Instruction Manual

and Experiment Guide

OPTICS SYSTEM 3

4864.30
N.B.:

Pictures, images and descriptions in this manual may not exactly correspond with
the actual items supplied.
It is also important to note that the experiments in this manual are, only, suggestions.
They are not meant to indicate the limitation of the equipment, which can be used in
wide range of experiments, depending on the educational requirement of the teacher.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
The optics kit 3 offers you and your students endless possibilities for exploring the many aspects of modern
optical technology. In a few moments you're ready to conduct experiments utilizing geometric principles and
optics, examine polarization of laser beams, investigate basic and advanced diffractive principles and optics.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:

diffraction grating
double slit diffraction
optical activity
passage from interference to diffraction
single slit diffraction

Index of related topics:

D
Diffraction..........................................................................................................................................17
Diffraction grating ............................................................................................................................19
Double slit diffraction ......................................................................................................................13
I
Interference ......................................................................................................................................17
O
Optical activity..................................................................................................................................23
S
Single slit diffraction ..........................................................................................................................8

ASSEMBLY INSTRUCTIONS

Assemble the laser on the support stand eventually by using the Polaroid filter or the diverging lens

The Polaroid filter is solely devoted to mitigating the intensity of the laser beam since this
one is already polarized.
o Cylindrical lens have at least one surface that is formed like a portion of a cylinder. They are
used to correct astigmatism in the eye, and, in this case, to stretch a point of light into a line.
Perform your experiments by selecting one from the various slits gratings, polaroids,

Example of double slit interference

Example of a one-dimensional diffraction grating interference

Example of a bidimensional diffraction grating

Experiment 1.
RELATED TOPICS:

Single slit diffraction

The aim of the experiment is to study the single slit diffraction

ITEMS NEEDED:

Laser
Slide with single slit
Support for slide
Screen
Meter
Ruler with mm divisions

THEORY:
A plane wave that meets obstacles of a comparable size with its wavelength no longer proceeds linearly but
invades the "blind zone" causing phenomena of light intensity distribution called "diffraction" phenomena.
These phenomena can be satisfactory described through the Huyghens - Fresnel's principle. This principle
states, among other things, that all planes reached by a light wave - for instance the points inside a slit become sources of virtual elementary spherical waves. The observed real wave is the result of the
interference of the elementary waves. This suggests that diffraction and interference are phenomena that
can be referred to only in a theoretical interpretation.
When the diffraction happens at a great distance from the obstacle, it is called Fraunhofer diffraction;
whereas, when it occurs at a finite distance from the obstacle, it is called Fresnel diffraction.
The following experiment studies the diffraction figures produced by a narrow slit and collected by a screen
parallel to the plane of the slit placed "at infinite".
For the teacher's convenience, we give here some theoretical notes, derived from the Huyghens Fresnel's
principle, regarding the distribution of the light intensity minima at infinity in the case of a single slit.

The point Po of the screen in front of the slit receives, in phase, all the pairs of elementary beams coming
out in phase from the slit. Therefore that point is the point of maximum light intensity. Let us now look for the
point P1 closer to Po at which there is destructive interference.
Remember that destructive and constructive interference can be explained as in the following figure

The elementary beams coming out from the ends of the slit must arrive at P1 with a difference in covered
distance equal to /2. In fact, in that way each wave coming from the first half of the slit (for instance O1) will
be neutralized by a corresponding wave (O2) coming from the second half.
For P1, therefore, the following relationship holds:

sin =
2
2

or b sin =
9

Let us divide the slit in four equal parts and let us choose the difference in covered distance for the beams
coming from the ends of the slit so that it is equal to /2.

For the second point (P2) of destructive interference we have:

sin =
4
2

or b sin = 2

Generalizing the reasoning to the generic point P of destructive interference we have:

b sin = k
with k=1,2,
APPARATUS SETTING:

Align the (turned off) laser, the diaphragm, the adjustable slit and the screen following the diagram of the
following picture.
Turn on the laser after having made sure that nobody can look into the light source.

