Chapter 1 The Dynamic and Evolving Earth.........................................

.............................. 20
Introduction............................................................
................................... 21
What is Geology.........................................................
................................... 23
Historical Geology and the Formulation of Theories......................
................................... 23
Origin of the Universe and Solar System, and Earths Place in Them........
................................. 24
Origin of the UniverseDid It Begin with a Big Bang...............
..................................... 24
Our Solar SystemIts Origin and Evolution.........................
..................................... 25
Perspective The Terrestrial and Jovian Planets..................
....................................... 27
EarthIts Place in Our Solar System...............................
..................................... 29
Why is Earth a Dynamic and Evolving Planet..............................
................................... 29
Organic Evolution and the History of Life...............................
................................... 32
Geologic Time and Uniformitarianism.....................................
................................... 32
How Does the Study of Historical Geology Benefit Us.....................
................................... 33
Summary.................................................................
................................... 34
Chapter 2 Minerals and Rocks....................................................
............................... 37
Introduction............................................................
................................... 38
Matter and Its Composition..............................................
................................... 38
Elements and Atoms..............................................
....................................... 38
Bonding and Compounds...........................................
....................................... 39
MineralsThe Building Blocks of Rocks.....................................
................................. 40
How Many Minerals Are There.....................................
....................................... 41
Rock-Forming Minerals and the Rock Cycle........................
....................................... 42
Igneous Rocks...........................................................
................................... 43
Texture and Composition.........................................
....................................... 43
Classifying Igneous Rocks.......................................
....................................... 45
Sedimentary Rocks.......................................................
................................... 45
Sediment Transport, Deposition, and Lithification...............
....................................... 47
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks.............................
....................................... 47
Metamorphic Rocks.......................................................
................................... 49
What Causes Metamorphism........................................
....................................... 51

Metamorphic Rock Classification.................................

....................................... 51
Plate Tectonics and the Rock Cycle......................................
................................... 53
Summary.................................................................
................................... 54
Chapter 3 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory....................................
............................... 56
Introduction............................................................
................................... 57
Early Ideas About Continental Drift.....................................
................................... 58
Alfred Wegener and the Continental Drift Hypothesis.............
....................................... 58
Additional Support for Continental Drift........................
....................................... 61
Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering......................................
................................... 61
Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading...............................
................................... 62
Plate Tectonics and Plate Boundaries....................................
................................... 65
Perspective Tectonics of the Terrestrial Planets........................
................................... 67
Divergent Boundaries............................................
....................................... 69
An Example of Ancient Rifting...................................
....................................... 69
Convergent Boundaries...........................................
....................................... 69
Recognizing Ancient Convergent Boundaries.......................
....................................... 73
Transform Boundaries............................................
....................................... 74
Hot Spots and Mantle Plumes.............................................
................................... 74
How Are Plate Movement and Motion Determined............................
................................... 75
The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics................................
................................... 77
How Are Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building Related...................
................................... 78
Terrane Tectonics...............................................
....................................... 78
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Life............................
................................... 79
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources...............
................................... 80
Summary.................................................................
................................... 81
Chapter 4 Geologic Time: Concepts and Principles................................
............................... 84
Introduction............................................................
................................... 85
How is Geologic Time Measured...........................................
................................... 85
Early Concepts of Geologic Time and Earths Age...........................
................................. 86
Relative Dating Methods.................................................
................................... 87

