9812384014

Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
VOLUME
This page intentionally left blank
Edited by
Kimg Hwee TAN
National University of Singapore, Singapore
Singapore
8-1 0 July, 2003
Reinfo rc e me nt for
Concrete Structures
Proceedings of the
VOLUME
Sixth International
Symposium on FRP
Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
(FRPRCS-6)
r heWorld Scientific
NewJersey London Singapore Hong Kong
Preface
Research on the application of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) as
reinforcement for concrete structures appeared in as early as the 1960s.
However, it was not until the late 1980s that such research has escalated,
leading to field applications. The interest in non-metallic reinforcement
was fuelled by the corrosion problem associated with steel reinforcement
that surfaced around the world at that time, and the downturn of the
aerospace industry, where fibre-reinforced polymers have been widely
used due to its high specific strength and modulus, and other superior
characteristics.
I was fortunate to spend my sabbatical with Professor Naaman at the
University of Michigan, USA, during the Fall and Winter of 1991 and
with Professor Okamura at the University of Tokyo, Japan, during Spring
and Summer of 1992. The former introduced to me this new material that
has since fascinated many in the research community and construction
industry. In Tokyo, in particular, I was overwhelmed by the mountains of
research that were embarked by universities, public institutions and
private companies on the development and application of FRP rods as
reinforcement for concrete structures. There were round bars, flat bars,
square bars, braided bars, sanded bars, strands, grids and links, and even
three-dimensional reinforcement. Several applications in footbridges,
foundation beams, tunnel linings, and floating structures suddenly
mushroomed all over Japan and the rest of the world. That probably
constituted the first era in the application of FRP reinforcement in
concrete structures.
The FRPRCS Symposia Series was initiated in 1993, and subsequently
held every two years in the continents of America, Europe and Asia, on a
rotational basis. The previous symposia were held in Vancouver, Canada
(1993), Ghent, Belgium (1995), Sapporo, Japan (1997), Baltimore, USA
(1999), and Cambridge, UK (2001). This year marks the 10th anniversary
of the FRPRCS Symposia Series, and the Department of Civil Engineering
at the National University of Singapore is honored to host the 6th
International Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures
(FRPRCS-6) in Singapore.
VI
The planning and preparation works for FRPRCS-6 in effect began

almost six years ago in 1997 when I was asked in Sapporo, to be the
second Asian host for the FRPRCS International Symposium. At that
time, there was still little awareness of the material known as FRP
reinforcement in Asia outside Japan, and if any, the interests were
centered mainly on externally bonded FRP systems rather than FRP
reinforcing rods. The Kobe earthquake in 1995 has brought about
rapidly increasing interests in the use of FRP systems in structural
rehabilitation, and that marked the beginning of the second era in FRP
applications in concrete structures.
To promote awareness and interests in the development and
application of FRP reinforcement in Singapore and the region, the FibreReinforced Society (Singapore) was formed in September 2002 and has
since been a co-organizer of this Symposium
The FRPRCS-6 International Symposium will signify the beginning
of the third era, in which one could witness global interests in FRP
reinforcement, as well as the use of FRP reinforcements as structural
shapes, and in masonry and steel structures. This set of proceedings
contains a total of 140 papers from 26 countries, in two volumes. Each
technical paper had been reviewed and selected for presentation by at
least two members of the International Scientific Committee, to whom I
would like to express my gratitude.
Volume 1 of the proceedings contains four invited keynote papers
and 63 technical papers dealing with: (i) FRP Materials and Properties;
(ii) Bond Behaviour; (iii) Externally Bonded Reinforcement (EBR) for
Flexure, Shear and Confinement; and (iv) FRP Structural Shapes. The
topics covered in Volume 2 are: (v) Durability and Maintenance; (vi)
Sustained and Fatigue Loads; (vii) Prestressed FRP Reinforcement and
Tendons; (viii) Structural Strengthening; (ix) Applications in Masonry
and Steel Structures; (x) Field Applications and Case Studies; and (xi)
Codes and Standards. Seventy-three papers are included in Volume 2.
The FRPRCS-6 International Symposium also witnessed the
formation of the International Steering Committee, which comprises the
chairmen of the current and previous FRPRCS Symposia. The main
purpose of this Committee is to chart the future directions for the
Symposia Series. It has appointed a three-man taskforce to determine the
Best Paper (Research), Best Paper (Application) and Honorable Mention
Awards, which were first introduced at FRPRCS-6. The three gentlemen
in the taskforce were Professor C.W. Dolan from USA, Professor F.S.
vii
Rostdsy from Germany, and Professor H. Okamura from Japan. All of

them are well known in the areas of FRP reinforcement and structural
concrete.
The organization of the Symposium would not have been possible
without the generous contributions from the sponsors, who are degussaMBT (S) Pte Ltd, Fyfe Asia Pte Ltd, Mapei Far East R e Ltd, Sika (S) Pte
Ltd, Lee Foundation (Singapore) and Defence Science & Technology
Agency. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to the American
Concrete Institute, USA, Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Japan
Concrete Institute, Japan, and The Concrete Society, UK, for supporting
the event.
Last, but not least, I would like to acknowledge the help of my
colleagues, in particular, Balendra, Mansur and Maalej, and the
Secretariat, comprising Christine, Siti and Sarimah, who have devoted
many hours in getting the Symposium organized.
Kiang Hwee Tan

Singapore
July 2003
FRPRCS-6 Organizing Committees

National University of Singapore Organizing Committee
Chairman : K.H. Tan
Members : T. Balendra, M.A. Mansur, M. Maalej
Secretariat : C.S. Tan, Siti Rohani, Sarimah
International Steering Committee

S.H. Rizkalla, USA
L. Taerwe, Belgium
K.H. Tan, Singapore
T. Uomoto, Japan
C.J. Burgoyne, UK
C.W. Dolan, USA
A. Nanni, USA
H. Okamura, Japan
International Scientific Committee
K.H. Tan, Singapore (Chairman)

K.W. Neale, Canada
L.C. Bank, USA
K. Pilakoutas, UK
B. Benmokrane, Canada
S.H. Rizkalla, USA
C.J. Burgoyne, UK
J. Sim, Korea
E. Cosenza, Italy
R.N. Swamy, UK
C.W. Dolan, USA
L. Taerwe, Belgium
G.B. Guimaraes, Brazil
J.G. Teng, China
M. Harajli, Lebanon
R. Tepfers, Sweden
P. Hamelin, France
T. Ueda, Japan
L. Hollaway, UK
T. Uornoto, Japan
G. Manfredi, Italy
P. Waldron, UK
K. Maruyama, Japan
Z. Wu, Japan
U. Meier, Switzerland
Q.R. Yue, China
A.E. Naaman, USA
A. Nanni, USA
viii
Contents
VOLUME 1
KEYNOTE PAPERS
FRP Reinforcements in Structural Concrete: Assessment,
Progress, and Prospects
A.E. Naaman
Progress and Prospects of FRP Reinforcements: Survey of

Expert Opinions
A.E. Naaman
25
Durability Design of GFRP Rods for Concrete Reinforcement

T. Uomoto
37
New Types of Continuous Fiber Reinforcements for Concrete

Members
T. Ueda
51
FRPMATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

~~
Performance of ThermoplasticFiber Reinforced Polymer Rebars

A.B. Mehrabi, C.A. Ligozio, A.F. Elremaily and D.R.
Vanderpool
79
Experimental Study on Poissons Ratio for FRP Tendons

M. Tanaka, M. Khin, T. Harada and K. Venkataramana
89
Stress-Strain Model for FRP-Confined Concrete for Design

Applications
L. Lam and J.G. Teng
99
ix
Accelerated Techniques to Predict the Stress-Rupture

Behaviour of Aramid Fibres (Best Paper - Research)
K.G.N.C. Alwis and C.J. Burgoyne
111
BOND BEHAVIOUR
Bond Characteristics of Various FRP Strengthening Techniques
S.H. Rizkalla and T. Hassan
123
Bond Strength between Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates

and Concrete
T. Kanakubo, T. Furuta and H. Fukuyama
133
Local Bond Stress-Slip Relations for FRP Sheets-Concrete

Interfaces (Best Paper - Research)
J.G. Dai and T. Ueda
143
Bilinear Stress Slip Bond Model: Theoretical Background and

Significance
T. Ulaga, T. Vogel and U. Meier
153
Non Linear Bond-Slip Law for FRP-Concrete Interface

M. Savoia, B. Ferracuti and C. Mazzoti
163
Experimental Analysis of Interface between CFRP

and Concrete using Cylindrical Specimens
A.C. Dos Santos, T.N. Bittencourt and R. Gettu
173
FRP Adhesion in Uncracked and Cracked Concrete Zones

G. Monti, M. Renzelli and P. Luciani
183
Neural Network Prediction of Plate End Debonding in FRPPlated RC Beams

S.T. Smith, J.G. Teng and M. Lu
193
Bond Behaviour of CFRP Strips Glued into Slits

M. Blaschko
205
XI
EXTERNALLY
BONDED REINFORCEMENT FOR FLEXURE
Load Capacity of Concrete Beams Strengthened with External
FRP Sheets
Z.J. Wu and J.M. Davies
217
Reinforcing Effects of CFRP and AFRP Sheets with Respect to

Flexural Behaviour of RC Beams
0. Joh, Z. Wang and H. Ibe
227
Flexural Behaviour of RC Beams Externally Reinforced with

Carbon Fiber Sheets
Y. Takahashi and Y. Sat0
237
Strength and Failure Mechanism of RC T-Beams Strengthened

with CFRP Plates
K. Lee and R. Al-Mahaidi
247
Effect of Beam Size on Interfacial Shear Stresses and Failure

Mode of FRP-Bonded Beams
K.S. Leong and M. Maalej
257
Debonding Failure of RC Structural Members Strengthened

with FRP Laminates
G. Camata, E. Spacone and V. Saouma
267
Effect of End Wrapping on Peeling Behaviour of

FRP-Strengthened Beams
P. Pornpongsaroj and A. Pimanmas
277
An Experimental Study on Debond-Control of AFRP for

Flexurally Strengthened RC Beams
S. Sawada, N. Kishi, H. Mikami and Y. Kurihashi
287
Tests on RC T-Beams Strengthened in Flexure with a Glued and

Bolted CFRP Laminate
A. Nurchi, S. Matthys, L. Taerwe, M. Scarpa and
J. Janssens
297
xii
Parametric Studies of RC Beams Strengthened in Flexure with

Externally Bonded FRP
S . Limkatanyu, H. Thomsen, E. Spacone and G. Camata
307
Concrete Cover Failure or Tooth Type Failure in RC Beams

Strengthened with FRP Laminates
M.M. Lopez and A.E. Naaman
3 17
Influence of Material Properties of FRPs on Strength of

Flexural Strengthened RC Beams
G.F. Zhang, N. Kishi and H. Mikami
327
Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with

CFRP Strips and Fabric
M. Valcuende, J. Benlloch and C.J. Parra
337
A Review of Ductility Determination of FRP Strengthened

Flexural RC Elements
D.B. Tann, P. Davies and R. Delpak
347
A Semi-EmpiricalApproach for the Prediction of Deflections of

FRP Strengthened RC Slabs
D.B. Tann
357
Crack Widths in RC Beams Externally Bonded with CFRP

Sheets
Y. Zhang, H. Toutanji and P. Balaguru
367
Numerical Simulations for Strengthened Structures with

Hybrid Fiber Sheets
H. Niu and Z. Wu
377
Fibre-Section FE of FRP-Strengthened RC Beam in Flexure,

Shear and Confinement
G. Monti and M. Barbato
387
Interaction between Internal Bars and External FRP

Reinforcement in RC Members
G. Zehetmaier and K. Zilch
397
xiii
Strengthening of RC Two-way Slabs with Composite Materials

0. Limam, G. Foret and A. Ehrlacher
407
Evaluation of Externally Bonded CFRP Systems for the

Strengthening of RC Slabs
K.Y. Tan, J.G. Tumialan and A. Nanni
417
Flexural Strengthening of Two-way Slabs Using FRPs

H. Marzouk, U.A. Ebead and K.W. Neale
427
Tensile Properties of Concrete in FRP Strengthened

Two-way Slabs
437
EXTERNALLY
BONDED REINFORCEMENT FOR SHEAR
Shear Critical RC Beams Strengthened with CFRP Straps
G. Kesse and J. M. Lees
447
Effective Shear Strengthening of Concrete Beams using FRP

Sheets with Bonded Anchorage
B.B. Adhikary, H. Mutsuyoshi and M. Ashraf
457
Behaviour of Concrete Structures Strengthened in Shear with

CFRP
A. Carolin and B. Taljsten
467
Strengthening of RC T Beams in Shear with Carbon Sheet

Laminates (CFRP)
G.S. Melo, A.S. Aratijo and Y. Nagato
477
Strength Analysis of Sheared Beams Retrofitted with

Strengthening Materials
2.H. Xiong and M.N.S. Hadi
487
Shear Performance with Externally Bonded Carbon Fibre

Fabrics
A. Li, C. Diagana, Y. Delmas and B. Gedalia
497
XIV
Evaluation of Shear Capacity of RC Columns Strengthened by

Continuous Fiber
T. Furuta, T. Kanakubo and H. Fukuyama
507
Shear Design Equations for FRP RC Beams

M. Guadagnini, K. Pilakoutas and P. Waldron
517
Strengtheningof Corrosion-DamagedRC Columns with FRP

S.N. Bousias, T.C. Triantafillou, M.N. Fardis,
L.A. Spathis and B. ORegan
527
Shear Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Decks using

FRP Bar
P. Valerio and T.J. Ibell
539
EXTERNALLY
BONDED REINFORCEMENTFOR CONFINEMENT
Stress-Strain Relationship for FRP-Confined Concrete
Cylinders
G. Wu, Z. Lu and Z. Wu
55 1
Stress-Strain Relationship for FRP-Confined Concrete Prisms

G . Wu, 2. Wu and Z. Lu
561
Concrete Cylinders Confined by CFRP Sheets Subjected to

Cyclic Axial Compressive Load
T. Rousakis, C.S. You, L. De Lorenzis, V. Tamuis and
R. Tepfers
57 1
Concrete Cylinders Confined by Prestressed CFRP Filament

Winding under Axial Compressive Load
T. Rousakis, C.S. You, L. De Lorenzis, V. Tamuis and
R. Tepfers
581
Concrete Confined with Fiber Reinforced Cement Based Thin

Sheet Composites
H.C. Wu and J. Teng
59 1
xv
Hoop Rupture Strains of FRP Jackets in FRP-Confined Concrete
60 1
Externally Confined High Strength Concrete Columns under

Eccentric Loading
J. Li, M. Moulsdale and M.S.N. Hadi
613
Creep Performance of CFRP Confined Concrete Cylinders

M. Thkriault, M.-A. Pelletier, K. Khayat and G. Al Chami
623
Development/Splice Strength of Steel Bars in Concrete Confined

with CFRP Sheets
M.H. Harajli and B.S. Hamad
633
Lateral Prestressing of RC Columns with FRP Jackets

A.A. Mortazavi, K. Pilakoutas and M.A. Ciupala
643
Confinement of RC Rectangular Columns Using GFRP

A. Prota. G. Manfredi and E. Cosenza
653
Behaviour of RC Columns Retrofitted by Fibre Reinforced

Polymers under Cyclic Loads
H. Shaheen, T. Rakib, Y. Hashem, I. Shaaban and
A. Abdelrahman
663
Photogrammetrically Measured Deformations of FRP Wrapped

Low Strength Concrete
A. Ilki, V. Koc, B. Ergun, M.O. Altan and N. Kumbasar
673
FRPSTRUCTURAL SHAPES
Rectangular FRP Tubes Filled with Concrete for Beam and
Column Applications
A.Z. Fam. D.A. Schnerch and S.H. Rizkalla
685
Flexural Behaviour of GFRP-Polymer Concrete Hybrid

Structural Systems
M.C.S. Ribeiro, A.J.M. Ferreira and A.T. Marques
695
xvi
1-
A New Concept for an FRP Panelized Rapid Deployment

Shelter
N.M. Bradford and R. Sen
705
Experimental Investigation of Pultruded FRP Section