10

Centre the slit with the beam (slightly less than half the beam must fall on the fixed margin). Check that the
plane of the slit and the screen are perpendicular with regards to the beam. The light in the region of the
screen must be dim (in a dark room the distance between the slit and the screen can be increased to more
than 10 m.)
PROCEDURE
Use the single slit and turn on the laser. From the qualitative point of view, it is easy to see how the central
bright band is wider than the others (it is double).

The quantitative experiments can vary around the relationship that gives the intensity minima:

b sin = k

but sin =

(k = 1, 2,)

(1)

where l is the distance from the screen. We can carry on a further approximation if we
l

consider a limited number of fringes. In this way sin tan.(within the 5% approximation up to 12 degrees).
In this case we get from (1)

11

= k
x

(k = 1, 2,)

and by knowing , x, its possible to recover b.

12

(2)

Experiment 2.
RELATED TOPICS:
Double slit diffraction

The aim of the experiment is to study the double slit diffraction.

ITEMS NEEDED:

Laser
Slide with double slit
Support for slide
Screen
Meter
Ruler with mm divisions

THEORY
Remember that destructive and constructive interference can be explained as in the following figure

13

If the slits are illuminated with a laser light - or with another kind of light, provided that it comes from a pointlike source - two secondary sources of coherent light are obtained.
The beams coming from those sources cause interference in the whole region in which they are
superimposed.
Let P be any point in that region, at distances l1, and l2 from the slits S1 and S2 that are at a distance d apart,
and let P be seen under an angle from the centre of the segment S1 S2.

In P there will be constructive interference with maximum intensity if, denoting by the light wavelength,

14

l1 l2 = k

k = 0,1,

but, if the screen is placed at large distance from the slit ( l

d ), the above expression becomes

d sin = k

but

sin =

where l is the distance from the plane HP shown in figure 1 and = PH so we get for
l

constructive interference

= k
l

k = 0,1,

In a similar way we have that for destructive interference with minimum intensity is instead

= ( 2k + 1)
l 2

k = 0,1,

The experiment described consists exactly of studying the interference in a plane (screen) placed at a right
angle with the direction of the light beams coming from the double slit. This can substitute Young's
experiment (light coming from two small holes), very important in the hystory of physics but less convenient
for teaching purposes because of the poor illumination intensity of the figure appearing on the screen.
Because the light intensity of the beams coming from the slits decreases, the experiment must be clarried on
in conditions of dim light. If one is in a very large room (at least 10 m a side) darkness must be complete.
APPARATUS SETTING

Allocate the laser turned off, the slide with double slit and the screen as shown in the picture, checking that
the screen is at right angle with the laser axis.
The light in the region of the screen must be dim. (The distance between the slide and the screen can be
increased to about 10 m if the room is completely darkened).
PROCEDURE
After having made sure that nobody can look directly into the laser, turn it on. Centre the slide with the
double slit in the small light beam, so that it is exactly perpendicular to it (to make negligible the error of d).
Proceed to measure the various quantities. It will be seen that the above relationship is satisfied. The aim of
the experiment can be that of determining an "unknown" quantity (for instance the light wavelength or the
distance d between the slits).

15

The measurement implementation is rather simple and the results can be obtained within a few percentage
points.
It is strongly recommended to measure the fringe's width, marking (on the screen) the centres of two dark
bands as distant as possible from each other, but still unmistakable.
Two other simple and important experiments that can be carried out are the following:
Cover first one and then the other slit to show that the interference figure is only the modulation of
the diffraction figure.
Move the laser parallel to itself to show the coherence of light in the whole "thickness" of the beam
(there is always interference). With a traditional light source, which must be of very small size to
produce interference, this cannot be obtained.