Establishment of Geology as a ScienceThe Triumph of Uniformitarianism ove

r Neptunism and Catastrophism.... 88
Neptunism and Catastrophism.....................................
....................................... 88
Uniformitarianism...............................................
....................................... 89
Modern View of Uniformitarianism................................
....................................... 90
Lord Kelvin and a Crisis in Geology.....................................
................................... 90
Absolute Dating Methods.................................................
................................... 91
Atoms, Elements, and Isotopes...................................
....................................... 91
Radioactive Decay and Half-Lives................................
....................................... 91
Long-Lived Radioactive Isotope Pairs............................
....................................... 95
Fission-Track Dating............................................
....................................... 95
Radiocarbon and Tree-Ring Dating Methods........................
....................................... 96
Geologic Time and Climate Change........................................
................................... 97
Perspective Denvers Weather280 Million Years Ago..........................
...............................100
Summary.................................................................
...................................102
Chapter 5 Rocks, Fossils, and TimeMaking Sense of the Geologic Record............
.............................104
Introduction............................................................
...................................105
Stratigraphy............................................................
...................................106
Vertical Stratigraphic Relationships............................
.......................................106
Lateral RelationshipsFacies......................................
.....................................110
Marine Transgressions and Regressions...........................
.......................................110
Extent, Rate, and Causes of Marine Transgressions and Regression
s......................................112
Fossils and Fossilization...............................................
...................................112
How Do Fossils Form.............................................
.......................................113
Fossils and Telling Time........................................
.......................................116
The Relative Geologic Time Scale........................................
...................................117
Stratigraphic Terminology...............................................
...................................117
Lithostratigraphic Units and Biostratigraphic Units.............
.......................................117
Time Stratigraphic Units and Time Units.........................
.......................................119
Correlation.............................................................
...................................119
Perspective Monument Valley Navajo Tribal Park..........................
...................................123

Absolute Dates and the Relative Geologic Time Scale.....................

...................................124
Summary.................................................................
...................................126
Chapter 6 Sedimentary RocksThe Archives of Earth History.........................
.............................128
Introduction............................................................
...................................129
Sedimentary Rock Properties.............................................
...................................129
Composition and Texture.........................................
.......................................130
Sedimentary Structures..........................................
.......................................131
Geometry of Sedimentary Rocks...................................
.......................................135
FossilsThe Biologic Content of Sedimentary Rocks.................
.....................................135
Depositional Environments...............................................
...................................135
Continental Environments........................................
.......................................135
Transitional Environments.......................................
.......................................138
Marine Environments.............................................
.......................................141
Perspective EvaporitesWhat We Know and Dont Know..........................
...............................144
Interpreting Depositional Environments..................................
...................................145
Paleogeography..........................................................
...................................146
Summary.................................................................
...................................147
Chapter 7 EvolutionThe Theory and Its Supporting Evidence........................
.............................150
Introduction............................................................
...................................151
Evolution: What Does It Mean............................................
...................................151
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and His Ideas on Evolution.............
.......................................152
The Contributions of Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace..........
.......................................153
Natural SelectionWhat Is Its Significance........................
.....................................154
Perspective The Tragic Lysenko Affair...................................
...................................155
Mendel and the Birth of Genetics........................................
...................................155
Mendels Experiments..............................................
.....................................156
Genes and Chromosomes...........................................
.......................................157
The Modern View of Evolution............................................
...................................157
What Brings About Variation.....................................
.......................................158
Speciation and the Rate of Evolution............................
.......................................159

Divergent, Convergent, and Parallel Evolution...................

.......................................160
Microevolution and Macroevolution...............................
.......................................161
Cladistics and Cladograms.......................................
.......................................161
Mosaic Evolution and Evolutionary Trends........................
.......................................163
Extinctions.....................................................
.......................................163
What Kinds of Evidence Support Evolutionary Theory......................
...................................164
ClassificationA Nested Pattern of Similarities...................
.....................................165
How Does Biological Evidence Support Evolution..................
.......................................165
Fossils: What Do We Learn from Them.............................
.......................................168
Missing LinksAre They Really Missing.............................
.....................................169
The EvidenceA Summary............................................
.....................................169
Summary.................................................................
...................................170
Chapter 8 Precambrian Earth and Life HistoryThe Archean Eon......................
.............................172
Introduction............................................................
...................................173
What Happened During the Eoarchean......................................
...................................174
Continental FoundationsShields, Platforms, and Cratons...................
.................................175
Archean Rocks...................................................
.......................................176
Greenstone Belts................................................
.......................................176
Evolution of Greenstone Belts...................................
.......................................179
Perspective Earths Oldest Rocks..........................................
.................................181
Archean Plate Tectonics and the Origin of Cratons.......................
...................................182
The Atmosphere and Hydrosphere..........................................
...................................182
How Did the Atmosphere Form and Evolve..........................
.......................................183
Earths Surface WatersThe Hydrosphere..............................
...................................184
The Origin Of Life......................................................
...................................184
Experimental Evidence and the Origin of Life....................
.......................................185
Submarine Hydrothermal Vents and the Origin of Life.............
.......................................186
The Oldest Known Organisms......................................
.......................................187
Archean Mineral Resources...............................................
...................................188
Summary.................................................................
...................................189

Chapter 9 Precambrian Earth and Life HistoryThe Proterozoic Eon..................