Combined with Concrete Slab
A. Biddah
7 15
VOLUME TWO
DURABILITY
AND MAINTENANCE
~~~
~~
Research on Strength and Durability of GFRP Rods for

Prestressed Concrete Tendons
M. Sugiyama and T. Uomoto
727
Durability of Concrete Beams Reinforced with GFRP Bars

under Different Environmental and Loading Conditions
K. Laoubi, E.F. El-Salakawy, B. Benmokrane and
M. Pigeon
737
Environmental Effects on RC Beams Strengthened with Near

Surface Mounted FRP Rods
F. Micelli, A. La Tegola and J.J. Myers
749
Synergistic Hydrothermal Effects on Durability of

E-Glass Vinylester Composites
W. Chu and V.M. Karbhari
759
Durability of GFRP Composites under Tropical Climate

Y.S. Liew and K.H. Tan
769
Effects of Different Long-Term Climatic Conditions on

FRP Durability
P. Labossihre, K.W. Neale and I. Nishizaki
779
xvii
Durability of Aramid and Carbon FRP PC Beams under

Natural and Accelerated Exposure
H. Nakai, H. Sakai, T. Nishimura and T. Uomoto
785
Effects of Wet Environment on CFRP-Confined Concrete

Cylinders
F. Micelli, L. De Lorenzis, and A. La Tegola
795
Alkali Aggregate Reactive Mortar Cylinders Partly Restrained

by External CFRP Fabric
B.J. Wigum
805
ASR Expansion Reduction and Ductility Improvement by

CFRP Sheet Wrapping
A. Hattori, S. Yamamoto, T. Miyagawa and Y. Kubo
815
Durability of GFRP Rebars in Concrete Beams under Sustained

Loads at Severe Environments
T.H. Almusallam, Y.A. Al-Salloum, S.H. Alsayed and A.M.
Alhozaimy
823
Influence of Sustained Stress on the Durability of GFRP Bars

Embedded in Concrete
V. Dejke, 0. Poupard, L.O. Nilsson, R. Tepfers and
A. Air-Mokhrar
833
A Maintenance Strategy for FRP Strengthening Systems

P. Desiderio
843
SUSTAINED AND FATIGUE LOADS

Viability of using CFRP Laminates to Repair RC Beams
Corroded under Sustained Loads
T. El Maaddawy and K. Soudki
855
Fatigue Bond of Carbon Fiber Sheets and Concrete in RC Slabs

Strengthened by CFRP
A. Kobayashi, S. Matsui and M. Kishimoto
865
xviii
Fatigue Performance of RC Beams Strengthened with CF

Sheets Bonded by Inorganic Matrix
H. Toutanji, Y. Deng and M. Jia
875
Fatigue Performance of RC Beams Strengthened with

Externally Prestressed PBO Fiber Sheets
Z . Wu, K. Iwashita, T. Ishikawa, K. Hayashi,
N. Hanamori, T. Higuchi, A. Ikeda, T. Takeda,
S . Murakami and T. Ichiryu
885
Prestressed CFRP Sheets for Strengthening Reinforced

Concrete Structures in Fatigue
R. El-Hacha, R.G. Wight, P.J. Heffernan and M.A. E r h
895
Fatigue Behaviour of Bridge Deck Specimen Strengthened with

Carbon Fiber Polymer Composites
J. Sim and H.S. Oh
905
Static and Fatigue Tests on Precracked RC Beams

Strengthened with CFRP Sheets
Z.Y. Wu, J.L. Clement, J.-L. Tailhan, C. Boulay and
P. Fakhri
913
Fatigue Investigation of Concrete Bridge Deck Slab Reinforced

with GFRP and Steel Strap
A.H. Memon, A.A. Mufti and B. Bakht
923
PRESTRESSED FRP REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS

Fatigue of High Strength Concrete Beams Pretensioned with
CFRP Tendons
B.B. Agyei, J.M. Lees and G.P. Terrasi
935
Transverse Confinement of Deck Slabs by Concrete Straps

V. Banthia, A.A. Mufti, D. Svecova and B. Bakht
945
Design of Anchorage Zones for FRP-Prestressed Concrete

T.J. Ibell, L. Gale and M.C. Choi
955
xix
A Simple Continuous System of Shear Reinforcement with

Polyacetal Fiber
R. Tuladhar, Y. Utsunomiya, Y. Sat0 and T.Ueda
965
Analytical Modeling of Splitting Bond Failure for NSM FRP

Reinforcement in Concrete
L. De Lorenzis and A. La Tegola
975
Strengthening of RC Beams with External FRP Tendons:

Tendon Stress at Ultimate
R.A. Tjandra and K.H. Tan
985
Comparative Analysis on Stress Calculation Methods for

External FRP Cables
L. An, T. Yamamoto, A. Hattori and T. Migayama
995
Moment Redistribution in Continuous Monolithic and

Segmental Concrete Beams Prestressed with External Aramid
Tendons
A.F. Araujo and G.B. Guimarles
1003
Experimental Investigation on the Ductility of Beams

Prestressed with FRP
M.M. Morais and C.J. Burgoyne
1013
Time-Dependent Flexural Crack Width Prediction of Concrete

Beams Prestressed with CFRP tendons
P.X.W. Zou and S.T. Smith
1023
STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING
Multiscale Reinforcement Concept for Employment of Carbon
Fiber Woven Mesh
K. Yamada, S. Ishiyama, H. Mihashi and K. Kirikoshi
1037
Woven Composite Fabric to Strengthen Structurally Deficient

RC Beams
H.Y. Leung, R.V. Balendran and T. Maqsood
1047
xx
Calibration of Partial Safety Coefficients for FRP Strengthening
G. Monti and S. Santini
1057
Comparison between FRP Rebar, FRP Grid and Steel Rebar

Reinforced Concrete Beams
M. Ozel, L.C. Bank, D. Arora, 0. Gonenc, D. Gremel,
B. Nelson and D. McMonigal
1067
Concrete Beams Strengthened with Pre-Stressed Near Surface

Mounted Reinforcement
H. Nordin and B. Taljsten
1077
Strengthening of One-way RC Slabs with Openings using

CFRP Systems
H.D. Zhao and K.H. Tan
1087
Experimental Results of One-way RC Slabs with Openings

Strengthened with CFRP Composites
P. Casadei. T.J. Ibell and A. Nanni
1097
Seismic Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column Joint

Strengthened with GFRP
Y. Ouyang, X.L. Gu, Y.H. Huang and Z.Z. Qian
1107
FRP Seismic Strengthening of Columns in Frames

M.A. Ciupala, K. Pilakoutas and N. Taranu
1117
Retrofitting of Shear Walls Designed to BS8110 for Seismic

Loads using FRP
K.H. Kong, K.H. Tan and T. Balendra
1127
Strengthening of Interior Slab-Column Connections with CFRP

Strips
K. Soudki, T. Van Zwol and R. Sherping
1137
Effectivenessof FRP Plate Strengtheningon Curved Soffits

A.D. Porter, S.R. Denton, A. Nanni and T.J. Ibell
1147
xxi
Strengthening Performance of FRP Sheets Bonded to Concrete

Tunnel Linings
Z. Wu, W. He, J. Yin, Y. Kojima and T. Asakura
1157
Strengthening of Concrete Structures in Torsion

with FRP
B. Taljsten
1167
FE Modelling of FRP-Repaired RC Plane Stress Elements

N. Khomwan and S.J. Foster
1177
APPLICATIONSIN MASONRY AND STEEL STRUCTURES

Blast Resistance of Prototype In-Built Masonry Walls
Strengthened with FRP Systems (Honourable Mention)
M.K.H. Patoary and K.H. Tan
1189
Retrofit Techniques using Polymers and FRPs for Preventing

Injurious Wall Debris
J.E. Crawford and K.B. Morrill
1199
Experimental Behaviour of Masonry Panels Strengthened with

FRP Sheets
G. Marcari, G. Manfredi and M. Pecce
1209
Flexural Strengthening of URM Walls with FRP Systems

V. Turco, N. Galati, J.G. Tumialan and A. Nanni
1219
Shear Strengthening of URM Clay Walls with FRP Systems

S. Grando, M.R. Valluzzi, J. G. Tumialan and A. Nanni
1229
Effect of FRP Mesh Reinforcement on Shear Capacity and

Deformability of Masonry Walls
S . Russo, R. Gottardo and D. Codato
1239
Strengthening of Masonry Structures under Compressive Loads

by using FRP Strips
M.R. Valluzzi, D. Tinazzi and C. Modena
1249
xxii
Seismic Behaviour of Masonry Structural Walls Strengthened

with CFRP Plates
X.L. Gu, Y. Ouyang, W.P. Zhang and F.F. Ye
1259
Advanced Composite Materials for the Repair of Steel

Structures
A.H. Al-Saidy, T.J. Wipf and F.W. Klaiber
1269
FIELD APPLICATIONS AND CASE STUDIES

Construction and Evaluation of Full-Scale CFRP Prestressed
Concrete DT-Girder
N.F. Grace and G.A. Sayed
1281
Flexural Behaviour of Bridge Deck Slabs Reinforced with FRP

Composite Bars
E.F. El-Salakawy, C. Kassem and B. Benmokrane
129I
Details and Specifications for a Bridge Deck with FRP

Framework, Grid and Rebar
L.C Bank, M.G. Oliva, J.S. Russell, D.A. Dieter,
J.S. Dietsche, R.A. Hill, B. Gallagher, J.W. Carter,
S. Woods and A.H. Anderson
1301
Construction, Testing and Monitoring of FRP RC Bridges in

North America
B. Benmokrane, E.F. El-Salakawy, G. DesgagnC and
T. Lackey
1311
Strengthening of Concrete Structures with Prestressed and

Gradually Anchored CFRP Strips (Best Paper - Application)
I. Stoecklin and U. Meier
1321
Strengthening of Concrete Bridges with Carbon Cables and

Strips
T. Keller
1331
New Corrosion-Free Concrete Bridge Barriers Reinforced with

GFRP Composite Bars
E.F. El-Salakawy, R. Masmoudi, B. Benmokrane,
F. Brikre and G. DesgagnC
1341
xxiii
Strengthening of Steel Silos with Post-Tensioned CFRP

Laminates
L. De Lorenzis, F. Micelli and A. La Tegola
1351
Seismic Performance Improvement of the Bell Tower in Serra

S. Quirico by Composites
E. Cosenza, I. Iervolino and E. Guglielmo
1361
Strengthening with CFRP under Simulated Live Loads

A. Hejll, A. Carolin and B. Taljsten
1371
Composite Structural Systems - From Characterization to Field

Implementation
V.M. Karbhari, H. Guan and L. Zhao
1381
Optimal Cost Design for Beams Prestressed with FRP Tendons

I. Balafas and C.J. Burgoyne
1391
FRP in Civil Engineering in China: Research and Applications

L.P. Ye, P. Feng, K. Zhang, L. Lin, W.H. Hong, Q.R. Yue,
N. Zhang and T. Yang
1401
CODES AND STANDARDS

Design Concepts of the New Swiss Code on Externally Bonded
Reinforcement
T. Vogel and T. Ulaga
1415
Design Guideline for CFRP Strengthening of Concrete

Structures
B. Taljsten
1425
Design Practice of Framed Building Structure Based on AIJ

Design Guideline 2002
K. Kobayashi, H. Fukuyama, T. Fujisaki, S. Fukai and
T. Kanakubo
1435
XXlV
Evaluations of Continuous Fiber Reinforced RC Members

based on AIJ Design Guildeline 2002
K. Nakano. Y. Matsuzaki., T. Kaku and K. Masuo
1445
Design Procedure of NSM FRP Reinforcement for

Strengthening of RC Beams
L. De Lorenzis and A. Nanni
1455
~~
Keynote Papers
FRPRCS-6, Singapore, 8-10 July 2003

Edited by Gang Hwee Tan
QWorld Scientific Publishing Company
FRP REINFORCEMENTS IN STRUCTURAL CONCRETE:

ASSESSMENT, PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS
A.E. NAAMAN
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109-2125, USA
Key technical issues regarding the use of FRP reinforcements are

reviewed, and assessment of the state of progress made. They include
ductility in bending, shear resistance, dowel resistance, and a brief
discussion related to fire, heat and durability. It is observed that technical
problems can all be resolved, but each at a significant increase in cost.
This adds to the already high cost of FRP reinforcements in comparison to
steel, discouraging their use except for very special applications. However,
in thin concrete products and laminated cementitious composites, FRP
reinforcements in the form of meshes, textiles or fabrics are not only
competitive on a technical basis but also on a cost basis.
Recommendations for use of FRP reinforcements in cost-effective
applications are made.
INTRODUCTION
The applicability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) reinforcements to
concrete structures as a substitute for steel bars or prestressing tendons has
been actively studied in numerous research laboratories and professional
organizations around the world
33. FRP reinforcements offer a number of
advantages such as corrosion resistance, non-magnetic properties, high
tensile strength, lightweight and ease of handling. However, they generally
have a linear elastic response in tension up to failure (described as a brittle
failure) and a relatively poor transverse or shear resistance. They also have
poor resistance to fire and when exposed to high temperatures. They loose
significant strength upon bending, and they are sensitive to stress-rupture
effects. Moreover, their cost, whether considered per unit weight or on the
basis of force carrying capacity, is high in comparison to conventional steel
reinforcing bars or prestressing tendons.
From a structural engineering viewpoint, the most serious problems with
FRP reinforcements are the lack of plastic behavior and the very low shear
strength in the transverse direction. Such characteristics may lead to
premature tendon rupture, particularly when combined effects are present,
'-*,
4 FRPRCS-6: Keynote Paper
such as at shear-cracking planes in reinforced concrete beams where dowel

action exists. The dowel action reduces residual tensile and shear resistance
in the tendon. Solutions and limitations of use have been offered and
continuous improvements are expected in the future.
The unit cost of FRP reinforcements is expected to decrease
significantly with increased market share and demand. However, even
today, there are applications where FRP reinforcements are cost effective
and justifiable. Such cases include the use of bonded FRP sheets or plates in
repair and strengthening of concrete structures, and the use of FRP meshes
or textiles or fabrics in thin cement products.
The cost of repair and rehabilitation of a structure is always, in relative
terms, substantially higher than the cost of the initial structure. Repair
generally requires a relatively small volume of repair materials but a
relatively high commitment in labor. Moreover the cost of labor in
developed countries is so high that the cost of material becomes secondary.
Thus the highest the performance and durability of the repair material is, the
more cost-effective is the repair. This implies that material cost is not really
an issue in repair and that the fact that FRP repair materials are costly is not
a constraining drawback.
This paper provides a summary of key results and assessment of several
research studies carried out by the author and his students at the University
of Michigan on the use of FRP reinforcements in reinforced, prestressed and
partially prestressed concrete members, and in laminated cementitious
composites2-28. It also provides some information on what the author
believes are the most interesting and cost-effective applications of FRP
reinforcements for todays market conditions. Results of an opinion survey
of a number of experts on assessment of progress and prospects of FRP
reinforcements, are reported in a parallel paper and should be used to
complement the information described here.
STRUCTURAL DUCTILITY
Structural ductility is of main concern in concrete beams reinforced or
prestressed with FRP reinforcements due to FRP materials linear elastic
behavior up to rupture without yielding. Unless ductility requirements are
satisfied, FRP materials cannot be used reliably in structural engineering
applications.
Extensive experimental and analytical studies were carried out on
structural ductility of concrete beams prestressed or partially prestressed
with FRP tendons. Their main objective was to evaluate the ductility of
FRP Reinforcements in Structural Concrete 5
these beams by various measures, and suggest ways to improve such

ductility for structural applications.
Details are given in Refs.
[9,12,13,14,16].
TC9
TC6a
TC6
TCO
ROC
RFC
WCa- 1
RFCa-2
TS12
TS9
TS6
0.0
1.0
2.0
Ductility Index
3.0
4.0
5.0
Figure 1 Comparison of ductility index for beams with FRP and steel tendons
l6
Conventional definitions of the ductility index which are based on

yielding of the reinforcement, are inappropriate for the evaluation of
structural ductility in concrete beams reinforced or prestressed with FRP
tendons. A new definition of ductility index was proposed. The new
definition is expressed in terms of the ratio of the total energy to the elastic
energy at the failure-state of a beam. It is applicable to beams with steel as
well as brittle FRP reinforcements, thus providing a common basis for
comparison. Results confirmed without the shadow of a doubt, that,
everything else being equal, beams with FRP tendons tend to have lower
ductility indices than beams with steel strands. This is illustrated in Fig. 1
where the ductility index is calculated on the basis of energy consideration
from the following equation:
where Elotalis the total energy consumed to failure and Eelaslrris the elastic
energy recovered at failure. For an elastic perfectly plastic material, Eq. (1)
leads to a ductility index equal to the ratio of ultimate deflection to the
deflection at yield, that is, same as the conventional ductility index.

Generally, higher ductility can be achieved by using proper design
parameters or by considering several improvement methods such as fiber
reinforcement or confinement. These methods are described next.
Approaches to Improve Structural Ductility

Structural ductility can be improved in several ways the most obvious being
by the use of ductile materials. However, both FRP tendons and concrete
are rather brittle and structural ductility must be achieved by other means.
The approaches considered include the ideas described next 9.14916221.
Confinement b y fiber reinforcement. Increasing the compression strain
capacity of the concrete by adding discontinuous fibers to the concrete, the
fibers being steel or polymeric, should have similar effect as lateral
confinement. First, fibers substantially influence the stress strain curve of
concrete in compression, leading to a much more ductile behavior; this can
be used to increase the non-recoverable part of the deflection at ultimate,
leading to a substantial improvement in ductility index. Second, the use of
fibers in appropriate amounts would easily increase the fracture energy of
concrete by one to two orders of magnitude and, therefore, would balance
the effects of elastic energy released by the FRP tendons should their failure
occur. For applications requiring non-magnetic properties, polymeric fibers
can be used. Jeong and Naaman 9 ~ 1 2 3 1have
6
shown that the use of fibers in
otherwise over-reinforced (brittle) concrete beams led to ductility indices
ranging from 2.9 to 5.45 and energy ratios from 3.7 to 9.2 (the control beam
had values of 1).
Note also that fibers can be used selectively in the structure, such as in
the compressive zone only, or where a failure mechanism (producing
hinges) is designed to occur. Their addition to concrete has a number of
other benefits such as improving the shear capacity of the concrete matrix,
decreasing crack widths, improving the inelastic bond between the
reinforcement and concrete, and holding the concrete cover against spalling.
Confinement b y spirals and/or stirrups. Increasing the strain capacity of the
concrete at failure by providing lateral confinement through spirals or
stirrups made from steel or FRP reinforcements would increase the spread of
plasticity in the compression zone of the concrete and lead to improved
ductility. Using spirals with FRP is far more effective than bending them
sharply into rectangular or square stirrups.
Layered tendon and effective prestress design. Here it is suggested to place
the prestressing reinforcement in layers and design the effective prestress in
each layer so as to provide a step like progressive failure with increasing

deflections.
Partial PrestressinR or hybrid combination o f reinforcements. Using
partially prestressed concrete where prestressed FRP tendons are combined
with conventional steel reinforcing bars or specially designed low strengthhigh ductility FRP bars allows sufficient flexibility to achieve increased
ductility.
Unbonded tendons. From an analytical viewpoint, the use of unbonded
tendons, internal or external, is very attractive since the stress in the tendons
does not reach ultimate prior to the failure of the concrete. This allows
maximum ductility use from the concrete side while the risk of failure of the
reinforcement is minimal. However, the use of unbonded FRP tendons
implies the use of perfect anchorages that can sustain fatigue loading;
moreover, external tendons can be very vulnerable to vandalism, and should
they fail, they release an enormous amount of elastic energy that can be
devastating. The transition failure from bonded to unbonded may provide
an attractive solution as described next.
Controlled bond failure. Design the interface between the FRP
reinforcement and the concrete matrix so as to trigger a bond failure when
the stress in the tendons reaches a threshold level, thus moving from a
bonded tendon configuration to an unbonded tendon configuration.
Technologically, this approach should not provide any difficulty.
ODtimizina sectional ductility throunh ProQer reinforcement. Designing the
section and proportioning the reinforcement in order to take advantage of
the full strain capacity of concrete simultaneously with that of the
reinforcement, is an essential design objective. Everything else being equal,
sectional ductility can be improved by properly proportioning and placing
the reinforcement in the section, and by selecting the effective prestress in
the tendons. In particular, in order to better utilize the low strain capacity of
the FRP reinforcement, it seems appropriate to design the section so as to
achieve a neutral axis at ultimate as low as possible within the section. This
somehow imply a section that is close to being over-reinforced.
Assessment Summary on Ductility

Concrete structures using FRP reinforcements can be made sufficiently
ductile to meet most design requirements. However, this will only come at a
significant increase in cost.
BEHAVIOR IN SHEAR
The majority of research on coricrete structures using FRP reinforcements
has been on members that are not shear critical. Unlike flexural behavior,
shear resisting behavior is quite complex by itself even in ordinary
reinforced or prestressed concrete members. Furthermore, the
experimentally derived prediction equations for the shear capacity of
prestressed concrete members using steel tendons has not yet been proven
applicable when FRP tendons are used. This is because the mechanical
characteristics of FRP reinforcement, such as no yielding behavior, low
shear or transverse strength, and low elastic modulus, are significantly
different from those of steel tendons.
Dowel Action
The longitudinal reinforcement, which is designed primarily to resist
flexural tension, is often required to carry a shear force by dowel action
across a diagonal tension crack. If the crack opens (rotates) slightly, a shear
displacement will result from the rotation of a beam about the crack tip and
the shear slip due to the shear force along the crack face. To resist
differential shear displacement between the crack faces, the bars or tendons
develop dowel shear forces. This counteraction of the bars or tendons to
displacement is called "dowel action" (Fig. 2).
Dowel shear
Shear displacement
Figure 2 Dowel action at shear cracks in a concrete beam

In a diagonally cracked prestressed concrete beam, dowel action leads to
a dowel bending moment and a shear force in the tendon itself, in addition to
the tensile force due to the effective prestressing force and the applied load.
As the bending moment and the shear force due to dowel action increase
with loading, bending and shear stresses initiate simultaneously in the FRP
tendon and become larger.
Under these combined tensile and shear stresses, the tendon may fail
prematurely, that is before reaching its unidirectional tensile strength.
Generally the available tensile strength of FRP reinforcements decreases as
their shear stress increases. Thus, dowel action reduces the allowable tensile
stress in the tendon beyond that already caused by the effective prestressing
force and applied load.
Park and Naaman 18,25926327328carried out an experimental investigation of
the shear behavior of concrete beams prestressed with CFRP tendons. They
observed a mode of failure, not encountered with steel reinforcements,
described as shear tendon rupture failure which is due to tendon rupture by
dowel shear at the shear-cracking plane (Fig. 3). It is attributed to the brittle
behavior and low transverse resistance of FRP tendons. This mode of failure
is unique to FRP tendons and was not previously observed when steel
tendons are used, because of the steels high transverse resistance and
yielding characteristics. Shear tendon rupture failure may result in a serious
reduction in load carrying capacity and ductility. Typical failure of a beam
prestressed with FRP tendons that failed by shear tendon rupture is shown
in Fig. 4.
I
Horizontal cracking and

spalling of concrete cover
(4
(b)
(4
(4
Figure 3 Typical failure modes observed in shear test of beams with steel or FRP
tendons: (a) shear-tendonrupture failure; (b) shear-tensionfailure; (c) shearcompression failure; (d) flexural-tensionfailure
Figure 4 Typical shear tendon rupture failure and crack pattern of beams
prestressed with CFRP tendons
70
[,
60
, ,
1;
Deflection (mm)
, :,
, ,
p,
, ,
C8 (CS)
np7
50
(STR)
:,
fO, , , ,2, , , f4, , , ,6, ,

STR: Shear-tendon rupture
ST: Shear-tension failure
CS: Compression-strut failure
, ,
300
250
S5(ST) C7(STR)
(ST)
/--A10
200
za 40
.Y,
150
30
5B
bl
bl
100
20
50
10
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Deflection (in)
0.5
0.6
0
0.7
Figure 5 Observed load-deflection curves for short beams that failed primarily in
shear. Beam S5 is prestressed with steel tendons. All other beams are prestressed
with carbon FRP tendons. Beam CS3 had no stirrups. The prestressing index varied
from 0.23 for beam C9 to 032 for beam C5. The effective prestress was about
0.42&, except for beam C6 with&, = 0 (from Park and Naaman)
Conclusions from Study of Shear

Following are some
N~~~~~ 18.25,26,27,28.
conclusions drawn from the studies by Park and
The shear-tendon rupture failure is a unique mode of failure

characteristic of concrete beams prestressed with FRP tendons. It is due
to tendon rupture by dowel shear at the shear-cracking plane. This
premature failure is attributed to the poor resistance of FRP tendons in
the transverse direction and their brittle behavior. Such a failure will
result in lesser beam shear resistance and lesser ductility (Fig. 5).
The shear-tendon rupture failure occurred at the flexural-shear-cracking
plane in beams with FRP tendons, even when the effective prestress
ratio was low (about 40%) and the required amount of steel stirrups
were provided according to the ACI code.
The ultimate shear displacement and crack width of prestressed beams
which failed by shear-tendon rupture were respectively about one third
and one half those of similar beams with steel tendons.
Adding steel fibers is a possible way to improve the shear resistance of
concrete beams prestressed with FRP tendons by avoiding or delaying
shear-tendon rupture failure.
DOWEL BEHAVIOR OF TENSIONED FRP TENDONS

Background and Significance
It is generally agreed that the resistance in shear of steel bars or prestressing
tendons is not less that 40% of their tensile yield resistance, and yielding in
shear is the prevailing mode of failure under transverse loading. Thus,
dowel resistance at shear cracks is generally assumed non critical when steel
bars or tendons are used, because they yield under load. This is not the case
for FRP tendons which do not undergo yielding. Moreover their observed
shear resistance seem to be test dependent. Their failure due to transverse
shear by dowel effect along cracked planes may lead to premature failure of
structural members. Such behavior must be understood and accounted for in
design.
An experimental and analytical investigation of dowel action was
carried out to study the dowel behavior of CFRP tendons subjected to
combined tensile and shear forces (Fig. 6). Details are given in Refs.
[26,27]. Key results are summarized next.
F
C
Section A-A
+Tj)
Section B-B
Section C-C
Note:( ) in mm
Figure 6 Typical cross section and loading arrangement of dowel test specimen
[from Park and Naaman 26]
Displacement (mm)
2
C " " " " ' " " " " ' 1
30
6
h
v)
.-a
20
5
0 4
k!
42
2
!
ii
;
k!
42
._
...._..CFRP Tendon
$ 2
- 10
Steel Tendon
Reinforcing Bar
I
0.05
, I ,
I I , , , I
0.1
0.15
0.2
Displacement (in)
0.25
1
I
0
0.3
Figure 7 Shear force versus displacement curves of dowel tests with steel and
FRP tendons
Main Conclusions from Dowel Action Tests

The ultimate dowel shear resistance of FRP tendons was 2 to 2.5 times
smaller than that of steel tendons and their shear displacement at
ultimate was about six times smaller (Fig. 7).
Roughly the transverse shear resistance of FRP tendons varied from
about 7% to 20% of their tensile strength (in comparison to 40% for
steel).
Dowel specimens with non-prestressed FRP tendons showed some
ductility under increasing load due to crushing and cracking of the
concrete surrounding the tendons.
The ultimate dowel shear force of FRP tendons subjected to tensile and
shear forces decreased elliptically as the tensile force increased.
Theoretically, this failure behavior satisfies the maximum work theory,
commonly referred to as the Tsai-Hill criterion, which is best described
by an interaction curve.
The ultimate dowel shear displacement of the FRP tendons subjected to
tensile and shear forces decreased linearly with the increase of the
tension ratio.
Everything else being same, adding stirrups or adding fibers to the
concrete, or using higher strength concrete lead to an increase in
ultimate dowel resistance and a decrease in the corresponding shear

displacement at failure.
5 ) The dowel response of specimens with shear planes inclined at 45O was
more ductile than that with vertical shear planes, due to crushing and
cracking of the concrete surrounding the tendons. However their
ultimate shear force was only about 57% of that of specimens with
vertical shear planes.
Assessment Summary on Shear
Concrete structures using FRP reinforcements can be designed for shear; a
safety factor higher that with steel reinforcement may be needed. As with
the case of ductility, this will undoubtedly increase the cost. Clearly, from a
structural design viewpoint, unbonded external tendons which are subjected
neither to shear nor to dowel effects would be best.
HEAT AND FIRE RESISTANCE

Few studies were devoted to evaluating the heat resistance, behavior under
fire, or behavior after fire exposure, of concrete structures with FRP
reinforcements 11,29330v31,34. It is fair to say that the concrete here protects the
FRP reinforcement, and that the resin of the FRP reinforcement is the
weakest link under high temperature exposure or fire. There is evidence that
if the temperature is kept 20C to 30C below the glass transition
temperature of the resin, the reinforcement remains fully effective 35. For
practical purposes, this means a temperature below about 40C. However for
temperatures in the range of 60C to 90C deterioration due to creep may be
significant depending on the type of resin matrix 35. There is also legitimate
concern about the integrity of a structure following a fire, and the potential
release of toxic fumes during a fire. A great deal of research is needed in
applications where fire is an important design criterion.
Although FRP reinforcements are not corrosion sensitive like steel, they
do have other durability problems when subjected to various environmental
conditions 32. Information is still very much needed in this area in order to
provide assurance to the user, without the shadow of a doubt, that FRP
reinforcements are indeed durable in the long term under the same
environmental conditions for which steel reinforcements are exposed.
Developing FRP reinforcements with improved heat resistance and
stability for various environmental conditions will invariably lead to an
increase in material cost.
DO COST COMPETITIVE APPLICATIONS EXIST AT THIS TIME?

The technical drawbacks of FRP reinforcements (brittleness and low shear
resistance) can be technically accommodated in a concrete structure but each
at a significant increase in cost. However, these drawbacks which are quite
critical for conventional concrete structures, seem to be less critical for
applications in thin concrete products and thin laminated cementitious
composites such as ferrocement 24. This is because ductility in laminated
composites is guaranteed by the arrangement of the reinforcement system,
and because meshes do no fail abruptly but rather through some progressive
fracturing of their different wires or fibers15217322;
also in thin sheets, vertical
shear is not critical but interlaminar shear could be.
Advanced fiber reinforced polymeric (FRP) meshes (textiles, fabrics,
grids), may offer enormous advantages in spite of their initial high cost.
This is because, unlike steel wire meshes, they can be tailored to exact
requirements (i.e. fiber denier or diameter, mesh opening, etc..) at little extra
cost, and they offer better corrosion resistance than ordinary steel
reinforcements in thin products where the concrete cover to the
reinforcement is small. Moreover they can be delivered in virtually any
length, they are lightweight and they can be easily shaped to requirements.
Thin reinforced concrete products such as cement sheets, ferrocement
elements, glass fiber reinforced cement cladding and the like, generally
utilize a high percentage of reinforcement (2% to 8% by volume) in
comparison with conventional reinforced concrete (less than 2.5%);
moreover the steel reinforcement in these products which consists of welded
wire fabric, steel wire mesh, expanded metal mesh, or discontinuous fibers
is two to ten times more expensive, on a unit weight basis, than conventional
steel reinforcing bars.
Fabricating a smaller diameter steel wire from a steel rod drives the cost
of steel meshes very high. The smaller the diameter is, the higher the cost.
The cost of the mesh is based on unit weight while the mesh mechanical
efficiency is based on volume fraction in the composite. Since the unit
weight of steel ranges from 5 to 8 times that of FRP materials, and since the
composite properties are based on volume fraction of mesh reinforcement,
cost comparison based on equal performance may favor FRP meshes. Also,
the reinforcement content in thin cement products such as ferrocement is
high in comparison to conventional reinforced concrete; as the cost of steel
meshes is up to six times that of reinforcing bars, ferrocement (and generally
thin concrete and laminated cementitious products) are ideally suited as an
immediate market application for fiber reinforced polymeric (FRP)
reinforcements.
Moreover, it is likely that future developments and
applications will make FRP meshes (grids, textile, fabrics) increasingly cost
competitive, especially when life-cycle cost analysis is considered, and
advanced reinforcing configurations such as 3D meshes and mats become
available.
FRP REINFORCEMENTS IN LAMINATED CEMENTITIOUS

COMPOSITES AND HYBRID COMPOSITES
When FRP meshes (or textiles, or fabrics) are used in thin cement products,
the composite is called a laminated cementitious composites. A number of
studies on the properties of such composites can be found in Refs.
[ 15,17,19,20,22,24]. The FRP meshes used for demonstration in these
studies included Kevlar (aramid fibers), Spectra (highly oriented
polyethylene fibers), Carbon, PVA (poly-vinyl-alcohol), and polypropylene.
The term hybrid composite implies a combination of continuous meshes
such as carbon or steel, with discontinuous fibers such as PVA or steel. The
fibers are generally premixed with the mortar matrix.
Typical Results
mm
._
10
15
20
25
5000
u)
6
u)
zrn
S
30
4000
25
3000
20
m
0
F.
I
15
2000
u)
10
iil
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Midspan Deflection, in.
Figure 8 Typical bending response of hybrid composite plate with PVA meshes and
PVA fibers
FRP Reinforcements in Structural Concrete I7
10
mm
15
20
25
7500
50
L
f 6000
m
n
No Fibers
cc
40
5
.-F 4500
30
5
F
z
'-
3- 3000
V
20
w
Y
c
Kevlar Mesh
Vr = 1.15%
-,-f 1500
z-m
Y
- 10
I-
3
0.
Lu
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Deflection (in.)
mm
0
3
7500
5
I
10
, ,
15
20
,,
30
25
, , , ,
, ,
HYBRID COMPOSITE
v1
VI
PVAl: L ii 6 mm; d = 0.014 mm

PVA2: L = 132 mm; d = 0.2 mm
6000
50
--
40
.-F
4500
30
=3
3000
20
1500
10
w
Y
.-f
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
Deflection (in.)
Figure 9 Typical stress deflection curves of LCC plates: a) reinforced with two
layers of FRP mesh (no fibers), and b) same with 1% PVA fibers by volume
I8 FRPRCS-6: Keynote Paper
Typical results of laminated cementitious composites (LCC or ferrocement)

bending tests using FRP meshes are shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Instead of
plotting load versus deflection curves, the equivalent elastic flexural stress
2
for a rectangular plate ( oe = M I bh ), assuming uncracked section, was

plotted versus the deflection. The equivalent elastic flexural stress
accommodates automatically different geometric properties and test
conditions, providing a good basis for comparison. All specimens described
0 ( 0 . 5 ~ 3 ~ 1in);
2 they were tested in
in Figs. 8 and 9 were 1 2 . 7 ~ 7 5 ~ 3 0mm
bending under third point loading with a span of 225 mm (9 in).
Figure 8 shows a typical response of hybrid laminated cementitious
composite plates reinforced with 2 layers of PVA meshes and PVA fibers; it
also illustrates in this case the additive contribution of the fibers and the
mesh. Figure 9 compares the stress-deflection response in bending of
composite plates containing only two layers of either carbon, or Kevlar or
Spectra mesh. Since the two layers of each mesh correspond to different
volume fractions of reinforcement, some scaling should be used in
comparing the effects of different mesh materials. However, Fig. 9a should
be compared with Fig. 9b where the bending response of similar specimens,
now containing in addition 1% fibers by volume, is shown. It can be
observed that the addition of fibers is beneficial in many ways; it led to
significant improvement in bending strength (more than 50%), deflection at
maximum load, and toughness (measured as the area under the loaddeflection curve). Fibers also led to increased cracking strength, finer crack
widths and smaller crack spacing.
Conclusions from Sudy of Laminated Cementitious Composites
1. Laminated cementitious composites using high performance FRP

reinforcements (Kevlar, Spectra, and carbon), in the form of meshes,
textiles or fabrics, exhibit excellent strength and ductility properties. A
modulus of rupture close to 27 MPa was obtained with only 1.15% total
volume fraction of Kevlar mesh. The addition of 1% by volume of
discontinuous PVA fibers increased the modulus of rupture to about 39
MPa. Spectra and Kevlar type meshes led to similar results.
2. Fiber reinforced plastic meshes do enhance the multiple cracking
process in laminated cementitious composites to the same extent known
in ferrocement reinforced with steel meshes. Good multiple cracking
developed with Kevlar and Spectra meshes, whether discontinuous
fibers were added or not to the mix. More than sufficient ductility was
also achieved.
3. The addition of 1% PVA fibers by volume to specimens reinforced FRP

meshes, led, on the average, to an increase in first cracking strength
from about 5.3 MPa to about 8 MPa.
5 . When only 2 layers of Kevlar and Spectra meshes were used, failure
was by interlaminar shear delamination. The addition of discontinuous
fibers to the matrix led to increases in post-cracking strength of up to
50% and changed the failure mode from delamination to vertical shear.
The use of hybrid composites defined as composites reinforced with a
combination of continuous meshes and discontinuous fibers offers clear
advantages. They are ideally suited for applications in thin concrete
products. In these composites, at least two layers of mesh are placed near
the outer surfaces of the composite, and intermediate layers of mesh are
replaced by discontinuous fibers. The fibers may be premixed with the
mortar matrix or used in a mat structure. The combined utilization of fibers
and meshes provides synergistic advantages due to each reinforcing system,
in which the mesh contributes most to the load resistance and the fibers,
while contributing their share of resistance, mostly contribute to crack
control, toughness and ductility.
Laminated cement based composites such as described above promise to
become viable competitors to any existing fiber reinforced cement based
thin sheet products as well as ferrocement products. Their efficiency in
terms of modulus of rupture and ductility is unmatched at this time by any
other cement composite including conventional RC and PC.
Assessment Summary on Applications in Thin Concrete Products

Thin cement based products using FRP reinforcements (meshes, textiles,
fabrics) are not only competitive performance-wise, but also cost-wise. The
use of FRP reinforcements in such applications should be pursued
aggressively and is the best way to establish a credible record for the future.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ON

APPLICABILITY OF FRP REINFORCEMENTS
From the above assessment, a number of recommendations can be inferred,
and while they could be argued, they seem to be safe at time of this writing.
Given the poor ductility and shear resistance of FRP reinforcements, it
seems that the most effective way to use them, while avoiding excessively
costly solutions, is under the following conditions:
For FRP bars or tendons:

0
Prestressed members in order to take advantage of their strength;

Prestressed, preferably unbonded construction, in order to make
sure that their tensile strength is not attained at member failure, thus
insuring some ductility;
Prestressed, preferably unbonded, preferably external tendons in
order to avoid dowel shear failure;
Unless special requirements are desired and justify a significant
increase in cost, it can be stated that, at time of this writing, FRP
reinforcements are not cost-effective in conventional reinforced
For FRP sheets:

For repair and strengthening, for confinement, or for protection
from aggressive environments.
(This application has not been discussed in this paper but is evident
from the current state of progress and utilization worldwide).
For FRP meshes or textiles or fabrics:
Definitely in thin concrete products and cement sheet applications
and in combination with fibers; they exhibit superior performance
while being cost effective.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research work of the author has been funded in the past by several
grants from the US National Science Foundation and by the University of
Michigan. Their support is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Hundreds of references are available for information on the topics discussed
in this paper. Given space availability, the author lists below only a very
small number of references, among which the proceedings of previous
FRPRC symposia and the main research studies used to formulate the above
opinion assessment.

1. ACI Committee 440, Guide for the Design and Construction of
Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars, Manual of Concrete Practice,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, 2001.
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures,
ACI 440.2R-02, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, 2002.
3. ACT, Proceedings International Symposium on FRP Reinforcements in
Concrete Structures, A. Nanni, and C.W. Dolan, Editors, ACI SP-138,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, 1993.
4. ACI, Proceedings 4th International Symposium on FRP Reinforcements
in Reinforced Concrete Structures, FRPRCS 4, ACI October 1999.
5. Benmokrane, B., and El-Salakawy, E.F., (Editors), Durability of FiberReinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction, Proceedings
of 2d International Conference, May 2002, Univeristy of Sherbrooke,
Canada, 715 pages.
6. Burgoyne, C., (Editor), FRP Reinforcements in Concrete Structures FRPRCS, Proceedings, University of Cambridge, U.K., 200 1.
7. Japan Concrete Institute (JCI), Technical Report on Continuous Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, TC 952: Committee on Continuous Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, Tokyo, Japan, 1998.
8. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, JSCE Research Subcommittee on
Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials, Application of Continuous
Fiber Reinforcing Materials to Concrete Structures, International
Concrete Library, No. 19, June 1992
9. Jeong, S.M., Naaman, A.E., and Tan, K.H., Investigation of Beams
Partially Prestressed with Carbon Fiber Reinforced Composite
Tendons, Proceedings of the FIP X I I Congress, Washington, May
1994, pp. B56-B61.
10. Harris, H.G., Somboonsong, W., and KO, F.K., New Ductile Hybrid
FRP Reinforcing Bar for Concrete Structures, Journal of Composites
for Construction, Vol. 2, No. 1, ASCE, Reston, Virginia, Feb. 1998, pp.
28-37.
11. Katz, A., Berman, N., and Bank, L., Effect of Cyclic Loading and
Elevated Temperature on the Bond Properties of FRP Rebars,
International Conference on the Durability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer
for Construction, Sherbrooke, Canada, 1998, pp. 403-413.
12. Naaman, A.E., and Jeong, S.M., Considerations of Structural Ductility
with External Tendons, Proceedings, Workshop on Behavior of
External Prestressing in Structures, St. Remy, France, June 1993.
13. Naaman, A.E., Tan, K.H., Jeong, S.M., and Alkhairi, F., "Partially
Prestressed Beams with Carbon Fiber Composite Strands: Preliminary
Tests Evaluation," Proceedings of ACI International Symposium on
FRP Reinforcements in Concrete Structures, American Concrete
Institute, ACI SP-138, 1993, pp. 441-464.
14. Naaman, A.E, "Ductility Implications of Prestressed and Partially
Prestressed Concrete Structures Using Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Reinforcements," FIP Symposium 93, Modern Prestressing Techniques
and their Applications, Kyoto, Japan, October 1993, pp. 757-766.
15. Naaman, A.E., and Al-Shannag, J. "Ferrocement with Fiber Reinforced
Plastic Meshes: Preliminary Investigation" Proceedings of the Fifth
International Symposium on Ferrocement, Manchester, England,
September 1994. P. Nedwell and N.R. Swamy, Editors, E. and FN
Spon, London.
16. Naaman, A.E. and Jeong, S.M., "Structural Ductility of Beams
Prestressed with FRP Tendons." Proceedings 2nd International
Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement f o r Concrete
Structures, L. Taerwe, Editor, Ghent, Belgium, August 1995; RILEM
Proceedings 29, E & FN Spon, London, pp. 379-386.
17. Naaman, A.E., and Guerrero, P., "Bending Behavior of Thin Cement
Composites Reinforced with FRP Meshes," Proceedings of First
International Conference on Fiber Composites in Infrastructures, ICCI
96, Edited by H. Saadatmanesh and M. Ehsani, University of Arizona,
Tucson, January 1996, pp. 178-189.
18. Naaman, A.E., and Park, S.Y., "Shear behavior of concrete beams
prestressed with CFRP tendons: Preliminary test evaluation,"
Proceedings of International Conference, FRPRCS-3, Sapporo, Japan,
October 1997.
19. Naaman, A.E., "High performance fiber reinforced cement composites:
distinctive attributes for repair and rehabilitation," Proceedings of
International Conference on Structural Failure ICSF-5, National
University of Singapore, Nov. 1997; 11 pages.
20. Naaman, A.E., "Ferrocement: a High Performance Cementitious
Third International
Composite Laminate," Proceedings of the
Conference on Analytical Models and New Concepts in Mechanics of
Concrete Structures, Wroclaw, Poland, June 1999, pp. 199-206.
21. Naaman, A.E., "FRP Reinforcements in Concrete Structures: Design
Issues, Potential Solutions, Realistic Applicability," Proceedings of the
Second Middle East Symposium on Structural Composites for
Infrastructure Applications, A.H. Hosni, I. Mahfouz and S. Sarkarni,
Editors, April 1999, pp. 99-118.
22. Naaman, A.E., and Chandrangsu, K., Bending Behavior of Laminated

Cementitious Composites Reinforced with FRP Meshes, ACI
Symposium on High Perfonnance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Thin
Sheet Products, Edited by A. Peled, S.P. Shah and N. Banthia,
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, ACI SP 190, 2000, pp.
97-1 16.
23. Naaman, A.E., Park, S.Y., Lopez, M.M., and Till, R., Parameters
Influencing the Flexural Response of RC Beams Strengthened using
CFRP Sheets, Proceedings of FRPRC 5, C. Burgoyne, Editor,
University of Cambridge, U.K., July 2001. pp. 117, 125.
24. Naaman, A.E., Ferrocement and Laminated Cementitious Composites,
Techno Press 3000, ISBN 0-9674030-0-0, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 2000,
372 pages.
25. Park, S.Y., and Naaman, A.E., Failure Criteria for CFRP Tendons
Subjected to Tensile and Shear Forces, Proceedings of 2nd
International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure (ICCI 98), H.
Saadatmanesh and M.R. Ehsani, Editors, January 1998, University of
Arizona, Vol. 2, pp. 188-202.
26. Park, S.Y., and Naaman, A.E., Dowel Behavior of Tensioned FRP
Tendons, ACI Structural Journal, Vol 96, No. 5, September-October
1999, pp. 700-806.
27. Park, S.Y., and Naaman, A.E., Shear Behavior of Concrete Beams
Prestressed with FRP Tendons, PCI Journal, Vol. 44, No. 1, Jan.-Feb.
1999, pp 74-85.
28. Park, S.Y., Naaman, A.E., Lopez, M.M., and Till, R.D., Shear
Strengthening of R.C. Beams Using Glued CFRP Laminates,
Proceedings FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, Vol. 1, J.-G. Teng,
Editor, Elsevier Science Ltd., Dec. 2001, pp. 669-676.
29. Plecknik, J., et al., Temperature Effects on Epoxy Adhesives, Journal
of Structural Engineering, Vol. 106, No. 1, ASCE, Reston, Virginia,
1986, pp. 99-1 13.
30. Saafi, M., FRP Composites of Construction and the Fire Issue:
Preliminary Laboratory Results, 2nd International Conference on
Durability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) f o r Construction,
Montreal, Canada, 2002.
31. Saafi, M., Design of FRP Reinforced Concrete Structures under Fire
Conditions, CICE International Conference on FRP Composites in
Civil Engineering, Kowloon, Hong Kong, December 2001.
32. Sen, R., Shahawy, M., Mullins, G., and Spain, J. (1999). Durability of
CFRPKoncrete Epoxy Bond in a Marine Environment, ACZ Structural
Journal, Vol. 96, No. 6, pp. 906-914.
33. Taerwe, L., (Editor), Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures, 2nd International Symposium, Ghent, Belgium, RILEM
Proceedings 29, E & FN Spon, 1995, London.
34. Tanano, H., et al., Tensile Properties at High Temperatures of
Continuous Fiber Bars and Deflections of Continuous Fiber Reinforced
Concrete Beams under High Temperature Loading, in Non-Metallic
(FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Japan Concrete Institute,
Vol. 2, 1997, pp. 43-50.
35. Zureick, A. and L. Kahn (2001) Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete
Structures Using, Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites, ASM
Handbook, Volume 21: Composites, pp. 906-913.
FRPRCS-6, Singapore, 8-1 0 July 2003

PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS OF FRP REINFORCEMENTS:

SURVEY OF EXPERT OPINIONS
A.E. NAAMAN
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109-2125, USA
This paper summarizes the opinion survey of a number of international
experts in the field of FRP reinforcements carried out in response to the
following questions: (1) Given the past 15 years of research, evaluation,
and applications, what is your assessment of the current state of progress?
Are we in an impasse? ( 2 ) Given the technical concerns posed during the
initial development phase (ductility, poor transverse resistance, durability,
stress-rupture, prestressing hardware, fire resistance, cost etc.), was any
"leap-frog progress" made? If yes, what were the main elements? If not,
why not? What are the main catalysts or obstacles? (3) What are the
prospects for FRP reinforcements in near future applications in civil
infrastructure systems? Do you expect major increases in applications?
Give possible examples?
INTRODUCTION
The author carried out a limited survey of opinions on the use of FRP
reinforcements in structural concrete, reinforced and/or prestressed.
Specifically the survey excluded the use of externally bonded sheets for
repair and strengthening; it addressed only the use of FRP reinforcements as
replacement of steel reinforcing bars or prestressing tendons in new
structures. The opinion of a number of international experts was sought.
Their responses are summarized below.
It is important to realize that each bullet represents an opinion from a
different person or group of persons. Some editing was used for uniformity.
Very similar opinions were not repeated. However, care was taken to keep
the information as clear and as close as possible to its original form. Not all
persons contacted responded to the survey. Those who responded are listed
in acknowledgments. The experts in the survey were selected to represent
different continents and viewpoints. Special effort was made to preserve
anonymity of the respondants.
The opinions received cover the entire spectrum, from what could be
described as optimistic to rather conservative, careful, risk averse, and
pessimistic. It is hoped that the reader will have the opportunity to examine
the information gathered and use it to better formulate hisher own opinion.
SURVEY RESULTS
Question 1: Given the past 15 years of research, evaluation and
applications, what is your assessment of the current state of progress?
Are we in an impasse?
Current State of Progress
Examples of opinions received include:
Since ACI 440.1R-01 came out one year ago, the number of commercial
application is increased in the RC arena, while some work - especially
in R&D - needs to be undertaken in PC type of applications. Major
areas of interest regard bridge decks reinforcement, slabs on ground,
and tunnel boring machine applications.
Considerable progress has been made in developing FRP rebars (glass
and carbon fiber) for reinforcing slabs (considering no viable bar
existed in the mid 80s). Less progress has been made on beams where
shear capacity and FRP stirrup design remain a problem. No progress
on FRP reinforced axial members (columns) was made. Perhaps there
is no need for that. ACI design guide exists.
Since the application of performance-based design is not ripe in
structural engineering, the use of FRP reinforcements did not progress
significantly. Moreover, a number of research issues on FRP
applications need to be resolved to meet various technical and societal
requirements.
Some progress has been made in improving the durability of FRP rebars
(particularly with glass fiber reinforcement). More work is needed on
development of higher temperature and moisture resistant resin
systems. Progress has been made on developing material specifications
for FRP rebars. The use of FRP grids as reinforcement has been
unfortunately neglected in the US - - and perhaps has the greatest
potential for success.
Considerable progress has been made in developing FRP tendons with
carbon fibers. While there are some applications in beams, the use of
FRF' post-tensioning in slabs appears to have the best potential,
especially in bridge decks where craclung is a perennial problem.
Progress and Prospects of FRP Reinforcements 27
The state of the work is quite good and getting better. It is primarily
economic limits that keep the technology in check. FRP repair is going
great even with incomplete science because the economics work.
There has been significant progress at the research level. During the
past decade, we have witnessed exponential growth in research and field
demonstrations of FRP composites in civil engineering applications. In
the United States, the growth was fueled by financial support from the
National Science Foundation, the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, the Federal Highway Administration, the National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, the Department of Defense
Advanced Research Projects Administration-Technology Reinvestment
Project (DARPA-TRP), and state funding agencies. Since the late
199Os, deployment of FRP composites in highway bridges has increased
considerably due to funding through the Transportation Equity Act-21 /
Innovative Bridge Construction Program.
0
At least one researcher at almost every university in the US is involved

in research on FRP materials; a field application of FRP materials in
bridges has taken place in practically every state in the US.
Besides external prestressing, the application of FRP reinforcement
(rods, tendons, grids) have been rather limited to special cases where
the low unit weight, "non-corrosive" nature (in comparison to steel
reinforcement), and non-magnetic properties, are being capitalized on.
These include use in shaft walls so that the penetration and introduction
of tunneling shield machines could be easily carried out, guideways for
magnetic levitation systems, special facilities housing medical and
sensitive equipment for which steel reinforcement would pose
interference, and in seafront structures where the aggressive
environment is adverse for steel reinforcement.
Generally spealung the fundamental properties of RC and PC structural
members using FRP reinforcements are clear. The advantages of FRPs
in comparison to steel rebars are also clear as well as their
disadvantages such as cost, difficulty of handling in PC applications,
and difficulties related to bent stirrups. While FRP reinforcements are
used in special structures such as buildings for high-energy accelerators,
there is concern about their heat resistance and their performance under
fire.
The progress in FRP rods and tendons have in the last 5 to 7 years,
definitely slowed down compared to FRP sheets. It can simply be
observed from the number of publications in each field. We have to

think of how to overcome the technical deficiencies of FRF materials to
make them more attractive. However, as a first step, if the various
codes for FW-reinforced concrete could be simplified and unified for
general applications, and if the cost of F W reinforcements brought
down, we may be able to see more applications.
To some degree, there has been progress. I think that the introduction of
design guides will help in the short-term, but I also feel that the design
guides will need to be substantially rewritten in coming years to ensure
that efficient use is made of FRP materials, rather then mere use, to
offset the undoubtedly higher short-term costs. FRP should not be seen
as a direct replacement for steel, but rather as a material in its own right.
Demonstration projects are still required, but there needs to be one BIG
one. An analogy here could be Ironbridge, built in 1779 in Shropshire,
UK, as a demonstration by the local iron mill that iron could be used to
build bridges. Had they built a mere 20 ft span, no-one would have
flinched, but they built an impressively large bridge, and the use of iron
started. Equally, in the construction of the Millennium Dome in London
in 1999, site welding was used on the main towers, something that
academics would (at the time) usually discourage from attempting. This
large-scale demonstration has helped to bring site welding back into the
limelight. Therefore, the use of FRF reinforcements for concrete
requires one large bridge or building, which could be seen as a focal
point for its more widespread use. How such a project would arise is a
much more difficult question.
There have been literally hundreds of research studies, many practical
guidelines (JCI, ACI, FIB, etc ...) accompanied by a lot of fanfare to
encourage the use of FRP reinforcements, but the main issues remain
same: ductility, shear resistance, bend-ability, fire resistance and most
importantly cost. As long as the alternative steel provides better
competitive solution in each of the above, it is not clear when and where
FRP reinforcements will become equally competitive, except perhaps in
structures built in space where weight is paramount.
A serious problem for FRP applications is acceptability at the

professional-consultancy level. Many traditional steel-reinforced or
prestressed concrete researchers and designers look at FRP-reinforced
concrete researchers, consultants, or experts, as having jumped on the
bandwagon, with little or no real grasp of some fundamental issues in
structural engineering, but with the goal of attracting research funding
easily, or selling the material. They look at FRP research as slightly

inferior, and untrustworthy to some extent. This might be a real obstacle
to the use of FRP materials in reputable large consultancies.
Are we at an Impasse?
We are not at an impasse. Progress is substantial. Innovation takes

time. While there have been some inappropriate uses of FRP prototype
materials there are also many applications that show a convincing trend
toward future acceptance for specific applications.
In a way we are at an impasse. With extensive research baclung, and
guidelines available, where are the projects and where are the plans for
future large-scale projects? Compare to the beginning of steel, or
reinforced concrete; and that was more than a century ago. Today the
pace should be exponential. But where are the planned applications? I
would rather be at the beginning of reinforced or prestressed concrete.
We are indeed in an impasse despite the numerous, sometimes
ambitious, test programs worldwide. The major obstacles are the high
material cost and some particular technical problems which can be
summarized as follows:
a) Reinforced concrete
Most applications seem to focus on GFRP (glass FRP). However, how
to explain that we put glass in an alkaline hostile environment as a
solution to the corrosion problem of steel? This is a contradictory
situation. Even AR-glass is subject to long-term deterioration.
GFRP is used because of cost reasons, compared to CFRP
(carbon FRP) and AFRP (aramid FRP). However, the design of
flexural members is governed by serviceability conditions
which implies the need to provide a sufficient cross section of
reinforcement in ordcr to increase flexural stiffness and reduce
crack width. This additionally increases the cost.
FRP stirrups are a serious practical obstacle in practice:
1) They need to be pre-shaped and cannot be bent at the site
2) There is significant strength reduction in the bends.
Suggesting to use longitudinal FRP reinforcement and steel
stirrups is inconsistent.
b) Prestressed concrete
Stress-rupture limits the efficient use of GFRP in prestressing. When
CFRP and AFRP are used in RC applications, these high-strength
materials are not fully utilized. Hence there is benefit in using them in
prestressed concrete. However, here arises the problem of reliable, cost
effective anchorages. For pre-tensioning, requirements are less severe
than for post-tensioning. In the first case individual wires, strands or
strips need to be anchored temporarily at a smaller capacity than for big
cables. Some of the special anchorages developed so far are
complicated to use and not applicable to efficient day-to-day practice.
This is true for pretensioning as well as post-tensioning, where in
comparison, large steel cables are commonly tensioned. Another
problem with CFRP tendons is the inherent brittleness which requires
severe precautions during handling and tensioning. Regarding AFRP,
problems arise with high relaxation (up to 20% in wet conditions),
sensitivity to moisture, and high transverse thermal expansion.
Relatively limited progress has been made.
Yes indeed we are at an impasse. Given the tremendous effort
(technical and promotional) that introduced FRP reinforcements to the
professional community (through research and research centers,
symposia, educational materials, practical guidelines, technical journals
and newsletters) today's applications of the technology should be
widespread; but it is not. While we understand better the technical
issues, the solutions so far provided are not sufficiently attractive to
make FRP reinforcements competitive in both the short and long-term.
Unless the cost of the most promising FRP materials (that are carbon
based composites) diminishes significantly, we can practically do with
stainless steel reinforcements all that can be done with FRP
reinforcements, except for making them as lightweight. And with steel,
we have a long-term proven experience.
Question 2: Given the technical concerns posed during the initial

development phase (ductility, poor transverse resistance, durability, stressrupture, prestressing hardware, fire resistance, cost etc...) was any "leapfrog progress" made? Zfyes, what were the main elements? If not, why
not? What are the main catalysts or obstacles?
The issues of ductility, crack control, cost etc. is hard to deal with in
FRP-reinforced concrete. I believe that the whole concept of "hiding"
FRP reinforcements inside concrete is problematic, until long-term

performance has been demonstrated.
0
Many technical issues related to the use of Flip composites have been
addressed in the ACI 440 guidelines. Still, more needs to be learned,
and more experience in the field is needed before unresolved concerns
can be treated with the familiarity used in steel reinforcement design.
In prestressed concrete, the issue is much more that of economics. The
cost of carbon FRP strand is still 3 to 6 times that of steel strand, and
steel works very well with little problems. The few bridges built with
FRP reinforcements (for demonstration or trial) were so inefficient that
they did not make a breakthrough.
There was significant progress. In prestressed concrete (including
external prestressing) the use of FRP reinforcements enhances
durability under severe environmental conditions. New hardware for
prestressing was developed.
No leap-frog progress was achieved so far. The advantages of FRP

reinforcements were not demonstrated convincingly. Cost should be
correlated with the level of performance for FRP applications; however,
their long-term performance level cannot be evaluated yet. Progress
will depend on the assessment of life-cycle cost.
Progress with FRP reinforcements should be characterized as
evolutionary (not leap-frog), which is not bad. I do not see any major
obstacles to continue the evolutionary development. The largest
obstacle appears to be the low glass transition temperature of the
polymer resin systems currently in use (around 100 "C) and also the
poor fire resistance of the materials (however, this issue is most often
not addressed by structural engineers directly, even with conventional
materials.) The main catalyst for continuing progress is the search for
more durable and predictable construction materials that are exposed to
severe environmental conditions, therefore malung applications in
highway structures much more attractive than in conventional building
structures.
Research in the area of FRP reinforcement has been extensive over the
past 15 years and has advanced the state of the art considerably. A
testament to that are the codes and/or proposed guidelines that have
been published in Japan, Canada, Europe, and the US. However, we
still have a long way to go. The primary impediment to the deployment
of FRP reinforcements is "cost". FRP reinforcements have been used in
a number of bridges, and the main reason was because these were either
experimental, or demonstration, or showcase projects. It would have
been very difficult, even impossible, to justify their use based on cost.
With the exception of limited special applications, such as in nonmagnetic or highly corrosive environments, the use of FRP
reinforcements has been limited.
0
Progress has been made over the years on the issues mentioned, but it is
not clear if they could be considered "leap-frog progress." Some of the
durability tests, for example, may not be useful for design purposes.
Many engineers are still unfamiliar with FRP rods and tendons. Further
education of the industry and the profession on FRP materials is
definitely needed.
There has been leap-frog progress in terms of ductility, by loolung to

the concrete, rather than the reinforcement. In the other areas listed,
some progress has been made (certainly in durability and fire
resistance), but it cannot be considered "leap-frog.''
The next true leap-frog advancement must be in terms of how we use

FRP materials. There is need to write a guide (at the international level
and for an international audience) which addresses issues about how
BEST to use FW materials in concrete. It could be spearheaded for
instance by some of the people responding to this survey and started
following FWRC6. It would show designers the versatility of FRP
reinforcements and this would be beneficial in terms of providing a
more credible, widespread confidence in FRF'.
I don't see any major break-through for RC and PC applications, which