16

Experiment 3.
RELATED TOPICS:

Interference
Diffraction

The aim of the experiment is to study the passage from interference to diffraction
ITEMS NEEDED:

Laser
Diaphragm (optional)
Various slides
Screen
Meter
Ruler with mm divisions

THEORY
The conceptual difference between interference and diffraction is not clear-cut: in both cases there is a
problem of wave propagation in special conditions. The theoretical model most used to explain how the two
phenomena coincide when diffraction is considered, is the Huyghens-Fresnel's principle. In fact, that
principle is based on the interference of infinite elementary waves coming from various parts of the opening.
However, it is not necessary that they be only virtual waves, as first thought Huyghens-Fresnel.
An interesting correlated treatment of the two phenomena can be found in chapters 28, 29 and 30 of
Feynman's lectures. Because of its length, we cannot repeat it here. We will just mention the logic on which it
is based: the properties of the electromagnetic waves entail a set of quantitative conditions for the
interference among waves emitted by 2 or n equal sources; if n is large or infinite, the phenomena are
classically considered "diffraction": the case of the grating and that of a small opening is an opaque screen.
The following experiment concerns exactly the phenomenology connected with an increase in the number n
of equal sources that cause interference. The arrival point is the diffraction grating.
At the beginning the case of the double slit is presented again. Those slits, to produce a "pure" interference
phenomenon, should be of "infinitesimal" length, or at least less than the wavelength, thus realizing
something similar to two elementary Huyghens' sources. The interference phenomena are in fact observed
always and only inside the central bright band of the diffraction figure of a slit (if the weak effects in the other
clear bands are neglected). We can therefore understand how the thinning of the slits, which broads that
band, approaches the ideal case of a very small source on 180.
What happens with three or more slits is rather intricate but, from a phenomenological point of view, can be
described with a limited number of statements:

as the number of slits increases, the bright bands do not move, but their intensity increases and their
width decreases;
for a number n>3 of slits, beside those bands there appear other light bands, narrower and less
intense (they are n - 2);
the distance among the principal bands is inversely proportional to the distance among the slits;
a "coarse" grating (grating 1) with pitch equal to the distance of the few slits in an opaque slit,
produces bright luminous points in the usual positions, but without secondary bands (as the number
of those bands increases, their intensity decreases);
a grating with the same pitch but with slits less wide (grating 2) produces zones less bright in a
proportionally wider section;
a grating with narrower pitch (grating 3) gives maxima that are proportionally more distant one from
the other.

APPARATUS SETTING
Align all the elements of the apparatus according to the diagram (no particular experience is necessary).
Make sure that nobody can look directly into the laser and turn it on. Center the fixed diaphragm so that the
whole beam passes through it and the halo and the irregular extension of diffused or reflected light are
blocked. Darken partially the room, expecially around the screen (in order to observe all the characteristics of

17

the phenomena, darkness should be almost complete).

PROCEDURE
Place the slide with single slit in the slide-holder and notice the width of the central bright band.
Substitute the slide with single slit with the slide with double slit and observe how the interference figure is
the modulation of the preceding diffraction figure.
Pass to three slits: some quantities are preserved (total width of the interference figure and distance between
the large maxima) and some other characteristics of the phenomenon appear (increase in the light intensity,
narrowing of the clear bands and appearance of weak secondary maxima).
With four slits the observations are similar to the preceding ones (now, however, the secondary maxima for
each primary maximum are two and they are weaker). With five slits the phenomena observed previously
become more evident (the secondary maxima, even weaker, are three). If desired, use also the slide with six
slits, it takes almost the whole beam and therefore its results are not clearly distinguishable from those of
grating 1.
With the grating 1 the secondary maxima disappear and there is a further increase of the light intensity (as
the slits increase, the percentage of energy captured by the slide decreases). With the grating 2 it is possible
to notice the phenomena realted to the halving of the width of the slits, that is the decrease of the light
intensity and expecially the widening of the interference-diffraction figure. With the grating 3 one instead
observes an increase in the width of the interference figure and expecially a wider spacing of the maxima
(due to the decrease of the distance between the slits).

