A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the

vehicle.[2] The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which
combine an internal combustion engine and one or more electric motors. However other
mechanisms to capture and utilize energy are included.
Contents

1 Power

2 Vehicle type
o 2.1 Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles
o 2.2 Heavy vehicles

2.2.1 Rail transport

2.2.2 Cranes

2.2.3 Road transport, commercial vehicles

2.2.4 Military off-road vehicles

2.2.5 Ships

2.2.6 Aircraft

3 Engine type
o 3.1 Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles
o 3.2 Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)
o 3.3 Hybrid fuel (dual mode)
o 3.4 Fluid power hybrid

3.4.1 Petro-air hybrid

3.4.2 Petro-hydraulic hybrid

o 3.5 Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

4 Hybrid vehicle power train configurations

o 4.1 Parallel hybrid
o 4.2 Mild parallel hybrid
o 4.3 Power-split or series-parallel hybrid
o 4.4 Series hybrid
o 4.5 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
o 4.6 Fuel cell, electric hybrid
o 4.7 Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians

5 Environmental issues
o 5.1 Fuel consumption and emissions reductions
o 5.2 Hybrid vehicle emissions
o 5.3 Environmental impact of hybrid car battery
o 5.4 Raw materials increasing costs

6 Alternative green vehicles

7 Adoption rate

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

Power
Power sources for hybrid vehicles include:

Coal, wood or other solid combustibles

Compressed or liquefied natural gas

Electricity

Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves

Electric vehicle battery

Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing

Hydrogen

On-board or out-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)

Petrol or Diesel fuel

Solar

Wind

Vehicle type

A biodiesel hybrid bus in Montreal

Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles
Mopeds, electric bicycles, and even electric kick scooters are a simple form of a hybrid,
as power is delivered both via an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the
rider's muscles. Early prototypes of motorcycles in the late 19th century used the same
principles to power it up.

In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically coupled
at the pedal drive train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a hub motor, a
roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a transmission
element. Human and motor torques are added together. Almost all manufactured
Motorized bicycles, Mopeds are of this type.[3]

In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the pedals.
This is converted into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giving a
chainless bicycle but also to charge a battery. The motor draws power from the
battery and must be able to deliver the full mechanical torque required because
none is available from the pedals. SH bicycles are commercially available,
because they are very simple in theory and manufacturing. [4]

The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel (US
Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite [5] SH
lightweight vehicle which used power electronics allowing regenerative braking and
pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Muller designed a "Fahrrad mit
elektromagnetischem Antrieb" in his 1995 diploma thesis and built a functional vehicle.
In 1996 Jrg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an
SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the system onto a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP
1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke described his concept of the "active bicycle": the aim
is to approach the ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic
compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues built several prototype SH tricycles and
quadricycles.[6]
Heavy vehicles

Bus Rapid Transit of Metz, a diesel-electric hybrid driving system by Van Hool[7]
Hybrid power trains use diesel-electric or turbo-electric to power railway locomotives,
buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some
form of heat engine (usually diesel) drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump which
powers one or more electric or hydraulic motors. There are advantages in distributing
power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements especially when multiple
drivese.g. driven wheels or propellersare required. There is power lost in the double
conversion from typically diesel fuel to electricity to power an electric or hydraulic motor.
With large vehicles the advantages often outweigh the disadvantages especially as the
conversion losses typically decrease with size. With the exception of non-nuclear
submarines, presently there is no or relatively little secondary energy storage capacity
on most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumulatorsalthough
this is now changing. Submarines are one of the oldest widespread applications of
hybrid technology, running on diesel engines while surfaced and switching to battery

power when submerged. Both series-hybrid and parallel hybrid drivetrains were used in
the Second World War.
Rail transport
Main article: Hybrid train

East Japan Railway Company HB-E300 series

Europe
The new Autorail grande capacit (AGC or high-capacity railcar) built by the Canadian
company Bombardier for service in France. This has dual mode (diesel and electric
motors) and dual voltage capabilities (1500 and 25000 V) allowing it to be used on
many different rail systems.[8] The locomotive has been on trials in Rotterdam, the
Netherlands with Railfeeding, a Genesse and Wyoming company.
China
The First Hybrid Evaluating prototype locomotive was designed and contracted by rail
research center MATRAI in 1999 and the sample was ready in 2000. It was a G12
locomotive that was converted to hybrid by using a 200KW diesel generator and
batteries and also was equipped with 4 AC traction motors (out of 4) retrofited in the
cover of the DC traction motors.
Japan
The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy storage
and energy regeneration capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It utilizes
battery packs of lithium ion batteries mounted on the roof to store recovered energy.[9]
North America
In the US, General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their
"Ecomagination" technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel
chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries to capture and store energy normally dissipated in dynamic
braking or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction in fuel use with this
system and are now spending no more than $2 billion/yr on hybrid research. [10]
Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and
Green Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Railpower Technologies. They

