UTP EOR Course Jan 2015 - Water Flooding

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS
PCB4113
Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
JAN 2015
Dr. Mohammed Abdalla Ayoub
Introduction to Waterflooding
Section 3
Learning Outcomes
Design waterflooding for one dimensional and radial reservoir
models
using
important
predictive
displacement theory, Dykstra-Parson.
methods,
e.g
frontal
Continuity Equation for Porous Media

with Fluid Flow
uoz z z
Considering
a
small
control
volume element
in
porous
medium (shown
at right) the
conservation of
mass can be
written as:
uox x
z
y
uoz z
Mass
of
oil
entering
the
control volume in
the
time
increment t
y y
uox x x
x
uoy
uoy
Mass
of
oil
leaving
the
control volume in
the
time
increment t
Mass
of
oil
accumulates within
the control volume
in
the
time
increment t
3.1
Continuity Equations for Each Phase

Continuity Equation for Oil phase
ouox ouoy ouoz o So

x
y
z
t
3.2
1 M L 1 M L 1 M L 1 M
3
3
3
3
L
L
T
L
L
T
L
L
T
T
L
M M M M
3 3 3 3
LT LT LT LT
Similarly continuity Equation for Water phase
wuwx
wuwy
wuwz w S w
x
y
z
t
3.3
Flow Equations for Each Phase

By substitution of Darcy law to each phase,
Flow Equation for Oil phase
2
o2 kox o o koy o o2 koz o
o So

x o x y o y z o z t
3.4
Similarly for Water phase

2
w2 k wx w w k wy w w2 k wz w

w S w

x w x y w y z w z t
3.5

On the other hand the oil phase potential, o, can be written as:
Po
o
dPo
Z 1 Po
g Z Z d
x
x
o
x o x
Pod
When x and y are in the horizontal plane
Z
Z
0
0 &
y
x
The coordinate axis z is in the same plane as Z, and
Z
1 if z is directed upward, and
z
Z
1 if z is directed downward
z
3.6

If z is directed upward as in the case of previous
figure, the equation 3.4 becomes,
uoz z z
uoy
uox x
y y
uox xx
uoy
y
uoz z
o kox Po o koy Po o koz Po

o g o So 3.7
x o x y o y z o z
t
Similarly for Water phase

w k wx Pw w k wy Pw w k wz Pw

w g w S w 3.8
x w x y o y z w z
t
Assignment #1
Due date: Monday, 26th January, 2015
Derive oil flow and water flow equations (equations 3.7 and 3.8) in three
dimension (x, y, and z) by applying conservation of mass and Darcy law in
the control volume element shown in the figure.
uoz
uox
z z
uoy
uox
uoy
y y
uoz
x x
Steady State Linear Flow

Equations 3.7 and 3.8 are general
expressions for the conservation of
mass during the oil and water flow
through a porous rock in three
dimensions. In order to be able to
understand the mechanisms of water
displacing oil in the reservoir we will
start from the most simple case;
Steady state linear flow by assuming
the flow is in x direction and one
dimensional in the horizontal plane.
qo
qw
Poo
Poi
D
Pwi
Pwo
x
o kox Po
0
x o x
Flow is considered when there are no

changes with time. Then equations 3.7 w k wx Pw
0
and 3.8 become:
x w x
3.9
3.10
qo
qw
Steady State Linear Flow

Equations 3.9 and 3.10 can be used to obtain Oil and water phase pressure distributions
if relative permeability data is available. They also can be used to obtain relative
permeability curves if steady state experiments are done in the laboratory. To do this
they must be simplified further by assuming constant densities and viscosities.
d dPo
kox
0
dx
dx
dPw
d
k
wx
0
dx
dx
3.11
3.12
Solving equations 3.11 and 3.12 by using the information shown on the figure will give
the effective permeability of each phase as
Poo
qo Poi
qw
Pwi
qo o L
ko
APoi Poo
3.13
Pwo
kw
qw w L
APwi Pwo
qo
qw
3.14
Frontal Advance Equation
Initial Oil
Sw
Sw
Equations 3.7 to 3.14 are valid for steady state flow during which it is assumed there are
no changes with time. On the other hand the displacement of one fluid by another fluid
is an unsteady state process because the saturations of the fluids change with time. This
causes changes in relative permeability. The change of oil and water saturations can be
schematically shown as in the following figures.
Initial Water
x/L
x/L
a) Initial saturation distribution
b) Saturation distribution before breakthrough
Sw
Sw
Residual Oil
x/L
c) Saturation distribution at breakthrough
x/L
d) Saturation distribution after breakthrough