18

Experiment 4.
RELATED TOPICS:

Diffraction grating

The aim of the experiment is to study the diffraction grating

ITEMS NEEDED:

Laser
Various kinds of diffraction grating
Screen
Meter
Ruler with mm divisions

THEORY:
Essentially a diffraction grating is a device with a large number of parallel slits (or reflecting lines).
Diffraction gratings with many variable features (fixed or variable spacing, curving of the support and so on)
are used in research and in industry to determine with great precision the wavelengths and the spectra of the
radiation sources. The study of the crystal structure through X rays is carried out, enlarging the concept of
grating, considering the crystals as three dimensions gratings.
The characteristic relationship for the diffraction grating is very simple:

k = p sin
where k = 0,1,2, is an integer linked with an intensity maximum of the diffraction figure produced by the
grating (called "order" or "principal maximum").
Instead the complete theory of the grating is rather intricate, therefore we will just make some simple
observations on the functioning of a grating with slits at constant pitch (our gratings are of that kind).
Let us image a plane wave meeting the grating at a right angle. The diffraction figure at a great distance is
the result of the interference of the waves coming from the various slits. Let us divide the grating in pairs of
consecutive slits. Among the elementary waves sent by those slits let us consider those that travel in the
direction that forms an angle with the perpendicular to the grating (see the following figure).

19

The waves starting from corresponding pairs of points (for instance from the points O1 and O2 of the figure)
cover distances that differ of psin. In the direction with a such that the difference in covered distance is a
whole number of the wavelength , the waves will be in phase and will provoke, by constructive interference,
maxima of intensity.
With elementary reasonings it is not possible to make any forecasts on what happens for different angles .
However, there should be practically total darkness for each that does not correspond to a maximum (this
is strictly true for p 0).

APPARATUS SETTING:
Dispose the laser, the grating and the screen (at about 5 m from the grating) according to the diagram.

Turn on the laser (after having made sure that nobody can look directly into it) and check that the screen and
the grating are at a right angle with the beam.
For this experiment the illumination of the room must be only slightly below normal.
PROCEDURE:

20

First of all, with the cardboard slightly bent (and tangent to the beams coming out from the grating), moved
upward, it is possible to see very well the three-dimensional structure of diffraction.
The qualitative study of the diffraction figure produced on the screen revolves around the already mentioned
relationship k = p sin that can be verified with very high precision (even in a teaching experiment it
is possible to have errors of less than 1%). The measuring is very simple to perform and only two warnings
are necessary.
The first warning is that the sine of the angle can be mistaken with the tangent and measured by taking the
ratio between and x in the figure only if a very high precision is not necessary. The second warning is that
if the first maxima of the grating with greates pitch are considered.
To quickly find the central maximum (k = 0) it is enough to slightly rotate the grating and to see which
maximum remains immobile.

EXAMPLE OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA:

By using a motion detector and a light sensor is quick and simple to have a graph of the light intensity vs. the
light sensor position. This is possible by moving the light sensor around the principal maxima while sampling
its position with the motion detector.
For a distance x= 173 cm and a diffraction grating with p = 0.13 mm we get the following result:

21

From the left to the right of the preceding picture we get the position of the principal maxima:
0.121 m, 0.129 m, 0.137 m (central peak), 0.146 m, 0.154 m.
This means a relative distance of the principal maxima from the central peak of 16 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 17 mm
or
= (0 mm, [8,9] mm, [16,17] mm,...)
(3)
If we modify the previous formula

k = p sin we get:
sin =

or, since sin tan, and

tan =

= k
with k = 0,1,2,
Otherwise said:

x
p

k
p

(4)

x
= k

(650 109 m) (173 102 m)

= k 0.0087 m
(0.13 103 m)

= (0 mm, 8.7 mm, 17.4 mm,...)

in good agreement with the previous experimental data.