.............................192
Introduction............................................................
...................................193
Evolution of Proterozoic Continents.....................................
...................................194
Paleoproterozoic History of Laurentia...........................
.......................................194
Perspective The Sudbury Meteorite Impact and Its Aftermath..............
...................................197
Mesoproterozoic Accretion and Igneous Activity..................
.......................................197
Mesoproterozoic Orogeny and Rifting.............................
.......................................198
Meso- and Neoproterozoic Sedimentation..........................
.......................................198
Proterozoic Supercontinents.............................................
...................................199
Ancient Glaciers and Their Deposits.....................................
...................................201
Paleoproterozoic Glaciers.......................................
.......................................202
Glaciers of the Neoproterozoic..................................
.......................................202
The Evolving Atmosphere.................................................
...................................203
Banded Iron Formations (BIFs)...................................
.......................................203
Continental Red Beds............................................
.......................................204
Life of the Proterozoic.................................................
...................................204
Eukaryotic Cells Evolve.........................................
.......................................205
Endosymbiosis and the Origin of Eukaryotic Cells................
.......................................206
The Dawn of Multicelled Organisms...............................
.......................................207
Neoproterozoic Animals..........................................
.......................................208
Proterozoic Mineral Resources...........................................
...................................210
Summary.................................................................
...................................211
Chapter 10 Early Paleozoic Earth History........................................
...............................215
Introduction............................................................
...................................216
Continental Architecture: Cratons and Mobile Belts......................
...................................216
Paleozoic Paleogeography................................................
...................................218
Early Paleozoic Global History..........................................
...................................218
Early Paleozoic Evolution of North America..............................
...................................220
The Sauk Sequence.......................................................
...................................221
Perspective The Grand CanyonA Geologists Paradise.........................
...............................223

The Cambrian of the Grand Canyon Region: A Transgressive Facies

Model..................................224
The Tippecanoe Sequence.................................................
...................................225
Tippecanoe Reefs and Evaporites.................................
.......................................225
The End of the Tippecanoe Sequence..............................
.......................................230
The Appalachian Mobile Belt and the Taconic Orogeny.....................
...................................231
Early Paleozoic Mineral Resources.......................................
...................................232
Summary.................................................................
...................................233
Chapter 11 Late Paleozoic Earth History.........................................
...............................236
Introduction............................................................
...................................237
Late Paleozoic Paleogeography...........................................
...................................237
The Devonian Period.............................................
.......................................237
The Carboniferous Period........................................
.......................................239
The Permian Period..............................................
.......................................241
Late Paleozoic Evolution of North America...............................
...................................241
The Kaskaskia Sequence..................................................
...................................241
Reef Development in Western Canada..............................
.......................................241
Perspective The Canning Basin, AustraliaA Devonian Great Barrier Reef....
.................................242
Black Shales....................................................
.......................................243
The Late KaskaskiaA Return to Extensive Carbonate Deposition.....
.....................................244
The Absaroka Sequence...................................................
...................................245
What Are Cyclothems, and Why Are They Important.................
.......................................246
Cratonic UpliftThe Ancestral Rockies.............................
.....................................248
The Middle AbsarokaMore Evaporite Deposits and Reefs.............
.....................................248
History of the Late Paleozoic Mobile Belts..............................
...................................250
Cordilleran Mobile Belt.........................................
.......................................250
Ouachita Mobile Belt............................................
.......................................252
Appalachian Mobile Belt.........................................
.......................................252
What Role Did Microplates and Terranes Play in the Formation of Pangaea.
...................................254
Late Paleozoic Mineral Resources........................................
...................................254
Summary.................................................................
...................................255

Chapter 12 Paleozoic Life History: Invertebrates................................