happened during the last decade, despite the very extensive research
efforts.
Question 3: What are the prospects for FRP reinforcements in near

future applications in civil infrastructure systems? Do you expect major
increases in applications? Give possible examples?
I do not expect major increases in applications.
Major increases in FRP applications are expected in the future,
primarily due to the increased knowledge and confidence that engineers
and designers will develop for this new technology. With the exclusion
of columns reinforcement, where FRP reinforcements should not be
used, every other structural component (slabs, beams, bridge decks)
could be designed using FRP composites as main reinforcement.
In highway applications (particularly in bridge decks) the future appears
to be promising both for FRP rebars (glass or carbon) and FRP tendons
due to the high cost of bridge deck maintenance. Otherwise only
specialized applications that require exceptional durability (wastewater
etc.) and electromagnetic transparency (MRIs) appear to have any
rationale.
Repair and rehabilitation will remain the top contender application. The
field of precast building systems may offer an entirely new technology.
FRP reinforcements will see growth in structures where the primary

design considerations are corrosion, magnetic interference, and other
special considerations.
Durability, damage control, and long life are requirements for
environmental sustainability. Examples of applications include long
lasting skeletons (structural subsystem) of buildings where the
remaining subsystems are changeable with time. The elasticity of FRP
reinforcements leads to reduced residual deflections in seismic
structures. Their non-magnetic properties will remain a key advantage
in certain applications.
FRP reinforcements will be mostly used in special structures, or in
structures under severe environmental conditions (such as coastal
bridges exposed to chlorides). They will be used if the client demands
it, or if a policy is set by an agency to use them. However, their
relatively high cost will limit their use. Moreover, construction
companies do not care about using FRP reinforcements since they do

not reap the benefits; while manufacturers of FRPs do.
Further applications of FRP reinforcements in civil infrastructure
systems are possible. This requires the combined efforts of researchers,
educators, code writers and professional organizations. In the research
arena, in particular, we need to think beyond the usual boundaries. For
example: a) Is it not practical to replace partially corroded steel
reinforcement with FRP reinforcement or add FRP reinforcement to
existing steel reinforcement in concrete structures? In this manner, we
achieve a "hybrid reinforcement", and by doing so, could we not
improve the ductility of the member? (b) Can FRP rods and tendons be
made sufficiently flexible so that they could be bent by hand or simple
mechanical tools to form stirrups and the like on site? Can we develop
a special thermoplastic that would allow such bending to be done, for
example, using a "hot-press"? (c) Can we utilize FRP reinforcements as
"smart materials" for structural monitoring?
I do not know of a single near-future application of any sort, although I
do know of a very recent one ...(that did not go as desired) .... I think this
boils down once again to lack of confidence in the product, for whatever
myriad of reasons particular designers have.
I do not foresee a major increase in the use of FRP until its use is first
shown to be cost-effective in the SHORT term. It does us no good to
point out the long-term cost savings (with no performance records to
prove it). Clients are not interested in this. We need to cut down the
initial cost, which is done by using the material in novel ways. One
immediate issue I can think of is bends in FRP bars. There is absolutely
no logical reason why we have bends. They cost a fortune to
manufacture, they are unalterable and they are not needed if a helix is
placed around the bar in the anchorage location; this anchors the bar
just as well, but it is not mentioned in FRP design guides. Nor is any
serious attempt made to mention ductility injection into concrete
through helical confinement or short fibers, which would lead to
redistribution of moments being possible and full use of compression
reinforcement. The rational use of FRP is a research priority, in my
opinion, and through such rational use we will create a product, which
is CHEAPER than steel-reinforced concrete, even in the short term. At
that stage, expect an explosion in use.
I predict almost no progress in practical applications in the near future

except if the material cost could be substantially reduced, which seems
unlikely. Applications will remain limited to small-scale demonstration

projects. Exceptions are concrete elements in very aggressive chemical
environment and requirements for electromagnetic neutrality (rooms for
specific electronic equipment).
For reinforcement of QUEEN CONCRETE, in the form of wires,
reinforcing bars or prestressing strands, STEEL, conventional or
stainless, is still KJNG of the hill.
CONCLUSIONS
It is clear from the above questions and answers that in spite of the
extensive research so far carried out worldwide on the use of FRP
reinforcements in concrete structures, there is a relative malaise about
their use and future success. It is also clear that at time of this writing, a
number of international experts do not see leap-frog advances and
exponential progress in applications.
Similarly to many physical
phenomena described by an inverted S curve, there has been a rapid initial
development in FRP reinforcements, followed by a slow steady progress
and, at time of this writing, we seem to be in that steady progress phase;
however, it is not clear if what lies ahead is going to be continuing slow
steady progress, or exponentially increasing progress, or fall in disgrace and
forgetfulness phase. The curves of Fig. 1 illustrates our current position.
Predicting the future at this time is more challenging than a wait and see
approach.
v)
8a
v1
.
2
a
v)
Figure 1 Schematic illustration of progress for use of FRP reinforcements

in concrete structures
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of experts were asked to respond to the questions of the survey
described in this paper. Those who responded on time are listed next. The
author is grateful for their cooperation and their candid answers. They are:
Lawrence Bank, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA; Charles Dolan,
University of Wyoming, Laramie, USA; Hiroshi Fukuyama, Building
Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan; Issam E. Harik, University of Kentucky,
Lexington, USA; Tim bell, University of Bath, UK; Ayman Mosallam,
California State University, Fullerton, USA; firoshi Mutsuyoshi, Saitama
University, Japan; Antoine E. Naaman, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
USA; Antonio Nanni, University of Missouri, Rolla, USA; Ferdinand.
Rostazy, Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany; Luc Taerwe,
University of Ghent, Belgium; Kiang Hwee Tan, National University of
Singapore, Singapore; Thanasis Triantafilou, University of Patras, Greece.

OWorld Scientific Publishing Company
DURABILITY DESIGN OF GFRP RODS FOR CONCRETE

REINFORCEMENT
T. UOMOTO
International Center for Urban Safety Engineering,
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo
4-6-IKomaba, Meguro, Tokyo, Japan
To deal with the corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete, FRP has been
used throughout the world. They do not corrode even in chloride
environments by sea water and deicing salt. Considering the durability of
the material, FRP will become a major reinforcing material for concrete in
highly corrosive environment. One of the problems of FRP is that some of
the FRP rods and sheets deteriorate due to other causes such as alkali attack,
acid attack, ultraviolet ray attack, etc. Among them, alkali attack to glass
fibers and GFRP is the largest problem. It is difficult to apply the material
as internal reinforcement of concrete. To deal with the problem, many
attempts are performed. This paper explains how to deal with the problem
to produce high alkali resistant GFRP using durability design.
INTRODUCTION
Concrete structures throughout the world have been deteriorated severely

due to chloride induced steel corrosion. To deal with the problem, many
attempts were performed, such as to use galvanized steel bars, epoxy-coated
bars, catholic protection, etc. Among these attempts, FRP was evaluated as
one of the best methods to deal with the problem because FRP does not
corrode even in chloride environment.
As mentioned by JSCE research committee I), many researches were
performed mostly in Japan, North America and Europe to utilize FRP as
concrete reinforcement since 1980's. In Japan, a large amount of FRP has
been applied to reinforced concrete structures not only to new structures but
also to existing structures using recommendations by JSCE *, 3), etc. The
types of FRP commonly being used are rods embedded in concrete for new
structures and sheets applied to the surfaces of existing structures.
Concrete structures are normally used for more than 50 to 100 years, and the
reinforcements must be also durable enough to reinforce the concrete for the
same period of time. Although FRP does not corrode in chloride
environment, we have already clarified that FRP deteriorates in other
environments such as high concentration of alkali and acid, ultra-violet rays
from sunlight, etc.
To deal with the problem, care must be taken how to use FRP materials
as reinforcements for concrete structures4). One method is to use high
durable material such as CFRP as concrete reinforcement. Another method
is to change the properties of the existing FRP so that it may not deteriorate
easily in these environments.
Considering these conditions, this paper is written to explain briefly
through our works in IIS, the cause of FRP deterioration and basic concept
to deal with these problems. In this paper, explanation is given on FRP rods
using carbon fibers, Aramid fibers and glass fibers.
MAIN CAUSES OF FRP DETERIORATION
FRP is a composite material, composed of millions of fibers and resin. The

diameters of fibers are in the range of 6 (carbon fibers) to 15 microns
(Aramid fibers and glass fibers). As shown in Figure 1, when tensile load is
applied to FRP, fibers carry load and resin transfers stress to the
neighboring fibers. The resin can also protect fibers from ingress of
harmful ions from their environment. In this paper, carbon fiber reinforced
plastics, Aramid fiber reinforced plastics and glass fiber reinforced plastics
are abbreviated as CFRP, AFRP and GFRP.
Deterioration of both fibers and resin, and also the transition zone
between fibers and resin govern the durability of FRP. This makes the
deterioration mechanism of FRP complicated compared to steel. As most of
the mechanical properties are governed by fibers*), if the fibers are not
deteriorated, FRP can resist against load in most cases. But when resin is
attacked and deteriorated, the fibers fall off from the surface and FRP
reduces strength (See Figure 2).
Durability Design of GFRP Rods 39
Figure 2 Deteriaration of GFRP due to alkali attack
Considering the properties and usage of FRP, important items on

deterioration to be considered are listed below. Items 1) to 3) are for
reinforcements embedded in concrete (rods), and items 4) to 6) are for
surface reinforcements (mainly sheets).
1) Static fatigue fracture
2) Fatigue fracture6")
3) Alkali resistance7)
4) Acidic resistan~e'~)
5 ) Ultra-violet ray resistance")
6) Freeze-thaw resistance
STRENGTH OF FIBERS AND FRP AFTER DETERIORATION
Table 4 is obtained from the previous research works of IIS, University of
Tokyo12. 14, 15) using the material mentioned in Tables 1, 2 and 3. Again, the
first 3 items are related to reinforcements embedded in concrete, and the
remaining 3 items are related to external reinforcement applied to the
surface of existing concrete structures.
The items, such as static fatigue, cyclic fatigue and alkali resistance are
the 3 important items to be considered in case of FRP rods. As shown in the
table, CFRP rods have little problem in the aspect of durability. In the case
of GFRP, rods reduce their strength tremendously in all the cases. This is
caused mainly by the deterioration of glass fibers. In the case of AFRP,
although alkali resistance and cyclic fatigue properties are good, care must
be taken on static fatigue strength. This is caused by the creep rupture of
Aramid fibers.
The items, such as acidic resistance, ultra-violet ray resistance and
freeze-thaw resistance are the 3 important items to be considered in case of
external reinforcement, such as out cables or sheet reinforcements. As
shown in the table, carbon fibers and glass fibers have no special problem
on durability except ultra-violet ray resistance. The resin deteriorates from
the surface under ultra-violet rays and this causes the deterioration of CFRP
and GFRP. In any of the cases, measures must be taken to prevent resin
from the deterioration or to replace FRP before deterioration exceeds a
certain limit. In case of Aramid fibers, the fiber itself deteriorates by ultraviolet rays and high concentrated acid, especially in case of Kevler 49. To
deal with the problem, measures must be taken to prevent the deterioration
from sunlight and acidic water or to replace FRP before deterioration
exceeds a certain limit.
Table 1 Properties of fibers (monofilament ) f
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble
ble 11 Properties
Properties oo
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Table 2 Properties of resins for FRP
I
Tensile
Strength
Type
Average
S.D.
I
I
I
Ripoxy-RSO2
84.9
1.15
Ripoxy-H6001
67.00
4.96
Table Table
1 Properties
1 Properties
of fibers
of fibers
(monofilament
(monofilament
)f
)f
.
Elastic
Modulus
(MPa)
Maximum
Strain
(%)
Notes
Average
S.D.
c . of v.
Average
S.D.
c . of v.
3110
37
0.0 1
5.22
0.1 1
0.02
AFRP,GFRP
4000
39
0.01
1.95
0.27
0.14
CFRP

GFRP
CFRP
Type
AFRP
Tensile
1340
1690
1690
Average
Strength
Table 1 Properties of fibers (monofilament )
c . of v. of fibers (monofilament 0.0836
Table 1 Properties
)f
Elastic
Average
45.70
52.1 1
135.30
Modulus
1.946
0.476
Table
1 Properties of fibers
(monofilament
) f 23.63
c . of v. of fibers (monofilament 0.0175
Table 1 Properties
)f
Table
Durability of fibers and FRP (Strength ratio)14)

I
Fiber
Carbon
Glass
Notes
Aramid
1
Static Fatigue
Cyclic Fatigue
Alkali Resistance
95%
Acidic Resistance
100%
Ultra-Violet Ray
lesistance
Freeze-Thaw
kesistance
100%
92%
60-85?0*
45%
~~
15%
NaOH, 40 OC,
1OOOhr
100% HCI, 40 OC, 120
days
81% 0.2MJ/m2/hr,
1 OOOhr
~
:RP Rod
CFRP
91%
AFRP
46%
GFRP
30%
Cyclic Fatigue
85%
70%
23%
Alkali Resistance
100%
98%
29%
Static Fatigue
Notes
20C, 100 years
(Cal.)
lOOMpa Amp., 2
million cycles
NaOH, 120days,
40 OC
Acidic Resistance
69%
77%
90% 3 years exposure
Ultra-Violet Ray
Lesistance
100%
Freeze-Thaw Table 1100%
Properties
of fibers (monofilament ) f
Lesistance
(Note) * In case of Technola is 85% and Kevlar 49 is 60%.
From these results, the following can be concluded as written in the

previous paper by the author Durability of FRP as Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures (ACMBS-3, 2000) 14), excluding the problems of fire
and surface defects due to knives, etc:
1) We do not have to consider much about the durability of carbon fibers
and CFRP used as internal and/or external reinforcement, except the
deterioration of resins caused by ultra-violet rays.
2) In case of Aramid fiber and AFRE, they have good durability properties
except static fatigue, ultra-violet rays and acidic attack. When used as
internal reinforcement, care has to be taken on static fatigue properties.
Limitation of tensile stress is needed according to the duration time.
When used as external reinforcement, not only the sustained load but
also deterioration due to ultra-violet rays and acidic environment must
be considered.
3) Glass fiber and GFRP have poor durability except acidic resistance and
freeze-thaw resistance. GFRP is not recommendable for internal
reinforcements. When glass fiber or GFRP is used as external
reinforcements, care must be taken of the deterioration due to
sustained load, fatigue load, alkali resistance and ultra-violet rays.
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW GFRP TO INCREASE DURABILITY
As explained above, it is difficult to use glass fibers of GFRP as internal
reinforcement of concrete structures. To deal with the problem the
following ideas may be used:
1) Develop new alkali-resistant glass fibers to reduce the effect of alkali
attack from concrete.
2) Develop new GFRP to reduce the attack of alkali from surface of FRP.
In the case of l), I hope the producers of glass fibers would challenge
the work. Up till now I do not hear any good news on success in producing
these fibers. In the case of 2), several attempts have been made in Japan,
obtaining some good results. Here in this paper, two cases on development
of new GFRP are explained.
Development of Hybrid AGFRP Rod

As shown in Table 5 and Figure 3, new Hybrid AGFRP rods are
developed". They are composed of both E-glass fibers and Aramid
(Technora) fibers. Aramid fibers are placed at the surface portion of the
rods and glass fibers at the center. As shown in the table, the volume
content of fibers are fixed to about 66%, changing the amount of Aramid
fibers from 19% to 30% and glass fibers from 48% to 36%.
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties
oI
I
ble 1 Properties
I
I
I oI
Ta
Ta
Tabolume fraction of E-Glass fiber
Vf (%)
1Total volume fraction of fibers
IThickness of outer layer (Aramid)
Ta
ITensile strength of rod
(mm)
(Nlmm')
36.3
66.8
Vf (%)
0.79
14.18
I
1
I
42.4
65.8
0.59
13.83
I
I
I
48.4
67.5
0.46
13.49
Figure 3 AGFRP rods with Aramid fibers and glass fibers

(Nishimura T.)")
Figure 4 shows the retaining ratios of tensile strength after immersion in

alkaline solution (NaOH:lmol/l, 40degrees) for up to 120 days. As can be
seen from the figure, original GFRP has lost their strength to 30% at the age
of 90 days, but these hybrid AGFRP rods possess more than 80% of the
initial tensile strength at the age of 120 days. Figure 5 shows that AGFRP-7
(Aramid fiber content:23.4%, glass fiber content:42.4%) has improved
resistance against alkaline solution drastically compared to other FRP rods.
This is caused by the resistance of the rod against alkali at the surfaces.
Measured result of Na shown in Figure 6 gives the information that Na ion
does not penetrate into the rod compared to GFRP rods.
1
0. 9
0. 3
50
100
Immersion time (days)
150
Figure 4 Retention ratio of tensile strength of AGFRP

(Nishimura T.)")
12
1
02
0
0
50
100
I n m ersbn tin e (days)
150
Figure 5 Retention ratio of tensile strength of FRP

(Nishimura T.)")
Figure 6 Na distribution within AGFRP rod after immersion to alkaline

solution (Nishimura T.)
New GFRP rod with Surface Treatment
Figure 7 shows the deteriorated portion of glass fibers in GFRP when

immersed in alkaline solution". The photograph shows that the glass fibers
are deteriorated from the interfaces between fibers and resin. To obtain the
distribution of Na ions in the cross section, EPMA was used to the same
specimen. Figure 8 shows the results obtained by Katsuki'. As shown in
the figure, high concentration of Na is observed at the boundary between
fibers and resin. These two results show that GFRP is attacked by the Na
ions from the boundary of fibers.
From these observations, one good method to improve the resistance
against alkali is to form good interface between fibers and resin so that
alkali can not penetrate into GFRP from outside. To prove this idea, some
tests have been done to improve the gap between fibers and resin. Figure 9
shows the validity of the method. As shown in the figure, GFRP has
improved resistance against alkali to high extent. Although other properties
are still under tests, this method may become a good solution to obtain
durable GFRP rods and sheets to reinforce concrete structures as in the case
of CFRP and AFRP.
Figure 7 SEM photograph showing deterioration of glass fibers in GFRP rod

(Katsuki F.)')
Figure 8 Distribution of Na ions in GFRP by EPMA

(Katsuki F.)')
1
0.9
0.4
0.3
0
60
30
90
120
Immersion time (days)
Figure 9 Retention ratio of tensile strength of FRP

(Sugiyama M . ) ' ~ )
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Tensile strength of FRF' rods can be used to evaluate the durability of
FRP rods in different conditions.
48 FRPRCS -6: Keynote Paper
(2) Durability of carbon fibers and CFRP used as internal andor external
reinforcement is good, except the deterioration of resins caused by ultraviolet rays.
(3) In the case of Aramid fiber and AFRP, they have good durability
properties except static fatigue, ultra-violet rays and acidic attack.
When used as internal reinforcement, care has to be taken of the static
fatigue properties. Limitation of tensile stress is needed according to the
duration time. When used as external reinforcement, not only the
sustained load but also deterioration due to ultra-violet rays and acidic
environment must be considered.
(4) Commercially available glass fiber and GFRP have poor durability
except acidic resistance and freeze-thaw resistance. They are not
recommendable for internal reinforcements. When glass fiber or
GFRP is used as external reinforcements, care must be taken to the
deterioration due to sustained load, fatigue load, alkali resistance
and ultra-violet rays.
(5) Durable GFRP against alkali solution can be obtained by changing their
composition, such as to combine glass fibers with Aramid fibers when
producing FRP. A new AGFRP has improved the durability to a very
high extent.
(6) Interface between glass fiber and resin governs the resistance of GFRP
against alkali. The improvement of the interface is effective to increase
the alkali resistance of GFRP to high extent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Mr. Tsugio Nishimura (IIS, University of
Tokyo), Dr. Futoshi Katsuki (Shibaura Institute of Technology) and Mr.
Matoyoshi Sugiyama (Nippon Electric Glass Co. Ltd) for granting the
permission to use their data in this paper.
REFERENCES
JSCE Research Committee on CFRM( 1993), State-of-the-Art Report

on Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials, Concrete Engineering
Series 3, JSCE
2. JSCE Research Committee on CFRM( 1997), Recommendation for
Design and Construction of JSCE Concrete Structures Using
1.
Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials, Concrete Engineering Series

23, JSCE
3.
JSCE Research Committee on Upgrading of Concrete Structures with

Use of CFS(200 l), Recommendations for Upgrading of Concrete
Structures with Use of Continuous Fiber Sheets, Concrete
Engineering Series 4 1, JSCE
4.
Kobayashi, K., Uomoto, T. and Cho, R (1988), Prestressed Concrete

Structure using FRP Tendons (in Japanese), Prestressed Concrete,
V01.30, NO.5, ~ ~ 1 9 - 2 6
5.
Hodhod, H.A.G.A.A.(1992): Employment of Constituents Properties

in Evaluation and Interpretation of FRP Rods Mechanical Behaviour,
Doctoral Thesis, Univeristy of Tokyo
6.
Uomoto, T. et a1 (1995) Fatigue Strength of FRP Rods for Concrete

Reinforcement, Building for the 2 1 Century, Edited by. Y.C.Loo,
EASEC, pp. 1659-1664
7.
Uomoto, T. and Katsuki, F (1996), Deterioration Mechanism of Glass

Fiber Reinforced Concrete and Prediction of Strength Reduction,
Integrated Design and Environmental Issues in Concrete Technology,
Edited by K.Sakai, FN & Spon, pp.137-146
8.
Katsuki, F. (1996), Evaluation of Alkali Resistance of FRP Rods for

Concrete Reinforcement with Different Types of Fibers (in Japanese),
Doctoral Thesis, University of Tokyo
9.
Uomoto, T. and Ohga, H. (1996), Performance of Fiber Reinforced

Plastics for Concrete Reinforcement, Advanced Composite Materials
in Bridges and Structures, pp. 125-132
10. Uomoto, T., Nishimura , T., Kato, Y.: Development of new AGFRP
tendon with high alkali resistance, Seisan Kenkyu, Vo1.48, No.9,
pp.457-460. 1996
11. Yamaguchi, T. (1998), Study on deterioration of FRP Rods for
Concrete Reinforcement on Ultra-Violet Rays and Creep Rupture (in
Japanese), Doctoral Thesis, University of Tokyo
12. Uomoto, T., et al. (1998), Strength and Durability of FRP Rods for
Prestressed Concrete Tendons (in Japanese), Report of the Institute of
Industrial Science, University of Tokyo, Vo1.39, No.2, No.244
13. Nishimura T., et a1 (1999), Temperature Effect on Fiber Strength in
Different solutions, JCI General Meeting, V0.2 1, No.2, pp.288-293
SO FRPRCS -6: Keynote Paper
14. Uomoto, T(2000): Durability of FRP as Reinforcement for concrete

structures, ACMBS-3
15. Uomoto, T (2001): Durability considerations for FRP reinforcements,
FRPRCS-5, pp. 17-32, Thomas Telford, London
16. Sugiyama, M and Uomoto T.: Development of new GFRP rods with
high alkali resistance, Seisan Kenkyu, 2003 (in press)

Edited by Kiang Hwee Tan
NEW TYPES OF CONTINUOUS FIBER REINFORCEMENTS

FOR CONCRETE MEMBERS
T. UEDA
Division of Structural and Geotechnical Engineering, Hokkaido University
Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
In this paper continuous fibers for concrete reinforcement with rather
unique mechanical and/or other features are introduced. Carbon and
Polyacetal Continuous Fiber Flexible Reinforcement, which are flexible
enough to wind freely by hand may provide a solution to overcome a weak
point of typical continuous fiber reinforcements and at the same time ease
congestion of reinforcement in concrete members in highly seismic regions.
Polyacetal fiber also has another feature that is a high fracturing strain of 69%. Despite its low stiffness that can be compensated by large amount,
Polyacetal fiber gives a better ultimate deformation due to its high
fracturing strain. Another item introduced in this paper is continuous fiber
reinforcement externally bonded with a very soft resin. Previous studies
mostly focus on properties of fibers not those of adhesive resin. Soft
adhesive layer provides a better solution to enhance the delamination
strength together with a ductile failure manner.
INTRODUCTION
Continuous fiber reinforcement (CFR) provides us with a new option of
internal and external concrete reinforcements. Unlike steel long dominated
as the only concrete reinforcement in the past, CFR is non-corrosive. It has
a very high strength to weight ratio hence reduces the amount of
reinforcement. It is easy to handle during construction as cutting CFR
requires only a simple cutter.
CFR, however, shows some vulnerability such as low fracturing strain
and no plastic deformation. Easy to cut is a good feature but at the same
time a weak point. In order to utilize concrete strength and deformability
fully its reinforcement should have a fracturing strain greater than 6 %
(preferably 10 %). This is especially true for concrete members requiring
high deformability which can be found in highly aseismic members. Elastic
deformation without plastic deformation (or yielding) is not necessarily a
weak point if the material has a high fracturing strain. The yielding,
however, shows warning much clearly before failure.
External bonding is a typical method for retrofitting concrete members

and CFR is sometime used as a reinforcing material. External bonding
creates another type of failure mode, that is delamination of externally
bonded reinforcement. This failure mode does not happen in ordinary
concrete members with only internal reinforcement. To provide a full
anchorage (or development length) may not be economical or, in some cases,
practical due to the space limit. Therefore, delamination is unavoidable in
many cases.
In this paper two new types of continuous fiber reinforcement and a
resin for use as concrete reinforcement are introduced. Their new features
are believed to help overcome some of the weak points found in typical
CFR. The first one is continuous fiber flexible reinforcement or CFFR.
CFR cannot be bent after the impregnated resin gets hardened due to the
small plastic deformability of both fiber and resin. CFFR is introduced to
overcome this problem. Two types of CFFR will be introduced in this
paper -- with post-impregnation of resin and without resin. The second one
is a continuous fiber whose fracturing strain is much greater than those of a
typical CFR and is called Polyacetal Fiber (PAF). PAF does not require
resin since the strengths of the bundled fiber at both straight and bent
portions are not reduced. PAF in fact is the material for CFFR without
resin. The resin to be introduced here is soft adhesive resin, which is used
to enhance delamination strength. Particularly a very soft resin with
Youngs modulus of 1 MPa is introduced.
CONTINUOUS FIBER FLEXIBLE REINFORCEMENT (CFFR)
Carbon Continuous Fiber Flexible Reinforcement (CCFFR)
The concept of continuous fiber flexible reinforcement was introduced in

the late 1990s by a joint team of Nippon Steel Composites and Hokkaido
University, Carbon Continuous Fiber Flexible Reinforcement (CCFFR)
is a bundle of thousands of carbon fibers inserted in a transparent PolyvinylChloride (PVC) tube that is injected by Vinyl-Ester type low viscosity high
flowable resin (see Figure 1). Before the injection CCFFR is flexible
enough to be bent, wound and placed by hand as you wish (see Figure 2).
The original intention of CCFFR was to eliminate one of the disadvantages
with typical continuous fiber reinforcement (CFR) such as carbon, aramid
and glass CFR, that is the fact that you cannot bend CFR as you do for steel
reinforcement. Since CCFFR can be bent by hand, it becomes even easier
to handle at construction site. It can ease the difficulties encountered with
New Types of Continuous Fiber Reinforcements 53
Continuous Carbon Fiber
Vinyl Ester type low viscosity high flowable resin
1
J
Figure 1. Carbon Continuous Fiber Flexible Reinforcement4
congested reinforcements. Although the elimination of the resin injection

should provide us better constructability, it is less likely the case due to the
fact that the tensile strength of bundled carbon fibers is significantly less
than that of the fiber. PVC tube serves as electric isolator for carbon fiber
since direct contact between carbon fiber and steel reinforcement causes
steel to corrode more easily.
In order to prove the advantage of CCFFR a series of experiments on
reinforced concrete columns confined with CCFFR as the intermediate
lateral tie was conducted3. Five column specimens were tested under the
combination of flexure and shear. The size of all the columns was
350x350~1050mm and that of footing to which it was monolithically
attached was 900x900x800 mm. All the columns contain the same amount
of longitudinal reinforcement i.e., 8 D25 bars (deformed bar with a diameter
of 25 mm); 4 each on both sides. The minimum amount of steel tie
reinforcement of 9 D10 stirrups with a center-to-center spacing of 190 mm
was provided. Besides the two reference columns S 1 and S2, three columns,
S3 and S4 containing an additional 0.1 % carbon fiber and S5 containing an
additional 0.2 % carbon fiber by volume were tested. The pattern of
winding of CCFFR around the main bar is shown in Figure 2. The material
properties of steel reinforcing bars and CCFFR are shown in Table 1. The
ultimate strain of CCFFR is 15600 p and the thickness of the plastic tube is
1 mm. The concrete strengths and loading sequences are given in Table 2.
Pressure injection of resin took 10 minutes after winding CCFFR.
When the resin hardened 24 hours after the injection, the end portion of
st
ln
a
0
m
\c
0
4-
II
U
S
P
0
44-
.
m
5l
(D
k
rv)
L
m
E
E
v)
(v
Figure 2. Arrangement of CCFFR4
CCFFR was passed through a steel pipe and fixed to the pipe with an
expansive material. It was then allowed to set for 24 hours. The steel pipes
were anchored with washers and nuts at the column top surface after the
concrete was placed.
The observed performance of each specimen is presented in the form of
applied force versus column tip deformation in Figures 3 through 5 . The
cyclic and reversed-cyclic hysteretic load-deformation relationship of the
Table 1. Material Properties in Specimens Strengthened by CCFFR

CrossYoung's
Yield
Yield
sectional
modulus
strength
strain
area (mm2)
(GPa)
(MPa)
04
D25
506.7
173
367
2121
D10
71.3
183
364
1891
CCFFR
16.89')
265
1) Cross-sectional area of a bundle of carbon fibers only
Reinforcement
type
Ultimate
strength
(MPa)
551
357
69.8 kN
Table 2. Compressive Strength of Concrete and Loading Sequence for

Specimens Strengthened by CCFFR
Specimen
S1 (Ref)
S2 (Ref)
s3
s4
Average fc ' ('Pa)
44.7
40.0
40.3
35.1
Sequence of
&
T&
&
&?
Loading')
1) & One-sided cyclic loading; ?& Reversed cyclic loading
s5
35.4
&?
reference columns S1 and S2 suggest that the columns experienced rapid

strength degradation due to insufficient confinement from the tie
reinforcement. Specimen S2 even suffered a huge damage from splitting
along the longitudinal bar to the loading point. To such columns that lack
ductility, 0.1 % volume fraction of carbon fiber as CFFR was added. These
columns are S3 and S4. Column S3, companion of column S1, did not only
counteract the degrading strength but also enhanced it by 7.5 % before
failure by rupture of CCFFR at 11% lateral drift, which means that the
ultimate deformation was also enhanced. Column S4, companion of column
S2, also counteracted the highly decayed strength in S2 with deformation
enhancement. The strength increment was 9.4 %, while the ultimate drift
was 6.3 %. This demonstrates that addition of CCFFR could effectively
confine the core concrete with an introduction of its ductile failure rather
than quick extension and widening of diagonal crack leading to shear failure.
Column S5 contained 0.2 % volume fraction of carbon fiber as CFFR and
was the companion of S2 and S4. It showed even further enhancement of
shear strength and ultimate deformation. The strength increment and the
ultimate drift was 23.1 and 8.2 % respectively. The superior performance
of S5 over the companions indicates the greater confinement efficiency
provided by the increased amount of CCFFR and the its appropriate

Localized Rotation
300
10
I1
Effective Lateral Drift (%)
Figure 3. Load-Deformation Curves of Reference Specimens without CCFFR

(Specimens S1 and S3 placed horizontally in the photo)4
winding pattern as well as the efficiency of the clamping system at its

extremities. The CCFFR provided the intended lateral confinement to the
volumetric dilation of core concrete without any premature rupture of
CCFFR.
All the column specimens with CCFFR showed the rupture of CCFFR
at bend which controlled the ultimate deformation. This fact implies that
predictions of CCFFR strength at bend and strain development in CCFFR
are necessary. An experimental investigation of bent-portion of CCFFR
(see Figure 6) shows clearly that the bent strength ratio (ratio of bent
portion strength to straight portion strength) has a tendency to decrease with
an increase in angle of winding (0 in Figure 7 ) as shown in Figure 8 where d
is CCFFR diameter and L is CCFFR length in concrete before bend. As
s2
200
300
s4
-sz
-300
-11
-9
-7
-5
-3
-1
1
3
5
Effective Lsteral Drift (%)
11
Figure 4. Load-Deformation Curves of Specimens with CFFR

(Specimens S2 and S4 placed horizontally in the photo)4
other CFR bar reinforcement, the bent portion strength decreases as the bent
radius decreases (which means here the decrease in diameter of main
reinforcement around which CCFFR was wound).
Numerical analysis with nonlinear finite element method is one of the
methods to predict mechanical behaviors such as strain development in
reinforcement. The authors group at Hokkaido University recently
developed a three-dimensional nonlinear finite element program for both
concrete and steel-concrete composite members. In order to apply this
program for analysis of members with CCFFR, the constitutive model for
force transfer versus slip relationship at the bent portion should be
implemented. It is considered that the force transfer mechanism is
characterized by the plastic tube compressive deformation and the resin
s2
s5
1 -300
-11
-9
-7
-5
-3 - I
1
3
5
EffectiveLateraI Drift ( I % )
11
Figure 5. Load-Deformation Curves of specimens with Different Amount of

CFFR (Specimens S2 and S 5 placed horizontally in the photo)4
failure in compression. The winding angle affects the force transfer-slip

relationship. Based on those observations the empirical model was
proposed4.
4
a End Clamp Tube for CCFFR
b Continuous Arrangement of
CCFFR
c Main Bar 25 mm diameter
d Steel Stirrup 10 mm diameter
e Prestressing rod to fix Base
Plate to the Strong Floor.
Displacement-control pull from

Hydraulic actuator
Top-threaded 300mm long steel
tube containing highly expansive
material to confine CFFR
300
20mm diameter Prestressing rods to fix

specimens with the
base plate
n
Specimen
350
Base Plate
600x600~25
e
l
I
1
Laboratory Strong Floor
I
(All dimensions in mm)
Figure 6. Element tension test for bent-portion of CCFFR4

Angle of winding
Main Bar
Figure 7. Angle of winding CCFFR4
1.2
.-0
c,
p:
0.8
c
c,
MI
C
!!
;j
0.6
0.4
c,
0.2
-5
15
25
35
45
Angle Deg.
Figure 8. Bent Strength Decrease with Winding Angle4
Polyacetal Continuous Fiber Flexible Reinforcement (PCFFR)

Polyacetal fiber (PAF) has been used as ground reinforcement, however is
rather new for concrete reinforcement6. It has a low stiffness but a high
fracturing strain in comparison with a typical continuous fiber such as
carbon, aramid and glass as shown in Table 3. Other features of PAF are
that practically no strength reduction exists at bent portion or in the case
without impregnating resin. These features make PAF a good material for
CFFR. Unlike CCFFR, PAF does not require impregnating resin or
attention to the bent-portion strength.
In order to prove the applicability of PAF as CFFR (PCFFR), a series of
tests on reinforced concrete columns with steel and PAF tie reinforcement
Table 3. Properties of Fiber for CFR
Fiber
Carbon
(PAN)
Carbon
(Pitch)
Aramid
High strength
type
High elasticity
type
Ordinary type
High strength
and elasticity
type
High strength
type
High elasticity
type
E-glass
Glass
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Youngs
modulus
(GPa)
Fracturing
strain
Density
PA)
(g/mm3)
2600-4500
200-240
1.3-1.8
1.7-1.9
2000-2800
350-450
0.4-0.8
1.8-1.9
780-1000
38-40
2.1-2.5
1.6-1.7
3000-3500
400-800
0.4-1.5
1.9-2.1
2800
130
2.3
1.45
3110
77
4.4
1.39
35003600
74-75
4.8
2.6
Alkali 8oo 70-76

2-3
2.27
resistance
3500
Polyacetal
1730
20
6-9
1.45
Polyester
219
1.04
21
1) Polyacetal fiber shows material nonlinearity. The initial stiffness is 40 GPa.
was conducted under reversed cyclic loading. Figure 9 and Photo 1 show
the arrangement of PCFFR, which was wound around the longitudinal
reinforcement. The details and test results of each specimen are given in
Table 4. The test results indicate that PCFFR increases the ultimate
deformation. Comparison of the load-deformation curve between specimen
P2-2 with PAF and steel tie reinforcement and specimen P2-1 with only
steel tie reinforcement is shown in Figure 10. The tie reinforcement ratios
of both specimens are similar as shown in Table 4. Figure 10 clearly
indicates that the ultimate deformation of the specimen with PCFFR is
significantly greater than that of the specimen with only steel tie
reinforcement. The reason may be that PCFFR was placed within the core
concrete. It should be mentioned that the greater deformation was possible
because of the absence of PAF fracture even at the ultimate deformation,
which was observed in a comparable specimen S4 with CCFFR (see Table
4).
62 FRPRCS -6:Keynote Paper
Outer PAF
Strain gage
Inner PAF
Back
Front
View from
front face
Front
Back
View from
back face
Figure 9. Arrangement of PCFFR (in specimen S l )
Although no fracture of PAF was observed in all the specimens,

prediction of strain in PCFFR is important. This is because the tensile
fracture of PCFFR is still possible and because the contribution as shear
reinforcement of PCFFR can be quantified by the tensile force carried by
PCFFR at ultimate. The measurement of PCFFR strain in details shows that
early strain development in PCFFR indicates better efficiency than steel tie
reinforcement and is caused by direct contact between PCFFR and the
longitudinal reinforcement.
Gap likely to exist between steel tie
reinforcement and longitudinal reinforcement cannot make the steel tie as
efficient as PCFFR. Based on the experimental observation a simple
formula to predict the PCFFR strain as a function of maximum deformation
was proposed by assuming a constant ratio 0.61 of average steel tie
reinforcement strain to PCFFR one4.
Photo 1. Arrangement of PCFFR
Table 4. Details and Test Results of Reinforced Columns with PCFFR and
CCFFR
fc
PY
P m
all
iu
(MPa) @N) (mm) @N) (mm) (SJS,)
P1-1
2.7 0.51
23.7
176.6
P1-2
185.5 10.28 211.2 33.8
3.4
2.7 0.51 0.52 29.3
4.2
P1-3
2.7 0.51 0.79 32.3 174.9 10.28 196.3 43.7
P2-1
2.04 0.68
27.4
139.2 8.02 158.2 30.4
3.8
P2-2
2.04 0.17 0.58) 29.8
128.1 7.96 159.8 65.2
8.2
s4
2.0 0.21 0.10 35.1 213.4 13.54 255.0 57.3
4.2
1) PCFFR for specimens P1-2, P1-3 and P2-2 and CCFFR for specimen S4
2) ps: longitudinal reinforcement ratio, pw:steel tie reinforcement ratio, pcf:
continuous fiber reinforcement ratio as tie reinforcement,f,: concrete
compressive strength, Py: yielding load, 8,: yielding deformation, Pmm:
maximum load, dU: ultimate deformation, and p: ductility ratio
Specimen
Ps
Pw
PA) PA)
Pcf
(%)
Deformation (mm)
~
Figure 10. Load-Deformation Curves of Columns with PCFFR and Steel Tie
Reinforcement
CONTINUOUS FIBER WITH HIGH FRACTURING STRAIN

Here high fracturing strain is stressed in comparison with high strength
and high stiffness, which are often cited as a good feature of reinforcing
material. High strength and/or stiffness reduce the needed amount of
material. However the high cost of material, which is likely for the material
with high strength or stiffness, reduces the attractiveness of the material.
On the other hand, lower strength andor stiffness can be compensated by
providing more material.
In ordinary reinforced concrete members concrete crushing rather than
fracturing of steel reinforcement is the cause of member failure, This is
mainly due to the high fracturing strain of the steel reinforcement. On the
contrary fracturing of continuous fiber reinforcement is usually the cause of
member failure in concrete member with typical CFR because of its rather
low fracturing strain (0.4 to 5 % as shown in Table 3). In order to utilize
the concrete strength fully a higher fracturing strain is necessary. Unlike
strength or stiffness, adding the material cannot compensate for the low
Deformation (mm)
Figure 1 1 . Load-Deformation Curve of Column with PAF Sheet Jacketing

Failing in Flexure
fracturing strain. The only solution is to use material with a high fracturing
strain.
Enhancement of Ultimate Deformation
The fracturing strain of Polyacetal Fiber is 6 to 9 %, which are 2 to 6 times
of those in carbon, aramid and glass fibers as shown in Table 3. PAF can
be used as both external and internal reinforcement to utilize its high
fracturing strain. The internal reinforcement of PAF was already
introduced as PCFFR in the previous section. PAF a s external
reinforcement is in a sheet form for jacketing and bonding. A series of tests
on reinforced columns with and without PAF sheet was conducted7. Three
specimens PJ1, PJ2 and PJ3 that were identical except for PAF sheet ratio
were prepared. PAF sheet ratios were 0, 0.146 and 0.291 % for PJ1, PJ2
and PJ3 respectively, while ratio of steel tie reinforcement was 0.151 %.
Photo 2. PAF Sheet for Jacketing at Ultimate Deformation without its Fracture
Figure 11 indicates that the ultimate deformation of the specimens with

PAF sheet is greater than that of the specimen without PAF sheet. In most
of the specimens PAF sheet did not fracture at the ultimate deformation (see
Photo 2), therefore the load-deformation curves show very ductile behavior
even after the ultimate deformation. This phenomenon is not seen in
specimens with carbon and aramid fiber sheet jacketing in which the sheet
fracture causes a sudden drop of the load carrying capacity.
Enhancement of Shear Strength

Another series of tests on the enhancement of shear capacity of columns by
PAF sheet jacketing was conducted7. Three specimens T1, T2 and T3
identical except for the PAF sheet ratios that are 0.077, 0.153 and 0.29 1 %
respectively were prepared. Two reference specimens P and C whose steel
tie reinforcement ratio is 0.151 %, same as those in specimens TI, T2 and
T3, were prepared, P without PAF sheet jacketing while C with carbon fiber
sheet instead of PAF sheet. The carbon fiber sheet ratio is 0.017 %.
Comparisons were made between specimens T1, T2 and T3 and specimen P;
and between specimen T2 and specimen C. Because of its high fracturing
strain the PAF sheet in the experimental specimens did not fracture when
the shear capacity was reached. Specimens TI and T2 gave higher shear
capacities than specimen C with carbon fiber sheet whose stiffness as
250
200
3 150
TI
-I
100
50
0
0
20
40
60
80
I00
Deformation(mm)
Figure 12. Load-Deformation Curve of Column with PAF Sheet Jacketing

Failing in Shear
reinforcement (defined as product of reinforcement ratio and Youngs

modulus) was similar to or greater than those of PAF sheet as shown in
Figure 12. The carbon fiber sheet fractured at the peak load causing shear
failure. While specimens T1, T2 and T3 show very ductile manner even
after the peak load, specimens C and P show rather brittle manner that is the
nature of shear failure.
Prevention of Total Collapse under VerticalLoads

Another type of fiber, a polyester fiber with even higher fracturing strain of
around 20 % was applied to jacketing method. The material constants are
given in Table 3. Generally fiber materials with high fracturing strain
indicate low Youngs modulus. Polyacetal and polyester fibers are no
exception. The Youngs modulus of the former and the latter is 10 to 20 %
and 1 % of that of carbon fiber respectively. The experimental study on
polyester fiber sheet jacketing indicates that if the jacketing material does
not fracture, at least the total loss of load carrying capacity for vertical load
in columns can be prevented despite its extremely low stiffness.
CONTINUOUS FIBER REINFORCEMENT BONDED WITH
SOFT RESIN
For externally bonded continuous fiber reinforcement three types of resin
are necessary; namely resin for primer, resin for adhesive and resin for
impregnation. Recent studies found that usage of soft adhesive resin can
improve the delamination capacity in both pullout bond test and beam test
10
Bond Behavior
Bond properties of CFR, such as average bond strength and local bond-slip
relationship, were investigated by pullout test as shown in Figure 13. It is
known that a higher stiffness of CFR gives a higher pullout force of the
CFR externally bonded to concrete when delamination happens. Recent
experimental results indicate another interesting fact that using adhesives
with low shear stiffness, which is introduced by either increasing the
thickness or decreasing of the elasticity of adhesives, can also improve the
ultimate load transfer ability of CFR-concrete interfaces as shown in Figure
14. Decreasing the shear stiffness of adhesives reduces the interfacial strain
distribution gradient as well as increases the effective bond length

Load cell
t
Hinges
Steel plates attached

to the both sides of
CFR
Bolts for fixing the

concrete block on the base
Vinylon tape
Enhancing
anchorage bolts
CFR
Concrete block with four

pre-set tubes
Steel basement for
fconcrete block
Prestressed bolts
K
ig floor
Figure 13. Setup for Pullout Bond Test
significantly (see Figure 15). Unlike increasing the CFR stiffness,

decreasing the shear stiffness of adhesives leads to a lower interfacial
maximum bond stress and more ductile bond-slip behavior, although both
ways increase the ultimate load transfer capacity.
It should be noted that effects of adhesive resin are significantly
different from those of impregnating resin. A lower stiffness of
impregnating resin for CFR does not give a higher pullout capacity, instead
it may cause fiber to fracture more easily.

&C F R P - 2 5 3 G P mm
+C F R P - 5 0
CFRP-759GPamm
+AFRP-63lGPamm
20 -10 --
.+---FPR
6GPamm
GFRP-262GPamm
fracture
Ea Pa)
(a) Effects of adhesives elastic modulus
&CEXP-25
,--.60
50
3GPamm
-.
z 4 030- :
20
+i
_--
-1
I
*FRP
10 -
0 -
+C F R P - 7 5 9 G P a m m
fki-
(b) Effects of adhesives thickness
Figure 14. Effects of Shear Stiffness of Adhesive on Pullout Bond Force
+ CFRP-253GPamm
,/ G F R P - 8
7GPamm
+ AFRP-18 5GPamm
!i
CFRP-50 6GPamm
CFRP-756GPamm
GFRP-262GPamm 0 GFRP-436GPamm
AFRP-319GPamm
AFRP-63 7GPamm
'Et/taGPa/mm8
)
Figure 15. Effects of Adhesive's Shear Stiffness on Effective Bond Length
Member Behavior
In beams with externally bonded CFR sheet or plate as flexure
reinforcement, failure mode caused by delamination of CFR is often
observed. Provision of better bonding characteristics of the interface can
improve the performance of a strengthened member. In a previous
experiment", a new adhesive resin with low Young's modulus and high
deformability was applied between primer and FRP reinforcement.
The CFR is carbon fiber sheet (CFS) with impregnating resin whose
stiffness is 2.0 GPa. CFS used in this study is unidirectional strengthening
I<
900
>I
Strain gage on steel

Strain gage on sheet
Figure 16. Beam Specimen Strengthened by Externally Bonded Carbon

Fiber Sheet with Extremely Soft Adhesive Resin (ESAR)
Table 5. Experimental Results of Specimens Strengthened by CFS with

ESAR
Concrete
Ultimate
Type of
load
failure
strength
FN)
mode
/MPa)
44.1
A
SP-co
30.0
C
30.0
78.3
SP-CI
SP-CIS
30.0
101.0
B
SP-c2
33.1
109.0
C
SP-C2s
33.1
148.0
D
SP-c3
33.0
108.0
D
SP-C3s
33.0
114.0
D
A: Crushing of concrete after yielding of rebar
B: Breakage of CFS
C: Delamination of CFS
D: Concrete cover failure
Specimen
material with Youngs modulus of 236 GPa, tensile strength of 4120 MPa
and thickness of 0.167 mm. The soft resin is a kind of epoxy resin with a
Youngs modulus of 1 MPa and a tensile strength of 1.7 MPa (hereafter
referred to as extremely soft adhesive resin or ESAR). Seven beam
specimens were prepared (see Figure 16 and Table 5). Specimen SP-0 is a
reference specimen without CFS. Specimens SP-Cl, SP-C2 and SP-C3
contain 1 layer, 2 layers and 3 layers of CFS, respectively. The specimens
with CFS attached by ESAR are SP-CIS, S P - C ~ and
S SP-C~S.The number
of CFS layers of those specimens is identical to specimens SP-C1, SP-C2
and SP-C3 respectively. ESAR is applied between CFS and the primer with
the thickness of 0.5 mm.
The ultimate load and failure mode are shown in Table 5. Typical
flexural failure that is crushing of concrete after yielding of tension
reinforcement was observed in specimen SP-0. Specimens SP-C 1s
containing ESAR failed due to breakage of CFS. Specimens SP-C 1 and SPC2 without ESAR failed due to delamination of CFS at the area between
about 150 mm from the loading point and the end of CFS (see Photo 3(a)).
Specimens SP-C~S,SP-C3 and S P - C ~ Sfailed by concrete cover failure (see
Photo 3(b)).
Figure 17 shows relationships between load and deformation of all
specimens. Black and white circles in Figure 17 indicate the load when the
tension reinforcement starts to yield. When ESAR is used, the crack width
(a) Failure mode C (Delamination of CFS)
(b) Failure mode D (Cover concrete failure)
Photo 3. Failure Modes of Specimens Strengthened by CFS with Extremely Soft

Adhesive Resin
increases causing the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar to reach the
yielding stress earlier, the load at yielding decreases to about 90% of that
without ESAR. However, the ultimate load increases in specimens SP-C 1s
and S P - C ~ because
S
ESAR delays and halts the propagation of delamination.
On the other hand, no difference in the ultimate load is observed in either
specimen SP-C3 or S P - C ~ Swhere concrete cover failure along the
longitudinal reinforcement happened. It can be considered that with higher
amount of CFS the capacity of concrete cover failure becomes less than
those of the breakage of CFS and delamination of CFS.
Another study was conducted to see the effectiveness of ESAR under
the effects of fatigue loading12. After the application of fatigue loading,
members with ESAR show the remaining delamination strengths equal to or
better than those without ESAR. Decrease in member stiffness during
fatigue loading is less in members with ESAR.
Deformation (mm)
Figure 17. Load-Deformation Curves of Specimens Strengthened with ESAR
CONCLUSIONS
(a) Continuous fiber flexible reinforcement (CFFR) can be an option to
ease the difficulty in arrangement of congested reinforcement.
(b) Both Carbon and Polyacetal continuous fiber flexible reinforcements
(CCFFR and PCFFR) show the efficiency to enhance both shear
strength and ultimate deformation.
(c) CCFFR usually fractures at ultimate, while PCFFR does not. In order
to estimate the ultimate deformation and shear strength, the strain
development in CFFR should be predicted. For this purpose the
methods were proposed.
(d) A high fracturing strain of Polyacetal fiber does not only counteract its
low stiffness in terms of enhancement of shear strength and ultimate
deformation but also shows the possibility of greater enhancement for
both in comparison with the typical continuous fiber reinforcement
(CFR) such as carbon, aramid and glass fiber reinforcement.
(e) Soft adhesive resins for externally bonded CFR improve the load
transfer capacity at interface between CFR and concrete and the
ductility in delamination, but increase the effective bond length.
(f) The extremely soft adhesive resin with the elastic modulus of 1 MPa
shows the enhancement of delamination strength of tension CFR in
beams under both static and fatigue loadings.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to express his gratitude to Dr SAT0 Yasuhiko, Dr

Roshan TULADHAR and Dr DAI Jianguo of Hokkaido University for
conducting the valuable research briefly introduced in this paper. Many of
the figures and tables are taken from the dissertation submitted by Dr
TULADHAR.
REFERENCES
1. Sugiyama, T., Tomita, S., Kouzaki, S., Sato, Y., Ueda, T. and
Kobayashi, A., Development of Continuous Fiber Flexible
Reinforcement, Fourth International Symposium, Fiber Reinforced
Polymer Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, ACI Special
Publication SP-188-2, American Concrete Institute, November 1999,
pp. 13-22.
2. Kobayashi, A., Tomita, S., Sugiyama, T., Sato, Y., Ueda, T. and Kakuta,
Y., Study on Shear Strengthening of Beams Using Continuous Fiber
Flexible Reinforcement, Fourth International Symposium, Fiber
Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, ACI
Special Publication SP-188, November 1999, pp. 195-207.
3. Tuladhar, R., Okubo, S., Sato, Y. and Kobayashi, A., Deformational
Characteristics of Reinforced Concrete Columns with Continuous Fiber
Flexible Reinforcement, Paper No. 1298, Proceedings of the Eighth
East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering &
Construction (CD-ROM), December 200 1.
4. Tuladhar, R., Continuous Fiber Flexible Shear Reinforcement for
Concrete Piers, Doctoral Dissertation Submitted to Hokkaido
University, March 2003.
5. Takahashi, R., Analysis of Concrete Member Behavior by ThreeDimensional Nonlinear Finite Element Method, Doctoral Dissertation
Submitted to Hokkaido University, March 2003 (in Japanese).
6. Iihoshi, C., Fukuyama, H., Matsumoto, Y . and Abe, S., Strengthening
Effect of Reinforced Concrete Elements with Polyacetal Fiber Sheets,
Fourth International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Reinforcement for Reinforced Concrete Structures, ACI Special
Publication SP-188, American Concrete Institute, November 1999,
pp.659-669.
2
7. Ueda, T., Bond Behavior and Seismic Retrofitting Effect of Polyacetal

Fiber Sheet, FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, Proceedings of the
International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil engineering,
V01.2, December 2001, pp.1041-1050.
8. Kabeyasawa, T., Tasai, A. and Igarashi, S., A New Method of
Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Columns against Axial Load
Collapse during Major Earthquake, Paper No. 1459, Proceedings of
the Eighth East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and
Construction (CD-ROM), December 200 1.
9. Dai, J., Sato, Y . and Ueda, T., Improving the Load Transfer and
Effective Bond Length for FRP Composite Bonded to Concrete,
Proceedings of JCI, Vo1.24, No.2, Japan Concrete Institute, June 2002,
pp. 1423-1428.
10. Komaki, I., Sohda, Y., Maeda, T. and Tsubouchi, K., Strengthening
Behavior of Carbon Fiber Sheet Using Flexible Layer, Proceedings of
71h Japan International SAMPE Symposium & Exhibition, 13-16
November 2001, pp.395-398.
11. Ueda, T. and Sato, Y., New Approach for Usage of Continuous Fiber
as Non-Metallic Reinforcement of Concrete, Structural Engineering
International, International Association for Bridge and Structural
Engineering (JABSE), Vol. 12, No.2, May 2002, pp. 1 1 1- 1 16.
12. Ito, T., A Study on Fracture Characteristics of RC Member Reinforced
by Carbon Fiber Sheet with Soft Layer, Master Thesis submitted to
Hokkaido University, March 2003 (in Japanese).
FRP Materials and Properties

@World Scientific Publishing Company
PERFORMANCE OF THERMOPLASTIC FIBER

REINFORCED POLYMER REBARS
A.B. MEHRABI, C.A. LIGOZIO AND A.F. ELREMAILY
Construction Technology Laboratories, Inc.,
5400 Old Orchard Rd., Skokie, IL 60077, USA
D. R. VANDERPOOL
The Dow Chemical Company, FULCRUM Thermoplastic Composite Technology
2040 Dow Center, Midland, MI 48674, USA
Extensive efforts are being directed to application and development of FRP
products in civil engineering structures, including the use of FRP rods as
reinforcement for concrete. A new technology has been introduced for
production of FRP utilizing a thermoplastic polymer matrix. An advantage
of thermoplastic polymer resins is their ability to be formed after initial
manufacturing of a straight profile similar to traditional steel rebar.
Thermoset resins cannot be bent after the product is cured; bends must be
made during initial production. Thermoplastics are in general tougher,
more impact resistant, and more ductile than thermosets. An experimental
program was carried out to investigate the mechanical properties of the
thermoplastic composite rods and to optimize the product for use as a
replacement of steel in reinforced concrete applications. In this endeavor,
achieving an acceptable bond between concrete and FRP rods was critical.
Several series of tests were conducted using various mechanical,
geometrical, and surface treatment parameters to optimize the surface and
cross-sectional shapes. To this end, the test program consisted of tensile
strength and modulus of elasticity tests and bond to concrete tests.
Development of the optimum rebar product is completed. In addition, a
new test procedure was developed to address concerns about long-term
bond performance of the rods with new material. A series of bond-creep
tests were completed.
INTRODUCTION
Owing to their high strength and excellent resistance to corrosion, Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) rods and rebars have introduced a viable
alternative to steel reinforcement for concrete members. Properties,
applications, advantages and limitations of FRP rods have been studied by
several investigators.',* The behavior of concrete members using FRP rods
80 FRPRCS -6: FRP Materials and Properties
have also been investigated by many and design relationships have been
proposed for formulation of their structural b e h a ~ i o r . ~ , ~These
investigations have resulted in the recent publication of ACI 440.1R-01 .5
Among all characteristics of FRP rods as reinforcement bars, the bond
performance with concrete is perhaps the most in~estigated.~,','
Extensive efforts are being directed to application and development
regarding the use of FRP products in civil engineering structures. In one of
the most recent efforts, using a new technology, thermoplastic polymer has
been used as resin for glass fiber reinforced composite rods. This new
technology promises overcoming the traditional manufacturing problems for
continuous fiber thermoplastic matrix composites. Using unique resin
technology in combination with special fabrication techniques, this
technology promises to produce pultruded composites with exceptional
performance.' Fiber loadings as high as 70 percent by volume have been
achieved, demonstrating mechanical properties comparable to highperformance thermoset composites. An advantage of thermoplastic polymer
resins is their ability to be formed after initial manufacturing of a straight
profile similar to traditional steel rebar. Thermoset resins cannot be bent
after the product is cured, and bends must be made during initial production.
This has limited the use of FRP rods for some applications and has been
seen as a major disadvantage when comparing with steel reinforcing bars.
Thermoplastics are in general tougher, more impact resistant, and more
ductile than thermosets.
An experimental program is being carried out to investigate the
mechanical properties of the thermoplastic composite rods. The goal of the
study is to optimize the product for use as a replacement of steel in
reinforced concrete applications. In this endeavor, achieving an acceptable
bond between concrete and FRP rods is critical. Several series of tests were
conducted using various mechanical, geometrical, and surface treatment
parameters to optimize the surface and cross-sectional shapes. To this end,
the test program consisted of tensile strength and modulus of elasticity tests
and bond to concrete tests using procedures similar to those utilized in
previous FRP research.' Preliminary tensile testing indicated a tensile
strength ranging from 120 to 140 ksi [830 to 965 MPa] and a modulus of
elasticity ranging from 5500 to 6500 ksi [38,000 to 44,800 MPa], depending
upon bar configuration and design. The tensile ultimate strain ranged from
2 to 2.2 percent.
Bond strength was obtained through pull-out testing, using several
specimens with different bond lengths. At the end of each test series,
representative samples were dissected to observe the failure mode. For bond
Pe$ormance of Thermoplastic FRP Rebars 81
testing, results varied with different surface treatment and different surface
deformation. The bond strength to concrete for the specimens with surface
deformation of various material types ranged between 1100 to 2500 psi
[8.3 to 15.2 MPa].
Development of the optimum rebar product is now completed. A new
test procedure was specifically developed to address concerns about longterm bond performance of the rods with new material. A series of bondcreep tests were completed and showed no significant time dependent creep
for the thermoplastic GFRP rods.
Recommended future work includes a series of structural testing, e.g.,
bending and shear testing, on concrete structural members to demonstrate
the actual performance of the thermoplastic GFRP rods as reinforcing bars
and to verify the applicability of existing design formulation for GFRP.
TENSILE TESTS
Two series of tensile tests were conducted using one-half-inch [ 12.7 mm]
nominal diameter FRF' rods. The first series included rods with twisted star
shape cross section of various pitches, and the second series included rods
with surface deformation similar to deformed steel bars using various
surface materials. The latter represents the rods optimized for their bond
performance in concrete. An essential requirement for conducting tensile
test is a suitable anchorage system to grip the specimen without causing
slippage or premature local failure during the test. In the tests reported
herein, a steel pipe was used at each end to anchor the specimen. The bars
were aligned and centered inside the pipes using a special jig. The space
between the steel pipe and the rod was filled with expansive cement. A
picture of one of the test specimens is shown in Fig. 1. Table 1 summarizes
the test results as an average of three tests. The behavior of the specimens
in tension was linear all the way to near rupture. The brittle failure of
specimens was initiated by longitudinal splitting of the rod and partial
rupture along the free length. The calculation of the tensile strength,
modulus of elasticity, and ultimate strength as well as the test procedure
followed the recommended provisions of ACI committee 440.5 However,
due to short length of specimens provided, the free length requirement could
not be complied with.
Figure 1 An FRF' tension test specimen

Table 1. Tensile test results
Tensile Strength, &

MPaI
Modulus, E
WPaJ
Ultimate Strain,
Star I PitcWm
127.3 [878]
6335 [43,670]
0.0201
Star 2 PitcWm
129.7 [894]
6067 [41,830]
0.0214
Star 3 PitcWm
125.3 [892]
5851 [40,340]
0.0214
Rib-Formed Brown
127.1 [876]
6384 [44,010]
0.0200
Rib-Formed Black
134.8 [929]
6538 [45,070]
0.0206
Rib-Formed White
136.7 [942]
65 13 [44,900]
0.0210
Specimen
mi)
mi)
Ell
BOND TESTS
Several series of tests were conducted on one-half-inch [13 mm] nominal
diameter FRP rods with various mechanical, geometrical, and surface
treatment parameters to optimize the surface and cross-sectional shapes.
Figure 2 shows a variety of specimens tested for their bond performance.
For comparison, tests were also conducted using standard grade 60 #4 [#13]
steel reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM A6151, with a minimum
ultimate strength of 11.8 kips [52.5 kN]. The bond pull-out tests were
performed using only vertically cast single block specimen^.^ Two different
bond lengths were used, 5 times and 8 times the nominal diameter of the
rods resulting in 2.5 and 4 in. [64 and 102 mm] bond lengths. The concrete
used for casting the cubes had a cylindrical compressive strength between 4
and 5 ksi [28 and 35 MPa]. To reduce the turn around time for testing, a
concrete mix was designed to reach the desired strength within one week
from casting. To obtain the desired bond lengths, debonding sleeves were
used at the exit points of the rods from the concrete block.
A standard 22-kip testing machine was used to carry out the pullout
tests under displacement control. The slip of the rod was measured at the
free end using an electronic displacement transducer. Depending on the
type of surface treatment and deformation shape and bond length, the failure
Pei$ormance of ThermoplasticFRP Rebars 83
was governed by shearing and wearing of rod surface deformation andfor

the confined concrete between ribs (shorter bond length), and by splitting
of concrete (for some of specimens with longer bond length). At the end
of each test series, representative samples were dissected to observe the
failure mode. Table 2 summarizes some of the test results for bond
Figure 2. F W rod samples
length of 2.5 in. [64 mm] as an average of three tests. Figure 3 shows a
typical load-slip curve from bond test.
Table 2. Bond test results for 2.5-in. [64 mm] bond length
Material
Cross
Section
Surface
Bond Strength (psi)

PPaI
FRP
Round
Smooth
172 [1,186]
FRP
Square
Smooth
214 [1,475]
FRP
Star
Smooth
221 11,5241
FRP
Round
Epoxy Sanded
1950 [13,440]
FRP
Square
Epoxy Sanded
2080 [14,340]
FRP
Round
Rib-Formed-Black
1709 [ 1 1,7801
FRP
Round
Rib-Formed-Brown
2530 ri7.4401
FRP
Round
Rib-Formed- White
1096 [7,556]
Round
Rib-Formed
2603 [I 7,9503
FRP
Round
Rib-Formed
2058' [14,190]
Steel
Round
Standard Deformation
3020 [20,820]
FRP
~~~
Steel
Round
Standard Deformation
2326' r16,040i
5F
[60
t
3 C] prior to test.
1 . Specimens were conditioned for 24 hours at 140
84 FRPRCS -6: FRP Muterials and Properties
500.0
0.0
0.00
0.10
0.05
0.15
0.20
Slip (in.)
Figure 3 . Typical load-slip curve obtained from bond test
BOND-CREEP TEST PROCEDURE