Buckley-Leverett Model:
Buckley-Leverett model was developed by starting with the
conservation of mass equations (continuity equation) in one (x)
direction. When oil is displaced by water in a linear system the
equations 3.2 and 3.3 become:
ouo o So
x
t
3.15
wuw w S w
x
t
3.16
Displacement Theories
Assumptions:
Displacement is incompressible.
qt=qo+qw=qi
qt=total flow rate in reservoir.
qo=oil flow rate in reservoir.
qw=water flow rate in reservoir.
qi=water injection flow rate in reservoir.
Diffuse Flow
The saturations at any point are uniformly distributed
over the thickness.
Diffuse Flow
Enables a 1 dimensional simple analysis.
A simple core flood: this assumption is not unreasonable.
Can be encountered in a reservoir injection where rates are high
and vertical equilibrium not able to be established.
For low injection rates where the thickness is small compared to
transition zone.
Driving Forces
Forces
Magnitude
1- Gravity (tends to segregate the fluid vertically,
144
proportional to density differences)

2- Viscous (induced by production or injection. Tends to
move the fluid in the direction of induced movement)
0.00633
3- Capillary (tends to spread-out the saturation according
to the slope of the capillary pressure curve and the

saturation gradient)
The ratio of gravity forces to viscous forces is known as gravity number. For oilwater system, this number can be calculated as follows:
/144
=
Where: =
0.00633@
Comparison of Forces
A useful indicator of dominating forces is the relation of viscous to capillary
forces
N vc
uo
Cos
and viscous to gravity forces
N vg
uo
k o g w o
Nvc and Nvg are the capillary and gravity numbers

In vertical equilibrium both of these are low.
Vertical Equilibrium
The condition of vertical equilibrium will be promoted by
- a large vertical permeability (kv)
- small reservoir thickness (h)
- large density difference between the fluids ()
- high capillary forces (large capillary transition zone H)
- low fluid viscosities
- low injection rates.
Buckley-Leverett Theory
Established in 1942 for displacement calculations. Sometimes known as BuckleyLeverett Equation (BL).
It estimates the rate at which water injected moves through the reservoir
Total flow rate is constant, (Incompressible ).
Assumptions:
1- linear one dimensional displacement .
2- Two-phase, Immiscible, Incompressible fluids.
3- Water displace oil in Water-wet reservoir.
Theory determines the velocity of a plane of constant water saturation moving

through a linear system. e.g. a core.
Well founded on principle of conservation of mass

If we multiply both sides in equation 3.15 by cross-sectional area to flow;
o Au o A o So
x
t
Remembering the definition of Darcy velocity,
and substituting in equation 3.17,
o qo A o So
x
t
3.17
uo
qo
A
3.18
Similarly for water phase:
w qw A w S w
x
t
3.19

Assuming, the fluids are incompressible and porosity is constant;
qo
So
A
x
t
qw
S w
A
x
t
3.20
3.21
The sum of equations 3.20 and 3.21:
qo qw
A So S w
x
t
3.22

On the other hand, because So S w 1 , the equation 3.22 becomes:
qo qw
0
x
3.23
Equation 3.22 simply states that
qo qw qt cons tan t
3.24
In reality saturations and qo and qw are changing continuously with distance

x, However, since we assumed water and oil are incompressible, the total
volumetric flow rate at any time, t, is constant for every position x in the
linear system.

Equation 3.21 will be further used to develop Buckley-Leverett model. The
fractional flow of any phase, f, is defined as the volume fraction of that phase
that is flowing at x and t.
qo
qo
fo
qt qo qw
3.25
qw
qw
qt qo qw
3.26
and,
fw
Because fractional flow is a volume balance the sum of fractions must be

equal to unity.
fo f w 1
3.27

Let us go on developing the Frontal Advance Equation by substituting
equation 3.26 into equation 3.21:
f w A S w
x
qt t
3.28
In equation 3.28 we have 2 independent variables however we must have

only one (either fw or Sw) in order to find a solution for it.
Because water saturation is a function of x and t we can write the
following;
S w f ( x ,t )
3.29

Or :
S w
S w
dS w
dx
dt
x t
t x
3.30
dSw in equation 3.30 can be set equal to 0. Then it can be rearranged

as:
S w
dx
t x

S w
dt sw
3.31

The term dx dt S w is the velocity at which the saturation Sw is moving through
the porous medium.
When the fractional flow of water is assumed to be only a function of water

saturation;
df w f w S w

dx t S w t x t
3.32
Substituting equations 3.31 and 3.32 into equation 3.28;
df w S w
A S w dx

qt x t dt S w
S w t x t
3.33

or
qt df w
dx

dt S w A S w t
3.34
Equation 3.34 is the Buckley-Leverett equation. It is more frequently know

as the Frontal Advance Equation. It states that in a linear displacement
process, each water saturation moves through the porous rock at a velocity
that can be computed from the derivative of fractional flow with respect to
water saturation.
Buckley-Leverett Theory
v sw
qt df w
dx

dt S w A S w t
This is the Buckley-Leverett equation.