22

(5)

(6)

Experiment 5.
RELATED TOPICS:

Optical activity

The aim of the experiment is to study the optical activity of dextrose (or normal saccarose). The picture
above can be obtained with the use of an optical bench.
ITEMS NEEDED:

Laser
Slide with polaroid filter
Glass tank
Water
Dextrose (or normal saccarose)
Screen

THEORY:
The narrow, intense and monochromatic light beam emitted by a laser allows you to easily perform teaching
experiments on optical activity (Long time ago, the Chemists have used the traditional light sources).
Optical activity is a phenomenon connected with the "asymmetry by reflection" of the molecules of many
substances. Let us consider an asymmetric molecule by reflection (the kind of asymmetry between the two
hands), for example, a helical shaped molecule. The polarized light that arrives with the electric vector
oscillating along the helix axis z sets in motion the electrons.

23

The electron motion along z generates a second wave (coming out) that is linearly polarized according to z.
However, since the electrons are compelled to move along the helix, some components of the motion will be
perpendicular to the planes passing through z (see figure).
A pair of such components would send (for instance in P) waves in phase opposition (that, therefore, would
annul each other) if there was not the lag due to the fact that only one wave must cover the diameter d of the
helix. It is therefore necessary to correct the wave that comes out and that was initially considered polarized
along z with a small field component polarized along the x axis (see figure).
The wave that will actually come out has the polarization plane rotated of an angle as regards to the plane
of the incident wave, even when the linearly polarized light strikes a set of asymmetric molecules arranged at
random (for instance in a water solution); in fact each molecule appears identical if seen from either side.
APPARATUS SETTING:
Place the various optical elements.
Prepare 100 cm3 of highly concentrated solution of dextrose (or saccarose) in water and pour it into the tank.
Take the tank away from the optical bench and turn on the laser (after having made sure that nobody can
look directly into it); place the first polaroid with the axis of easy transmission vertical (when that is the case,
the beam is completely intercepted by the second polaroid placed at 0).
PROCEDURE:
After having taken away or lowered the tank, so that the light does not cross the solution, find the position of
the second polaroid for which the bright spot on the screen disappears. In those conditions the first polaroid
generates a light beam with horizontal polarization plane and the second intercepts completely that beam.
Now the beam is made to travel for three cm in the solution: the bright spots on the screen reappears. The
second polaroid must be rotated until the bright spots disappear again. The angle by which the second
polaroid has been rotated is equal to the angle of rotation of the light polarization angle (for a dextrose
concentrated solution, an angle of about 20 to the right of the source). To determine with the approximation
of 1 or 2 degree the amplitude of that angle, one can take the average between the two positions at which
the beam reappears when the polaroid is rotated in the two directions.
The experiment is repeated making the beam travel for 6 and 12 cm in the solution. Because of the additivity
of the effect with regards to the number of molecules met by the light, the rotation angle is found to be
double and quadruple. If only saccarose is available, it is advisable to start from a distance of 12 cm and to
pass afterwards to 6 and 3. If the observations are repeated with a concentrated solution of fructose, one
finds that the rotations as regards as the polarization plane are to the left.
Another important study that can be performed is studying the effect of the concentration of the solution (for
equal covered distances). In all the described experiments it is not difficult to bring the error to below 5%.

24

APPENDIX
Basics of experimental error theory
We can say that everything we known about the physical world has an inherent uncertainty. In
particular, when we experimentally investigate something there is always an experimental error
and an experimental precision. Since one of the main features of experiments is their
reproducibility, it is very important to deal with this subject in order to be able to explain how good
our results are. This is possible with experimental error theory, a scientific approach to this
problem.
Let us consider the following example: find the density of a solid rubber cube.
o First trial (with very raw instrument). We can estimate that the mass of the cube is
nearly 50 g and the length of a side is nearly 6 cm. So the density would be:
M M
=
= 3 = 0,23148... . There are many questions: Where can I stop with
V
L
decimal digits to communicate my result? Is it better to have precision on the
mass measurement or on length measurement? How do we combine our
experimental error on the mass measurement with the experimental error on length
measurement?
o Second trial (with more accurate instruments). By using an electronic balance and
a meter stick I find a mass of 60g and a side length of 5,4 cm. So the density would
be:
M M
=
= 3 = 0,381039475... . We still need to answer the questions posed above
V
L
but we also have to answer a new question: What makes this trial better than the
first one?
o Third trial (with much more accurate instruments to measure the side length). If
we improve the accuracy of the length measurement, for example by using a vernier
caliper, the problem becomes more involved. This is due to the fact that we do not
get the same result if we make more than one measurement. Instead we have a set of
different measurements like (5,455 cm; 5,425 cm; 5,465 cm; ). So we are again
faced with the question: Which one of the measurements (5,455 cm; 5,425 cm;
5,465 cm; ) do should I take?