...............................259
Introduction............................................................
...................................260
What Was the Cambrian Explosion.........................................
...................................260
The Emergence of a Shelly Fauna.........................................
...................................261
Paleozoic Invertebrate Marine Life......................................
...................................263
The Present Marine Ecosystem....................................
.......................................263
Cambrian Marine Community.......................................
.......................................265
Perspective TrilobitesPaleozoic Arthropods...............................
.................................267
The Burgess Shale Biota.........................................
.......................................269
Ordovician Marine Community.....................................
.......................................270
Silurian and Devonian Marine Communities........................
.......................................271
Carboniferous and Permian Marine Communities....................
.......................................273
Mass Extinctions........................................................
...................................274
The Permian Mass Extinction.....................................
.......................................275
Summary.................................................................
...................................276
Chapter 13 Paleozoic Life History: Vertebrates and Plants.......................
...............................279
Introduction............................................................
...................................280
Vertebrate Evolution....................................................
...................................280
Fish....................................................................
...................................281
AmphibiansVertebrates Invade the Land....................................
.................................286
Evolution of the ReptilesThe Land Is Conquered...........................
.................................288
Plant Evolution.........................................................
...................................290
Perspective Palynology: A Link between Geology and Biology..............
...................................292
Silurian and Devonian Floras....................................
.......................................293
Late Carboniferous and Permian Floras...........................
.......................................295
Summary.................................................................
...................................297
Chapter 14 Mesozoic Earth History...............................................
...............................300
Introduction............................................................
...................................301
The Breakup of Pangaea..................................................
...................................301
The Effects of the Breakup of Pangaea on Global Climates and Oce
an Circulation Patterns................304

Mesozoic History of North America.......................................

...................................305
Continental Interior....................................................
...................................305
Eastern Coastal Region..................................................
...................................306
Gulf Coastal Region.....................................................
...................................307
Western Region..........................................................
...................................309
Mesozoic Tectonics..............................................
.......................................309
Mesozoic Sedimentation..........................................
.......................................312
Perspective Petrified Forest National Park..............................
...................................316
What Role Did Accretion of Terranes Play in the Growth of Western North
America............................317
Mesozoic Mineral Resources..............................................
...................................317
Summary.................................................................
...................................319
Chapter 15 Life of the Mesozoic Era.............................................
...............................322
Introduction............................................................
...................................323
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton..................................
...................................323
Aquatic and Semiaquatic Vertebrates.....................................
...................................326
The Fishes......................................................
.......................................326
Amphibians......................................................
.......................................326
PlantsPrimary Producers on Land..........................................
.................................327
The Diversification of Reptiles.........................................
...................................328
Archosaurs and the Origin of Dinosaurs..........................
.......................................329
Dinosaurs.......................................................
.......................................329
Warm-Blooded Dinosaurs..........................................
.......................................333
Flying Reptiles.................................................
.......................................334
Mesozoic Marine Reptiles........................................
.......................................334
Crocodiles, Turtles, Lizards, and Snakes........................
.......................................336
From Reptiles to Birds..................................................
...................................336
Perspective Mary Anning and Her Contributions to Paleontology...........
...................................337
Origin and Evolution of Mammals.........................................
...................................338
Cynodonts and the Origin of Mammals.............................
.......................................338
Mesozoic Mammals................................................
.......................................340

Mesozoic Climates and Paleobiogeography.................................