Also called the Equation of Characteristics.
It indicates the velocity of a plane of saturation moving through the
linear system.
It enables the calculation of Sw as a function of time and distance.
It indicates the dependence on the derivative of the fractional flow
curve.
Buckley-Leverett ( 1942)
Detailed Assumptions:
1.
A flood front exists, with only oil moving ahead of the front. Oil and water move
behind the front.
2.
Reservoir is a single homogeneous layer. Cross-sectional area to flow is

constant.
3.
Linear steady-state flow occurs and Darcys law applies (qinjected = qproduced),
where q is expressed in bbl/day.

4.
There is no residual gas saturation behind the front.
5.
Fractional flow of the displacing and displaced fluids after breakthrough is

assumed to be a function of the mobility ratio of the two fluids (capillary and
gravity effects are neglected) as expressed below: 1
fw
ko w
1
k w o
Equation of Characteristics
Chierici has given a thorough analysis of the displacement
process for three fractional flow curve types.
Its important to understand the initial boundary conditions
SwS
Swi
L, tt
oo
1 for
S o<x
for x=0,
w
or
Equation of Characteristics
If the initial conditions at t=0 are applied to the general equation
and the equation is then integrated a general solution of the displacement process is
obtained for the calculation of Sw in terms of x and t.
Velocity x time =distance.
This equation describes a series of straight lines, the characteristics, with an

initial ordinate value of
and slope of
Viscous Oils
Viscosity of displaced phase much greater than injected
water phase.
Fractional flow curve has a concave downward slope.
Its gradient fw increases from Sw=1-Sor. To a maximum
at Sw=Siw+Swi
Viscous Oils
Chierici
Viscous Oils
Chierici
Velocity of Sw increases from its value at Sw=1-Sor to its maximum at Sw
just greater than Swi.
Heavy oil produces water very early and steadily increases until too high
levels of water.
Very light oils

Low relative viscosity to injected water.
Large gravitational effects.
Low velocity
Concave upward fractional flow curve.
fw curve decreasing from value at Sw=1-Sor to a
minimum at Sw just greater than Swi.
Very light oils
Chierici
Very light oils
Chierici
Fastest saturation 1-Sor quickly overtakes other saturations.

Shock front developed.
Until shock front arrives water free oil production
Typical Medium Density Oils
Displacement velocities not unlike

field values
S shaped fractional flow curve
Two curvatures
Derivative curve, fw. Slope increases from
its starting value Sw=1-Sor and then
decreases.
Chierici
Development of the saturation would be a steady increase in the velocity of the

increasing saturation.
This would reach a maximum at Swf where Swi<Swf<(1-Sor)
Behind this velocities decrease with increasing Sw.
Chieric
A shock front is developed at value of Swf.

The saturations greater than this moving at a lower velocity.
Behind this shock front a steady increase in the saturations moving at
decreasing velocity
Chierici
Chierici
Water free oil is produced until breakthrough at saturation Swf and fractional
flow of fwbt.
Saturation then climbs until irreducible oil saturation value, when only water
is produced.
Velocity of shock front

Material balance across the shock front.
R ahead L behind.
Velocity of front vf=dxf/dt
Since
Since
Rankine-Hugoniot condition
for velocity of shock fronts
Velocity of shock front

Limiting conditions
Therefore
From Buckley Leverett equation

Combining equations
If we apply the Rankine-Hugonoit condition to the medium oil viscosity

condition, the S shaped fw curve
Fractional Flow Equation

In deriving the fractional flow equation for water displacing oil, Darcys law will
be written separately for oil and water flow in x direction at an angle of
degrees above the horizontal plane. Let us first remember those equations.
for oil phase
uo
ko Po
g
sin
o
o x
3.35
for water phase
k w Pw
uw
w g sin
w x
3.36

dx
is the velocity at which the saturation Sw is moving through the
The term
dt S w
porous medium.
When the fractional flow of water is assumed to be only a function of water saturation;
f w A S w
x
qt t
S w
dx
t x

