, barley, rye,
sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs
Introduction to the North America the special laboratory of agricultural
revolutions
o The bow comes late to North America
o Mesoamerican triad of beans, squash, and maize enter up to North
America, but this doesnt produce an agricultural revolution
o Bow enters from Eurasia ~400 600 AD, and leads to explosive events
Specific case 2: The Mississippians
o This is the second agricultural revolution (the 1 st being the Fertile
Crescent)
o Descendants of the Hopewell
o Hopewell used Mesoamerican products for 1k years, but as soon as
bow comes Hopewell become Mississippians within 1.5 centuries
Large settled, permanent populations
Built large settlements and ceremonial mounds
o Plants come (from Mesoamerica) = doesnt matter
o Bow comes = Large permanent settlements explode
Specific case 3: The Anasazi
o In the Southwest, home of Basket-Makers
o Separate from Mississippians, but once bow comes, both
independently develop professional agricultural and large permanent
settlements
o Also had Mesoamerican horticulture before bow
o Chaco Canyon
o Not only farmers, but also astronomers, too, in order to tell - by the
stars which season it is and when to farm
Their large structures were built with astronomical knowledge
o Built walls to follow sun
o Farmers, stone-masons, and astronomers:
What do you need to have all three?
Individual specialization and permanent settlementsall
b/c of the bow.
o
Key Concept Question: choice C
Topic 20: The bow and Neolithic (agricultural) revolutions Part 2

XIII
XIV
XV
What have we seen and what do we predict?

a Agricultural revolutions were preceded by a new weapon: the bow
i Bow starts in middle east, spreads to Eurasia, into North America,
and immediately, we get agricultural revolutions everywhere the
bow goes
b Increased specialization
The Calusa a non-agricultural Neolithic revolution
a Here, agricultural doesnt work, but there is still a revolution
b Southern Florida, Everglades
c Lived in Everglades, which is an estuary, allowing for a food chain b/c of
massive presence of plankton
d Not based on agriculture, but on industrial fishing.
Agriculture and the global human laboratory
a Human social cooperation emerges from the self-interested projection of
coercive threat
b Neolithic revolutions are not about agriculture, but on adaptive revolutions
based on scale
Topic 20: Shock weaponry, body armor and the rise of the archaic state Part 1
Written history emerges with the first archaic state
o Evolutionary history is 6million years old, written history is only 5
thousand years old
XIII
What next? elite coercive power enters the human story

a Next adaptive revolution, after Neolithic revolutions, is the archaic state
(~5500 500 years ago)
i Archaic state results from invention of elite body armor and
shock weaponry
b Body armor and shields were sufficient to protect against projectile
weapons, atlatls and bows
i What happens when individuals are no longer vulnerable to death
from a distance; no longer vulnerable to the coercive threat in the
hands of the many?
1 They are able to exert dominance over those who dont have
armor
c Individuals invest enormous opportunity cost in using body armor and
shock weaponry
i Weapons are expensive to build, too, so material cost is great
1 Therefore, these individuals are a small number of the
population
d Elite body armor is invented several times independently around the world
XIV
XV
XVI
i And each time its invented, elite male dominance emerges, exactly
as predicted if humans project coercive threat in pursuit of selfinterest
The logic of enforcement of cooperation by elite warriors
a Elites from many primary coalitions gather and rule public market of
secondary coalition
i They do this for their own elite self-interest
Does elite coercion really work? the archaic state is an adaptive revolution
a Pre-state agricultural towns are much smaller than early archaic states
b Pre-state agricultural towns were co-hostile to one another, they had
unmanageable conflicts of interest with one another
i This limited the scale of cooperation to an individual village
c Early archaic states:
i States organize themselves into hierarchies: cities, towns, hamlets
ii Theyre spatially related to one another, in response to their
economic relation with one another
iii Much larger cooperative unit, larger scale of cooperation
iv These states build massive things: pyramids, Roman Coliseum
d These large archaic states invent record keeping, therefore written
language
i Therefore, they invent history
e Humans project threat in pursuit of self-interest, and so theyll write
history in pursuit of self-interest
i Therefore, history is the lie made up by the winner
f Archaic states produced by armored, elite male warriors,
projecting threat in pursuit of self-interest.
i Archaic states = tertiary coalitions
Archaic states as tests of the theory Specific case 1: the Eurasian Bronze Age
a Small Neolithic communities were consolidated into larger states upon
emergence of body armor.
b Very first armor is bronze
c 5k years of Neolithic cultures, when bronze metallurgy arises, first archaic
states explode into record
d Bronze metallurgy invented near Fertile Crescent in modern Iraq, and
quickly spreads
e Ur in Sumeria is first archaic state, then Egyptians, then Minoans and
Mycenaeans
f Archaic state = extending cooperation on much larger scale
g These elite warriors with armor and shock weaponry are elite for 2
reasons:
i Opportunity costs in order to dominate people w/weapons, you
need to practice all day
ii Material costs the cost of material that they wear (bronze) is very
high
1 Structure of archaic state is massive taxation by the elite on
serfs and slaves, in order to generate wealth to both pay for
their time to practice and pay for artisans labor to build the
armor and weaponry.
a The elite control the market, therefore control the
state
Men can deal with opportunity costs and women cant
i Women cannot invest so much time into practice b/c of
reproductive cycles, but this doesnt affect men, and therefore, men
become dominant
ii Male domination of archaic states is not b/c male domination is the
natural human condition, its b/c of above statement
Topic 21: Shock weaponry, body armor, and the rise of the archaic
state Part 2
V
XVII
XVIII
XIX
Archaic state = a tertiary coalition