Therefore, the more we analyse the problem the more it gets involved. To search for a possible
solution we can start from the third trial and observe that, generally speaking, when we improve the
accuracy of an instrument we reach a point at which the experimental results are not unique but are
scattered around some value as illustrated in this graph:

25

If the number of measurements N is greater then about 30, the distribution of the experimental data
is bell-shaped and has a value X for which there is a maximum and around which the data are
scattered in a nearly symmetrical way. It is also possible to distinguish a value that determines an
interval around X into which a significant percentage of the measurements are placed. We need to
answer the questions: Is X the best estimate of our measurement?, How much can we rely on
this value? and What percentage of the measurements are in the interval X- and X+ ?
To express these questions mathematically, we could try a prototype function that fits our data and
that expresses the probability to get a particular measurement value:
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

-3

-2

-1

this is the graphical representation of the function

f ( x) = e x

If we want to centre the function around the value X we use the expression x-X in place of x, and if
we want to control the scattering of the measurements around X its possible to divide (x-X)2 by
22.
The following figure shows f(x) with X=2 and =1;1.5;2

-2

0.8

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0.2

10

-2

26

10

-2

10

Finally, if we want to control the area under the curve we have to multiply it by a normalization
factor A that would depend on .
Therefore our prototype function is:
f ( x ) = A e

( x X )2
2 2

(1)

where X is the value for which we have the maximum and determines how the measurements are
scattered around X. This is called a Gaussian function or a Normal function, but the underlying
data represent a distribution (still called Gaussian) and not a function. It can be proved that the
Gaussian distribution is derivable from the binomial distribution assuming that the number of
measurements N and remains constant.
The physical meaning of all this is that we do not describe a measurement with a single number but
rather with a set of values each one with its own probability to appear as an experimental datum.
This probability is governed by the Gaussian distribution. There is an analogy with quantum
mechanics (for example with the wave packet of a particle) where the interpretation is that if we
make a measure of the position of the particle then the probability to obtain a particular value is
governed by the Gaussian function and is never a well defined fixed value.
Let us determine the value of A in (1). We must have a probability of 1 to get a measurement in
the range from - to + (that is, if we perform a measurement we are certain to get some kind of
result no matter how large or how small that result is):
+
1
f ( x)dx = 1 A = 2
To give an interpretation of we can ask what happens if we are only interested in the probability
of finding measurements in the range from X- to X+ instead of the range from - to +:

X +
X

t
+1
1
f ( x) dx =
e 2 dt 0.68
2 1

so , also called then standard deviation (2 is called variance), is the amount of uncertainty we
have to allow for, in the most probable value X, if we want to claim a roughly 68% chance of
correctly predicting the result of any single measurement.
To determine X, also called the mean value, we consider a set of N measurements x1, x2, , xN.
The probability to get a single result between xi and xi+dx is:

Pi =

1
e
2

( x xi )2
2 2

so the probability to get all the results (viewed as independent events) is:
N

( x xi )

P = P1 P2 ... PN

i=1

2 2

Since we are speaking about the probability P to get all the results and we can suppose to have
already done our experiment with a set of real results what should be the value of P?