S w
dt sw
3.28
3.31

df w f w S w

dx t S w t x t
3.32
Substituting equations 3.31 and 3.32 into equation 3.28;
df w S w
A S w dx

qt x t dt S w
S w t x t
3.33
Relative Permeability
Darcys law for 100% single
phase saturation.
Relative permeability used to
relate absolute permeability
(single phase) to the effective
permeability when more than
on phase present.
Q k p
u
A l
k rw
k ew
Apply Darcys law for linear

flow for two fluids in an
inclined configuration.
End point relative
permeabilities, krw & kro.
Limiting saturations of the
respective phases
Relative permeabilities from
1D core floods.
Either viscous displacement
or steady state co-injection of
fluids.
Unlikely to be representative
of reservoir
Frontal displacement process with one

movable phase behind the front.
1.0
So
r
Sw
Water Kw
Oil Ko
Sw
0.0
Region 2
0.0
Region 1
1.0
Fractional Flood
Front Advance
Partial frontal displacement with two

movable phases behind the front
1.0
So
r
Sw
Oil (Ko)2
Water (Kw)2
Oil (Ko)1
Sw
0.0
Region 2
0.0
Region 1
1.0
Fractional Flood
Front Advance
k 'rw / w
Mobility Ratio, M '
k ro / o
Express volumes in
the core plug as
pore volumes, PV.
Sor
L
Swc
PV AL
Movable oil volume, MOV. PV 1 Sor Swc

End point rel. perm. values represent maximum velocity of the water flow
compared to the maximum velocity of the oil.
Mobility Ratio
where the subscript frontal displacement, 2 refers to the region
behind the front. For partial the mobility ratio, M , is given by:
ko k w

o w 2
ko

o 1
Effective Permeability
The effective or relative permeability to oil and to water can be
obtained from:
(1) use of published data such as given by Leverett and Lewis
(1941);
(2) displacement tests from which kw/ko, curves can be
developed;
(3) waterflood tests;
oil permeability is measured before a core is flooded, and water
permeability is measured at the end of the test.

From the definition of fractional flow;
qw f wqt
3.37
and
qo 1 f w qt
Remembering the definition of Darcy velocity,
and substituting above into equations 3.35 and 3.36,
3.38
uo
ko A Po
1 f w qt o g sin
o x
3.39
k w A Pw
f w qt
w g sin
w x
3.40
qo
A

Rearranging equations 3.39 and 3.40
qt o Po
1 f w
o g sin
A ko
x
3.41
and
qt w Pw
w g sin
A kw
x
Po
Pw
Solving equations 3.41 and 3.42 for
and
x
x
Po
q
1 f w t o o g sin
x
A ko
fw
Pw
q
f w t w w g sin
x
A kw
3.42
3.43
3.44

On the other hand, the definition of capillary pressure was;
Pc Po Pw
3.45
Let us take the derivative of equation 3.45:
Pc Po Pw
x
x x
3.46
Substituting equations 3.43 and 3.44 into equation 3.45 and

rearranging:
qt o qt o w Pc

f w
o w g sin
A ko A ko k w x
3.47

Solving equation 3.47 for fw;
o
ko
ko
w
kw
A Pc
g
sin
o
w
qt x
o
ko
3.48
kw
or:
ko A Pc
g
sin
o
w
o qt x
1
f
k
k
1 o w
1 o w
k w o
k w o
3.49

Equation 3.49 is called Fractional Flow Equation. In oil field units:
1.127ko A Pc
0
.
433
g
sin
o
w
o qt x
1
f
k
k
1 o w
1 o w
k w o
k w o
3.50
Nomenclature
fw = fraction of water (water cut), bbl/bbl
ko = effective permeability of oil, md
kw = effective permeability of water, md
= wateroil density differences, g/cm3

= difference in densities between oil and water, g/cm3
kw = effective permeability of water, md
qt = total flow rate, bbl/day
o = oil viscosity, cp
w = water viscosity, cp
A = cross-sectional area, ft2
Impact of parameters on fractional flow

Angle of dip
Water injected downdip gravity term is positive-reduces

fractional flow.
If gas injection downdip gravity term positive increasing
fractional flow of gas.
If dip angle zero, horizontal flow, gravity term is zero.
Impact of parameters on fractional flowCapillary pressure

AK o Pc

1
g sin
qo t x
fw
K
1 o w
K w o
Pc Pc Sw
x Sw x
Capillary pressure increases fractional flow of water
Impact of parameters on fractional

flow- velocity
For edge water drive velocity much higher than bottom water
drive- e.g. v=0.2ft/d
For bottom water much lower velocity v= 0.004 ft/d
Leads to piston displacement for bottom water drive.
Problem here however is well bore coning
Fractional Flow
If angle of dip and
capillary pressure effects
ignored.
Fractional flow equation
becomes
Relationship between capillary pressure, relative

permeability and fractional flow
Relationship between capillary pressure, relative

permeability and fractional flow
At A the well only produces
oil
At B,45%saturation both oil

& water produced with
water cut of 50%.
At C advancing water
isolated irreducible oil
saturation
Usage of Fractional Flow Equation: Frontal

Advance Solution
Equation 3.34 stated that a particular water saturation propagates through a porous
rock at a constant velocity and this velocity is determined by the water saturation
through the fractional flow equation.
qt df w
dx

dt S w A S w t
1-Sor
Swi
Sw
During a waterflood process, as time

progress, a water saturation distribution
develops in the porous rock varying from
Swi to 1-Sor , as long as no water reached
to the end of the core.
3.34
x/L
Water Saturation distribution before breakthrough

Advance Solution
The location xsw1 of any saturation Sw1 can be obtained by integrating equation 3.34.
xSw
dxSw
0
qt df w
dt

A S w t
3.51
df
When w is only a function of Sw, equation 3.51 can be integrated directly to obtain:
S w
xS w
qt t df w
A S w S
3.52
w
df w
S
w could be obtained accurately from a plot of fw (from equation 3.49) vs. Sw,
Thus, if
the location of all saturations could also be determined as long as the xSw is less than or
equal to the length of porous medium.