Body armor, shock weaponry, and the archaic state what do we expect?
a Elite armored warriors initiated a new scale of social cooperation
i The social cooperation they manage serves their interests, not
everyones
b Bow created Neolithic villages, b/c allowed for policing of conflicts of
interest at that scale, but not cost effective on the scale of policing coi
between villages
c Neolithic villages consolidated into states by elite warriors policing coi
between these villages
d Body armor = impervious to projectile weapons, so effective weapons
emerged - shock weapons
e Archaic states arise many times independently
Archaic states as tests of the theory Specific case 1: The Eurasian Bronze
Age
a Bronze metallurgy invented in middle east, around 3500 BC, then spreads
and develops elsewhere
Specific case 2: The Iron Age on the Eurasian mainland
a A. The origin and importance of iron metallurgy
i Metallurgy originated as an accident built around ceramic
technology
ii Tin is rare, so bronze production was limited
iii Iron is much more abundant: more weapons, larger militaries, more
powerful
iv Iron metallurgy required much more heat than bronze metallurgy
v Iron alloyed with carbon = steel
1 Steel hardness depends on C content, which is controlled by
hammering
b B. The Iron Age
i Iron metallurgy developed in modern Turkey around 1200 BC
ii Iron Age empires much larger than those of the Bronze Age
iii Ex: Ancient Greeks
XX
XXI
XXII
XXIII
XXIV
1 Pericles and Alexander dressing in armor, showing eliteness

iv Roman Empire
1 Caesar Augustus statue, dressed in armor, showing eliteness
v Eurasian Iron Age cultures immediately ancestral to virtually all
modern cultures
Specific case 3: The Iron Age comes to Japan a uniquely valuable case
a Japanese/Samurai states beginning ca. 200 AD
i Iron comes to Japan 500 800 years after it comes to mainland b/c
Japan was isolated for so long
b Just like in Greece and Rome, a statue of Kusunoki Masashige, a Japanese
politician, is showing his eliteness , dressed in armor
The archaic state in the New World body armor, shock weapons and elite
warriors (again)
a Mesoamerica (Central America) and South America (Andes)
b Key technology is not metal, like in Eurasia, but cotton
c Cotton was woven into layered armor in Mesoamerica and South
Americas, kind of like modern Kevlar bullet-vests
d Kwatzoykoyotl, another higher authority figure who self-commissioned a
portrait in armor, showing eliteness
e Obsidian volcanic glass, weapons were made of this b/c metallurgy not
as advanced there
f Inca domesticated potatoes
Specific case 4: The Andean archaic states
a Inca was enormous archaic state, size of Roman Empire
b Archaic state follows after introduction of elite warriors and elite body
armor
i This, too, produced an elite male archaic state
c Inca quipu = a book keeping system, no written language created upon
creation of archaic states as seen in Greece and Rome
Specific case 5: The Mesoamerican archaic states
a A. The Maya
i Blossomed and collapsed around 1000 AD, before European contact
ii Developed language
iii Their society looks just like all other archaic societies: hierarchical,
violent, male-dominated
b B. The Aztecs
i Successors to the Maya
ii Existed in present day Mexico
iii Extraordinarily similar in their underlying social logic to the Roman
Empire, even though thousands of miles apart
Properties of archaic state cruelty
a Moral outrage = an evolved psychology to participate in coercion
i We experience this when our interests (or our common interests
shared by many others) are violated by free-riders
ii We are most powerful when we are part of the majority, allowing us
to exploit square-law to be very powerful
iii This evolved psychology equates the possession of power with
being in the right
iv Our minds are constructed to construct belief systems built