27

If we accept the maximum likelihood principle we can make an analogy with entropy and say that P
is proportional to the entropy obtained from our experiment. The value X must be a point of
maximum entropy. By the second principle of thermodynamics we have to maximize P, otherwise
d N
2
said X is the value of x that minimize the exponent:
( x xi ) = 0 from which it results:

dx i =1

1 N
(2)
xi
N i =1
that is, the mean value X is the arithmetic mean and describes all the collected data since it is the
value for which the maximum entropy is obtained for our set of data.
X=

( x xi )
=
1
i
d 1 2 2
e

= 0 from which:
To determine we can proceed in the same way
d N

1 N
2
(3)
( x xi )

N i =1
But what should be use instead of x in equation (3)? If we use (2) then equation (3) is slightly self-

1 N 1

referential because =

( x1 + ... + xi + ... + xN ) xi and the i-esim term appears two

N i =1 N

times. It is possible to show that the correct value of the standard deviation is:

1 N
2
( X xi )

N 1 i =1

(4)

Clearly is not defined for N=1 (we are assuming N greater of nearly 30, otherwise there are better
distributions to consider).
Suppose now we have a function Q of several variables Q = f ( a, b, c,...) and we want to know how
the experimental error on each variable contributes to Q.
We can say that by varying the variables, the quantity Q varies of:
Q
Q
Q
Q =
a +
b +
c + ...
a
b
c
and if we identify our uncertainty x with the standard deviation x we can say that:
Q
Q
Q
Q =
a +
b +
c + ...
(5)
a
b
c
the modulus is due to the fact that errors could cancel each other and we want to consider the
maximum error.
We could do better, obtaining a smaller value, if the variables are normal and independent, by

1 N
2
( Qi ) where Qi = f (ai , bi , ci ,...) is the i-esim value of Q by

N 1 i =1
taking the i-esim value of each variable of our set of data, = f ( A, B, C ,...) is the mean value of Q
by taking the mean value of each variable of our set of data.
starting from (4) Q =

28

Q
Since
( Qi ) = ( Qi ) = ai + bi + ...
bi
ai

neglecting terms of higher order) we have:

2

Q
Q
2
2

( ai ) +
( bi ) + ...
ai
bi

(by

Q =
( bi ) + ...
( ai ) + b N 1

a N 1 i =1
i =1
2

a2

b2

or
Q 2 Q 2
Q =
a +
b + ...
a
b
which is better of (5) since its always lower.
1
Suppose now that the function Q is just the arithmetic mean X =
N
we get
2

(6)

x
i =1

. By applying equation (6)

X 2 X 2
X =
x1 +
x2 + ...
x1
x2
but

X
1
=
xi xi N

x = N and
i =1

x1

(7)

= x2 = ... = and so

X =

(8)

N
which is called standard deviation of the mean. Analogously to the standard deviation, it tells
us how good is the mean value X and we can assume it as the amount of uncertainty we have to
allow for if we want to claim a roughly 68% chance of correctly predicting the result of any other
mean value it is possible to obtain.
It is also useful to speak about relative error

Q
Q

instead of absolute error Q . The relative error can

be expressed in percentage.
For example let us return to the problem of determine the density of a cube.
Now, the function Q is the density which is function of the mass M and the side length L: =
If M = 60 g and L = 54mm its easy to find that the mean value is =

M
.
L3

60 g
g
= 3,81 104 3
3
3
54 cm
cm

By applying equation (5) we have that the relative error is:

1
1
L3 1
L3 3M
1
3
=
M +
L =
M +
L = M + L .
3
4
M
L
M L
M L
M
L
If we can suppose the precision of the mass measurement is M = 2 g and the precision of the
length measurement is L = 1mm we have:

2 3 1
=
+
3,3% + 5, 6% = 8,9%
60 54
(this says it is more important to make a careful length measurement than a careful mass
measurement).
By applying equation (6) we get a better (lower) estimate of the density error:
29


M 2 9 L2
22 9 12
=
+
=
+
= 6,5% .

M2
L2
602 542
This means that if we take another measurement of density theres a probability of nearly 68% that
g
.
cm3
It is important to note that since the standard deviation on density is 0,2 x 10-4 g/cm3 we can stop at
the first decimal digit 3,8 x 10-4.

the new value will lie between (3,8 0, 2) 104

30