Advance Solution
The capillary pressure for a specific saturation path is a function of water saturation.
Then capillary pressure derivative can then be written as:
Pc Pc S w
x S w x
Which means that
3.53
Pc
P
is small when c or S w are small.
x
S w
x
In a linear displacement process, this situation will occur at

moderate to high water saturations but Pc is very large at low
x
water saturations. Thus there is a range of water saturations
where equations 3.49 cannot be used for determination of fw and
df w
S
w

Advance Solution
Pc
Let us consider this range of water saturation where
is small and rewrite
x
the equation 3.49;
ko A
o w g sin
q
1
fw
o t
k
k
1 o w
1 o w
k w o
k w o
3.54
When x is in the horizontal plane, =0, and the gravitational forces are
negligible;
1
fw
ko w
1
k w o
3.55
This curve results from solving the fractional flow equation at

a series of water saturations.

Advance Solution
A typical fractional flow curve computed from equation 3.55 for known
relative permeability characteristics will look like;
fwf=fractional flow at the
displacement front
Swbt=average water saturation at

breakthrough
Swbt
1.0
fwf
fw
Swf=water saturation at the

displacement front
Swc
Swf
1.0
Whats this?
(a)
(b)
(a) Saturation derivative of a typical fractional flow curve and

(b)resulting water saturation distribution in the displacement path
Benefits
Several important pieces of information can be derived from the fractional
flow curve. By drawing a straight line tangent to the fractional flow curve,
starting at fw = 0 and Sw = Swi,
At the tangent point, the corresponding Sw is the water saturation at the
flood front.
The corresponding fw is the fraction of water flowing at the flood front.
The water saturation value where the tangent line intersects (fw =1.0) is the
average water saturation in the reservoir at breakthrough.
Displacement efficiency (ED) at breakthrough is calculated from:
S wBT S wi
ED
1 S wi
Relations
ko A
o w g sin
o qt
1
fw
ko w
ko w
1
1
k w o
k w o
Typical fw curve

Advance Solution
Below figure shows a typical water saturation profile before
water breakthrough.
Flood front
1-Sor
Sw
Swf
Oil displaced
xSwf
x
Siw
Usage of Fractional Flow Equation:

Estimating the Displacement Performance
In the course of estimating the displacement performance the followings
will be calculated:
the front location at any time,
time to water breakthrough,
the volume of oil displaced at any time,
the rate of oil production,
the water volume that must be handled per volume of oil once water
production starts,
waterflood efficiency at any time of displacement

Front Location (XSwf ) at any time t can easily be estimated by using equation
3.52
xS w
qt t df w
A S w S
3.52
w
xS wf
qt t df w
A S w S
3.56
wf
Breakthrough time (tbt ), the time when front reached to the total length L,
can also be estimated by using equation 3.52
tbt
L
v swf
AL
df w
qt
S w S wf
3.57

Oil Displaced:
The volume of water in the system

between x1 and x2 can be obtained by
integrating below equation:
x2
Vw S w Adx
3.58
Sw
Oil will be produced at the same rate as water is injected until breakthrough. When
water breakthrough occurs, a water saturation gradient exists from the inlet to the
end of the system.
1-Sor
Siw
x1
x1
Then the volume of oil displaced from the same region:
Vo Vw A x2 x1 Siw
Oil displaced
3.59
x2

Oil Displaced (continued):
Let S w represent the volumetric average water saturation for the region
Then :
Sw
x2
S w Adx
x1
x2
x1
3.60
Adx
For constant values of and A, equation 3.60 reduces to:
Sw
x2
x1
S w dx
x2 x1
3.61
x1 x . x2

The integrant in equation 3.61 can be expressed by using below .
d xS w S wdx xdS w
3.62
And solving for the integrant:
S wdx d xS w xdS w
3.63
Substituting into equation 3.61 with corresponding changes of integration

limits:
2
1
Sw
d xS w xdS w
x2 x1 1
3.64

or:
x2 S w 2
2
1
1
Sw
d xS w
xdS w
x2 x1 x1S w1
x2 x1 1
3.65
and
2
x2 S w2 x1S w1
1
Sw
xdS w
x2 x1
x2 x1 1
3.66
let us remember equation 3.56
xS wf
qt t df w
A S w S
3.56
wf