To investigate the bond creep characteristics of reinforced polymer rebars
(FRP rods) in concrete at ambient and elevated temperature and to evaluate
the bond performance of the rods relative to standard deformed steel
reinforcement, a new test procedure was developed.
Implementing this procedure for the case of the new FRP rods will
provide baseline data that can be used to develop structural models, to
quantify bond-creep properties, and to establish design criteria.
Test Specimens
The test specimen was designed to obtain data relevant to incremental bond
creep over a discrete and short length of reinforcing rod. FRP rods were
embedded in 6-in. [ 150mml concrete cubes, using de-bonding sleeves to
achieve the desired bond length. A total of 3 sets of three specimens were
prepared for the test program according to the details shown in Table 3 .
Table 3 . Test matrix
Specimen
Set
1
2
3
Bond
Length
(in.) [mm]
4 [lo21
4 [ 1021
4 [I021
Test
Temp
(OF)
[C]
70 f 5 [21 f 31
140 f 5 [60 f 31
140 k 5 [60 k 31
Test Load
Dead + 20% Live
Dead + 20% Live
Dead + Live
Pegormance of Thermoplastic FRP Rebars 85
The concrete used to fabricate the test specimens was designed with a
28-day compressive strength between 4000 and 5000 psi [28 and 35 MPa].
The FRP rods protruded approximately 1 in. [25 mm] from the bottom of
the block to allow slip measurements to be made at free end of the
specimens. The concrete cubes for testing at elevated temperature
contained thermocouples to measure the internal temperature of the block.
Test Procedure
Bond strength tests conducted and presented earlier were used to establish
the baseline bond strength of the FRP rods at ambient and elevated
temperatures.
A typical creep test setup is shown in Figure 4. Load was applied using
a small calibrated hydraulic ram. Displacements were measured at the back
of the block using a digital depth gage. The full test load was applied and
locked into the specimen using spacer shims and the load spring. The initial
elastic displacement was measured at the back of the specimen within 3
minutes of load application. Creep displacements were measured at least
every hour for the first six hours of testing and then approximately daily for
the first 20 days. Measurements were made less frequently over the final
40 days of the test period.
Elevated temperature tests were conducted in a hot room. Specimens
were pre-conditioned prior to loading for a minimum of 48 hours, or until
the internal temperature readings in the specimens stabilized for a minimum
of 24 hours.
Because the creep displacements were known to be small, elastic
springs were considered adequate to maintain load over the duration of the
creep test.
Determination of Creep Test Loads