...................................341
Mass ExtinctionsA Crisis in Life History.................................
.................................342
Summary.................................................................
...................................343
Chapter 16 Cenozoic Earth History: The Paleogene and Neogene....................
...............................347
Introduction............................................................
...................................348
Cenozoic Plate TectonicsAn Overview......................................
.................................349
Cenozoic Orogenic Belts.................................................
...................................351
AlpineHimalayan Orogenic Belt....................................
.....................................352
Circum-Pacific Orogenic Belt....................................
.......................................354
North American Cordillera...............................................
...................................354
Laramide Orogeny................................................
.......................................355
Cordilleran Igneous Activity....................................
.......................................358
Basin and Range Province........................................
.......................................360
Colorado Plateau................................................
.......................................361
Rio Grande Rift.................................................
.......................................361
Pacific Coast...................................................
.......................................363
The Continental Interior................................................
...................................364
Cenozoic History of the Appalachian Mountains...........................
...................................365
Perspective The Great Plains............................................
...................................366
North Americas Southern and Eastern Continental Margins..................
.................................367
Gulf Coastal Plain..............................................
.......................................367
Atlantic Continental Margin.....................................
.......................................368
Paleogene and Neogene Mineral Resources.................................
...................................369
Summary.................................................................
...................................370
Chapter 17 Cenozoic Geologic History: The Pleistocene and Holocene Epochs.......
...............................372
Introduction............................................................
...................................373
Pleistocene and Holocene Tectonism and Volcanism........................
...................................374
Tectonism.......................................................
.......................................374
Volcanism.......................................................
.......................................375
Pleistocene Stratigraphy................................................
...................................375

Terrestrial Stratigraphny.......................................
.......................................376
Deep-Sea Stratigraphy...........................................
.......................................378
Onset of the Ice Age....................................................
...................................379
Climates of the Pleistocene and Holocene........................
.......................................379
GlaciersHow Do They Form.........................................
.....................................380
Glaciation and Its Effects..............................................
...................................380
Glacial Landforms...............................................
.......................................381
Changes in Sea Level............................................
.......................................382
Perspective Waterton Lakes National Park, Alberta, and Glacier National
Park, Montana......................385
Glaciers and Isostasy...........................................
.......................................386
Pluvial and Proglacial Lakes....................................
.......................................386
What Caused Pleistocene Glaciation......................................
...................................389
The Milankovitch Theory.........................................
.......................................390
Short-Term Climatic Events......................................
.......................................391
Glaciers Today..........................................................
...................................391
Pleistocene Mineral Resources...........................................
...................................392
Summary.................................................................
...................................392
Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era.............................................
...............................395
Introduction............................................................
...................................396
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton..................................
...................................397
Perspective The Messel Pit Fossil Site in Germany.......................
...................................399
Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate.........................................
...................................400
Cenozoic Birds..........................................................
...................................401
The Age of Mammals Begins...............................................
...................................402
Monotremes and Marsupial Mammals................................
.......................................402
Diversification of Placental Mammals............................
.......................................402
Paleogene and Neogene Mammals...........................................
...................................405
Small MammalsInsectivores, Rodents, Rabbits, and Bats............
.....................................406
A Brief History of the Primates.................................
.......................................406
The Meat EatersCarnivorous Mammals...............................
.....................................407

The Ungulates or Hoofed Mammals.................................

.......................................408
Giant Land-Dwelling MammalsElephants.............................
.....................................411
Giant Aquatic MammalsWhales......................................
.....................................412
Pleistocene Faunas......................................................
...................................413
Ice Age Mammals.................................................
.......................................413
Pleistocene Extinctions.........................................
.......................................414
Intercontinental Migrations.............................................
...................................415
Summary.................................................................
...................................417
Chapter 19 Primate and Human Evolution..........................................
...............................419
Introduction............................................................
...................................420
What Are Primates.......................................................
...................................420
Prosimians..............................................................
...................................421
Anthropoids.............................................................
...................................422
Hominids................................................................
...................................423
Australopithecines..............................................
.......................................426
Perspective Footprints at Laetoli.......................................
...................................428
The Human Lineage...............................................
.......................................429
Neanderthals....................................................
.......................................430
Cro-Magnons.....................................................
.......................................431
Summary.................................................................
...................................432
Epilogue........................................................................
...............................434
Appendixes......................................................................
...............................440
Appendix A Metric Conversion Chart......................................
...................................440
Appendix B Classification of Organisms..................................
...................................441
Appendix C Mineral Identification.......................................
...................................446
Glossary........................................................................
...............................449
Answers to Multiple-Choice Review Questions.....................................
...............................456
Index...........................................................................
...............................457