The remaining integral in equation 3.66 can be considered as
xdS w
qt t f w
dS w
A S w S
3.67
or,
qt t
xdS w
A
and
qt t
xdS w
A
f w
dS w
S w S w
f w
3.68
3.69

Finally by integrating,
qt t
f w2 f w1
xdS w
A
substituting equation 3.70 into equation 3.66
3.70
Sw
2
x2 S w2 x1S w1
1
xdS w 3.66
x2 x1
x2 x1 1
x2 S w2 x1S w1 qt t f w2 f w1
Sw

x2 x1
A x2 x1
3.71
equation 3.71 is the expression for the average water saturation for the
region between x1 x x2

When x1=0 and after water breakthrough x2=L, the average water saturation in the
system is:
qt t
f w2 f w1
S w S w2
AL
3.72
fw1 at x=0 is usually equal to 1, so
qt t
1 f w2
S w S w2
AL
3.73

Total volume of water injected, Wi , is represented by qtt. On the other hand AL is the
pore volume of the system. Let us define Qi as the number of PVs of water injected:
Wi
Qi
AL
3.74
For constant injection rate
qt t
Qi
AL
3.75
Then equation 3.73 becomes
S w S w2 Qi 1 f w2
3.76

Because the displaced oil saturation is
be expressed as:
N p V p S w S w2
S w Siw ,the cumulative oil displaced, Np, can

3.77
The formation volume factor is assumed as 1 rbbl/STB.

At the end of system (x=L) the water saturation is Sw2 after breakthrough. From
equation 3.52
xS w 2
qt t df w
L
A S w S
3.78
w2

or
Qi
3.79
df w
S w S w 2
So that
S w S w2
1 f w2
f Sw 2
3. 80
where
df w
f Sw 2
S w S w 2
3.81

Let us concentrate on the after breakthrough portion of the fractional flow
curve
1.0
S
wbt
1.0
fwf
fw
fw
0.75
0.65
0
Swc
Sw
Swf
1.0
Sw
0.9

Let us concentrate on the after breakthrough portion of the fractional flow curve
Let us draw a tangent to the

fractional flow curve at
Sw2 Swf . The tangent intersects
the fw=1.0 line at water
saturation Se. Let us now show
that Se is actually S w
1.0
fw2
From the figure;
df w
1 f w2

S w S w 2 Se S w2
S we
fw
3.82
0.75
0.65
Sw2
Sw
0.9

Swe
1.0
From equation 3.80
df w
1 f w2

S w S w 2 S w S w2
3.83
When we compare equations 3.82 and

3.83 it is obviously seen that
Se S w
fw2
fw
0.75
0.65
Sw2
Sw
and the average water saturation in the system after breakthrough can be obtained
by finding the intersection of the tangent drawn at end point water saturation to the
fractional flow curve with fw=1.
0.9

Production Rates:
Production rates are obtained from the fractional flow of water determined from the
frontal advance solution for every value of Sw2.
qw 2
f w 2 qt
Bw
f o 2 qt
qo 2
Bo
3.84
3.85
and
qo 2
1 f w2 qt
Bo
3.86

WOR:
Water oil ratio (WOR) is a measure of the efficiency of the displacement at a point during the
process. In production operations, it represents the volume of water that must be handled in order
to produce a unit volume of oil. The following equation defines WOR for a linear system.
f w2 Bo
Fwo
f o 2 Bw
3.87
Time required for displacement:

The time corresponding to number of pore volumes of fluid injected is obtained from:
Qi
qt
AL
3.88

Displacement efficiency at any time of the process:
Displacement efficiency for a linear system can be defined as.
Vod
Ed
Voi
3.89
Volume of oil displaced when flood front reached x2 from equation 3.59:
Vod Vw Ax2 Siw
3.90
Or in terms of saturations:
Vod S w Siw AL
3.91

Displacement efficiency at any time of the process (continued):
Volume of oil initially in place:
Voi AL1 Siw
3.92
Substituting equations 3.91 and 3.92 into equation 3.89 and rearranging the
displacement efficiency can be expressed in terms of water saturations:
Ed
Siw
1 Siw
w
3.93
Procedure for basic Buckley-Leverett

method
(1) Organize relative permeability data into form suggested in Table 1. If
several sets of relative permeability data exist for a reservoir, use the set which
is representative of the portion of the reservoir to be flooded.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Sw
Kro
Krw
Kro/Krw
w/o
fw
(2) Calculate the fractional flow, fw as a function of water saturation, Sw, using
equation (3-55) and plot on Cartesian coordinate paper.
(3) Draw tangent to fractional flow curve. This gives the water saturation value
at the flood front at breakthrough. The average saturation behind the front is
read at f w = 1.0.
(4) Determine graphically the rate of change in the fractional flow, fw , as a
df w f w
function of the change in the floodfront water saturation:
'
fw
S w
S w