The guaranteed tensile strength of the FRP rod, f f u , is assumed to be 120 ksi
[827 MPa].
Applying a design factor of 0.7 for environmental
considerations gives a design tensile strength, &, of 84 ksi [580 MPa].
Using a factor of 0.2 for sustained loading and creep consideration results
in an allowable stress of 16.8 ksi [ I 16 MPa] and a total load in the rod of
3.36 kips [ 15 kN] under sustained loading, assumed to be dead plus 20% of
live load (D + 0.2L). Assuming a dead to live load ratio of 2: I will result in
a rod load of 4.58 kips [20.4 kN] at dead plus full live load.
fRP Rod / Steel Bor

Chuck and Wedges
H)vraufic Ram
Prestressihg Cboik
Bar / R o d Anchor (P#e with
expansive grout for fRF rod
Mech. coupler for Steel Bod
Shim Plate(s)
Load Spring
6 x 6 Concrete Specimen Block

Measurement frame
Figure 4.Schematic of test specimen
The total load in the rod is carried over the entire development length of
the rod. The basic development length can be estimated as?
d b f f i - 1/ 2 x 84,000
1
= 15.5 in. [394 mm]
(1)
bf - 2700
2700
To obtain the shortest possible development length, modification factors
for development length will not be considered, resulting in the highest bond
stress and most conservative test load. The bond stresses are not evenly
distributed over the development length, so it is reasonable to assume that
the first four in. [lo0 mm] (approximately 114 of the total development
length) will carry a bond force larger than that calculated proportional to
length, e.g., one half the load rather than one quarter. This results in test
loads of 1.68 kips [7.47 kN] at D + 20% L and 2.29 kips [10.2 kN] at D + L.
Test Results
The average total displacement at the end of the test, including both initial
elastic displacement and creep displacement, for both ambient and elevated
temperature tests was compared to the average displacement observed in the
corresponding ultimate strength test. This approach has been utilized for
Performance of Thermoplastic FRP Rebars 87
bond creep performance evaluation for similar applications, including

adhesive anchors.
The measured changes in movement at the free end of the FRP rods
were very small, typically within the range of 20.005 [+0.1 mm]. The data
show relatively large fluctuations within this range, indicating that
measurement tolerances account for a significant portion of the measured
movements. As such, the total displacement due to initial elastic
displacement and creep displacement measured under both ambient and
elevated temperature is negligible when compared with the average
displacements observed in the ultimate bond tests.
CONCLUSION
An experimental investigation was carried out to help the development of
FRP rods using thermoplastic polymer matrix and to determine the
mechanical properties of the new product. The tests consisted of tensile
strength and bond strength testing in concrete. The results have indicated
that the tensile and bond strength of the new FRP rods are comparable to
those of high performance FRP rods using thermoset polymer matrix.* A
test procedure was also developed to investigate the bond-creep
performance of the FRP rods under ambient and elevated temperature. A
series of tests were conducted using this procedure on thermoplastic GFRP
rods. These tests indicated that creep for these specified rods under
described test conditions were negligible. The future work includes
structural testing of concrete elements reinforced using the new FRP rods.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The investigation presented here was supported by the Dow Chemical
Company, FULCRUM Composite Technology.
REFERENCES:
1. Nanni, A. and Dolan, C. (Editors) Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, ACI Special Publication, SP138, American Concrete Institute, 1993.
2. Erki, M.A., and Rizkala, S.H., FRP reinforcement for concrete
structures, ACI Compilation 28, Synthetic and Other Non-Metallic
Fiber Reinforcement of Concrete, American Concrete Institute, 1994,

pp. 26-3 1.
3. ACI Committee 440, State-ofthe-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced
Plastic Reinforcement for Concrete Structure, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1996.
4. Masmoudi, R., Theriault, M., and Benmokrane, B., Flexural Behavior
of Concrete Beams Reinforced with Deformed Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Reinforcing Rods, ACI Structural Journal, 95(6), 1998, pp. 665-676.
Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 200 1.
6. Dolan, C.W., Rizkalla, S.H., and Nanni, A., Fourth International
Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Reinforced
Concrete Structures, ACI Special Publication SP-188, American
Concrete Institute, 1999.
7. Ehsani, M.R., Saadatmanesh, H., and Tao, S., Bond of Hooked Glass
Fiber Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) Reinforcing Bars in Concrete, ACI
Materials Journal, 92(4), 1995, pp. 391-400.
8. Bakis, C.E., Freimanis, A.J., Gremel, D., Nanni, A., Effect of Resin
Material on Bond and Tensile Properties of Unconditioned and
Conditioned FRP Reinforcement Rods Durability of Fibre Reinforced
Polymer Composites for Construction, CDCC- 1, Benmokrane, B.,
Rahman, H., Eds., Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Institute for
Research in Construction, Ottawa, 1998, pp. 525-535.
9. dHoodge, E.L., and Edwards, C.M., Thermoplastic pultrusion based
on ISOPLAST engineering thermoplastic polyurethanes, SPE ANTEC
1999, New York, NY.
10. ASTM A6 15/A615M-01b, Standard Specifications for Deformed and
Plain Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2002.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON POISSONS RATIO FOR

FFW TENDONS
M. TANAKA AND M. KHIN
Department of Civil Engineering, Dai-ichi Institute of Technology
1-10-2 Chuo, Kokubu City, Japan
T. HARADA
Department of Structural Engineering, Nagasaki University
1-14, Bunkyou Ku, Nagasaki, Japan
K. VENKATARAMANA
Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology
Srinivasnagar 574157, Karnataka State, India
This experimental research investigates the Poissons ratio of the Fiber
Reinforced Polymers (FRP). The FRP used for this experiment are Aramid
and Carbon fiber types. To determine the transfer bond for the FRP,
parameters that are not clearly defined are friction factor and Poissons
ratio. Unlike the steel for construction, the FRPs have various surface
texture and patterns. The conventional method of using micro-strain
gauges to determine the Poissons ratio cannot be applied to the FRP
tendons. Therefore, the authors carried out the experiments by tension test
of FRP tendon placed inside the acrylic tube, filled with colored water and
using the universal testing machine (UTM). Under the cyclic tension test,
the gradual changes of water level inside the tube gives the equivalent
volume of the slandering of the FRP, and with the axial change in length,
the Poissons ratio is determined respectively.
INTRODUCTION
In Japan, for the past twenty years, many fundamental research projects
have been conducted on the application of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
in the field of construction. In order to use the material with reliability and
safety, some basic characteristics of FRP tendons must be clarified. At
present, FRP tendons are still quite expensive, so the application in
prestressed concrete structures becomes significant, compared to the
ordinary reinforced concrete applications.
In pretensioned type prestressed concrete structures, the bonding
between the tendons and concrete is a key requirement for transferring
bond. A theoretical approach on transfer length made for steel tendons is
used in lieu of the one for FRP22.Among the factors affecting the transfer
length of FRP, Poissons ratio of FRP tendons and the friction factor
between FRP and the ambient concrete are still not clearly established.
Experimental studies on the friction coefficient of FRP tendons in
concrete have started a few years ago and reported previously. This present
paper will focus on the Poissons ratio of FRP. Also in the analytical
approach, the transfer lengths of FRP tendons are determined using the
established existing relationships for the prestressing steel tendons.
Unlike the steel for construction, FRPs have various surface texture and
patterns. The conventional method of fixing micro-strain gauges on the
surface of the steel tendon to measure the Poissons ratio cannot be applied
directly to the FRP tendons.
Therefore, the authors carried out the experiments by tension test of
FRP inside the acrylic tube filled with colored water, on the universal
testing machine (UTM). Under the cyclic tension test, the gradual changes
of water levels inside the tube for the corresponding pull-out loads give the
equivalent volume of the slandering of the FRP, and with the axial change
in length, the Poissons ratio is determined respectively. The experimental
results are reported and complemented with the previous results.
PREVIOUS RELATED RESEARCH
In the past, the analytical approach for transfer length of FRP tendons was
made using the relationship for the prestressing steel tendon. Watanabes
equation for initial transfer length of steel tendon in pretension type
prestressed concrete is as follows:
Poissons Ratio for FRP Tendons 91
where ho= initial transfer length; rl= radius of steel tendon; r2
radius of
dr:
- r? ); oSe=initial tensile stress of tendon; T~ = initial

concrete; = r?
bond stresq; p,= friction coefficient; v, = Poissons ratio of steel; v, =
Poissons ratio of concrete; and n = modular ratio.
When Eq. (1) was used to calculate the initial transfer length ho using
six sets of Poissons ratio and friction factor, it was found that to agree with
the experiment data well. The Poissons ratio ranged from 0.1 to 0.32 for
carbon FRP and 0.06 to 0.23 for aramid FRP.
For aramid tendons, the Poissons ratio of between 0.32 and 0.62 have
been reported by Gerritse and Schurhoff Mikami made an experimental
study for Poissons ratio of aramid FRP by fixing the 1-mm straight microstrain gauges on the axial and tangential directions on the FRP surface. The
approximate values for aramid FRP was found to be higher than 0.6. The
method of using strain gauges is likely to be localized and the average value
of Poissons ratio may differ for the overall tendon.
Sano et a1.6 studied the Poissons ratio of FRP tendons in the long
slender concrete specimen at prestressing and measured the strains from the
surface of the concrete. Using the thick wall cylinder theory, the Poissons
ratio ranged between 0.08 to 0.27 for aramid and 0.5 to 0.23 for carbon
FRP.
OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS
Materials
Table 1 shows some of the physical properties of the FRP tendons used for
this experiment. Aramid and carbon FRP tendons with an epoxy resin
matrix are used. The surface texture of aramid is cross-wound and the
carbon is stranded.
The diameters for the FRP tendons are determined from volumetric
measurement using cylinder filled with water and then diameters are
calculated from the predetermined length of FRP samples. The tensile
strength and the modulus of elasticity are also determined in the laboratory.
The fiber contents are taken from the makers data.
Table 1. Types of FRF' tendon
SYm
Bol
Dia'($ Fiber
(mm) Type
Matrix
Fiber
Matl.
(%)
AFR
P
9.70
Epoxy
65
AraInid
________________________
CFRP 7.52
Ten.
str
(kW
152
(GPa)
60
CrossWound
129
Strand
---------.----..-_________
Carbon
Epoxy
64
208
Surface
Texture
Test Specimens
As shown in Fig. 1, the FRP tendon is placed at the center of a steel
sleeve and held vertically with a bracket against the wall. The lower parts of
the steel sleeves are sealed with silicon. The highly expansive material
(HEM) slurry is poured into the small opening between the FRP tendon and
the steel sleeve. When the expansive pressure took place the FRP tendon is
firmly gripped inside the steel sleeve, hence forming the HEM anchorage
system. The micro-strain gauges fixed on the surface of the steel sleeve are
used to monitor the pressure development inside the sleeve. The application
of this kind of anchor system is to protect the tendon from the grip of the
jaw-chuck of the UTM. Unlike steel, the FRPs are strong in the axial
direction only. These HEM anchors can also be used for tensile test of FRP
tendons.
Poisson I s Ratio for FRP Tendons 93
Steel sleeve
Fig. 1 Specimen preparation
Fig.2 Specimen assembly
Fig.2 shows the test assembly. A transparent acrylic tube having a

diameter larger than the FRP tendon is used and the bottom of the tube is
sealed with silicon. Colored water is introduced and small markings are
made near the surface level.
Fig.3 Assemblage for pull-out test
Test Procedure
As shown in Fig. 3, the specimen is placed on the UTM and cyclic pull-out
test are carried out. Dial gauges as well as digital slide caliper having
precision of hundredth of a millimeter are used to measure the displacement
and change in water levels.
The relationship between load and extension for aramid and carbon FW
tendons during the tension tests are shown in Figs. 4 (a) and (b).
/,
Poissons Ratio for FRP Tendons 95
.oad (kN)
iI
Aramid FR
20
10
](
Load (kN)
58.5
58
Length of specimen (cm)
(a) Aramid FRP
20
10
0
42
42.5
43
Length of specimen (cm)
(b) Carbon F W
Fig.4 Load vs. length of specimen
The linear relationship for load-extension is taken to determine the average

Poissons ratios. Throughout the experiments, the load-extension
relationships were found to be linear.
RESULTS AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
Small metal frames are attached to the FRP portions to monitor and the
actual elongation of the FRP only. The pull-out loads ranged from 5kN to
45kN with 5kN intervals. For each specimen, ten sets of loading cycles for
every step of load and the respective readings from gauges are recorded
simultaneously. The maximum load is taken as the 60% of the ultimate
tensile capacity of the FRP tendon.
Before tension
Under tension
Fig. 5 Outline of FRP tendon before and under tension
Qdia. of FRP before tension

L, :water level before tension
h: water level difference
P: tensioning load
AL : elongation of FRP at tensioning
L : length of FRP before tensioning
cD2:dia. of FRP under tension

L2 : water level under tension
d,: inner dia. of acrylics tube
Poissons Ratiofor FRP Tendons 97
Figure 5 shows the enlarged portion of the water level difference and the
state of FRP tendon, before and under tension. A simple relation can be
obtained from the volumetric equivalency of the water before and during the
tensioning, which gives the diameter of the FRP under tension 02as:
(L, - Lz)d,2 - L, * @;
(4)
@ 2 = / - - y -
The radial strain E, can be expressed as:

&,
= @I - @ z
@I
The longitudinal strain E, can be expressed as:

&
AL
=-
Therefore the Poissons ratio v of FRP can be expressed as:
Specimen
AFRP
CFRP
Poissons ratio
0.38
0.45
Table 2 shows the average values of Poissons ratio obtained from this
experiment. The values are in agreement with those obtained by other^^,^,^.
Prior to this investigation, the authors have carried out two preliminary
experiments on FRP tendons; the one without steel sleeve anchors and the
other one without the additional frame for dial gauges at the FRP tendons.
The results obtained from these past experiments showed higher Poissons
ratios, ranging from 0.7 to 0.9. This reason is considered to be the larger
elongation at higher load levels, due to the HEM protruding from the steel
98 FRPRCS -6: FRP Materials and Propeaies
tube. When the jaw-chuck was directly applied to the FRP, the end portions
were crushed, causing further elongations in the axial direction. The UTM
used for this study have a chuck clearance of only 120cm. Therefore, more
refined data can be expected if the UTM have a larger clearance to
accommodate a longer specimen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Professor A.E. Naaman of Michigan
University who kindly suggested this idea of pulling the FRP tendon in a
fluid to determine the Poisson's ratio.
REFERENCES
1. Watanabe: Studies in Transmission Length of Pretensioned Prestressed
Concrete., Memoirs of Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University,
Japan. 1965.
2. Myo Khin, Takashi Idemitsu, Kohji Takewaka and Susumu Matsumoto:
Fundamental Study on Bond Behavior of Various FRP Rods in
Pretensioned PC Members.. JSCE Journal, No.526N-29 1995
3. Myo Khin, Kohji Takewaka, Susumu Matsumoto and Takashi Idemitsu:
Experimental Study on Friction Factor for FRP Tendons in Pretensioned
Prestressed Concrete Members.. Third International Symposium on
Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcements for Concrete Structures. Sapporo,
Oct. 1997.
4. Gerritse. and H.J. Schurhoff Prestressing with Aramid Tendons, 10'
FIP Congress, New Delhi, 1986
5. H. Mikami: Study on Application of Braided FRP Rods for
Reinforcement of Concrete Members. Special Report of Technical
Research Institute of Mitsui Construction Co. Ltd. No.3, 1992
6 . S. Sano, Takashi Idemitsu, Takehiro Yamasaki and Myo Khin:
A Study on End Anchorage of CFRP Reinforcements on Pre-tensioned
PC Thin Slabs. Proceedings of JCI, June 1994.

@WorldScientific Publishing Company
STRESS-STRAIN MODEL FOR FRP-CONFINED CONCRETE

FOR DESIGN APPLICATIONS
L. LAM AND J.G. TENG
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering,

The Hong Kong Polytechnic Universiq, Hong Kong, P.R. China
Existing stress-strain models for FRP-confined concrete can be divided into
two categories: design-oriented and analysis-oriented models. While a
number of design-oriented models are available, they suffer from various
deficiencies. A new stress-strain model is proposed in this paper for
concrete confined by wrapped FRP with fibres only or predominantly in the
hoop direction. This model is simple and therefore suitable for direct
applications in design. A comparison with test data also shows that the
proposed model is accurate.
INTRODUCTION
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites have found increasingly wide

applications in civil engineering due to their high strength-to-weight ratio
and high corrosion resistance. One important application of FRP-composites
is as a confining material for concrete in the retrofit of existing reinforced
concrete (RC) columns by the provision of an FRF' jacket. In such
applications, the fibres are present only or predominantly in the hoop
direction.
Many investigations have been conducted into the behaviour of FRPconfined concrete and as a result, a number of stress-strain models have
been proposed. These models can be classified into two categories: (a)
design-oriented models 1-7, and (b) analysis-oriented models*-". In the first
category, the compressive strength, ultimate axial strain (hereafter, referred
to as ultimate strain for brevity) and stress-strain behaviour of FRP-confined
concrete are predicted using closed-form equations based directly on the
interpretation of experimental results. In the second category, stress-strain
curves of FW-confined concrete are generated using an incremental
numerical procedure. In this second approach, an active confinement model
for concrete is used to evaluate the axial stress and strain of passively
confined concrete at a given confining pressure and the interaction between
the concrete and the confining material is explicitly accounted for by
equilibrium and radial displacement compatibility considerations. In the

three studies cited above, the model of Mander et al. was used as the
active confinement model.
Although analysis-oriented models have advantages in accounting for
the interaction between concrete and confining materials including both
steel and FRP composites, the complexity of the incremental process
prevents analysis-oriented models from direct use in design. They are,
however, suitable for incorporation in computer-based numerical analysis
such as nonlinear finite element analysis. Compared to analysis-oriented
models, design-oriented models are particularly suitable for direct
application in design calculations. A simple and accurate design-oriented
stress-strain model offers an approach that is familiar to engineers for
determining the strength and ductility of FRP-confined RC structural
members.
While a number of design-oriented models are available, they suffer
from various deficiencies as discussed in the next section. This paper
presents a new design-oriented model for concrete confined by wrapped
FRP with the reinforcing fibres being only or predominantly in the hoop
direction, in which these deficiencies are overcome.
DEFICIENCIES OF EXISTING DSIGN-ORIENTED MODELS
FRP-confined concrete has been extensively studied in recent years. The
experimental behaviour of concrete confined by wrapped FRP has been
discussed in detail elsewhere12 using a test database assembled from the
published literature. Based on the experimental observations and given that
a stress-strain model for design applications should be simple and accurate,
the deficiencies of existing design-oriented models are summarised below.
Shape of Stress-Strain Curve

It has been well established that FRP-confined concrete exhibits a
monotonically ascending curve which is nearly bi-linear in shape, if the
amount of FRP exceeds a certain threshold value. Existing design-oriented
stress-strain models for FRP-confined concrete have adopted different
approximations to such typical bilinear stress-strain curves. In the models of
Karbhari and Gaol and Xiao and Wu2, the two portions of a bilinear curve
are approximated using two straight lines. This approach is simple but not
realistic. Samaan et aL3 proposed a model for FRP-confined concrete in
which the nearly linear second portion of the stress-strain curve is
Stress-StrainModel for FRP Confined Concrete 101
characterized by its slope E2 and its intercept with the stress axis. Another
salient feature of this model is that the stress-strain curve is represented by a
single equation, with the transition from the first portion to the second
portion being controlled by a shape parameter n. The use of a single
equation, however, necessarily leads to an equation of a more complex form.
Toutanji4 and Saafi et aZ.5 proposed an alternative form for the stress-strain
curve, in which the two portions of a bilinear curve are approximated using
two separate equations, with both equations producing a curved shape. A
smooth transition between the two portions is also provided. Based on the
same general equations, two models were proposed by them separately for
FRP-wrapped concrete and concrete-filled FRP tubes by calibrating the
model parameters with corresponding test data. The models of Samaan et
al.3,Toutanji4 and Saafi et al. can predict the shape of a bilinear stressstrain curve reasonably closely, provided their predictions of the
compressive strength and ultimate strain are accurate. However, the relative
complexity of these three models in form means inconvenience or difficulty
in section analysis for the determination of section capacity or ductility,
where integration of the stress over the section is required.
Miyauchi et aL6used Hognestads l 3 parabola followed by a straight line
to describe both the increasing and decreasing types of stress-strain curves
of FRP-confined concrete. A stress-strain curve with a decreasing post-peak
branch is exhibited only by concrete with rather weak FRP confinement.
This parabola, given by the following equation, is commonly adopted in
codes of practice such as BS 8110 l4 and Eurocode 215 to describe the
ascending part of the stress-strain curve of unconfined concrete for design
use:
where oc and sC are the axial stress and strain respectively, f;, is the
compressive strength of unconfined concrete and E,, is the axial strain at
fLo
. However, the direct use of Hognestads parabola as adopted in
Miyauchi et d s model6 cannot reflect the process of gradual development

of confinement. In fact, the FRP confinement is activated once micro-cracks
in concrete are initiated under loading. Lillistone and Jolly attempted to
account for this effect in their stress-strain model for concrete-filled FRP
tubes in which the first portion of the stress-strain curve is described using
Hognestads p a r a b ~ l a plus
~ an additional term related to the hoop stiffness
of the FRP tube, while the second portion is a straight line. This additional
term used to account for the effect of confinement (not the contribution of
the longitudinal stiffness) is equal to l.282E,tsc / R , with Er, and t being
the elastic modulus and thickness of the confining FRP jacket and R the
radius of the concrete core. This means that the initial slope of the predicted
stress-strain curve can be significantly greater than that of unconfined
concrete, which is obviously not supported by test results.
Definition of Ultimate Condition
Central to any stress-strain model for FRP-confined concrete is the
determination of the ultimate condition of FRP-confined concrete which is
reached when the FRP ruptures. This ultimate condition is characterized by
two parameters: the ultimate axial strain and the corresponding stress level
which is generally but not always the compressive strength of FRP-confined
concrete. There are three major deficiencies in existing design-oriented
stress-strain models in predicting the ultimate condition of FRP-confined
concrete.
Firstly, it is commonly assumed that rupture of FRP occurs when the
hoop strain in the FRP jacket reaches the ultimate tensile strain determined
from material tests, with the only exception being Xiao and Wus model2 for
which the hoop rupture strain was assumed to be 50% of the FRP material
ultimate tensile strain based on their own test observations. This assumption
is however not valid, and leads to difficulty in producing a unified stressstrain model for FRP-confined concrete as the ratio of hoop rupture strain to
FRP material tensile strain varies with the type of FRP*.
Secondly, the effect of the stiffness of the FRP jacket on the ultimate
condition has not been well established and explicitly accounted for,
although it is implied to some degree in the ultimate strain equations of
Samman et d 3 Toutanji4
,
and Saafi et al. The stiffness of the FRP jacket in
fact has an important effect on the stress-strain response of FRP-confined
concrete, particularly the ultimate axial strain as shown later in the paper.
Thirdly, as a result of the above two deficiencies and due to the use of a
limited database, there is room for improvement to the accuracy of the
predictive equations for the compressive strength and ultimate strain of
FRP-confined concrete in existing design-oriented models through the use
of a larger test database.
Stress-StrainModel for FRP Confined Concrete 103
ASSUMPTIONS AND GENERAL EQUATIONS