around this:
1 When I possess power, I am right!
2 When you violate my rights and I am powerful, I have the
right to strike at you
a This is our 2 million year old evolved psychology
b This worked very well in the ancestral village, but
differently in the archaic state
The elite who control archaic states believe that they are powerful and in
the right
i They need to constantly project threat b/c those that they rule are
not going to police each other in the interest of the elite, and they
need to continuously intimidate the commoner population
ii And also, theyll invent religious and other justifications for what
they do.
1 The Romans and Aztecs did this.
Brutality is a universal aspect of all archaic states b/c its what the elite
have to do to rule the state.
i Romans built giant coliseum in order to put on shows of people
being burned and fed to beasts
ii Aztecs had human sacrifices, and dead bodies thrown down steps of
pyramids
Structure of archaic state is determined by the structure of access to
coercive threat, as predicted
Key Concept Question: Choice C
Topic 22: Gunpowder and the emergence of the modern state
IX
Things to remember:
o Conflicts of interest are universal
o Management of conflicts of interest are scale dependent, depending on
weaponry
o Who has control of coercive threat?
Where are we and what do we predict?

a Same trick, access to inexpensive coercive threat in pursuit of selfinterest, kinship-independent social cooperation emerges, and everything
follows.
b Humans project threat in pursuit of self-interest, but also write history in
pursuit of self-interest.
i Remember: history is the lie made up by the winner
Scale of the modern world
a Modern world is an adaptive revolution; the latest of revolutions in our
series of revolutions
b Modern world is a completely different scale than the archaic state
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
Modern world emerges as an adaptive revolution just like all others, b/c of
a new coercive technology, which allows the scale and internal structure
of our social cooperation to be changed
d Modern state revolution emerges b/c of the creation of gunpowder
weaponry.
i ~600 ya - Present, its a 2 step process over a few centuries
Cycling in the archaic state entrenched power and stability
a Archaic states are unstable; they bloom and crash over and over
b How do elite warriors manage conflicts of interest between themselves?
i Badly, expensively, with consequences
ii As empires grow, conflicts of interests between warriors grow, and
since they have no way of controlling conflicts of interest
inexpensively, the empires shatter.
c Over time, as empires grow, they initially flourish and produce adaptive
revolutions, and then they shatter
i Elite warriors split up from their combined enterprise, and become
warlords, taking over smaller coalitions
ii This happens in Rome, in Japan
d Local warlords set up fortifications, like castles, when the archaic states
shattered
Gunpowder artillery and the enforcements within the early modern state
a A. Black powder properties, invention and early history
i Charcoal + sulfur + potassium nitrate = original gunpowder
b B. Black powder artillery and fortifications castle busters
i With the invention of gunpowder artillery, archaic state cycling
ceases forever
1 States become stable, capacity to manage conflicts of
interest between elite emerges, and early modern state
emerges
a Most contemporary states are descendant from those
early modern states b/c theyve remained stable
ii Gunpowder artillery makes it possible to bust down castle walls
iii Early modern states are archaic states, still governed by elite
warriors, but are now stable
Gunpowder artillery and the consolidation of early modern states
a Gunpowder invented in China ca. 1000 AD, then spread to Europe
b Western Europe had head start in development of gunpowder weaponry,
ca. 1300 AD
The structure of the early modern state
a Within 200 years of invention of gunpowder artillery, large states
consolidate, and what we think of as the contemporary state emerges:
France, Spain, England, Austria, Portugal, etc
b There is also an artistic fluorescence at this time: The Renaissance
c Gunpowder gives rise to power to these new Western European states,
that they used to spread their influence around the world, in pursuit of
self-interest
XV
XVI
XVII
i This is the European Colonial Era: Western Hemisphere of world