method, cont.
(5) Draw 6 to 8 tangents to the fractional flow curve at Sw, values greater
than that at breakthrough. Determine the Swa, and fw, values corresponding
to these Sw , points.
(6) Plot fw, versus Sw, at the flood front on Cartesian coordinate paper and
draw a smooth curve through the points. Read smoothed fw, points for each
of the Sw, points.
(7) Calculate the recovery of oil, Np, in barrels at breakthrough following
the steps in Table 2.
S wa S wi
N P 7758 Ah
Bo

method, cont.
Table 2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Sw
(front)
fw
Swa
Swa - Swi
Np
Fw
WOR
Wi
(8) Calculate the recovery of oil to each of the S, points using equation (3-55)
and enter into Table 2.
(9) Calculate the water/oil production ratio, WOR, as follows for each of the
Sw, points and enter into Table 2:
WOR
Bo
1 1
f
w

method, cont.
(10) Calculate the cumulative water injected, Wi , to each of the points as
follows and enter into Table 2:
7758 Ah
Wi
'
fw
(11) Calculate the time, t , to reach each Sw, point as follows and enter into Table 2
Wi
t
QT
If the injection rate, iw, is not constant throughout the life of the flood, use a
time-weighted average rate.

method, cont.
(12) Plot WOR versus Np , on Cartesian coordinate paper. Select a WOR
cutoff which is acceptable (90-98%, depending on lifting costs and other
expenses).
(13) Plot WOR versus time on Cartesian coordinate paper. Determine the life
of the flood from the WOR cutoff point.
(14) Plot WOR versus Wi on Cartesian coordinate paper. Determine total
water injection from the WOR cutoff point.
Example 1:
Estimating the Waterflood performance
A waterflood is under consideration for a narrow shoestring reservoir
that is 300 ft wide, 20 ft thick, and 1000 ft long. The reservoir is horizontal
and homogeneous. Other reservoir rock and fluid characteristics are given
in Table E1.1.
Table E1.1
Characteristic
Value
Porosity
0.15
Initial Water Saturation (immobile)
0.363
Oil Viscosity (cp)
2.0
Water Viscosity (cp)
1.0
Residual Oil Saturation
0.205
Oil Formation Volume Factor (rbbl/STB)
1.0
Water Formation Volume Factor (rbbl/STB)
1.0
Example 1: Estimating the Waterflood

performance (continued)
Relative permeability behavior corresponding to displacement of oil by water are given by
equations E.1 and E.2. Base permeability is the absolute permeability to oil at interstitial
water saturation.
kro 1 S wD
E.1
3.72
krw 0.78S wD
E.2
2.56
where:
S wD
S w Siw
1 Sor Siw
which represents the normalized water saturation.
E.3
Example 1: Estimating the Waterflood

performance (continued)
It is proposed to drill a row of injection wells at one end of the reservoir and flood the
reservoir by injecting water at a rate of 338 B/D.
Analyze the performance of this proposal.
(Hint:
the steps for analysis could be:
1. fractional flow curve
2. time to breakthrough
3. average water saturation in the system at the breakthrough
4. displacement efficiency of the flood at breakthrough
5. displacement efficiency of the flood when water saturation at the production end
reaches 0.70.
6. Water Oil Ratio at that moment
7. Estimates of the oil displacement rate and cumulative oil produced by injection
time)
Solution 1
1. Let us first prepare
the data for fractional
curve plotting.
Sw
k rw
0.363
0.380
0.400
0.420
0.440
0.460
0.480
0.500
0.520
0.540
0.560
0.580
0.600
0.620
0.640
0.660
0.680
0.700
0.720
0.740
0.760
0.795
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.006
0.011
0.018
0.028
0.042
0.060
0.084
0.113
0.149
0.194
0.247
0.310
0.384
0.470
0.570
0.780
k ro
1.000
0.902
0.795
0.696
0.605
0.522
0.445
0.377
0.315
0.260
0.210
0.168
0.131
0.099
0.073
0.051
0.034
0.021
0.011
0.005
0.002
0.000
fw
1
k
1 o w
k w o
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.004
0.011
0.026
0.055
0.103
0.179
0.285
0.418
0.562
0.696
0.805
0.884
0.936
0.968
0.985
0.995
0.999
1.000
Solution 1
fractional flow curve
Then the fractional
flow curve can be
plotted as:
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
0.000
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
1.000
Solution 1
2. Breakthrough time in days can be
estimated by using equation 3.57
AL
5.615
tbt
df
qt w
S w S
3.57
fractional flow curve
Swbt=0.685
1.000
0.900
0.800
fwf=0.89
0.700
wf
what is needed is the slope at