utilize a large set of heavy duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries
and 1000 to 2000 HP electric motors as the primary motive sources and a new clean
burning diesel generator (~160 Hp) for recharging the batteries that is used only as
needed. No power or fuel are wasted for idlingtypically 6085% of the time for these
type locomotives. It is unclear if dynamic braking (regenerative) power is recaptured for
reuse; but in principle it should be easily utilized.
Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery
pack's weight is a negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and battery
package are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's frame for
significant additional cost savings. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt
and reused. Diesel fuel savings of 4060% and up to 80% pollution reductions are
claimed over that of a "typical" older switching/yard engine. The same advantages that
existing hybrid cars have for use with frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to
typical switching yard use.[11] "Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by
Canadian Pacific Railway, BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union
Pacific Railroad among others.
Cranes
Railpower Technologies engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems are testing a
hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery storage for use in Rubber Tyred Gantry
(RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for loading and unloading shipping
containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container storage yards. The energy used
to lift the containers can be partially regained when they are lowered. Diesel fuel and
emission reductions of 5070% are predicted by Railpower engineers. [12] First systems
are expected to be operational in 2007.[13]
Road transport, commercial vehicles

2008 GMC Yukon hybrid version

Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway vehicles
with some operational trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main obstacles
seem to be smaller fleet sizes and the extra costs of a hybrid system are yet
compensated for by fuel savings,[14] but with the price of oil set to continue on its upward

trend, the tipping point may be reached by the end of 2015. [dated info] Advances in
technology and lowered battery cost and higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid
car industry are already filtering into truck use as Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduce
hybrid pickups and SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced a hybridelectric truck, called the Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be
competitive.[15][16] FedEx and others are starting to invest in hybrid delivery type vehicles
particularly for city use where hybrid technology may pay off first. [17]
Military off-road vehicles
Since 1985, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid Humvees[18][19] and have
found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low thermal signature/
near silent operation, and greater fuel economy.
Ships
Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid
vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when
submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is
on the surface.
Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by
companies such as SkySails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than
the tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.
Aircraft
Taxiing and other ground operations of Boeing 737NGs will soon be done using hybrid
electric drives as WheelTug ground propulsion systems become available.[20][21] By using
the APU (powered by a turbine) to energize a Chorus electric motor mounted in the
landing gear for ground movement, aircraft will be operating in a hybrid configuration
where the main engines are used only for take off, landing, and flight.
Boeing 737800
The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane has a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM)
fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which is coupled to
a conventional propeller. The fuel cell provides all power for the cruise phase of flight.
During takeoff and climb, the flight segment that requires the most power, the system
draws on lightweight lithium-ion batteries.
The demonstrator aircraft is a Dimona motor glider, built by Diamond Aircraft Industries
of Austria, which also carried out structural modifications to the aircraft. With a wing
span of 16.3 meters (53.5 feet), the airplane will be able to cruise at about
Template:Convert/kim/h on power from the fuel cell.[22]

Hybrid FanWings have been designed. A FanWing is created by two engines with the
capability to autorotate and landing like a helicopter.[23]
Engine type
Hybrid electric-petroleum vehicles

Hybrid New Flyer Metrobus

Hybrid Optare Solo

Main article: Hybrid electric vehicle
When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle.
These encompass such vehicles as the Saturn Vue, Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid,
Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid,
Lexus RX 400h and 450h and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid most commonly uses
internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel engines, powered by a variety
of fuels) and electric batteries to power the vehicle. There are many types of petroleumelectric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying
advantages and disadvantages.[24][not in citation given]
Henri Pieper in 1899 developed the first petro-electric hybrid automobile in the world. In
1900, Ferdinand Porsche developed a series-hybrid using two motor-in-wheel-hub
arrangements with a combustion generator set providing the electric power, setting two
speed records[citation needed]. While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 19th
century, the braking regenerative hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical
engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 197879. His home-converted Opel GT was
reported to return as much as 75MPG with plans still sold to this original design, and the
"Mother Earth News" modified version on their website. [25]
The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the
range needed in locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries

can be plugged into house (mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while
the engine is running.
Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)
Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while
the user drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead
wires on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see
Conduit current collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this processon the
highwayand can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged.
Some of battery-electric locomotives used for maintenance trains on the London
Underground are capable of this mode of operation. Power is picked up from the
electtrified rails where possible, switching to battery power where the electricity supply
is disconnected.
This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long
as you stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are
within 100 km of a major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery
systems. Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally
prohibited.
The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not
widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail).
Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by
toll revenue, gasoline or other taxes.
Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid with a flexible fuel capability to run on E85 (ethanol)
In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also
consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the
same engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above
and to use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual
mode vehicles:

Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and
overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In

principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plugin hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been
announced.

Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank
typically gasoline and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.

Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from
petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be
impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built
with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. For example Chevys
Silverado 2500 HD, which is now on the road, can effortlessly switch between
petroleum and natural gas, and offers a range of over 650 miles. [26] While the
duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range,
decreased cost of fuel and flexibility where (LPG or NG) infrastructure is
incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase. While the U.S. Natural
gas infrastructure is partially incomplete, it is increasing at a fast pace, and
already has 2600 CNG stations in place.[27] With a growing fueling station
infrastructure, a large scale adoption of these bi-fuel vehicles could be seen in
the near future. Rising gas prices may also push consumers to purchase these
vehicles. When gas prices trade around $4.00, the price per MMBTU of gasoline
is $28.00, compared to natural gas's $4.00 per MMBTU. [28] On a per unit of
energy comparative basis, this makes natural gas much cheaper than gasoline.
All of these factors are making CNG-Gasoline bi-fuel vehicles very attractive.

Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available,
such as cars modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on
waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.

Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are

also included (see Motorized bicycle).

Fluid power hybrid

Chrysler minivan, petro-hydraulic hybrid

French MDI petro-air hybrid car developed with Tata

Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure
accumulator to drive the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) drive
units. In most cases the engine is detached from the drivetrain merely only to change
the energy accumulator. The transmission is seamless.
Petro-air hybrid
A French company, MDI, has designed and has running models of a petro-air hybrid
engine car. The system does not use air motors to drive the vehicle, being directly
driven by a hybrid engine. The engine uses a mixture of compressed air and gasoline
injected into the cylinders.[29] A key aspect of the hybrid engine is the "active chamber",
which is a compartment heating air via fuel doubling the energy output. [30] Tata Motors of
India assessed the design phase towards full production for the Indian market and
moved into "completing detailed development of the compressed air engine into specific
vehicle and stationary applications".[31][32]
hybrid Petro udara
Sebuah perusahaan Perancis, MDI, telah dirancang dan telah menjalankan model
mesin mobil petro-air hybrid. Sistem ini tidak menggunakan motor udara untuk
menggerakkan kendaraan, yang langsung didorong oleh mesin hybrid. Mesinnya
menggunakan campuran udara terkompresi dan bensin diinjeksikan ke dalam silinder
[29] Sebuah aspek kunci dari mesin hybrid adalah "ruang aktif", yang merupakan
kompartemen pemanas udara melalui bahan bakar dua kali lipat output energi [30] Tata
Motors.. India menilai tahap desain terhadap produksi penuh untuk pasar India dan
pindah ke "menyelesaikan pembangunan rinci dari mesin kompresi udara ke dalam
kendaraan tertentu dan aplikasi stasioner". [31] [32]

Petro-hydraulic hybrid

Petro-hydraulic configurations have been common in trains and heavy vehicles for
decades. The auto industry recently focused on this hybrid configuration as it now
shows promise for introduction into smaller vehicles.
In petro-hydraulic hybrids, the energy recovery rate is high and therefore the system is
more efficient than battery charged hybrids using the current battery technology,
demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) testing.[33] The charging engine needs only to be sized for
average usage with acceleration bursts using the stored energy in the hydraulic
accumulator, which is charged when in low energy demanding vehicle operation. The
charging engine runs at optimum speed and load for efficiency and longevity. Under
tests undertaken by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a hydraulic hybrid
Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City, and
22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway.[34][35] UPS currently has two
trucks in service with this technology.[36]