speaks one of 4 main languages: Spanish, French, English,
Portuguese
Japan a natural experiment in development of the early modern state
a Japan is not on mainland, so its out of step with Eurasia
b Japan has been isolated from the process, and remained an archaic state,
an iron age state, still cycling
c Portuguese European Colonialists visit Japan in 1542
i Japan refuses to take anything except weapons
ii Japan adopts Portuguese gunpowder weapons, within one
generation Japan has civil war, and then is unified, and still is today
1 Tokugawa Shogunate, unification in 1550 1600
Democratization of the modern state what do we predict?
a Democratization of the modern state is produced by handguns
i ~400 present
ii This is the second step of the revolution
b Handguns give rise to saying No more to the elite who run that state
and your life
c Commoners are able to chase elites away with handguns, giving rise to
the modern democratic state
d Elite self-justifying myth is that everything would go to hell without them.
i Quality of knowledge, commerce, art, etc would fall without them;
these things were dependent on their elite supervision, people were
too stupid to govern themselves and do business and science, but
thats not the case
e Democratization of state is correlated with the most spectacular increase
in knowledge and wealth in human history
i Democratization of state produces economic miracle
The early history of black powder handguns
a Elite handguns difficult to make b/c of small moving parts
b Come into existence 200 250 years after elite artillery
c Artillery consolidates early modern state, which remains hierarchical and
racist like archaic state, then gradually elite handguns democratize
modern state, creating our modern world
d Matchlock (arquebus): difficult to use and dangerous
e Wheelock: Effective, but complex and expensive
f Flintlock: Effective, simple and inexpensive
i This is the breakthrough, allowing all to use it, the others were used
by elite
ii Effective and not dangerous like others
iii Prediction is that this weapon is created and democratization of
state immediately follows
g When handguns come into play, elite warriors are no longer safe
i It re-distributes coercive threat into the hands of the many, just like
it has been in our 2 million year history
1 This recreates ancestral human condition, but on a HUGE
new scale
The re-distribution of access to coercive threat is the cause of the

scientific revolution, modern economic miracle, and our modern world
Key Concept Question: Choice D
Topic 23: Aircrafts, missiles and the rise of the pan-global human
coalition
IX
Human history consists of a series of adaptive revolutions, each produced by

a single, simple cause: the invention of a new means of coercive suppression
of conflicts of interest, which expands the scale of our social cooperation
Early modern states made possible by gunpowder artillery, then
democratized into modern democratic states b/c of gunpowder handguns,
which allowed access to coercive threat to be redistributed to the hands of
the many.
o The modern democratic state adaptive revolution is enormous in its
scale of adaptive sophistication; this produced the sophisticated world
we live in.
The flintlock and an adaptive revolution

a Elite armored warriors could no longer be all powerful; were vulnerable to
handguns.
b Those who controlled flintlock weapons controlled local coercive power
and weapons of the state
c Archaic states created by elite warriors unifying Neolithic settlements, and
were stabilized with emergence of gunpowder artillery
d Gunpowder handguns democratize access to coercive threat,
democratizing political and economic life of the state, creating a new
adaptive revolution
e Before 1710, England economy = as population increased, GDP
decreased, as population decreased, GDP increased, and only a few rich
people.
f After 1710, population booms and people get richer.
i Flintlock introduced in ~1620, just before transition from early
modern state to modern democratic state.
ii As elite removed by handguns, there is increase in wealth
generation. This is seen in many cases, not just in this one
g Democratized cultures work very well.
i Modern music and scientific revolution, modern history, the novel
all born right after flintlock introduced.
h Flintlock allows for adaptive revolution
The early democratic revolutions

a Flintlock invented shortly before English civil war soldiers carried
flintlocks
b American soldiers in American Revolution carried flintlocks
c French Revolutions has flintlocks, too
i All three of the above revolutions occur within less than a century of
the creation of flintlock weapons
ii Flintlock guns drive these revolutions and determine their outcome
iii And these are the states that drive the modern economic miracle
and the scientific revolution
XI
Japan a natural experiment in democratization of the modern state