breakthrough saturation.
df w
0.89 0

2.997
S w S wf 0.66 0.363
and;
tbt
0.1560001000 158.2 days

5.6153382.997
0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
Swbt= 0.685
Swf=0.66
0.000
0.000
3. Average water saturation in the

system at breakthrough:
Siw=0.363
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
1.000
Solution 1
4. Displacement efficiency at
breakthrough (modifying
equation 3.93):
Ed
Siw
1 Siw
wbt
fractional flow curve S =0.685

wbt
1.000
0.900
0.800
fwf=0.89
0.700
0.600
0.500
substituting the values from the

fractional flow curve:
0.685 0.363 0.51

Ed
1 0.363
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100
Siw=0.363
Swf=0.66
0.000
0.000
0.100
0.200
0.300
0.400
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900
1.000
Solution 1
S w =0.725
1.000
0.990
5. Displacement efficiency of the flood

when water saturation at the production
end reaches 0.70
0.980
0.970
0.960
0.950
fw2=0.967
0.940
Ed
Siw
1 Siw
w
substituting the values :
0.930
0.920
0.910
0.900
0.890
0.880
0.870
0.860
0.850
0.725 0.363 0.57

Ed
1 0.363
0.840
0.830
0.820
Sw2=0.70
0.810
0.800
0.600
0.650
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
6. Water Oil Ratio of the flood when water saturation at the production end reaches 0.70
Fwo
f w2 Bo
f w2 Bo
f o 2 Bw 1 f w2 Bw
substituting the values:
Fwo
0.967
29.3 B/B
1 0.967
Solution 1
S w =0.725
1.000
0.990
7. Estimates of the oil displacement

rate and cumulative oil produced by
injection time
0.980
0.970
0.960
0.950
fw2=0.967
0.940
0.930
0.920
0.910
0.900
0.890
0.880
0.870
0.860
0.850
0.840
0.830
0.820
Sw2=0.70
0.810
0.800
0.600
ASSIGNMENT 2:
Due date: tomorrow
0.650
0.700
0.750
0.800
0.850
Question and Suggestions
Questions?

UTP EOR Course Jan 2015 - Water Flooding

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UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI PETRONAS

displacement theory, Dykstra-Parson.

Continuity Equation for Porous Media

Continuity Equations for Each Phase

ouox ouoy ouoz o So

Similarly continuity Equation for Water phase

Flow Equations for Each Phase

Similarly for Water phase

Flow Equations for Each Phase

Flow Equations for Each Phase

o kox Po o koy Po o koz Po

Similarly for Water phase

Steady State Linear Flow

Flow is considered when there are no

Steady State Linear Flow

Frontal Advance Equation

a) Initial saturation distribution

b) Saturation distribution before breakthrough

c) Saturation distribution at breakthrough

Frontal Advance Equation

1- Gravity (tends to segregate the fluid vertically,

proportional to density differences)

3- Capillary (tends to spread-out the saturation according

to the slope of the capillary pressure curve and the

and viscous to gravity forces

Nvc and Nvg are the capillary and gravity numbers

Total flow rate is constant, (Incompressible ).

Theory determines the velocity of a plane of constant water saturation moving

Well founded on principle of conservation of mass

Frontal Advance Equation

Similarly for water phase:

Frontal Advance Equation

The sum of equations 3.20 and 3.21:

Frontal Advance Equation

Equation 3.22 simply states that

In reality saturations and qo and qw are changing continuously with distance

Frontal Advance Equation

Because fractional flow is a volume balance the sum of fractions must be

Frontal Advance Equation

In equation 3.28 we have 2 independent variables however we must have

Frontal Advance Equation

dSw in equation 3.30 can be set equal to 0. Then it can be rearranged

Frontal Advance Equation

When the fractional flow of water is assumed to be only a function of water

Substituting equations 3.31 and 3.32 into equation 3.28;

Frontal Advance Equation

Equation 3.34 is the Buckley-Leverett equation. It is more frequently know

This is the Buckley-Leverett equation.

Reservoir is a single homogeneous layer. Cross-sectional area to flow is

where q is expressed in bbl/day.

There is no residual gas saturation behind the front.

Fractional flow of the displacing and displaced fluids after breakthrough is

This equation describes a series of straight lines, the characteristics, with an

Very light oils

Very light oils

Very light oils

Fastest saturation 1-Sor quickly overtakes other saturations.

Typical Medium Density Oils

Displacement velocities not unlike

Typical Medium Density Oils

Development of the saturation would be a steady increase in the velocity of the

Typical Medium Density Oils

A shock front is developed at value of Swf.