Hibrida petro - hidrolik

Konfigurasi petro - hidrolik telah umum di kereta api dan kendaraan berat selama
beberapa dekade . Industri otomotif baru ini berfokus pada konfigurasi ini hibrida
sekarang menunjukkan janji untuk dimasukkan kedalam kendaraan yang lebih kecil .
Dalam hibrida petro - hidrolik , tingkat pemulihan energi tinggi dan karena sistem ini
lebih efisien daripada hibrida mengisi baterai menggunakan teknologi baterai saat ini ,
menunjukkan peningkatan 60 % menjadi 70% pada ekonomi energi di US
Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) pengujian . [ 33 ] mesin pengisian hanya perlu
menjadi ukuran untuk penggunaan rata-rata dengan semburan percepatan
menggunakan energi yang tersimpan dalam akumulator hidrolik , yang dibebankan
pada saat energi menuntut kendaraan operasional rendah . Mesin pengisian berjalan
pada kecepatan optimal dan beban untuk efisiensi dan umur panjang . Berdasarkan tes
yang dilakukan oleh Badan Perlindungan Lingkungan AS ( EPA ) , hidrolik hibrida Ford
Expedition kembali 32 mil per galon AS ( 7,4 km l/100 ; 38 mpg imp - ) Kota , dan 22 mil
per galon AS ( 11 km l/100 ; . 26 mpg imp - ) jalan raya [ 34 ] [ 35 ] UPS saat ini memiliki
dua truk dalam pelayanan dengan teknologi ini [ 36 ] .

Although petro-hybrid technology has been known for decades, and used in trains and
very large construction vehicles, heavy costs of the equipment precluded the systems

from lighter trucks and cars. In the modern sense an experiment proved the viability of
small petro-hybrid road vehicles in 1978. A group of students at Minneapolis,
Minnesota's Hennepin Vocational Technical Center, converted a Volkswagen Beetle car
to run as a petro-hydraulic hybrid using off-the shelf components. A car rated at 32mpg
was returning 75mpg with the 60HP engine replaced by 16HP engine. The experimental
car reached 70 mph.[37]
In the 1990s, a team of engineers working at EPAs National Vehicle and Fuel
Emissions Laboratory succeeded in developing a revolutionary type of petro-hydraulic
hybrid powertrain that would propel a typical American sedan car. The test car achieved
over 80 mpg on combined EPA city/highway driving cycles. Acceleration was 0-60 mph
in 8 seconds, using a 1.9 liter diesel engine. No lightweight materials were used.The
EPA estimated that produced in high volumes the hydraulic components would add only
$700 to the base cost of the vehicle. [35]
While the petro-hydraulic system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling
and is cheaper than petro-electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy
storage capacity and may require more space than a battery set.
Research is underway in large corporations and small companies. Focus has now
switched to smaller vehicles. The system components were expensive which precluded
installation in smaller trucks and cars. A drawback was that the power driving motors
were not efficient enough at part load. A British company (Artemis Intelligent Power) has
made a breakthrough by introducing an electronically controlled hydraulic motor/pump,
the Digital Displacement motor/pump, that is highly efficient at all speed ranges and
loads, making small applications of petro-hydraulic hybrids feasible. [38] The company
converted a BMW car as a test bed to prove viability. The BMW 530i, gave double the
mpg in city driving compared to the standard car. This test was using the standard
3,000cc engine. Petro-hydraulic hybrids using well sized accumulators entails
downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak power usage. Peak power is
provided by the energy stored in the accumulator. A smaller more efficient constant
speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a larger accumulator.[39]
Sebuah perusahaan Inggris (Artemis Cerdas Daya) telah membuat terobosan dengan
memperkenalkan motor hidrolik / pompa, Digital Pemindahan bermotor / pompa, yang
sangat efisien di semua rentang kecepatan dan beban dikontrol secara elektronik,
membuat aplikasi kecil hibrida petro-hidrolik layak. Petro-hydraulic hybrids using well
sized accumulators entails downsizing an engine to average power usage, not peak
power usage. Peak power is provided by the energy stored in the accumulator. A
smaller more efficient constant speed engine reduces weight and liberates space for a
larger accumulator.[39]
Hibrida petro-hidrolik menggunakan akumulator baik ukuran memerlukan perampingan
mesin untuk penggunaan daya rata-rata, bukan penggunaan daya puncak. Puncak

daya disediakan oleh energi yang tersimpan dalam akumulator. Sebuah mesin
kecepatan konstan lebih efisien yang lebih kecil mengurangi berat dan ruang
memerdekakan untuk akumulator lebih besar. [39]