a Tokogawa Shogunate was a stable early modern state
b Matthew Perry came to Japan in 1850s and introduced flintlocks and local
Japanese warlords bought them by the thousands, and then within 3
years, a Japanese civil war breaks out Meiji Restoration
Improvements in handguns rifling, cartridges and rapid loading
a Flintlock has smooth bore, therefore inaccurate
i Modern rifle is rifled, grooves in barrel, spinning projectile, and
accurate
b No more manual loading have cartridges now
c Political structure of our states is determined by who controls these new
modern hand-held weapons
Sexual equality in humans its ancient history and its re-emergence in the
modern democratic state
a Throwing stones and bows were democratic weapons, women and men
could use them
b Womens equality would re-emerge when then attain cheap handguns,
just like it happened with men.
i Advanced handguns have low opportunity costs
c Annie Oakley
d 19th amendment happened in 1920, allowing equal rights for women,
shortly after women began using handguns, including Annie Oakley
World War II aircraft, inexpensive coercion on the scale of the nation-states
and the emergence of pan-global cooperation
a Pan-global cooperation (~50 present) is an ongoing revolution (adaptive
revolution), occurs after democratization of modern state
b Pan-global cooperation is achieved by aircraft, which manage
nation states conflicts of interest problems
i Handguns dont work here, theyre too bloody, as weve seen in
wars
c Nazi Germany and Japan had aircraft
d Aircraft = coercive weapons
i Allows majority coalition of nation-states to put large numbers of
aircraft in the sky, which inexpensively overwhelms smaller air
forces
e Aircraft bombings = 500k dead, at the low cost for airmen
XII
XIII
XIV
Nuclear weapons: once you have them and once you use them, people
really do get it.
i 150k died when they were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
ii Very strong threat
Key Concept Question: choice E ? (not sure)
Topic 24: Final considerations the contemporary world and a

sustainable human future
Each adaptive revolution results from a new coercive weapon allowing a new
scale of social cooperation
We can look forward to a brighter future: as we consolidate and democratize
pan-global human coalition, we can expect another adaptive revolution (more
wealth, insight, adaptive power)
Each of us have been victims and perpetrators of aggression in our ancestry
Nuclear weapons are very effective at policing conflicts of interests btwn
nation-states
Precision weapons and the new logic of pan-global coercion
o GPS-employed weapons, precise
o Precision weapons change the cost-benefit ratio of coercion on the
scale of nation-states
o These weapons allow for inexpensive assault, even more so than
nuclear weapons
Good and evil on the pan-global scale
o We can now predict toxic authoritarianism from democratized states
before they occur.
o Authoritarian modern states: Almost every evil and inhumanity in the
contemporary world is perpetrated by heavily armed elites who control
the political system in their interest, not in the common interest of
most of their citizens
o States in which citizens have equal access to coercive threat tend to be
human, democratized, and relatively wealthy
Evolution of the coercive power within the modern state
o Authoritarianism: states ruled by a small number of elite
o Democracy: democratic threat is broadly distributed
o States drive toward one extreme or the other
Either radically authoritarian or radically democratized
o Authoritarianism:
Restrict access to weapons, even though the weapons are
democratic
o Only thing that matter is who controls access to coercive threat: who
has the coercive power?
Belief systems dont matter, culture doesnt matter

Coercive threat is distributed in any state
In authoritarianism: small, heavily armed elites control majority
of coercive power, and everybody else controls a small amount
In democracy: everybody controls decisive coercive threat
o System will drive towards one direction or the other: either
authoritarian or democracy
Elites will solidify their control over coercive threat
Democratized coalitions will seize democratized access to threat
Democracy, ethical psychology and ideology
o Our ethical psychology causes authoritarian states to have a diagnostic
property that easily recognized by us
o
Our ethical psychology