To overcome the above deficiencies, a new stress-strain model is proposed
here in which the actual hoop rupture strain instead of the material tensile
strain of FRP is used. The model represents an improvement to the authors'
previous model16.The new model is based on the following assumptions: (i)
the stress-strain curve consists of a parabolic first portion and a straight-line
second portion, as given in Figure 1; (ii) the initial slope of the parabola is
the same as the elastic modulus of unconfined concrete E, ; (iii) the
nonlinear part of the first portion is affected to some degree by the presence
of an FRF' jacket; (iv) the parabolic first portion meets the linear second
portion smoothly (i.e. there is no change in slope between the two portions
where they meet); (v) the linear second portion ends at a point where both
the compressive strength f j c and the ultimate axial strain &,,of confined
concrete are reached.
A
I
I
%o
(Eurocode2)
11
11
I -FRP-confined
88
0.0035
I
I
=."
Axial strain E~
Figure 1. Proposed stress-strain model for FRP-confined concrete
These assumptions are in overall accordance with the test observations

of concrete confined by an amount of FRP that is greater than a threshold
valueI2. This threshold value has been suggested to be an actual
confinement ratio not less than 0.07, based on Spoelstra and Monti's work'
and an analysis of the available test data12. The actual confinement ratio is
defined as the ratio between the actual maximum confining pressure
provided by the FRP fi,, and the compressive strength of unconfined
concrete fcL , with the former being given by
A,,=
where
&h,rup
EfrptEh,rup
is the hoop strain of FRP at rupture.
The above assumptions lead to a stress-strain curve which is similar to

those adopted by existing design codes for unconfined concrete and account
for the fact that the initial stiffness of FRP-confined concrete is little
affected by the FRP which is activated when the behaviour of the concrete
becomes nonlinear. The third assumption makes the model different from
Miyauchi et al.s model6 in which the shape of the parabola remains the
same as that for unconfined concrete and is not affected by the FRP
confinement at all. The last assumption is obviously valid for FRP-confined
concrete with a monotonically increasing stress-strain curve, but may not be
reflective of reality for some cases as observed in the existing test data12. In
such cases, the FRP confinement results in a significant strength
enhancement but the compressive strength is still reached before FRP
rupture. The proposed model however provides a good approximation for
these cases for design use. This is somewhat similar to the case for
unconfined concrete. The design stress-strain curve of unconfined concrete
is represented by a parabola followed by a horizontal straight line in both
BS 81 1014 and Eurocode 215, despite that test stress-strain curves display a
descending post-peak branch. In addition to these assumptions, the intercept
of the stress axis by the linear second portion f , is taken to be equal to the
unconfined compressive strength fLo for simplicity (Figure I), based on the
database assembled from the literature which shows an average ratio of
1.09 for f , / L:o.
Consequently, the proposed stress-strain model can be expressed as
follows:
and
o,= f,; + E,E, for
(3b)
The parabolic first portion meets the linear second portion with a
smooth transition at E, which is given by
E, I
E, IE,,
2fco
tE, -4)
where E, is the slope of the linear second portion, given by
El
E,
-.Lo
(4)
Stress-Strain Model for FRP Confined Concrete I05
This model allows the use of test values or values suggested by design codes
for the elastic modulus of unconfined concrete. In addition, it reduces to
Hognestads parabola for unconfined concrete.
ULTIMATE STRAIN AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

A number of studies3, have suggested that the behaviour of passively
confined concrete depends not only on the confining pressure but also the
confinement stiffness. As a result, similar levels of confining pressures do
not result in similar ultimate strains of confined concrete. Although the
effect of jacket stiffness has not been properly accounted for in designoriented models, it is always accurately represented in analysis-oriented
models through equilibrium and compatibility considerations of the concrete
and the jacket. This issue can thus be explained by making use of
predictions from an analysis-oriented model.
Figure 2 shows four stress-strain curves predicted by the analysisoriented model of Speolstra and Monti for concrete cylinders confined by
three different confining materials: steel, CFRP and GFRP with their
properties given in Table 1. For confinement by CFRP, predictions are
provided for two scenarios: the FW ruptures at its material ultimate tensile
strain from coupon tests and the FRP ruptures at an assumed hoop rupture
strain of 60% of the material ultimate tensile strain, which is similar to the
average of test observations. The compressive strength of unconfined
concrete is 35 MPa, while the diameter of the cylinders is 150 mm. For all
four cylinders, the FRP jackets are assumed to supply the same ultimate
tensile capacity in the hoop direction and thus the same maximum confining
pressure, but they have different stiffnesses. The substantial differences
between the predicted responses including the ultimate strain are due to the
differences in the stiffness of the four jackets only.
Further discussions using a constitutive model for concrete under a triaxial state of stress based on non-linear elasticity have also shown a strong
dependence of the ultimate strain of FRP-confined concrete on confinement
stiffnessI2. A careful interpretation of the database12 that has been
assembled from the open literature during this study results in the following
equation for the ultimate strain of FRP-concrete12:
106 FRPRCS -6: FRP Materials and Properlies

100
80
60
40
20
0
001
002
003
004
005
h a 1 strain E,
Figure 2. Stress-strain curves predicted by Spoelstra and Montis

analysis-oriented model for concrete confined by different materials
ble
ble
ble
11Properties
1Properties
Properties
oo o
Elastic
modulus
(MPa)
Confining
TaTa
Ta material
Steel
CFRP
CFRP (actual rupture
strain)
GFRP
where E,,,
Rupture or
yield strain
Thickness of
confining
jacket (mm)
300
3530
(%)
0.15
1.5
2.35 x 10
2115
0.9
0.567
23 100
462
2.0
2.6
2 x 10
2.35 x 10
Rupture or
yield stress
(MPa)
4
0.34
is the secant modulus of elasticity at the compressive strength
of unconfined concrete and = f c i /.cc0.This equation is seen to correlate

well with the test results of concrete cylinders wrapped with different types
of FRP from the open literature (Figure 3).
On the other hand, Figure 2 shows that the stiffness of the confining
jacket also has an effect on the compressive strength of concrete with the
same confinement ratio. As this effect is far less than that on the ultimate
strain, it is ignored in the following equation for the compressive strength of
FW-confined concrete proposed on the basis of the assembled database*:
f=1+3.3- h . a
(7)
fco
fco
The dependence of the strengthening ratio fLc / fLo on the actual

confinement ratio
fLo
is shown in Figure 4 using test results from the
Stress-Strain Model for FRP Confined Concrete 107
assembled database. It should be reminded that a significant strength

enhancement can only be expected with an actual confinement ratio
/ fcyo 2. 0.07. The use of Eq. (7) is recommended to be subjected to this
fci
condition. For the case of FRP-confined concrete with h,u/ < 0.07, no
strength enhancement should be assumed when using the proposed model.
8
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
00
05
10
15
20
25
rud%)'45
Figure 3. Ultimate axial strain: test data, trend line and prop(osed equation
(EfipUE,.R)(%
-Trend
line
. . . Proposed
I
0
00
02
0.4
0.6
0.8
Actual confinement ratio fi,arm
Figure 4. Compressive strength: test data, trend line and proposed equation
FRP EFFICIENCY FACTOR
In the above section, the definitions of the ultimate strain and compressive
strength of confined concrete and the minimum amount of FRP for
sufficient confinement are all in terms of the actual confinement ratio, so
the actual hoop rupture strain of the FRP is required. To facilitate the
application of the model, an FRP efficiency factor has been defined as the
,
~
~
~ concrete
ratio of the actual FRP hoop rupture strain E ~ in FRP-confined
to the FRP rupture strain from flat coupon tests
~ This
~
factor
~
. is found to
be 0.586 on average for the 52 CFRP-wrapped specimens in the database'*.
Making use of this factor, Eq. (7) is then consistent with an equation
previously proposed by the authorsI7 for the compressive strength of FWconfined concrete, which is given by
f"=1+2fco
f,
(8)
fco
where f i is the nominal confining pressure that is calculated from Eq. (2)
with E ~ ,replaced
~ ~ , ~ by E~~~ . The authors suggest that for a given FRP
material, if this efficiency factor is not available, it should be determined by
a small number of confined cylinder tests.
COMPARISON WITH TEST DATA
Figure 5 shows a comparison between test stress-strain curves and
predictions of the proposed model. The test stress-strain curves were
recently obtained by the authors from the tests of concrete cylinders of 152
mm in diameter and 305 mm in height, which were wrapped with 2 layers of
CFRP (Figure 5a) and GFRP (Figure 5b) respectively. The FRP efficiency
factors were found to be 0.583 and 0.669 for the CFRP and the GFRP
respectively from tests. These test results are not part of the database used
for calibrating the parameters of the proposed model, so the close agreement
between the test and predicted stress-strain curves provide an independent
check of the accuracy of the model. Further details of the tests can be found
elsewhere".
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented a new stress-strain model for concrete confined by
wrapped FRP with the fibres being present only or predominantly in the
hoop direction as is commonly the case in retrofit applications. This model
has been based on the actual hoop rupture strain of FRP in confined cylinder
tests and accounts for the effect of jacket stiffness on the ultimate axial
strain. As a result, a unified model has been achieved for different types of
FRP, overcoming the deficiency of the authors' previous modelI6 for which
separate ultimate strain equations were proposed for CFRP and GFRP.
Compared to other existing design-oriented models, it offers several
additional advantages including its simplicity and accuracy.
Stress-Strain Model for FRP Confined Concrete 109

80
..-. 70
a
60
5g
50
40
5
-
30
8
e
ti
-
s ;;
80
70
60
50
40
30
s ;;
0
0
0005
001
0015
Axial strain E~
002
0025
0005
001
0015
002
0025
003
Axial strain zC
(a)
(b)
Figure 5 . Comparison between test and predicted stress-strain curves: (a) wrapped
with 2 layers of CFRP and (b) wrapped with 2 layers of GFRP
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented in this paper forms part of a research project (Project
No: PolyU 5064/01E) funded by the Research Grants Council of Hong
Kong SAR. The first author has been financially supported by The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University through a postdoctoral fellowship and through
the Area of Strategic Development (ASD) Scheme. The authors are grateful
to both organizations for their financial support.
REFERENCES
1. Karbhari, V.M., and Gao, Y., Composite jacketed concrete under
uniaxial compression-verification of simple design equations, Journal
of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 9(4), 1997, pp. 185-193.
2. Xiao, Y. and Wu, H.., Compressive behavior of concrete confined by
carbon fiber composite jackets, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, 12(2), 2000, pp. 139-146.
3. Samaan, M., Mirmiran, A., and Shahawy, M.,Model of concrete
confined by fiber composite, Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 124(9), 1998, pp.1025-1031.
4. Toutanji, H.A., Stress-strain characteristics of concrete columns
externally confined with advanced fiber composite sheets, ACI
Materials Journal, 96(3), 1999, pp.397-404.
5 . Saafi, M., Toutanji, H.A. and Li, Z, Behavior of concrete columns
confined with fiber reinforced polymer tubes, ACI Materials Journal,
96(4), 1999, pp.500-509.
6. Miyauchi, K., Inoue, S., Kuroda, T., and Kobayashi, A., Strengthening
effects of concrete columns with carbon fiber sheet, Transactions of
the Japan Concrete Institute, 21, 1999, pp.143-150.
7. Lillistone, D. and Jolly, C.K., An innovative form of reinforcement for
concrete columns using advanced composites, The Structural Engineer,
78(23/24), 2000, pp.20-28.
8. Mirmiran, A., and Shahawy, M., A new concrete-filled hollow FRP
composite column, Composites Part B: Engineering, 27B(3-4), 1996,
pp.263-268.
9. Spoelstra, M.R. and Monti, G., FRP-confined concrete model,
Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 3(3), 1999, pp. 143-150.
10. Fam, A.Z. and Rizkalla, S.H., Confinement model for axially loaded
concrete confined by circular fiber-reinforced polymer tubes, ACI
Structural Journal, 98(4), 200 1, pp.45 1-461.
1 1. Mander, J.B., Priestley, M.J.N. and Park, R., Theoretical stress-strain
model for confined concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
114(8), 1988, pp.1804-1826.
12. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., Design-oriented stress-strain model for FRPconfined concrete, to be published.
13. Hognestad, E., A Study of Combined Bending and Axial Load in
Reinforced Concrete Members, Bulletin Series No. 399, Engineering
Experiment Station, University of Illinois, Urbana, U.S.A., 1951.
14. BS 81 10, Structural Use of Concrete, Part 1, Code of Practice for
Design and Construction, British Standards Institution, London, UK,
1997.
15. ENV 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures - Part I :
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, European Committee for
Standardization, Brussels, 1991.
16. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., A new stress-strain model for FRP-confined
concrete, PRF Composites in Civil Engineering, Proceedings of the
International Conference, edited by J.G. Teng, Elsevier, Oxford, UK,
200 1, pp.283-292.
17. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., Strength models for fiber-reinforced plasticconfined concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 128(5),
2002, pp.612-623.17.
18. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., Hoop rupture strains of FRP jackets in FRPconfined concrete, Proceedings, Sixth International Symposium on
Fibre-reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures
(FRPRCS-6), Singapore, 2003, submitted.

ACCELERATED TECHNIQUES TO PREDICT THE STRESSRUPTURE BEHAVIOUR OF ARAMID FIBRES

K. G. N. C. ALWIS AND C. J. BURGOYNE
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge
Trumpington Street, CB2 IPZ, U.K.
To obtain the stress-rupture data at low stress levels, accelerated testing has
been suggested using either the time temperature superposition principle or
the stepped isothermal method. These techniques will be applied to Kevlar49 yarns. The important aspects in obtaining smooth master curves and the
validity, both of the techniques and the resulting curves, will also be
discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Many models have been suggested over the past decades to predict the
long-term stress-rupture behaviour of aramid fibres but they were based on
data obtained at high stress levels; extrapolation techniques have been used
to predict the behaviour at low stress levels'x2.Thus, the validity of these
methods is an open issue.
As an alternative, two accelerated testing methods have been suggested
to predict the stress-rupture behaviour at low stress levels: the time
temperature superposition principle and the stepped isothermal method.
These methods offer many advantages when compared to conventional
creep tests as testing requires shorter time scales to obtain long-term data.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ACCELERATED METHODS
Time Temperature Superposition Principle (TTSP)
It is assumed that raising the temperature will increase the creep rate but not
alter the mechanism. Several individual creep tests are performed at
different temperature levels, to obtain strain versus logarithmic time curves.
These curves can then be time shifted, parallel to the logarithmic time axis,
by an amount a, to give a single reference curve, on which all the separate
test results are superposed. This master curve applies for a certain
temperature and a fixed stress level. A comprehensive literature review on
early development of the time-temperature superposition principle can be

found elsewhere3 and there have been many application^^^^.
Materials and experimental set up
In the sample tests described here, Kevlar-49 yarns were used. The average
breaking strength load (ABL) of the yarns was 445 N, obtained from 12
short-term tests. The cross sectional area of the yarn was 0.1685 X
m2.
The tensile tests were carried out in a conventional testing machine,
using round bar clamps that have also been used for long-term dead-weight
testing of yarns. The load was applied by moving the cross-head of the
machine at a specific rate; the cross-head movement and the load level were
recorded.
One of the difficult tasks is to determine the absolute zero of the
stress-strain curve, due to initial slack and slippage of the yarn around the
jaws. It is essential to know accurately the strain of the specimen just after
the initial loading in order to compare the creep curves at different
temperatures. A small error of this value would result in displacing the
creep curves on the creep strain axis which then makes it impossible to
obtain valid, smooth master curves only by making time shifts.
The testing set-up is shown in Figure 1. The oven is set up within the
test machine, with the two clamps mounted on extension pieces so that the
complete test specimen lies inside the oven. Figure 2 shows accurate stressstrain curves, determined at different temperatures. This figure was used to
determine the initial strains for a given stress level at different
temperatures. For example, points at which the line AB crosses the stressstrain curves are the initial strain values at 70% ABL. This process is
described in detail elsewhere6.
A series of creep tests were carried out at 70% ABL on Kevlar-49 at
different temperatures (25, 40, 60, 80, 100 OC). The initial loading rate was
5 m d m i n and the specimen length was 350 mm (centre to centre distance
of the jaws). In each test, load was applied only after the temperature had
reached the desired value. Thus, by adjusting the initial strains for each test
as described above, only time shifts were needed to obtain the master curve.
Results and discussion
Figure 3 shows the raw data of Kevlar-49 specimens at different

temperatures. Initial strains of the creep curves just after loading were
adjusted according to Figure 2.
Stress-Rupture Behaviour of Aramid Fibres 113
Figurel. Experimental set up for Tensile, TTSP and SIM tests
80
v1v1
40
- 25
+
30
OC
6OoC
20
,
0.5
1.5
Strain (YO)
Figure 2. Stress vs. Strain curves at different temperatures6
2.5
114 FRPRCS -6: FRP Materials and Propeaies
1.7 -
o*
All creep curves (after one hour) were shifted to a reference curve as
described earlier until they generate a sufficiently smooth curve. Initially, a
graphical method was used to find approximate shift factors, which were
then varied in an iterative manner to produce a smooth master curve (Figure
4).
1.94
d r
Master curve
1.92
I .9
1.88
h
.2
1.84
rA
1.82
18
1.78
176
1.74
1
Time, log,,,(hours)
I
6
Figure 4. Master curve at 25 OC and 70% ABL
One of the problems was to decide how the creep response of Kevlar-49
yarns should be parameterised. In past models, the creep response of
Stress-Rupture Behaviour of Aramid Fibres 115
Kevlar-49 was plotted against the loglo (time) and linear variations were
predicted2. Alternatively, a power low variation was also used7. Tamuzs'
has done similar testing on Kevlar assuming a series of Kelvin
viscoelasticity models to predict the creep behaviour. However, his data can
also be fitted with a polynomial of order three. The problem is to select the
correct degree of polynomial to describe the data. A higher degree
polynomial will give a better fit but there is risk of over-fitting the
variables. There are many statistical checks available to decide the
appropriate degree of polynomial9. In this analysis, a 6th order polynomial
was used to describe the creep data of the master curve.
A series of conventional creep tests has also been performed to check
the validity of this method. These tests have been carried out in a controlled
temperature (25 'C) and a specified humidity (65% RH). These are the two
nominal parameters of the master curve. Figure 5 shows the conventional
creep curve plotted with the master curve. The initial part of the
conventional curve clearly follows the master curve.
The double curvature of the master curve over log,, (hours) = 2 to 3 of
Figure 5 is notable. This may be attributed to re-arrangement of the internal
fibers and further microscopic investigations are necessary. However, the
reverse curvature of the master curve might imply that the mechanism had
changed, which would invalidate the model. To check this, all shift factors
were plotted on an Arrhenius plot which gave a straight line. This implies
that there is no change in the underlying process, despite the reversal of the
master curve. The creep activation energy was found to be 116.3 kJ/mole
(27.78 kcal/mole).
-
s
e
.-C
?i
1 0'
T i m e , loglo(hours)
Figure 5. Master curve at 25 OC and 70% ABL with conventional creep data
Stepped Isothermal Method (SIM)
This approach was first applied to polyester yarns to predict the stress
rupture behaviour at moderate tensile loads. The results appeared to be
similar to the results obtained from the conventional TTSP tests. In a SIM
test, a single specimen is tested at various temperature levels under a
constant load, whereas in TTSP testing different specimens are tested at
each temperature level. SIM testing thus lends itself to automated testing
once the specimen has been loaded into the machine. The SIM procedure
can be summarised as:
(a) The test method is similar to that for TTSP. A single specimen is used
and the temperature is increased in a series of well-defined steps.
(b) Individual strain versus time curve segments corresponding to different
temperatures are shifted in the strain direction to account for thermal
contractiodexpansion,
(c) Re-scaling in the linear time direction is carried out to account for the
thermal history of the specimen,
(d) All curves are shifted parallel to the logarithmic time axis to obtain a
reference curve as described in TTSP.
The additional steps needed for SIM interpretation are described below.
Adjustment of strain
Figure 6 shows a schematic picture of a temperature step. The temperature
is raised from TI to T2 over the time, t,. Point B represents the creep strain
just after the temperature step; B is the creep strain that would have been
observed due to thermal contraction (aramid fibres have a negative
coefficient of thermal expansion). However, the final creep strain, B is
observed due to continuing creep over time, t, ( BB ). The adjusted strain
just after the temperature step ( B) can be found:(a) by adding the thermal contraction, so = B + BB , or
(b) by adding the creep over t,, so B = B + BB
To calculate the distanceBB , an accurate value of the coefficient of
thermal expansion is needed, but in the literature different values are stated,
so method (a) is not reliable.
Stress-Rupture Behaviour of Aramid Fibres 11 7
After adjustment.
Time
Figure 6. Change of creep behaviour at a temperature step
In contrast, Method (b) can be performed using measured values.

Changes of the creep rate over time t, can be found by conducting separate
creep tests from temperature TI to a variety of different temperatures. This
allows the variation of creep rate with temperature to be measured; the
creep over time, t, (BB') can then be found by integration. A similar
procedure has to be applied for each temperature step.
Resealing procedure
One of the main differences with the SIM approach is that the history of the
specimen at different temperatures is not as same as in TTSP. In TTSP a
specimen is subjected to a certain temperature level starting from the room
temperature whereas in SIM the specimen has a temperature history. Figure
7 shows the strain response for two temperature steps. The curve OABC is
the measured response of the SIM specimen through the first two
__
temperature steps. OABC is the response after making the strain
adjustment. PQ is the response of a TTSP test carried out at the higher
temperature T2. It is now necessary to determine the time t'which
represents the notional starting time for a TTSP specimen that would have
the same response as the SIM specimen at the higher temperature. The
value t"-t' is assumed to be the time needed for a specimen which had
always been at T2to arrive at the creep state at time t" . It should be equal to
t* from the TTSP curve. The selection of t for each temperature step has a
great influence when obtaining smooth master curves.
Time
t-
Figure 7. Re-scaling procedure for SIM
A numerical procedure has been developed to select the rescaling time

t (which is applied in linear time) and the time shifting parameter a,(which
is applied in logarithmic time), to produce a smooth master curve. Figure 8
shows three master curves, one obtained from a set of TTSP tests, and the
other two obtained from SIM tests with different combinations of
temperature steps. If the method has any validity, these master curves
should be similar, to within the normal limits of variation between different
fibres. The results in Figure 8 show that the method is promising.
It is now possible to investigate stress-rupture behaviour. Each of the
master curves on Figure 8 ends with the failure of a yarn. If the master
curves are truly representative of the creep curves of the yarn, then it is
reasonable to suppose that the times to failure on the figure represent the
times to failure that would have been observed in long-term tests.
Stress-Rupture Behaviour of Aramid Fibres I I9
1.9 -
-s
1.85-
.3
rd
&
1.8-
1.75 -
1.7-
-1
Time, loglO(hours)
Figure 8. Master curves from TTSP and SIM
CONCLUSION
TTSP can be successfully applied to predict the long-term creep behaviour

of aramid. The SIM method can be used to mimic the behaviour of TTSP
tests. Both methods can be used to predict the rupture times of yarns at low
stress levels.
The fundamental question remains whether the master curve obtained
by the two methods described here, which appear to be self-consistent and
repeatable, truly represents the behaviour of fibres tested over very long
time-scales at ambient temperature. If this could be proved, then the SIM
method has great potential for accumulating data very quickly.
REFERENCES
1. Guimaraes, G.B., "Parallel-lay aramid ropes for use in structural
engineering", PhD Thesis submitted to the University of London, 1988.
2. Ericksen, R.H., "Creep of Kevlar 49 fibres", Proc. of 2nd Symp. on

failure modes in composites. Metall. SOC.of AIME, New York, 1984
302 pp.
3. Ferry, J.D., "Viscoelastic properties of polymers", John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1970.
4. Povolo, F. and Hermida, E.B. "Analysis of the master curve for the
viscoelastic behaviour of polymers", Mechanics of Materials, No. 12,
1991, pp. 35-46.
5. Brinson, L.C. and Gates, T.S., "Effects of physical aging on long term
creep of polymers and polymer matrix composites", Znt. J. Solids and
Structures, Vol. 32, No. 617, 1995, pp. 827-846.
6. Alwis, K.G.N.C, PhD thesis in preparation, University of Cambridge.
7. Walton, R.E. and Majumdar, A.J., "Creep of Kevlar 49 fibre and a
Kevlar 49-cement composite", Journal of Materials Science, Vol. 18,
1983, pp. 2939-2946.
8. Tamuzs, V., Maksimovs, R. and Modniks, J., "Long-term creep of
hybrid FRP bars", 5ih International Symposium on FRP Reinforced
Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, July 8- 10, 200 1, Vol. 1,
pp. 527-53 5.
9. Draper, N.R., and Smith, H., "Applied regression analysis", John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1966.
10. Thornton, J.S., Allen, S.R., Thomas, R.W. and Sandri, D., "The stepped
isothermal method for TTS and its application to creep data on
polyester yarn", Sixth International Conference on Geosynthetics,
Atlanta, USA, 1988.
Bond Behaviour
FRPRCS-6,Singapore, 8-1 0 July 2003

BOND CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS FRP

STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUES
S. H. RIZKALLA
Distinguished Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, North Carolina State
University Campus Box 7533, Raleigh, NC, USA 27695-7533
T. HASSAN
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Ain-Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt
Strengthening of reinforced concrete structures using FRP has emerged as a
potential solution to the problems associated with civil infrastructure. Many
researchers have reported significant increases in strength and stiffness of concrete
structures strengthened with FRP. Nevertheless, possible brittle failures of the
strengthened system due to delamination of the FEW strips and/or sheets could limit
the use of the full efficiency of the FEW system. This paper presents a bond failure
hypothesis for near surface mounted FRP bars. Closed-form analytical solutions are
proposed to predict the interfacial stresses for near surface mounted FRP strips and
externally bonded FRP sheets. The models are calibrated by comparing the predicted
behavior to test results. Quantitative criteria governing interfacial debonding failure
of near surface mounted FRP bars, strips and externally bonded FRP sheets are
established.
NSM FRP BARS
Transfer of stresses from a deformed NSM FRP rod to the concrete is

mainly by mechanical interlocking of the lugs with the surrounding epoxy.
The resultant force exerted by the lug on the epoxy is inclined at an angle p
to the axis of the bar as shown in Figure 1, where Man fl is the coefficient
of friction, p between the bar and the adhesive. The radial component of the
resultant force creates zones of high tensile stresses at the FRP-epoxy
interface as well as at the concrete-epoxy interface. Finite element analysis
was employed to provide in-depth understanding of the load transfer
mechanism between NSM FRP bars and concrete. Figure 2 shows the mesh
dimensions used in modelling a portion of a concrete beam strengthened
with a NSM FRP bar. Groove dimensions, bar location and properties of
concrete and epoxy were set identical to the bond specimens tested by
Rizkalla and Hassan, 2002'.
124 FRPRCS -6:Bond Behaviour

Internal
+t
TIP
Force
components
on epoxy
Figure 1. Forces between NSM
FRP bar and adhesive
4-
4
TIP
Major
crack
Force
components on
bar
Radial pressure was applied at the bar location to simulate the bond
stresses transferred from the bar to the surrounding epoxy. Typical principal
tensile stress distribution is shown in Figure 3. It should be noted that the
elastic modulus of the adhesive is generally less than that of the concrete.
Such a phenomenon results in a stress discontinuity at the concrete-epoxy
interface as shown in Figure 3 .
30
-
20
-10
10
10
>
High tensile stresses are observed at the concrete-epoxy interface as well as

at the FRP-epoxy interface. Two different types of debonding failures could
occur for NSM FRP bars. The first mode of failure is due to splitting of the
epoxy cover as a result of high tensile stresses at the FRP-epoxy interface,
and is termed epoxy split failure. Increasing the thickness of the epoxy
cover reduces the induced tensile stresses significantly. Furthermore, using
Bond Characteristics of FRP Strengthening Techniques 125
adhesives of high tensile strength delays epoxy split failure. This type of
debonding failure forms with longitudinal cracking through the epoxy
cover. The second mode of failure is due to cracking of the concrete
surrounding the epoxy adhesive and is termed concrete split failure. This
mode of failure will take place when the tensile stresses at the concreteepoxy interface reach the tensile strength of the concrete. Widening the
groove minimizes the induced tensile stresses at the concrete-epoxy
interface and increases the debonding loads of NSM bars. Concrete split
failure was the governing mode of failure for the bond specimens tested by
the authors. Large epoxy cover and high tensile strength of the epoxy
adhesive provided high resistance to epoxy split failure and shifted the
failure to occur at the concrete-epoxy interface. The tangential bond stress,
z, can be expressed as:
d*FRP
=4 L .
d
where d is the diameter of the bar, and Ld is the embedment length needed to
develop a stress offFRp in the NSM bar. If the coefficient of friction between
the bar and the epoxy is p, the radial stresses, Prad,a/, can be expressed as:
. ~at ~the~
The tensile stresses at the concrete-epoxy interface, c ~ , ~ and
FRP-epoxy interface, o ~ R can
~ be. expressed
~ ~ ~ in~terms
~ ,of the radial stress
as follows:
c7
FRP - epoxy
(4)
where GI, G2 and G ; are coefficients determined from the finite element
analysis based on a unit radial pressure applied at the bar location and using
specified groove dimensions, concrete and adhesive properties. The
maximum tensile stress at the FRP-epoxy interface, o - ~ ~depends
. ~ ~ on
~
the coefficients G2 and G, , whichever is greater as shown in Figure 3.
Equating the tensile strength of concrete to Eq. (3), the minimum
I26 FRPRCS -6: Bond Behaviour
embedment length needed for NSM FRP bars to prevent concrete split
failure can be expressed as:
Equating the tensile strength of the adhesive to Eq. (4), the minimum
embedment length needed for NSM FRP bars to avoid epoxy split failure
shall not be less than:
r
where fcr and &,xy

are the tensile strength of concrete and epoxy,
respectively. Increasing the ratio of the elastic modulus of the concrete to
that of the adhesive generates high tensile stresses at the concrete-epoxy
interface and low tensile stresses at the FRP-epoxy interface. Practical
values of the modular ratio could vary between 5 and 40. This range covers
various types of concrete and adhesives that are commonly used in concrete
structures. Figure 4 shows the proposed design chart for the development
length of NSM FRP bars.
C/d for G2 andlor G '2 curves
4
3.5
2.5
1.5
0.5
1.4
1.6
1.2
1.4
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
C/d for GI curves

Figure 4. Design chart for the development length of NSM FFW bars
To simulate the most critical conditions for design purposes, the coefficient
G, was evaluated for a modular ratio of 40. The coefficients, Gz and G;
were evaluated for a modular ratio of 5 and the greater value was plotted in
Figure 4. The chart covers a wide range of possible epoxy covers and
accounts for three different groove sizes. Using the proposed design chart,
the coefficients GI and the greater value of either Gz or G; could be
evaluated for a given groove width, w, and using a specified clear cover to
bar diameter ratio (C/d). The governing development length for NSM FRP
bars could be predicted using the greater of Eqs. ( 5 ) and (6). The proposed
approach compared very well with the test results and overestimated the
development length of NSM CFRP bars by less than 5 percent'.
NSM FRP STRIPS