Current vehicle bodies are designed around the mechanicals of existing

engine/transmission setups. It is restrictive and far from ideal to install petro-hydraulic
mechanicals into existing bodies not designed for hydraulic setups. One research
project's goal is to create a blank paper design new car, to maximize the packaging of
petro-hydraulic hybrid components in the vehicle. All bulky hydraulic components are
integrated into the chassis of the car. One design has claimed to return 130mpg in tests
by using a large hydraulic accumulator which is also the structural chassis of the car.
The small hydraulic driving motors are incorporated within the wheel hubs driving the
wheels and reversing to claw-back kinetic braking energy. The hub motors eliminates
the need for friction brakes, mechanical transmissions, drive shafts and U joints,
reducing costs and weight. Hydrostatic drive with no friction brakes are used in
industrial vehicles.[40] The aim is 170mpg in average driving conditions. Energy created
by shock absorbers and kinetic braking energy that normally would be wasted assists in
charging the accumulator. A small fossil fuelled piston engine sized for average power
use charges the accumulator. The accumulator is sized at running the car for 15
minutes when fully charged. The aim is a fully charged accumulator with an energy
storage potential of 670 HP, which will produce a 0-60 mph acceleration speed of under
5 seconds using four wheel drive.[41][42][43]
In January 2011 industry giant Chrysler announced a partnership with the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to design and develop an experimental petrohydraulic hybrid powertrain suitable for use in large passenger cars. In 2012 an existing
production minvan will be adapted to the new hydraulic powertrain. [35][44][45][46]
PSA Peugeot Citron exhibited an experimental "Hybrid Air" engine at the 2013 Geneva
Motor Show.[47] The vehicle uses nitrogen gas compressed by energy harvested from
braking or deceleration to power an hydraulic drive which supplements power from its
conventional gasoline engine. The hydraulic and electronic components were supplied
by Robert Bosch GmbH. Production versions priced at about $25,000, 17,000, are
scheduled for 2015 or 2016. Mileage was estimated to be about 80 miles per gallon for
city driving if installed in a Citron C3.[48]
Electric-human power hybrid vehicle

Another form of hybrid vehicle are human power-electric vehicles. These include such
vehicles as the Sinclair C5, Twike, electric bicycles, and electric skateboards.
Hybrid vehicle power train configurations
Main articles: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains and Micro HEV
Parallel hybrid

Honda Insight, Mild Parallel Hybrid

Toyota Prius, series-parallel hybrid

Ford Escape Hybrid, a series-parallel drivetrain

In a parallel hybrid vehicle, the single electric motor and the internal combustion engine
are installed such that they can power the vehicle either individually or together. In
contrast to the power split configuration typically only one electric motor is installed.
Most commonly the internal combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are
coupled by automatically controlled clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the

internal combustion engine is open while the clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in
combustion mode the engine and motor run at the same speed.
Dalam sebuah kendaraan hibrida paralel, motor listrik tunggal dan mesin pembakaran
internal yang dipasang sedemikian rupa sehingga mereka dapat daya kendaraan baik
secara individu atau bersama-sama. Berbeda dengan konfigurasi daya split biasanya
hanya satu motor listrik terpasang. Paling umum mesin pembakaran internal, motor
listrik dan gear box yang digabungkan dengan cengkeraman dikendalikan secara
otomatis. Untuk penggerak listrik kopling antara mesin pembakaran internal terbuka
sedangkan kopling ke gear box bergerak. Sedangkan dalam modus pembakaran mesin
dan motor berjalan pada kecepatan yang sama.

The first mass production parallel hybrid sold outside Japan was the 1st generation
Honda Insight.
Mild parallel hybrid
These types use a generally compact electric motor (usually <20 kW) to provide autostop/start features and to provide extra power assist [49] during the acceleration, and to
generate on the deceleration phase (aka regenerative braking).
On-road examples include Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight 2nd generation, Honda
CR-Z, Honda Accord Hybrid, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID, BMW 7-Series
hybrids, General Motors BAS Hybrids, and Smart fortwo with micro hybrid drive.
Power-split or series-parallel hybrid
Passenger car installations include Toyota Prius, Ford Escape and Fusion, as well as
Lexus RX400h, RX450h, GS450h, LS600h, and CT200h.
In a power-split hybrid electric drive train there are two motors: an electric motor and an
internal combustion engine. The power from these two motors can be shared to drive
the wheels via a power splitter, which is a simple planetary gear set. The ratio can be
from 0100% for the combustion engine, or 0100% for the electric motor, or anything
in between, such as 40% for the electric motor and 60% for the combustion engine. The
electric motor can act as a generator charging the batteries.
Modern versions such as the Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive have a second electric
motor/generator on the output shaft (connected to the wheels). In cooperation with the
"primary" motor/generator and the mechanical power-split this provides a continuously
variable transmission.