This is our ancient 2 million year old psychology
We feel moral outrage in response to transgressors against
what we feel to be our common interest
Guilt helps us from being targets of the above
We all feel a sense of higher purpose when we exist in a
system that serves our interests cooperatively with non-kin
o When elites dominate a society, they will use a special status to justify
their position
o The first symptom of an elite state (authoritarian) is a rational
for hierarchical rule based on sexism, racism, ethnocentrism or
religious/ideological intolerance.
Transparency and elite power
o Elite states always suppress peaceful descent, democratized states
never do, and its actually in a clause in the 1 st amendment.
o Elite states dont allow peaceful speech, democratized states do.
This is our second symptom: systematic suppression of
public doubting
Public doubting is part of the scientific progress that
democratized states make, so it makes sense to not see it in
elite states, which are poor and dysfunctional
o Third symptom: Elite economic systems are poor or funded by
non-productive activities
An example of being funded is Iran, who sells us oil
Authoritarian states are poor, democratic states are wealthy
Democracy and access to coercive power
o Access to coercive power is all that matters
No belief systems, no politics, no culture
o Fourth symptom of elite states: Relative access to coercive
threat is low for citizens, high for elites.
Public brutality in the modern authoritarian state
o
Like Aztecs with public sacrificing and throwing bodies down pyramid
stairs, and Romans with public gladiator shows with lions and beasts in
coliseum.
o Public intimidation is necessary to keep control of an authoritarian
state
Its not psychopaths that create authoritarian states, but rather
authoritarian states that give psychopaths the opportunity to
take control
o When elites take control, its like a drug: they need to keep it, and they
want more of it.
o Fifth symptom: Public intimidation, even over cruelty, is
directed at authoritarian state citizens
A modern day example of this is in Afghanistan, where people
are killed in a soccer stadium, just like the Romans and the
coliseum.
North Korea, a massive natural experiment
o North Korea is still authoritarian: practices public brutality, has secret
police, disarmed citizens, and elite mythology
It shows all 5 symptoms discussed in this lecture
o North Korea GDP is 20 fold less than South Korea
o Night sky of North Korea is dark, while South Korea is illuminated.
o North Koreans are 1 inch shorter on avg than South Koreans b/c
theyve been malnourished most of their lives
o About half of the world is authoritarian, other half is democratic
The human future
o We can build a pan-global civilization wealthier, wiser, and more
knowledgeable than we are now.
o We have the tools to change the future so that the atrocities of the
past never occur again.
o We need to pull authoritarian nations towards the democratic side.
o

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nerdy-notes.

Topic 1: How we are unique

PARSIMONY = SIMPLE AND POWERFUL

too much and no longer able to produce viable offspring (ex:

How well does the kinship-independent cooperation hypothesis account for us

The fundamental trick of kinship-independent social cooperation requires

Key Concept Question for Topic 1: choice f.

Topic 2: We know what life is a particular case of chemistry

Understand chemistry as it pertains to biology

Protein enzymes are catalysts in modern organisms

Topic 2 Key Concept Question: choice d.

Topic 3: How genes build animals

Important to understand details of natural selection

The reductionist pyramid and (chemical) organism:

ii Once in a while, mistakes occur in replication (2 nd Law of thermo),

Topic 3 Key Concept Question: choice a

Goal is to look at how natural selection works in sexual animals

The logic of replication of chemical vehicles in a Malthusian world

How genes build animals

Soma adult body, tools, Germline Gametes, Design information

i Many different alleles leads to variation

Key Concept Question: Choice b

Topic 5: How evolution (natural selection) produces animals that

Natural selection builds behaviors

Source of purpose is genetic design information shaped by natural

Natural selection builds behaviors as well as bodies reprise

Key Concept Question: choice d

Topic 6: Kin selected behavior in humans

Humans have some of the kin-selective behaviors of non-human animals, but

Kin-selection in non-human animals produces their breeding behavior

Reproductive value a crucial concept

Key Concept Question: choice b

Topic 7: Kinship independent cooperation and human uniqueness

Kinship-independent social cooperation the fundamental source of human

Non-human animals do engage in kinship-independent social cooperation,

Humans came to have their unique social cooperation because of death

The following are unconscious sexual behaviors:

1 Why do we flip between the two in ancient, ancestral past?

Control of sperm number

Key Concept Queston: choice c

END OF EXAM 1 MATERIAL

Topic 9: Human Sexual Behavior Part 2

Humans are contingent breeders: both monogamous and promiscuous

Human kinship-independent social breeding, a first look It takes a village to

Key Concept Question: choice C

Topic 10: Human Sexual Behavior Part 3: Big brained babies

Overarching theory: humans are a new level of organization in the universe

Precocial and altricial animals how animals get to be smart

Brain size / Cognitive capacity

Means that we can support brain growth after weaning, no

In a monogamous environment, females get more

Key Concept Question: choice d

Humans were contingent breeders: sometimes promiscuous, sometimes

Coercion and cooperation revisited

Key Concept Question: choice B

Redesign of the human body to throw what do we expect?

d We can recognize elite throwing in our skeleton

distances spinal column and location of muscle attachments to provide for

Power scavenging let professional hunters take down animal (cheetah,

Key Concept Question: choice A

Topic 13: Human Language cooperation and information exchange

Do we see what we expect? exchange of information with confluence of

Its actually males telling females Im smart, big and

behavior evolves at or immediately after evolution of elite

The human vocal apparatus a first look

Key Concept Question: Choice D

Topic 14: Human Language cooperation and information Part 2