This section presents a closed-form analytical solution to predict the
interfacial shear stresses for NSM FRP strips. The model is validated by
comparing the predicted values with test results'. The proposed model is
based on the combined shear-bending model for externally bonded FRP
plates and is given in Figure 5.
+-dafdx
ac
-t
daC
-dx
dx
I dx
I
L'
Lr,
u
300
Figure 5. Analytical model for NSM FRP strips
The model is modified to account for the double bonded area of NSM strips.
The model accounts also for the continuous reduction in flexural stiffness
due to cracking of the concrete. Debonding of NSM strips is assumed to
occur as a result of high shear stress concentration at cutoff point. The

derivation of the model is reported elsewhere'. For simply supported beams
subjected to a concentrated load, P, at midspan, the shear stress at the strip
cutoff point,? can be expressed in terms of the effective moment of inertia,
re,,,and the thickness of the CFRP strip, tf, as follows:
where, u 2 =
Ef
2Ga ; n = ; Ef is elastic modulus of the FRF' strip,
tatf E f
Ec
E, is elastic modulus of concrete, G, is the shear modulus of the adhesive, to

is the thickness of the adhesive, I, is the unbonded length of the strip; y is
the distance from the strip to the neutral axis of the transformed section and
Zef is the effective moment of inertia of the transformed section. Debonding
will occur when the shear stress reaches a maximum value, which depends
on the concrete properties. Premature debonding of NSM CFRP strips is
governed by the shear strength of the concrete. Other components of the
system such as the adhesive and the CFRP strips have superior strength and
adhesion properties compared to concrete. Knowing the compressive and
tensile strength of concrete, the Mohr-Coulomb line, which is tangential to
both Mohr's circles for pure tension and pure compression, can be
represented and the maximum critical shear stress for the pure shear circle
can be expressed as:
rmax =
'c
fct
f 'c + fct
wheref, is the compressive strength of concrete after 28 days andf,, is the

splitting tensile strength of concrete. Equating the shear strength proposed
in Eq. (8) to the shear stress given in Eq. (7), debonding loads for NSM
CFRP strips can be determined for simply supported beams subjected to a
concentrated load at midspan. The development length is highly dependent
on the dimensions of the strips, concrete properties, adhesive properties,
internal steel reinforcement ratio, reinforcement configuration, type of
loading, and groove width. The proposed model in Eqs. (7) and (8), can be
used to estimate the development length of NSM strips of any configuration
as follows:
(a) Use the proposed Eqs. (7) and (8) to determine the debonding load of the
strip for different embedment lengths as shown in Figure 6. The resulting
curve represents a failure envelope due to debonding of the strip at cutoff
point.
(b) Use a cracked section analysis at sections of maximum induced normal
stresses and determine the ultimate load required to rupture the strip as
shown in Figure 6.
(c) Determine the development length at the intersection of the line
corresponding to flexural failure of the strip with the curve representing
debonding failure at cutoff point. The calculated development length will
preclude brittle failure due to debonding of the strips and will ensure full
composite action between the strip and concrete up to failure. The proposed
approach compared very well with the experimental results. The predicted
debonding loads underestimated the measured values by less than 6%'.
Rupture loadfor the strips
rgaeqoqaipg , , , , igth
, , +
Embedment length
~
Figure 6. General procedure to determine development length of NSM strips
EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SHEETS

The proposed approach modifies the analytical model developed by Malek
et al., 199S3.New expressions for the moment of inertia and the neutral axis
depth of the concrete section at cutoff points are introduced. An effective
moment of inertia, ,
1 and an effective neutral axis depth, yef are proposed
to account for the continuous degradation in stiffness as cracking
progresses. Both expressions were originally developed to predict the
deflections of concrete members after cracking4. For simply supported
beams subjected to a concentrated load at mid-span, the shear stress, z, and
the normal stress, on, at the ends of the externally bonded FRP
reinforcement can be expressed by:
where
and t, is the thickness of the FRP sheets; t, is the thickness of the adhesive; n
is ratio of the elastic modulus of the FRP to that of the concrete; P is the
applied concentrated load; I, is the unbonded length of the FRP sheets; yeflis
the effective distance from the sheet to the neutral axis of the section; Iefis
the effective moment of inertia of the transformed section; If is the moment
of inertia of the FRP sheets; Ea, Ec, Efand are the modulus of elasticity of
the adhesive, concrete and FRP, respectively; G, is the shear modulus of the
adhesive; by is the width of the FRP reinforcement; Mu is the applied
moment on the concrete section at cutoff points; and V, is the shear force in
the concrete beam at the sheet cutoff point.
Delamination of externally bonded FRP reinforcement can be
determined using a critical combination of both normal and shear stresses at
cutoff points. The critical combination of these two stresses was established
by using a delamination circle'. The delamination circle provides a
, , ,z
and the normal strength, on,,.
relationship between the shear strength,
This relationship can be expressed in terms of the concrete compressive
strength,f .: and the concrete tensile strength,&, as follows:
Bond Characteristics ofFRP Strengthening Techniques 131
max =
fcf ct
fcf ct
ct I n max
c
J
Vfc+f
ct )
(11)
fcf. ct
_2
n max
The maximum normal and shear stresses are evaluated for the bond
specimens tested by the authors using the proposed approach4. Interfacial
debonding loads are predicted using Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion. The
analysis is extended further to include specimens Fl, C2 and Gl as well as
specimens Sl.O, SI.2 and SI.4 tested by other researchers to examine the
validity of the proposed approach5'6. All the selected specimens experienced
concrete cracking with various intensities at the sheets' cutoff points prior
to delamination. Figure 7 shows the predicted delamination loads using the
proposed approach compared with the experimental results. The predicted
delamination loads using Malek's model, as well as those predicted using
Brosens model, are also shown for comparison. The figure clearly indicates
that delamination loads can be predicted with a sufficient accuracy using the
proposed approach. Assuming uncracked concrete sections at the sheets'
cutoff points overestimated the strength of the beams considerably and led
to huge errors. Furthermore, using fully cracked concrete sections at cutoff
points provided very conservative delamination loads.
300-
* Proposed Approach
250
T3
cd
C
O
Experimental Results
ZOO-
+ Malek's Model
ISO
A Brosens Model
100
50
ID
Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 Fl C2 Gl SI S1.2 S1.4
Hassan 2002
Brosens 2001 Hearing and

Test specimen
Buyukozturk2001
Figure 7. Experimental results compared with the proposed approach
CONCLUSIONS
(a) The efficiency of using CFRP bars as NSM reinforcement is controlled
primarily by the bond characteristics of the bars as well as by the bond
between the adhesive material and the concrete.
(b) Two different types of interfacial debonding failures can occur for NSM
FRP bars: (i) Epoxy split failure; and (ii) Concrete split failure.
(c) Increasing the groove width and/or using high strength concrete,
increases the resistance to concrete split failure. Using high strength
adhesives and/or increasing the epoxy cover layer delays epoxy split
failure for NSM FRP bars.
(d) The proposed analytical models and failure criteria for NSM FRP strips
as well as for externally bonded FRP sheets are capable of predicting
the interfacial shear stress distribution, ultimate load carrying capacity
and mode of failure.
REFERENCES
1. Rizkalla, S., and Hassan T., Effectiveness of FRP techniques for
strengthening concrete bridges Journal of the Znternational
Associationfor Bridge and Structure Engineering, 12(l), 2002.
2. Hassan, T., and Rizkalla, S., Investigation of bond in concrete
structures strengthened with near surface mounted CFRP strips. ASCE,
Journal of Composites for Construction, 2002, in press.
3. Malek, A., Saadatmanesh, H., and Ehsani, M., Prediction of failure
load of R/C beams strengthened with FRP plate due to stress
concentration at the plate end, ACI Structural Journul, 95(1), 1998,
pp.142-152.
4. Hassan, T., Flexural behavior and bond characteristics of FRP
strengthening techniques for concrete structures, Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Manitoba, Canada, 2002,304 pp.
5. Brosens, K., Anchorage of externally bonded steel plates and CFRP
laminates for the strengthening of concrete elements, Ph.D. Thesis, K.
U. Leuven, Belg., 2001,225 pp.
6. Hearing, B. and Buyukozturk, O., Delamination in reinforced concrete
retrofitted with fibre reinforced plastics, Ph.D. Thesis, MIT, 2000,
287pp.

OWorId Scientific Publishing Company
BOND STRENGTH BETWEEN FIBER-REINFORCED

POLYMFR LAMINATES AND CONCRETE
T. KANAKUBO
Institute of Engineering Mechanics and Systems, University of Tsukuba
Tennohdai, Tsukuba-city, 305-8573, Japan
T. FURUTA
Civil Engineering and Construction Products Div., Bando Chemical Industries Ltd.
Tsuchiyama, Hiraoka-cho, Kakogawa-city, 675-01 04, Japan
H. FUKUYAMA
Dept. of Structural Engineering, Building Research Institute
Tatehara, Tsukuba-city, 305-0802, Japan
This research presents the bond strength between FRP laminates and
concrete. To develop a simple prediction formula for bond strength, the
bond stress - slippage model proposed by the authors (Popovics model) is
considered and equivalent bond stress block (EBSB) is newly defined. The
bond stress is assumed as a constant value throughout the bonded region,
for which the strain and slippage of FRP laminates are easily obtained by
solving a simple second differential equation. A new prediction formula is
proposed for two cases: one for bond length longer than the effective bond
length and another for shorter bond length. The predicted values show very
good agreement with experimental results reported previously.
INTRODUCTION
In many studies related to bond behavior between FRP laminates and
concrete, bond stress (shear stress), T, - slippage (relativity displacement),s,
the relationships at the local region is examined. The first two authors have
also investigated local T - s relationships' and proposed that the relationship
be represented by the Popovics formula which has been applied to
compression stress - strain relationship of concrete. This model was used in
the numerical analysis for bond behavior of FRP laminates. The analytical
results of bond strength, strain distributions of FRP and the effective bond
length show a good agreement with experimental results.
On the other hand, one of the most important characteristics related to
bond behavior is the bond strength in actual design of FRP laminates. Some
134 FRPRCS -6: Bond Behaviour
formulas for bond strength calculation are proposed233

by regression analysis
of experimental results and not based on consideration of mechanical
behavior. However, they have similar characteristics involving the influence
of concrete strength, stiffness of FRP laminates (= thickness x elastic
modulus) and effective bond length.
The purpose of this study is to derive a simple calculation formula for
bond strength considering the mechanical behavior. For this purpose, bond
stress is considered as a constant value along the bonded region or effective
bond length. The constant stress distribution is termed as the equivalent
bond stress block (EBSB). Bond properties are basically obtained by
analyzing second differential equation.
BOND STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS OF FRP LAMINATES
Numerical Analysis Using Popovics Model
The authors have proposed Popovics model' to express bond stress, T, slippage, s, relationships in local region of bond between FRP laminates and
concrete, as follows:
where rb = bond stress in local region, s = slippage, r b , m a = maximum bond

stress (this is not equal to average bond stress), smax= slippage at maximum
bond stress (equal to 0.065mm), a = constant (equal to 3), o = concrete
compressive strength (in MPa)
Eq.( 1) is expressed as Eq.(3) by substituting 3 for a :
Analytical results by numerical calculation I are shown in Figures 1 and

2. The dimensions and mechanical properties of specimens used in the
analysis are as follows :
a) Dimensions : Section = 100 x lOOmm, Laminates width (bf) =
50mm.
Bond Strength between FRP Laminates and Concrete I35
b) Specimen : Two concrete blocks are connected at the center only by

laminates. The concrete blocks are subjected to uni-axial tensile
force via reinforcement bars inserted in the concrete blocks.
c) Mechanical properties of FRP : Thickness of fiber (q)= 0.167mm,
Elastic modulus of fiber (EJ = 230GPa.
d) Mechanical properties of concrete : Concrete compressive strength
(Q) = 57.6MPa, Maximum local bond stress ( r b , m a x ) = 7.56MPa
e) Bond length of laminates : l b = 30,60, 120mm (3 cases)
Figure 1 shows analytical tensile load - slippage relationships in the
case of bond length of 30, 60 and 120mm. The crosses ( x ) indicate the
maximum tensile load. The circles indicate that the slippage of central
position of bonded region (s,) had reached the value of smm (0.065mm).
Figure 2 shows analytical results for (a) bond stress distribution; (b) FRP
strain distribution; and (c) slippage distribution along the axial direction
with distance from the loaded end of specimen. The left, center and right
side graphs correspond to the case of 30mm, 60mm and 120mm bond
lengths, respectively. Solid lines indicate the results of analysis using
Popovics model, when slippage of central position of bonded region (8,)
becomes equal to, , ,s (0.065mm). Hatched boxes in (a) and dotted lines in
(b) and (c) indicate the distributions obtained by a constant bond stress,
defined as equivalent bond stress block (EBSB), for which, FRP strain
(corresponds linearly to tensile stress of FRP) distribution is linear, and
slippage distribution is parabolic.
The cases of bond length of 30mm and 60mm correspond to the case of
a bond length shorter than effective bond length, and the case of 120mm
correspond to the case of a bond length longer than that. In the case of
120mm bond length, the bond stress is distributed on a limited region, and
this region moves from central position to loaded end of specimens. In the
case of 30mm bond length, bond stress of more than 5MPa is observed in
the whole bonded region. In the bond stress distributions of Popovics model
analysis, the distribution curve shows a symmetrical form with a maximum
bond stress.
Equivalent Bond Stress Block (EBSB)
Equivalent bond stress block (EBSB) is defined such that the bond stress
distribution has the same area with the actual bond stress distribution.
.sc
= Smex
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Slippage at center (mm)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 1. Analytical results of tensile load - slippage relationships

/b
= 30mm
/b
= 60mm
/b
= 120mm
m 8
a
E. 6
h
.-4
v)
g!
v)
'0
0
Distance from the end (mm)
20
40 60 80 100 120
Distance from the end (mrn)
(a) Bond stress distribution

0.8
0 102030
40 60 80 100 120
20
(b) FRP strain distribution
0.5
0.5
2
0.2
CL
0 102030
20
40
60
20 40 60 80 T O
120
(c) Slippage distribution
Figure 2. Analytical results of bond stress, FRP strain and slippage distributions
Bond stress of EBSB changes with bond length as shown in Figure 2. It

increases as bond length becomes shorter, and decreases as the bond length
Bond Strength between FRP Laminates and Concrete 137
becomes longer, even if any other variables are not changed. For a specified
effective bond length, a lower limit of bond stress of EBSB could be
defined.
PREDICTING FORMULA FOR BOND STRENGTH
Basic Equations
The following second differential equation expresses the bond between FRP
laminate and concrete:
where s = slippage, by = width of FRP laminate, 9 = thickness of fiber, Ef =

elastic modulus of fiber, A,. Em = stiffness of equivalent section including
concrete, steel reinforcement and resin, and rb = bond stress
Deformation of the equivalent section is neglected in order to derive a
simple prediction formula. The influence of concrete deformation to bond
behavior is small because of large differences of stiffness between fiber and
concrete. Therefore, Eq.(4) can be written as
If 76 is taken as a function of s, the bond strength can be calculated by

solving Eq.(5). However, it is not possible to solve Eq.(5) when the function
is arbitrary. When rb is assumed to be constant, that is, using EBSB, Eq.(5)
can be solved easily. If the bond stress of EBSB is defined as the product of
maximum bond stress, rb,max, and constant k @<I), then
--
d 2s -
k b
mox
dx
tf
.Ef
Defining a bond length index, A,-, as shown in Eq. (7), Eq.(6) can be
expressed as Eq.(8).
d2s- k
dx2 Af
Integration of Eq.(8) gives Eq.(9), from which Eq.(lO) can be obtained, with
Cl, Cz as integration constants. Eq.(9) gives the FRP strain, E?
ds
dx
-= ( k / A f ) x+
. c, =El.
When the origin in the axial direction is defined at the loaded end of
specimens, applying the boundary condition that FRP strain q = 0 at x = 0
leads to Cl = 0, hence
where sf is defined as slippage at the loaded end of specimen and is an

arbitrary value. Slippage at the central position of specimen, sI, can be
calculated by Eq.( 1 1) by substituting bond length l b for x ,that is :
Defining As as the difference between sI and sf, as shown by Eq.(13), the

slippage at central position of bonded region, so can be obtained from
Eq.( 1 1 ) by substituting x = Ib / 2, as given by Eq.( 1 4 ) .
Constant Bond Stress

First, the area of bond stress distribution according to Popovics model is
obtained by integration of Eq.(3) giving Eq.(15). For the purpose of
calculating constant k, which is ratio of bond stress of EBSB to maximum
bond stress Tb,mox, two cases are considered. One is the case of a bond length
longer than effective bond length, and another is the case of a shorter bond
length.
Bond length longer than effective bond length

In case of a long bond length, the actual bond stress is distributed within a
limited region. In this study, this limited region is defined such that the
bond stress is at least 10% of maximum bond stress as obtained from
Popovics model analysis. Consequently, slippage which corresponds to 10%
of maximum bond stress in Popovics model, s, can be obtained as :
for which se 1 sm, = 0.067, 5.444

or, for smax=0.065mm, s,
= 0.004, 0.354
(17)
(mm)
(18)
Ignoring the small value of s, = 0.004mm, slippage, which corresponds to

10% stress on Popovics model, occurs from 0 to 0.354mm. The area of
Popovics model of this range is calculated as Eq.( 19). Hence, k,, which is
the constant bond stress ratio in case of longer bond length, can be given as
Eq.(20)
P ( s ~-) P(0) = 0.15 14
k , = {P(s,)-P(O)}I{s, -O}=
0.151410.354 = 0.428
(19)
(20)
When bond length of specimen, lb, is equal to effective bond length l,,
slippage at the loaded end of specimen s,- and at the central position of the
specimen, SI,,become equal to 0 and s, respectively. Therefore, Eq.( 12) can
be written as Eq.(2 l), and Eq.(22) gives the effective bond length.
S, = (1 2). (k,/ a,-).ze2
(21)
Bond length less than effective bond length
In the case of shorter bond length, the actual bond stress is distributed in
whole bonded region, and the magnitude of the constant bond stress of
EBSB changes with bond length. The constant stress is derived by taking
into account that the bond stress distribution curve of Popovics model
analysis shows a symmetrical form with a maximum bond stress. Hence,
slippage at the central position of bonded region, s,, can be stated as Eq.(23).
From Eq.(14) and Eq.(12), slippage at the loaded end, sJc, and slippage at
the central position of specimen, s/,=, are obtained as Eq.(24) and Eq.(25),
respectively.
s, = s m m
(23)
Sf,, = s,
- (1 / 8). (k / af)'Ib*
(24)
sl,c =,,s
+(3/8).(k/a,-).lb2
(25)
The constant k, which is ratio of bond stress of EBSB to maximum bond

stress in case of shorter bond length, can be expressed as
where As, is already given by Eq.( 13). Eq.(27) represents the equation to
solve for the bond length, l b . However, Eq.(27) cannot be solved
mathematically. Figure 3 shows Eq. (27) using numerical analysis, for
which an approximate formula expressed as Eq.(28) could be defined :
Predicting Pma,(kN)
Figure 4 . Comparison of calculation
Prediction Formula for Bond Strength
The following formulas for the prediction of bond strength between FRP
laminates and concrete are obtained based on the discussion in the earlier
sections:
[:: )
1-k
= L .cos --n
2
+-1 + k,
where, I, = effective bond length, Af= bond length index (Af= tf'Eflzb,,m),
= slippage in effective bond length (= 0.354mm), ke = bond stress ratio in
effective bond length (= 0.428), l b = bond length, P,, = bond strength (in
tensile force), rb,max = maximum local bond stress ( r b , m a x = 3.50gO.~~),
bf =
width of laminate, k = bond stress ratio, += thickness of fiber, E f = elastic
modulus of fiber, and oB= concrete compressive strength (in MPa)
Figure 4 shows the comparison between experimental bond strength and
predicted values calculated by Eq.(29) - (32). The experimental values are
obtained by bond test done in References 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 . The ratio of
experimental values to calculated values is 0.99 in average. The lower
limited ratio of 95 percentiles is 0.74.
s,
Proposal for design procedure
The following equations are proposed for actual design procedures. Some
constant values are substituted and the ratio of 95 percentiles is multiplied
to equations (30) and (3 1).
Pb ~1.1.0, 0.2 . b f . l e
CONCLUSIONS
New formulas predicting the bond strength between FRP laminates and
concrete is proposed by solving second differential equation of bond
problem using EBSB, which is defined as the area of EBSB has same area
of the Popovics model. The predicted values show a very good agreement
with experimental results reported previously.
REFERENCES
1. K. Nakaba, T. Kanakubo, T. Furuta and H. Yoshizawa, Bond Behavior
between Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates and Concrete, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 98, No. 3, pp. 359-367, May-June 2001
2. Y. Satoh, Y. Asano and T. Ueda, Fundamental Study on Bond
Mechanism of Carbon Fiber Sheet, JSCE Journal of Materials, Concrete
Structures and Pavements, No.648, pp.71-87, May 2000. (in Japanese)
3. M. Iso, Y. Matsuzaki, Y. Sonobe and H. Nakamura, Experimental Study
on Bond Behavior between Continuous Fiber Sheets and Concrete,
Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute, V01.22, No.3, pp.295-300,
June 2000. (in Japanese)
4. A. Kamiharako, T. Shimomura, K. Maruyama and H. Nishida, Analysis
of Bond and Debonding Behavior of Continuous Fiber Sheet Bonded on
Concrete, JSCE Journal of Materials, Concrete Structures and
Pavements, No.634, pp. 197-208, November 1999. (in Japanese)
5 . K. Takeo, H. Matsushita, T. Yahara and Y. Sagawa, Experiment of
Carbon Fiber Sheet on CFRP Adhesive Method, Proceedings of the
Japan Concrete Institute, V01.20, No. 1, pp.43 1-436, June 2000. (in
Japanese)
6. T. Kanakubo, T. Furuta and H. Fukuyama, Bond Strength between FRP
Laminates and Concrete Led by the Equivalent Bond Stress Block
Method, JCI Concrete Research and Technology, Vol. 12, No.3, pp.2737, September 200 1. (in Japanese)

LOCAL BOND STRESS SLIP RELATIONS FOR

FRP SHEETS-CONCRETE INTERFACES
J.G. DAI AND T. UEDA
Kita 8 Nishi 5, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0808, Japan
Both increasing FRP stiffness and decreasing adhesives shear stiffness can
enhance the interfacial performance of FFW sheets bonded to concrete.
However, in comparison with the former way, the latter one can improve
the interfacial fracture energy due to the good toughness and nonlinearity
of low shear stiffness adhesives. As a result, the high strength of FRP
material can be utilized more efficiently. Depending on the fracture energy
and the experimentally obtained strain distributions of FRP, this paper
applied an optimum back-calculation method to propose a nonlinear
interfacial bond stress-slip model, in which the effects of all interfacial
components can be included. All the necessary parameters serving for the
model are the fracture energy and two other empirical constants a and p,
which govern the ascending and descending parts of the interfacial
bond-stress slip curves respectively. Analytical results based on the
proposed model show good agreement with the experimental ones.
INTRODUCTION
The interfacial bond between FRP and concrete plays a critical role in
maintaining the mechanical performance and durability of FRP
strengthened concrete structures. Epoxy adhesive bonding system has
proven to be an efficient way to transfer the stresses between FRP and
concrete. However, unexpected premature interfacial fracture always
happen inevitably due to the local shear stress concentration. In addition,
many past studies (see Ref.1) indicate that the existence of effective bond
length renders the interfacial load be transferred only in a limited distance.
All these factors lead to the wasteful way of utilizing FRP materials in
consideration of their advantages but high cost. In particular, when the
amount of FRP material is increased in use, the strength of FRP materials
available for design decreases significantly.
Therefore, the improvement of bond performance between FRP and
concrete is an important task facing the FRP strengthening technology.
Many research works had been carried out to evaluate the interfacial
performance, which is affected by concrete strength, concrete surface
processing, FRP stiffness, bond length, freezing and thawing and so on.
Comparatively, the optimal use of adhesives was seldom studied. In
general, high-stiffness rather than low-stiffness adhesives were selected in

the past studies probably due to the lack of commercial offers and the
criteria of ensuring non-adhesive failure. Different from the previous studies,
one of the objectives in this study is to observe the effects of lower shear
stiffness epoxy adhesives on the interfacial fracture mechanisms.
Correspondingly, in order to simulate and predict the interfacial bond
behaviors between FRP sheets and concrete accurately, a reasonable
interfacial constitutive model is proposed.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
A common single-lap pullout test setup as described in previous studies'
was applied in this study. Three types of FRF' materials (CFRP, AFRP and
GFRP) and four types of epoxy adhesives (FR-E3P, SX-325, CN-100 and
primer FP-NS) were used. The mechanical properties of FRP are shown in
Table 1. To evaluate the properties of adhesives and get the detailed
geometrical information of all adhesive components, tensile coupon tests for
adhesives were carried out according to the test specification JIS
K7113-1995 (the section area of adhesive specimens is 20x60 mm and the
marked distance for measuring the deformation is 80 mm). Meanwhile, the
FRP sheets attached with a thin layer of failed concrete were processed after
the pullout tests. From their photos taken under microscope as shown in Fig.
1, the thickness of each bonding layer (primer layer, adhesive layer and first
resin matrix layer) can be measured.
Fig. 1 Microscopic observations of

FRP sheets after test
10
15
20
Fig.2 Load-deformation curves

of adhesives
Bond Stress Slip Relations for FRP-Concrete Interfaces 145
The derived load-deformation curves of adhesives and the mechanical

properties are described in Fig. 2 and the Table 2 respectively. To keep the
same concrete strength for all specimens, ready-mixed early strength
concrete with the compressive strength of 35 MPa was prepared. The sheet
bonding system was applied in the present study. However, the resins used
in the adhesive layer (see Fig.1) and in the matrix of FRP materials were
different. Adhesive FR-E3P, which is commercially used as the resin matrix
and the bonding adhesive for carbon fiber sheets, acted as the resin matrixes
in all specimens. To observe the whole peeling-off process, the bond length
of 300 mm was applied in all specimens.
Table 1 Mechanical properties of FRP materials
Fiber
Carbon
Aramid
Glass
Ppe
Density of
Fiber
FTS-CI-20
AT-40
AT-90
FTS-GE-30
(dm)
1.80
1.39
1.39
2.55
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
3550
2520
3030
1550
Elasticity
modulus
(GPa)
230
83.6
83.6
74.0
Design
thichness
Elongation
(%)
(mm)
0.11
0.175
0.381
0.118
1.5
4.6
2.4
2.1
Table 2 Mechanical properties of adhesives

Types ofadhesives
Mixing ratio (resinshardener by weighrj
Elastic modulus (GPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Flexural strength (MPa)
CN-I00
1 ;1
0.24
13.0
3.7
SX-325
2: 1
1.46
22.5
29.6
FR-E3P
2:l
2.45
29
39
FP-NS (Primer)
2: 1
2.45
29
39
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
All observed maximum loads and maximum slips at loading points of FRP
sheets-concrete interfaces are shown in Table.3. The slips at the loading
points of bond areas are obtained through integrating the strains measured
continuously along the FRP sheets. The shear stiffness of adhesive (shear
modulusithickness) is related to the shear force and deformation in
adhesive and can be calculated as follows3:
where: Ep, E,; $, tr and yp, yr are the elasticity modulus, thickness and Poisson
ratio of primer and resin layer respectively.
Fig.3 and Fig.4 show the experimental load versus loaded end slip
relations. The circled points are considered to correspond to initial peeling,
because after that the overall interfacial stiffness changes significantly. But
for specimen CR3L2 with the softest adhesive (in Fig.4), no obvious change
to overall stiffness was observed. The reason will be explained later.
Table3 Details of specimens and test results
Codes of
Failure
EP tP G a ' t a E f t , sm,
G f type'
specimens Er tr
(GPa) (mm) (GPa) (mm) (GPdmm) (GPa-mm) (mm)
(kN) @/mm)
CRlLl 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
25.0
1.962 24.50 1.20
CF
CRlLl 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
25.0
0.322 24.00 1.15
CF
CRlLl 2.45 0.55 2.45 0.22 1.17
25.0
0.185 24.90 1.24
CF
CR2Ll 1.46 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.68
25.0
4.07
29.30 1.72
CF
CR3Ll 0.24 0.62 2.45 0.28 0.14
25.0
0.976 >30
>1.8 FF
CRlL2 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
50.0
1.169 33.54 1.12
CF
CRlL2 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
50.0
1.574 40.20 1.62
CF
CRlL2 2.45 0.61 2.45 0.22 1.09
50.0
0.71 1 39.30 1.52
CF
1.427 51 .oo 2.60
CR2L2 1.46 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.68
50.0
CF
CR2L2 1.46 0.50 2.45 0.23 0.84
50.0
0.537 48.00 2.30
CF
CR3L2 0.24 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.13
50.0
1.685 50.10 2.51
FF
0.759 55.50 3.08
CR3L2 0.24 0.62 2.45 0.21 0.14
50.0
FF
0.532 35.40 0.83
CRlL3 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
75.0
CF
0.724 38.40 0.98
CRlL3 2.45 0.55 2.45 0.22 1.17
75.0
CF
1.528 42.60 1.21
CRlL3 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
75.0
CF
1.461 47.40 1.5
CR2L3 1.46 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.68
75.0
CF
CR3L3 0.24 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.13
75.0
1.994 64.80 2.8
CF
CRlLS 2.45 0.55 2.45 0.22 1.17
0.44
58.50 1.25
137.0
CF
0.123
GRlLl 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
8.70
13.54 1.05
FF
1.988 21 .oo 1.27
GRlL2 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
17.4
CF
GRlL3 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
1.813 28.60 1.56
26.2
CF
1.352 33.00 1.25
GR 1L5 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
43.7
CF
GR2L3 1.46 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.68
3.04
26.2
41 .oo 3.21
CF
GR3L3 0.24 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.13
0.51
26.2
>32.4 >2.00 FF
ARlLl 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.26 1.01
2.003 24.60 1.63
18.6
CF
ARlL2 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
0.866 33.60 1.77
31.9
CF
0.388 39.00 1.19
63.7
ARIL3 2.45 0.63 2.45 0.27 1.0
CF
1.713 46.20 1.67
63.7
AR2L3 1.46 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.68
CF
AR3L3 0.24 0.63 2.45 0.27 0.13
63.7
1.36
60.90 2.91
CF
fRtL-The
number of the FRP sheets' ulies
-Adhesive
type; 1,2 and 3 mean FR-EiP, SX-325 and CN-100 respectively
I F R P type, C, G and A mean carbon, glass and aramid respectively.
Failure type: CF: Concrete failure; FF: FRP fracture
Pu
FRP fracture
Concrete crack propagation
-.
- CRlLl
dm
CRlLz
CRlW
40
60
40
30
30
20
20
CRlL2
CR2L2
10
0
0.0 0 1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 5 0.6 0.7 0 8
S M W
Fig.3 Interfacial load-slip relationships

and effect of FRP stiffness
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Slinlmm)
Fig.4 Interfacial load-slip relationship

and effect of adhesive stiffness
peeling and ultimate interfacial loads increase with the FRP stiffness
(elasticity modulusxthickness). The initial peeling happened at almost the
same slip values (see Fig.3). This fact can be understood as follows: higher
FRP stiffness leads to lower local strain level but longer load transfer length
at initial peeling. Comparatively, lower FRP stiffness leads to higher local
strain but shorter load transfer length4. So the overall slip value, which is the
integration of the FRP strains along the load transfer length, may be similar
in both cases. From the initial peeling off to the macro interfacial crack
propagation or the maximum interfacial load (marked with ellipses), the
overall interfacial stiffness decreases more slowly when the stiffness of FRP
stiffness is lower. Many experimental studies show that the maximum local
bond stress increases but the strain of FRP sheets at peeling decreases with
increasing the FRP stiffness 2,395. In other words, concrete prefers fracture at
higher stress but lower strain level when the high stiffness FRP is used in
the interfaces. This higher bond stress is accompanied by less interfacial
softening ductility, and vice versa. The whole interfacial fracture energy
hardly changes irrespective of FRP stiffness, as shown later.
The effects of adhesive layers on the load-slip curves are shown in Fig.4.
It can be seen that low shear stiffness adhesives can lead to higher initial
peeling and ultimate interfacial loads. The overall interfacial stiffness is
greater if the adhesive is stiffer before the initial peeling off. After that, the
overall interfacial stiffness decreases significantly in the case of stiffer
adhesive. However, it does not decrease obviously when the softer adhesive
is used. And finally, the progressive interfacial softening is interrupted by
the FRP fracture (see CR3L2 in Fig.4). As the authors reported previously2,
the lower shear stiffness adhesives increase the effective bond length
significantly. As a result, the local peeling does not affect the overall
interfacial stiffness obviously in comparison with the cases where higher
shear stiffness adhesives are used. These different interfacial fracture
mechanisms affected by different adhesive shear stiffness indicate that the
overall structural performances of FRP strengthened RC elements can be
optimized through appropriate adhesives. Meanwhile, these differences
necessitate the development of a reasonable interfacial constitutive model,
upon which the observed different bond mechanisms can be clarified
precisely.
INTERFACIAL FRACTURE ENERGY

Based on the nonlinear fracture mechanics, the interfacial energy Gf is
defined as the area under the bond stress slip curve. In a single lap pullout
pu (W
t
experin entaldata
ke
--regressng
20
y4.924~0514
10
x=l
x=o
a
20
40
60
80
Ertf (GPa-mm)
Fig.5 Single lap shear test
Fig.6 P,-Eftf relation
case as shown as in Fig.5, at any interfacial location:

E , A p I (x) + E , Ac&, (x) = 0
(2)
If the interfacial slip is defined as the strain difference between FRP
sheets and concrete then, for the case of long bond length (end slip s(x)=O at
x=l), Gf can be written incorporating Eq.(2) as follows:
m
G,
= I E , ~ , ( E , ( x ) - E , ( x ) ) ~ (Ex ~) = J E , t , (l+-)E,(x)d&,
E , A,
=
0
ECAC
(x)
At the maximum interfacial load P,, the boundary conditions

E(x)=P,/E&fbfat x=O and E(x)=O at x=l can be substituted into Eq.(3), so that
G , = (1 + Q ) ( P , / b , V
or P,,= b
d'4"
(4)
2Eftf
where a=EfAdE,A,; in general, a can be approximated as 0.