On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine. When
maximum power is required, for example to overtake, the electric motor is used to
assist. This increases the available power for a short period, giving the effect of having a
larger engine than actually installed. In most applications, the engine is switched off
when the car is slow or stationary reducing curbside emissions.
Series hybrid

Chevrolet Volt, a series plug-in hybrid, also called extended range electric vehicle
(EREV).
A series- or serial-hybrid vehicle has also been referred to as an extended range
electric vehicle or range-extended electric vehicle (EREV/REEV); however, range
extension can be accomplished with either series or parallel hybrid layouts.
Series-hybrid vehicles are driven by the electric motor with no mechanical connection to
the engine. Instead there is an engine tuned for running a generator when the battery
pack energy supply isn't sufficient for demands.
This arrangement is not new, being common in diesel-electric locomotives and ships.
Ferdinand Porsche used this setup in the early 20th century in racing cars, effectively
inventing the series-hybrid arrangement. Porsche named the arrangement "System
Mixt". A wheel hub motor arrangement, with a motor in each of the two front wheels was
used, setting speed records. This arrangement was sometimes referred to as an electric
transmission, as the electric generator and driving motor replaced a mechanical
transmission. The vehicle could not move unless the internal combustion engine was
running.
The setup has never proved to be suitable for production cars, however it is currently
being revisited by several manufacturers.
In 1997 Toyota released the first series-hybrid bus sold in Japan. [50] GM introduced the
Chevy Volt series plug-in hybrid in 2010, aiming for an all-electric range of 40 mi
(64 km),[51] and a price tag of around US$40,000. [52] Supercapacitors combined with a
lithium ion battery bank have been used by AFS Trinity in a converted Saturn Vue SUV
vehicle. Using supercapacitors they claim up to 150 mpg in a series-hybrid
arrangement.[53]

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)

The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid has an all-electric range of 11 mi (18 km).

The Ford Fusion Energi is a plug-in hybrid with an all-electric range of 21 mi (34 km).
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
See also: Plug-in electric vehicle
Another subtype of hybrid vehicles is the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV). The
plug-in hybrid is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased
energy storage capacity, usually through a li-ion battery, with allows the vehicle to drive
on all-electric mode a distance that depends on the battery size and its mechanical
layout (series or parallel). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of
the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine. [54][55]
This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding
or at least minimizing the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric
vehicles, the total emissions saving, for example in CO 2 terms, is dependent upon the
energy source of the electricity generating company.
For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the
electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have
otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil
taxation as a major income source. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is
taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however that person uses it. Some electricity
suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase
the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.
Fuel cell, electric hybrid
The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell. The fuel cell
as well as the electric battery are both power sources, making the vehicle a hybrid. Fuel

cells use hydrogen as a fuel and power the electric battery when it is depleted. The
Chevrolet Equinox FCEV, Ford Edge Hyseries Drive and Honda FCX are examples of a
fuel cell/electric hybrid.
Road safety for cyclists, pedestrians

The 2011 Nissan Leaf was the first plug-in electric car equipped with Nissan's Vehicle
Sound for Pedestrians.
Main article: Electric vehicle warning sounds
A 2009 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration report examined hybrid electric
vehicle accidents that involved pedestrians and cyclists and compared them to
accidents involving internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The findings showed
that, in certain road situations, HEVs are more dangerous for those on foot or bicycle.
For accidents where a vehicle was slowing or stopping, backing up, entering or leaving
a parking space (when the sound difference between HEVs and ICEVs is most
pronounced), HEVs were twice as likely to be involved in a pedestrian crash than
ICEVs. For crashes involving cyclists or pedestrians, there was a higher incident rate for
HEVs than ICEVs when a vehicle was turning a corner. But there was no statistically
significant difference between the types of vehicles when they were driving straight. [56]
Several automakers developed electric vehicle warning sounds designed to alert
pedestrians to the presence of electric drive vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicle,
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and all-electric vehicles (EVs) travelling at low speeds.
Their purpose is to make pedestrians, cyclists, the blind, and others aware of the
vehicle's presence while operating in all-electric mode.[57][58][59][60]
Vehicles in the market with such safety devices include the Nissan Leaf, Chevrolet Volt,
Fisker Karma, Honda FCX Clarity, Nissan Fuga Hybrid/Infiniti M35, Hyundai Sonata
Hybrid, 2012 Honda Fit EV, the 2012 Toyota Camry Hybrid, 2012 Lexus CT200h, and
all Prius family cars recently introduced, including the standard 2012 model year Prius,
the Toyota Prius v, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid.
Environmental issues
Fuel consumption and emissions reductions

The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions
being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical
hybrid design:
1. relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs,
resulting in a smaller engine sized more for average usage rather than peak
power usage. A smaller engine can have less internal losses and lower weight.
2. having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy,
especially in stop-and-go traffic typical of the city driving cycle.
3. recapturing significant amounts of energy during braking that are normally
wasted as heat. This regenerative braking reduces vehicle speed by converting
some of its kinetic energy into electricity, depending upon the power rating of the
motor/generator;
Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found
on hybrid vehicles include:
1. using Atkinson cycle engines instead of Otto cycle engines for improved fuel
economy.
2. shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or during other idle
periods.
3. improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel
economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more
force to move through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work
harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help
better the fuel economy and also improve handling at the same time.
4. using low rolling resistance tires (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth
ride, high grip, etc., but efficiency was a lower priority). Tires cause mechanical
drag, once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid
cars may use special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or
by choice of carcass structure and rubber compound have lower rolling
resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy
whatever the power source.
5. powering the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliary pumps electrically as and
when needed ; this reduces mechanical losses when compared with driving them
continuously with traditional engine belts.
These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are
frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced,

particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional engine

vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less useful in
reducing emissions.
Hybrid vehicle emissions
Hybrid vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the
recommended level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The
recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to
5.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic,
Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5,
and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions. Hybrid
vehicles can reduce air emissions of smog-forming pollutants by up to 90% and cut
carbon dioxide emissions in half.[61]
Environmental impact of hybrid car battery
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve
this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (July 2008)
Though hybrid cars consume less fuel than conventional cars, there is still an issue
regarding the environmental damage of the hybrid car battery. Today most hybrid car
batteries are one of two types: 1) nickel metal hydride, or 2) lithium ion; both are
regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries which constitute
the bulk of petrol car starter batteries today. There are many types of batteries. Some
are far more toxic than others. Lithium ion is the least toxic of the two mentioned above.
[62]

The toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteriesthe type
currently used in hybridsare much lower than batteries like lead acid or nickel
cadmium.[63] In general various soluble and insoluble nickel compounds, such as nickel
chloride and nickel oxide, have known carcinogenic effects in chick embryos and rats. [64]
[65][66]
The main nickel compound in NiMH batteries is nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH),
which is used as the positive electrode.
The Lithium-ion battery has attracted attention due to its potential for use in hybrid
electric vehicles. Hitachi is a leader in its development. In addition to its smaller size and
lighter weight, lithium-ion batteries deliver performance that helps to protect the
environment with features such as improved charge efficiency without memory effect.
The lithium-ion batteries are appealing because they have the highest energy density of
any rechargeable batteries and can produce a voltage more than three times that of
nickelmetal hydride battery cell while simultaneously storing large quantities of
electricity as well. The batteries also produce higher output (boosting vehicle power),
higher efficiency (avoiding wasteful use of electricity), and provides excellent durability,

compared with the life of the battery being roughly equivalent to the life of the vehicle.
Additionally, use of lithium-ion batteries reduces the overall weight of the vehicle and
also achieves improved fuel economy of 30% better than petro-powered vehicles with a
consequent reduction in CO2 emissions helping to prevent global warming. [67]
Raw materials increasing costs
There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the
manufacture of hybrid cars.[68] For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is
required to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors and battery systems in
hybrid propulsion systems.[68][69] Neodymium is another rare earth metal which is a
crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in permanent magnet electric
motors.[70]
Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China,[71] and many analysts
believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this
entire supply by 2012.[68] In addition, export quotas on Chinese rare earth elements have
resulted in an unknown amount of supply.[69][72]
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern
Canada as well as Mount Weld in Australia are currently under development; [72]
however, the barriers to entry are high[73] and require years to go online.
Alternative green vehicles
Main article: Green vehicle#Types
Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative
energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e.
biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable
energy sources.
Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that
offers automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially built
guideways.
Adoption rate
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. No
cleanup reason has been specified. Please help improve this section if you can.
(September 2010)
While the adoption rate for hybrids in the U.S. is small today (2.2% of new car sales in
2011),[74] this compares with a 17.1% share of new car sales in Japan in 2011, [75] and it
has to potential to be very large over time as more models are offered and incremental
costs decline due to learning and scale benefits. However, forecasts vary widely. For

instance, Bob Lutz, a long-time skeptic of hybrids, indicated he expects hybrids "will
never comprise more than 10% of the U.S. auto market." [76] Other sources also expect
hybrid penetration rates in the U.S. will remain under 10% for many years. [77][78][79]
More optimistic views include predictions that hybrids would dominate new car sales in
the U.S. and elsewhere over the next 10 to 20 years. [80] Another approach examines the
penetration rates (or S-curves) of four analogs (historical and current) to hybrid and
electrical vehicles in an attempt to gauge how quickly the vehicle stock could be
hybridized and/or electrified in the United States. The analogs are (1) the electric motors
in U.S. factories in the early 20th century, (2) diesel electric locomotives on U.S.
railways in the 19201945 period, (3) a range of new automotive features/technologies
introduced in the U.S. over the past fifty years, and 4) e-bike purchases in China over
the past few years. These analogs collectively suggest it would take at least 30 years
for hybrid and electric vehicles to capture 80% of the U.S. passenger vehicle stock. [81]
See also
Energy portal
Ecology portal
Sustainable development portal

Alternative propulsion

Bivalent (engine)

Diesel-electric

Efficient energy use

Electric vehicle

Global Hybrid Cooperation

Global warming

Human-electric hybrid vehicle

Hybrid electric vehicle

Hybrid locomotive

Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

List of hybrid vehicles

Multifuel stove

Plug-in hybrid

PNGV

Solid oxide fuel cell

References
1.

Jump up ^ Toyota Europe News (2013-07-03). "Worldwide Prius sales top

3-million mark; Prius family sales at 3.4 million". Green Car Congress. Retrieved
2013-07-03.

2.

Jump up ^ "What is a Hybrid Vehicle?". What-is-what.com. Retrieved

2013-04-22.

3.

Jump up ^ Das Power bike (in German). ISBN 3-89595-123-4. Retrieved

February 27, 2007.

4.

Jump up ^ Velomobile Seminar. 1999. ISBN 3-9520694-1-8. Retrieved

January 11, 2006.

5.

Jump up ^ "Greetings Ecological Transportation Futurist". MCN.org.

Archived from the original on 10 November 2005. Retrieved 30 April 2013.

How Hybrids Work

Flash Animation: How Hybrids Work

(Requires Flash 6.0 or higher)
HTML Version: How Hybrids Work
Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the benefits of gasoline engines and electric
motors and can be configured to obtain different objectives, such as improved fuel
economy, increased power, or additional auxiliary power for electronic devices and
power tools.
Some of the advanced technologies typically used by hybrids include

Regenerative Braking. The electric motor applies resistance to the drivetrain

causing the wheels to slow down. In return, the energy from the wheels turns the
motor, which functions as a generator, converting energy normally wasted during
coasting and braking into electricity, which is stored in a battery until needed by
the electric motor.

Electric Motor Drive/Assist. The electric motor provides additional power to

assist the engine in accelerating, passing, or hill climbing. This allows a smaller,
more efficient engine to be used. In some vehicles, the motor alone provides
power for low-speed driving conditions where internal combustion engines are
least efficient.

Automatic Start/Shutoff. Automatically shuts off the engine when the vehicle
comes to a stop and restarts it when the accelerator is pressed. This prevents
wasted energy from idling.

For fuel economy information on these vehicles, please visit the Compare Side-by-Side
section.
MotorWeek Videos
MotorWeek segments provided by Maryland Public Television

Go to page 1

Go to page 2

Hybrid Vehicle Videos

1. Big Green SUVs

Quicktime Video (17.9 MB)

Text Version
2. Best Eco-Friendly Award - GM Hybrid SUVs

Quicktime Video (7.3 MB)

Text Version
3. 2008 Saturn Vue Green Line Hybrid

Quicktime Video (41.6 MB)

Text Version
HTML Versi: Bagaimana Hibrida Kerja
Kendaraan hibrida-listrik (HEVs) menggabungkan manfaat dari mesin bensin dan motor
listrik dan dapat dikonfigurasi untuk mendapatkan tujuan yang berbeda, seperti ekonomi

membaik bahan bakar, meningkatkan kekuatan, atau daya tambahan tambahan untuk
perangkat elektronik dan alat-alat listrik.
Beberapa teknologi canggih yang biasanya digunakan oleh hibrida meliputi
Regenerative Braking. Motor listrik berlaku perlawanan terhadap drivetrain
menyebabkan roda untuk memperlambat. Sebagai imbalannya, energi dari roda
ternyata motor, yang berfungsi sebagai generator, mengubah energi biasanya terbuang
saat pengereman dan meluncur menjadi listrik, yang disimpan dalam baterai sampai
dibutuhkan oleh motor listrik.
Motor Listrik drive / Assist. Motor listrik memberikan daya tambahan untuk membantu
mesin dalam mempercepat, melewati, atau mendaki bukit. Hal ini memungkinkan mesin
yang lebih kecil, lebih efisien untuk digunakan. Pada beberapa kendaraan, motor
sendiri menyediakan daya untuk kondisi mengemudi kecepatan rendah dimana mesin
pembakaran internal yang paling tidak efisien.
Start / Sakelar otomatis. Secara otomatis mematikan mesin ketika kendaraan datang
untuk berhenti dan restart ketika pedal gas ditekan. Hal ini untuk mencegah energi yang
terbuang dari pemalasan.