Based on energy or force equilibrium method and the assumptions of
some bilinear T-s relations, Eq.(4) was proven by previous researcher^^,^. It
is clearly shown that Eq.(4) is not only applicable for bilinear but also for
any unknown T-s relation. Fig.6 shows the experimental ultimate loads of
the interfaces with different FRP types and different FRP stiffness but the
same adhesive. It can be seen that the ultimate load is nearly proportional to
the square root of FRP stiffness. Through the comparison between the
regressed expression in Fig.6 and Eq.(4), it can be seen that the interfacial
fracture energy is almost a constant value regardless of FRP type or FRP
stiffness. Fig.7 shows the relation between the calculated interfacial fracture
energy based on Eq.(4) and the shear stiffness of adhesive layer. It is
obviously seen that Gf increases with decreasing shear stiffness of adhesive
layers. To have a further view of the adhesive's effects on the Gf ,the whole
Bond Stress Slip Relations for FRP-Concrete Interfaces I49
interfacial slip can be separated into two parts: the adhesive's shear
displacement s, and slippage sacbetween adhesive and concrete. Therefore,
m
G , = jrds = j r d ( s , + s o , ) =
0
jrds.
0
J T ~ S , =G,,
+G,,
(5)
In fact, the adhesive layer undertakes a loading and unloading process

before and after initial peeling. As shown in Fig.8, when the shear stress in
hard adhesive reaches the interfacial peeling stress T,,,,~', the adhesive layer
lies in elastic period. So the shear displacement of adhesive layer before and
after the interfacial softening can be written as: sa=T.ta/Ga,therefore:
G/(N/mm)
experh e n t a l d a t a
1.5
0
0
0.5
1.5
G ,,/fa ( G P a/m m )
Fig.7 Effects of adhesive on Gf
Fig.8 Shear stress-displacement of adhesive
However, when the shear stress in the soft adhesive layer reaches the
interfacial peeling stress zmaX2,
the adhesive lies in nonlinear period. If the
interfacial crack surface propagates a unit area, an extra interfacial Gfl is
consumed (see Fig.8). It can be seen as well that the thickness of bond layer
affects the interfacial performance more in soft adhesive cases due to its
larger plastic shear deformation capacity. When stiff adhesive is used, the
thickness almost has no affect as reported previously'.
LOCAL BOND STRESS-SLIP RELATION

An important task of pullout bond tests for FRP sheets-concrete interfaces is
to propose a precise interfacial bond stress-slip model. Though many
interfacial bond tests have been carried out, no reasonable model has been
proposed probably mainly due to the observed random scattering of T-s
curves at different location^^'^. As a result, it is not convincing to pick up
one of those different T-s curves as the overall interfacial model. And also it
is difficult to discuss the effects of interfacial components on the T-s
relations. Therefore, it is necessary to build up a rule, upon which a

reasonable interfacial bond stress-slip model can be proposed.
In order to obtain the local interfacial bond behaviors, strain gages with
a small interval are usually required to be arranged along the FRP sheets to
record strain distributions of FRP during the whole test procedure.
.z
2
In
g9
m exp
-4-s=0.012m
0
I
7000
6000
5000
-8
;7
- _ .R-1L3
36
---RZLl
-R3L1
w5
4000
3000
2000
1000
c4
8 3
2
1
0
++F-~~C3~NLC
N
N
0.2
0.4
0.6
Locatbn 6m )
0.8
Sbhm)
Fig.9 comparison between experimental

and analytical interfacial strain distribution
Fig. 10 Proposed z
- s relations
Corresponding to each step of load (PI) or slip (sJ, the experimental strain
of FRP sheets at every interfacial location E(ij)exp(j=l,n;n is the number of
continuously arranged gages) can be obtained. On the other hand, if a local
bond stress-slip model is given, the interfacial strain distribution E(ij)na
U=l,n) can be obtained analytically as well. The criterion, upon which the
most suitable T-s relation is determined, is to find an optimum solutions to
minimize the differences between E(i,j)expand
for every specimen. In
this study a multi-dimensional nonlinear optimum program is made to
calibrate the unknown parameters needed for a nonlinear T-s relation, which
is assumed as follows:
7
= Tmax
(-1
s , 7
S
(7a)
Smax
Smax
e x ~ ( - P ( s- Smax 1)
ma,
(7b)
s > smaY
The objective function is:

m
=Min
I=]
1C
( E , , , ~ ~
E,,,
f(r(s),E f t ,
Meanwhile, the following constraint conditions for the optimum

calculation are given according to the definition of the Gf:
I mm . A e ( 0 , l ) ; rmmE ( Z , , Z 2 ) ; S m a x
l+A
P
where: zI,z2and s1,s2 are the possible ranges of, , z and sm,
determined based on pullout test results of every specimen.
T m m max
E(SI,S*);
which are
Fig.9 shows an example of comparison between the experimental and

analytical strain distribution. It can be concluded that reasonable agreement
is reached. Through the optimum back calculation analysis on all specimens
with different FRP stiffness and adhesives, finally the parameters for
Eq.7(a) and Eq.7(b) can be determined as follows:
- 1.575aK + J 2 . 4 8 1 a K
in, =
+ 6.3aP 2 K G ,
(8)
28
/(a)
= 0.028 ( E f t f ) 0 . 2 5 4
(9)
(10)
/3 = 0.0035 K ( E , t , ) 0 - 4
(1 1)
smax
~1
= rmax
A = 0.575
(12)
where K=Ga/ta (MPdmm) and Eftf (GPa-mm) are the stiffness o adhesive
and FRP respectively.
Based on the prksent study and with the consideration of the effects of
concrete strength f,(MPa) 3,9, Gf(N/mm) can be obtained as follows:
G/ -- 7.554 K-0.449. (fc)0.343
(13)
According to Eqs.(7) to 13, Fig.10 gives different bond stress-slip
curves of FRP sheets-concrete interfaces with different adhesives and
number of FRP layers. The experimentally observed maximum bond stress
and interfacial d u ~ t i l i t y ~ , which
~ , ~ , ~ ,are affected by FRP stiffness and
adhesives, can be predicted by these models appropriately. Through these
bond stress slip curves, the above load-slip relations can be predicted as
well (see Fig. 11 and Fig. 12).
540
50
3 30
--CRlLl
-0-CRILI
Ew
40
ANA
30
20
0.0
20
--.-CRlW EXP
CRlW ANA
10
0.1
0.2 0.3 0 4 0.5

Slip(mm)
Fig.11 Comparison of experimental and

analytical results (FW stiffness effects)
- CRlL2 EXP
-0-CRIL2ANA
--CWLZEXP
-ACWL2 ANA
- - CR3L2 EXP
10
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Slip(mm)
Fig.12 Comparison of experimental and

analytical results (adhesives effects)
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Using moderately low shear stiffness adhesive may become a selectable

way to improve the interfacial performances of FRP sheets bonded to
concrete and to utilize the high strength of FRP materials in a more efficient
way. The good toughness and the nonlinearity of low stiffness adhesive
contribute to longer effective bond length, more ductile interfacial
deformation and higher interfacial fracture energy. Increasing the FRP
stiffness can result in an increase the maximum bond stress and the ultimate
bond force. However, the interfacial fracture energy and the strength
efficiency of FRP cannot be improved. To describe the different interfacial
bond mechanisms caused by different interfacial components, a local
nonlinear interfacial bond stress-slip model is developed based on the
interfacial fracture energy and an optimum method. The proposed model
can be taken as a reference for selecting suitable interfacial bonding
materials and optimizing the design of FRP strengthened RC elements.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Chen. J.F., and Teng. J.G., Anchorage Strength Model for FRP and Steel Plates
Bonded to Concrete, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 127, No.7,
July, pp.784-791
T. Ueda et al., New Approach for Usage of Continuous Fiber as Non-Metallic
Reinforcement of Concrete, Structural Engineering International, 2002.2,
pp.111-116.
Laura De Lorenzis et al, Bond of Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates to
Concrete, ACI Material Journal, V.98, No.3,2001, pp.256-264.
L.Bizindavyi and K.W.Neale, Transfer Length and Bond Strength for Sheets
Bonded to Concrete, Journal of Sheets for Construction, Vol. 3., No. 4,1999,
pp 153-160
Yasuhiko Sat0 et al., Fundamental Study on Bond Mechanism of Carbon Fiber
Sheet, Translationfrom Proceedings of JSCE, No.648N-47,2000
Bjorn Taljsten, Strengthening of Concrete Prisms Using the Plate-bonding
Technique, International Journal of Fracture, V01.82; 1996, pp.253-266.
Hong YUAN et al., Theoretical Solutions on Interfacial Stress Transfer of
Externally Bonded SteelKomposite Plates, J. Structural. Mech. Earthquake
Eng. JSCE, Vo1.18, No.1, 2001, pp. 27-39.
Swamy, R.N. et al., Shear Adhesion Properties of Epoxy Resin Adhesives,
Proceedings of an International Symposium on Adhesion between Polymer
and Concrete, Sept. 1986, pp.741-755
K,, Nakaba et al., Bond Behavior between Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
Laminates and Concrete, ACI Structural Journal, V.98, No.3, 2001,
pp.359- 167.

BILINEAR STRESS-SLIP BOND MODEL:

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND SIGNIFICANCE
T. ULAGA AND T. VOGEL
Znstitute of Structural Engineering (ZBK), ETH Zurich
Hoenggerberg, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
U. MEIER
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA)
Ueberlandstrasse 129, 8600 DuebendorJ; Switzerland
Bond is the basic property that enables a successful strengthening of
concrete structures with CFRP plates. In order to find an appropriate way
to investigate arbitrary bond situations, some micromechanical
considerations are presented first. With transparent models, it is possible to
derive the hardening behaviour "at low load" and the softening behaviour
"at high load". The latter situation is characterized by the presence of a
crack which has a weakening effect. The simplest way to idealize these
findings is a bilinear stress-slip relationship. With this tool, bond problems
can be treated mathematically. In the case of anchorage capacity
considerations, some simple but very useful formulas can be derived.
Finally, a good agreement between theoretical and experimental results can
be found.
INTRODUCTION
The application of externally bonded steel plates for the strengthening of
reinforced concrete structures was already widespread in the 1970s. In the
80s and 90s, research projects aimed at establishing the use of carbon fibrereinforced plastic plates for the same purpose. Since then, this strengthening
method has been used even more often and today many applications can be
found.
The interaction between the components, concrete and plate
reinforcement, requires the presence of a sufficient bond which enables the
transfer of forces. In many practical cases, the existence of this property is
considered as given and no further investigations are performed. In fact,
there are only few scientifically established but applicable approaches
which help to treat this question'.
In order to characterize the bond properties, a stress-slip relationship

can be used. When the curve is simple but still sufficiently considers the
real behaviour, it can be used as a powerful tool for a variety of bond
considerations.
BOND ANALYSIS
"Bond at low load"
Basics
Figure I(a) displays a CFRP plate-concrete bond situation "at low load". A
slip displacement, sI, of the two elements is possible due to shear
deformations in the adhesive layer.
Y8
--c
Nl
adhesive
N,+ dN,
laminate'
-8
Y
YP
failure criterion
Figure 1: "Bond at low load"
Assumptions
The shear deformations are considered to be concentrated in the adhesive
layer only. The corresponding shear stress-shear strain relationship is given
in Figure l(b). A continuous increase of the load will cause the sudden
development of a crack in the weakest element, that is, in the concrete body.
When this occurs, the bond situation turns into that of "bond at high load".
Bilinear Stress-Slip Bond Model 155
Modelling
With the diagram in Figure l(b) the slip, s~,can be determined according to
Eq. (1). A crack in the concrete body will start to grow when the shear
stress q0 is achieved. This stress is related to the concrete shear strength,f,,,
which can be estimated with the modified Coulomb failure criterion2
[Figure I(c)]. With Eq. (2), it is possible to consider the fact that zIo is
focused on one particular location and therefore generally will be slightly
higher thanf,, orf,,, respectively.
"Bond at high load"
Basics
In Figure 2(a), a longitudinal section through a CFRP plate-strengthened

concrete beam is given. A crack plane has separated the plate from the
body; therefore the situation can be considered as "bond at high load".
Apparently, the increase of the slip, s/, also requires an increase of the crack
width, w,. In order to model the geometry of this process a simple
assumption appears to be appropriate: the displacement of the crack faces is
governed by an inclined opening where the angle a is the decisive
parameter. For compatibility reasons, the aggregate particles cause local
abrasion effects in the matrix of the opposite crack face. This aggregate
interlock mechanism enables the transfer of bond forces across the crack
plane.
The analysis of aggregate interlock mechanisms was investigated by
Walraven3. He established a closed-form mathematical model which was
used to determine bond stresses in specimens that were subjected to pure
shear load. In the case of the present considerations the displacement
process is different, so that the Walraven theory must be modified in order
to find an appropriate bond stress model.
Assumptions
The concrete body consists of perfectly spherical aggregate particles which

are embedded in a cement matrix. The aggregate ratio, pa, is defined
1.76 FRPRCS -6: Bond Behaviour
according to Eq. (3) and the distribution of the diameters is described by the
Fuller function in Eq. (4).
p =-v a
a
(3)
vc
The abrasion of the matrix causes normal and shear stresses, om,and
z~,, in the cement-aggregate contact zone [Figure 2(b)]. These stresses are
related according to Eq. ( 5 ) and can be estimated corresponding to
experimental results found by Walraven [Eq. (6)].
'mu
= P'Omu
(5)
Figure 2: "Bond at high load"
Aggregate interlock theoryfor an inclined crack opening: an overview

The crack faces contain aggregate particles which partly protrude from the
cement matrix. The question that shall be treated in a first step is how many
aggregate sphere caps could be expected to be found in a unit area of a

crack face. For this purpose, some probabilistic aspects need to be
considered. The answer can be formulated as a probability density function
for the two-dimensional case: Eq. (7) indicates the number of intersection
circles with a diameter do2which can be expected to be intersected by a
horizontal unit length.
r
L . d o 2. K
4
In the second step, the geometry and the stresses of the contact zone of
an intersection circle with a diameter do2 is studied [Figure 2(b)]. When the
length and the angle of an opening vector, v and a, are given and the
embedment depth of the intersection circle, c, is known, the contact angle,
cp, can be determined from Eq. (8). The most probable contact angle, $,
follows from Eq. (9). Integration of the stresses in the contact zone will
provide the interlock forces of the considered intersection circle [Eq. (10)
and ( 1 l)].
......
F, (p) = do, '5mu

.sin p.[sin(a+p)+p.cos(a + p)]
FmZ(p)
= do, .ornu
'sin p~[cos(a+p)-p.sin(cr+p)]
The third step aims at combining the single aspects that were treated
before. The global aggregate interlock stresses according to Figure 2(c), o,,
and T~,,can be determined by multiplication of p n and F, or F,,,
respectively, and integration over the entire aggregate diameter range,
Eq. (12).
Parameters
In order to evaluate the theoretical aggregate interlock model, a set of

parameters must be defined. The aggregate ratio, pa, and the maximum
aggregate size, d,,,,, are geometrical parameters that describe the
architecture of the concrete structure. In the vicinity of the concrete surface
large aggregate particles are missing, therefore the depth of the crack plane,
t, is of major significance. In the present considerations the concrete
strength parameters A,, fo,fo, om, and T~,, are related to the concrete
cylinder compressive strength,f,, according to Eq. (13), (5) and (6). Finally,
the crack opening vector, a, is used to characterize the inclination of the
crack face displacement.
Stress-slip relationship: theoretically derived and idealized curve

The considerations that were presented before can be combined in order to
obtain the stress-slip relationship in Figure 3(a). The parameters correspond
to the average results from numerous experiments and can be considered as
"reasonable" values, not as fixed constants.
f,= 43 MPa
" 0
s/ [mml
0.3
s/[mml
0.3
Model Parameters
Gg= 10 GPa, tg = 1 mm, a = 4/3
"at low load":
"at high load":
p. = 0.725, dmx = 8 mm, a = 45"

t = 1.5 mm
Characteristic parameters
zI0= a . f,,= 0.4. f2'3
G
s - 8 . 5
in
in
t,
s,, = sIn
Figure 3: Stress-slip relationships
+ 0.225 [mm]
In order to use the stress-slip relationship for theoretical investigations

the curves in Figure 3(a) must be simplified. A good approximation can be
achieved with the bilinear stress-slip relationship in Figure 3(b). The
characteristic parameters of the hardening branch, T ~ Oand sl0, can be derived
from the case "bond at low load". The parameter of the softening branch,
sI1, was calibrated according to experimental results.
SIGNIFICANCE
Theory
In Figure 4(a), a differential element of a tension chord reinforced with
CFRP plates on two opposite faces is given. When concrete and plate
display linear behaviour according to Figure 4(b), equilibrium and
compatibility requirements result in the differential Eq. (14) '. The function
zI(sl) represents an arbitrary stress-slip relationship [Figure 4(c)]. It can be
replaced by the bilinear stress-strain relationship in Figure 3(b) and the
differential equation can be transformed into Eqs. (15) and (16) which
correspond to mathematical models for the hardening branch (index I ) and
the softening branch (index I . , respectively. The integration of these
equations provides the general solutions, Eq. (1 7) and (1 8). In the case of a
particular bond problem, the boundary conditions can be formulated in
order to determine the coefficientsA , B, C and D.With further calculations,
the stresses and strains can be derived easily.
Figure 4: Theory basics
Anchorage capacityformulas
In Figure 4(d), a model of an anchorage situation is displayed. For practical
dimensioning tasks, it is important to know the capacity of such a detail.
The basics that were given above can be applied to find very useful
formulas. The admissible simplification according to Eq. (19) enables one
to find the most efficient bond length, ZbO, Eq. (20). When the length of the
bond zone is shorter, Eq. (21) indicates the bond capacity, Fb. When it is
longer, the capacity remains constant according to Eq. (22), that is, any
lengthening beyond Zbo will bring no benefit. The specific bond fracture
energy, GFb,corresponds to the area underneath the bilinear stress-slip curve
and can be determined according to Eq. (23).
S/"
=0
Comparison with experiments

In Figure 5, a comparison between theory (according to Eq. (20) to (22))
and experimental results for bond capacity is given. For this purpose, tests
by several authors were considered4s5969728.
In all cases, a set up similar to that
in Figure 4(d) was used. In general, a good agreement between theory and
experiment can be observed.
Further potential
The derivation of anchorage capacity formulas represents one possible

application of the bilinear stress-slip bond model. It can also be used for the
examination of tension chords with mixed reinforcement: internal steel bars
and external CFW plates. The analysis provides crack distances, stresses
and strains and bond coefficients. Hence, a variety of applications is
possible.
Fb / b, [Nlmm]
1, =
5 mm; E, = 200 GPa

f,=25MPa
& = 52 Mpa
/-
uO
'b0
Fb/ b, [Nlmm]
f,
1000
Imml
uo
'b0
Fb / b, [N/mm]
1.27 mm; E, = 175 GPa
f,
1.27 mm; E, = 175 GPa
Figure 5 : Comparison between theory and experiment
CONCLUSIONS
With mechanical bond analysis, it is possible to derive the shape of the

stress-slip relationship: a hardening branch turns into a softening branch
when a crack occurs that weakens the bond structure. A simple but
appropriate idealization of the bond behaviour can be obtained with the
bilinear stress-slip relationship. The bilinear stress-slip relationship can be

used for the mathematical investigation of various bond situations and
therefore represents a powerful analysis tool.
NOTATION
Roman and Greek letters
A
E
F
G
N
V
a
6
c
d
f
I
n
s
r
u
Subscripts
area
modulus of elasticity
force
fracture energy, shear modulus
internal force
volume
coefficient; distribution
width
embedment depth
diameter
strength
length
modular ratio
slip; length
thickness; depth
displacement
v vector length
w crack width
x coordinate
y coordinate
z coordinate
a angle
y shear strain
E
strain
q substitute
p coefficient of friction
p ratio
(T
normal stress
T
shear stress
cp angle
m substitute
Fuller; fracture 0
1
aggregate
2
bond
concrete; cube 3
I
g
adhesive
II
i
interlock
I
plate
m
matrix
max maximum
min minimum
n
number
r
crack
t
tension
u
ultimate
r
shear
F
a
b
c
index
index
index
index
index
index
REFERENCES
1. Ulaga, T., Vogel, T., Meier, U.: The premature Failure of CFRP laminateStrengthened Concrete Structures. Proceedings of the IABMAS'02 Conference,
Barcelona, 2002, pp. 271 - 272.
2. Marti, P., Alvarez, M., Kaufmann, W., Sigrist, V.: Tragverhalten von
Stahlbeton. IBK, ETH Zurich, Publikation SP-008, Sept. 1999, 301 pp.
3. Walraven, J. C.: Aggregate Interlock: A Theoretical and Experimental Analysis.
PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft University Press, 1980, 197
PP.
4. Holzenkampfer, P.: Ingenieurmodelle des Verbunds geklebter Bewehrung fur
Betonbauteile. DABtb, Heft 473, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1997, pp. 109 209.
5. Hankers, Ch.: Zum Verbundtragverhalten laschenverstarkter Betonbauteile
unter nicht vorwiegend ruhender Beanspruchung. DAfStb, Heft 473, Beuth
Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1997, pp. 7 - 107.
6. Neubauer, U., Rostasy, F. S.: Bond Failure of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Plates
at Inclined Cracks Experiments and Fracture Mechanics Model. Proceedings
of the FRPRCS-4 Symposium, Baltimore, 1999, pp. 369 - 381.
7. Ranisch, E.-H.: Zur Trugfihigkeit von Verklebungen -vischen Buustuhl und
Beton. Dissertation, TU Braunschweig, Heft 54, 1982, 173 pp.
8. Taljsten, B.: Plate Bonding. Strengthening of Existing Concrete Structures with
Epoxy Bonded Plates of Steel or Fibre Reinforced Plastics. Division of
Structural Engineering. Lulea University, 190 pp.
~

NON LINEAR BOND-SLIP LAW FOR FRP-CONCRETE

INTERFACE
M. SAVOIA, B. FERRACUTI AND C. MAZZOTTI
DISTART - Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Bologna,
Bologna, Italy
A non linear interface law is proposed for FRF' - concrete bonding. Two
sets of experimental results concerning strains in FRP-plates and sheets at
different levels of axial force and different bond lengths are used to derive
local values of shear stress - slip data. A non linear interface law is then
proposed. Its assessment is performed by numerical simulations making use
of a model recently developed by the authors: Strains in the bonded region
are found to be in good agreement with experimental results. The interface

law is almost linear for shear stresses lower than half of maximum shear
stress. Estimate of corresponding stiffness requires both adhesive and a
layer of concrete cover to be taken into account; the thickness of the latter
being equal to about 30 mm. It is also shown that, for service loadings, local slips may be so high that stress state reaches the softening branch of interface law.
INTRODUCTION
In FRP-platelsheet strengthening problems, mechanical and physical properties of concrete, composite and adhesive play an important role in the bonding and effectiveness of the reinforcement, since they strongly influence
both strength and stiffness. A correct interface law is required to predict
behavior under both service loading and ultimate failure load.' Nevertheless,
the definition of a non-linear constitutive law for the FRP-concrete interface
is still an unsolved problem.
In the present paper, a non linear constitutive law for FRP - concrete interface is proposed. Starting from a set of experimental results reported in
the literature 2, 3, where strains on FRP plates are measured at different loading levels, shear stress - slip couples are calculated and used to define a local bond-slip law for the FW-concrete interface. A small statistic variation
in data is obtained at low stress levels, so that the stiffness of the initial
branch is well predicted. Interface behavior can be considered linear for
shear stresses lower than one half of maximum stress. The corresponding
stiffness estimated from experimental data is compared with theoretical previsions. It is shown that compliances of both adhesive and concrete cover
must be considered. The thickness of concrete cover contributing to overall
interface compliance can be estimated to be about 30 mm, in agreement with

results by other authors.
The peak shear stress is shown to strongly depend on the kind of failure.
Failure modes that occurred at the interface level (peeling failures) show
peak shear stresses about one half of those corresponding to concrete failure.
In the softening branch of the interface law (that is, for slips greater than that
corresponding to the maximum shear stress) the experimental results are, as
is to be expected, much more scattered. Fracture energy of constitutive interface law is an important condition to be satisfied to predict the correct value
of maximum transmissible load through the interface. Fracture energy is
mainly governed by the softening branch.
Using the model recently developed by the authors for the study of FRPplated tensile members, 5 experimental tests have then been numerically
simulated. Good agreement between experimental and numerical results has
been found, as far as strains in FRP-plateshheets and maximum loads are
concerned. It is shown that, even for service loadings (about one half of failure load), local slips may be so high that shear stress state reaches the softening branch of interface law.
DEFINITION OF A FRP-CONCRETE INTERFACE LAW
The definition of a constitutive interface FRP-concrete law is still a difficult

task for several reasons. In fact, experimental evaluation of total shear force
- maximum slip curves alone is not sufficient to provide data to define a local interface law. On the other hand, the transmission length of interface is
very small, less than about 80-100 mm from extremities or cracked sections.
Several data on strains or displacements must be obtained within that length.
Moreover, the interface law is highly non linear. At load levels typical of
service loadings (about 50 % of maximum load), slip may exceed that corresponding to the maximum shear stress. Moreover, interface compliance depends on shearing deformation of both adhesive and external cover of concrete, where the second item is usually the prevailing one due to the small
thickness of the adhesive (about 0.1 mm in real applications). Usually, deformation of an external layer of about 30-50 mm thickness is considered in
practical cases, allowing one to one predict a correct order of magnitude of
transmission length. 4,
Finally, the interface law also depends on the kinematic variables the
law is referred to, that is, on the features of the adopted structural model. For
instance, with reference to a member under pure tension, if plane strain assumption is adopted for individual elements (concrete, plates and, possibly,
steel bars), slip must be referred to as average displacement of concrete
Non Linear Bond-Slip Law f o r FRP-Concrete Inte@ace 165
cross-section, that is, it must include deformability of concrete external

layer. On the contrary, if a F.E. two-dimensional discretization is adopted,
interface law must be defined with reference to adhesive thickness only.
This aspect is very important also when interface properties are obtained by
post-processing experimental data. For instance, if shear stress / slip data are
obtained from strains in FRP-plates, the interface law includes deformation
of both adhesive and concrete cover (see the following Section).
POST-PROCESSING OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA
Two set of experimental data are analyzed (Figure 1). The first set of tests
was performed by Chajes et a1 on CFRF' plates bonded to concrete blocks
with four different bond lengths (from 50.8 mm to 203.2 mm). Five strain
gages along the bonded plate were used to measure axial strains in FRPplate. Strain profiles were shown at different loading levels and maximum
load was measured.
The second set of data is obtained from an experimental test performed
by Miller, Nanni and De Lorenzis, adopting a particular bending set-up
where a composite carbon-fiber sheet was bonded on the concrete for a
304.8 mm length and subject to pure axial load. Seven strain gages were
used to measure FRP strains. The two series of tests are named CFJT-Plate2
and MND-Sheet, respectively, in the following.
In the present study, strain data along the FRP plate at different loading
levels have been used to calculate shear stress - slip data (Figure 2). The
origin of x-axis is taken at the end of the bonded plate. Considering an elastic behavior for the composite, the average value of shear stress between two
subsequent strain gages can be written as a function of the difference of
measured strains as:
h, [mml
1.6
1.37
Fi ure 1: Geometrical and mechanical roperties of specimens tested by Chajes et

al. and Miller, Nanni and De Lorenzis (BL - bond length; h,, G, = thickness and
shear modulus of adhesive;f, = compressive strength of concrete).
with Ap, Ep being cross section and elastic modulus of the composite.
Moreover, assuming for the sake of simplicity that perfect bonding (no
slip) occurs at the end of bonded plate and concrete strain is negligible with
respect to FRP counterpart, integration of strain profile gives the following
expression for the slip at x, with x, I
x < xi+l:
where the initial condition s(O)=O is assumed.

The average value
of slip between x, and x,+]is then computed.
The so-obtained shear stress-slip couples (
S,+l,2) are reported in Figs
3 and 4 with reference to CFJT-Plate and MND-Sheet tests, respectively.
Comparing results from CFJT-Plate tests, it can be verified that stiffness of initial branch (slip 5 0.02 mm) is almost independent of bond length
and loading level. The only exception is represented by the results obtained
from the smallest bond length case (50.8 mm) where actual slips are underestimated, probably due to the assumption of null slip at the extremity. All
the data sets exhibit a maximum value of shear stress between 6.5 MPa and
7.5 MPa. For slips higher than 0.05 mm, an evident softening behavior can
be seen, and results are more scattered.
Results obtained from MND-Sheet3 are similar from the qualitative
point of view. Nevertheless, a unique peak value of shear stress can hardly
be defined in this case: local values of shear stresses at lower levels of axial
force are greater than those obtained under higher forces. Since one bond
length only has been considered, available data do not allow to conclude if
this irregularity is due to the small thickness of the sheet (compared with the
k-
- -
S,+l
(4
(b)
(c)
Figure 2: (a) Experimental data on strains in FRP-composites, (b) average shear
stresses and (c) FRP-concrete slips.
Non Linear Bond-Slip Law for FRP-Concrete Integace 167
previous case) or it represents a statistical deviation. Moreover, slips significantly higher than in the previous case are reached in the softening branch.
5.034 KN
7.707 KN
10.291 KN
12.813 KN
___.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
Slip (mm)
0.2
0.3
Slip (mm)
4.624 KN
7.001 KN
9.198 KN
11.57 KN
4.561 KN
7.203 KN
W
m
$ 6
i3
\\
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
Slip (mm)
Slip (mm)
Figure 3: Shear stress - slip data obtained from CFJT-Plate2 tests, for different values of bond length (50.8, 101.6, 152.4, 203.2 mm).
--
+8.900
KN
11.12 KN
13.350 KN
15.57 KN
16.46 KN
0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8

Slip (mm)
Figure 4: Shear stress - slip data obtained from experimental data MND-Sheet3,
for 304.8 mm bond length.
THE PROPOSED NON-LINEAR INTERFACE LAW

Shear stress - slip data are used to calibrate a non linear FRP - concrete interface law. All the data related to the same experiment are grouped together, independently of the value of axial force and bond length, since they
are considered as local data. An interpolation function is then proposed
where, ,z is the peak shear stress, S a reference slip (close to the slip corresponding to zmax),and n is a free parameter.
Comparison with Experimental Results by Chajes et al.

Since bond failure occurred by concrete failure, the maximum value of shear
= 3.5 fc0.*9 = 6.93 MPa , with fc
stress was estimated by the authors2 as, ,z
denoting the compressive strength. Parameters S ,n in Eq. (3) have been obtained from a least square minimization between theoretical and experimental data. The so obtained bond - slip law is reported in Figure 5 and compared with experimental data.
10
results
Curvefitting parameters
- proposed
interice law
=,,,z
.
.
1
0,l
0,2
Slip (mm)
0,3
3.5f,.= 6.93 MPa
S= 0.051 m m
0,4
n = 2.860
Figure 5: Bond - slip curve for FRP - concrete interface obtained from CFJTPlate experimental data.
Table 1: Stiffness of initial branch of interface law: mean value and correlation
index; thickness of concrete cover contributing to interface compliance.
CFJT-Plate2
Interface stiffness
Mean value
Correlation index
184.1 MPdmm
0.9355
hc
Mean value
26 mm
No# Linear Bond-Slip Law for FRP-Concrete Inte$ace
169
In order to estimate the stiffness of the initial branch, that is for low
value of FRP - concrete slips, a statistical analysis of experimental data has
been performed, whose results are reported in Table 1. According to reference~~,~,
the thickness of concrete cover hc contributing to interface compliance has
been evaluated by assuming a linear interface behavior, i.e., z = k, s, where
stiffness coefficient k, is given by:
k, =
(4)
ha IGa + hc IGc
where h, G stand for thickness and shear modulus, and subscripts a,c for
adhesive and concrete, respectively. The data show that a concrete cover of
26 mm thickness contributes to interface compliance (see Table 1). It is also
worth noting that compliance of concrete cover is comparable with adhesive
compliance. Moreover, in real applications, adhesive thickness is even much
smaller (usually about 0.1 - 0.2 mm), and concrete compliance contribution
may be even more than 5 times greater than adhesive counterpart in this
case. This result confirms the experimental evidence that adhesive thickness
usually has no significant influence on interface stiffness.
The value of fracture energy of the proposed interface law has been also
computed, resulting in:
G, = Iz(s) d s =1.537MPa.mm.
(5)
It is worth noting that the softening branch of the curve has a strong influence on fracture energy. Moreover, maximum transmissible load is
strictly related to interface fracture energy. Considering a Mode I1 fracture
mechanism for the concrete, fracture energy can be estimated as4 Gf=ahrrn
= 1.723 MPa.mm (with a=0.658), 12% higher than given by the present interface law.
Finally, adopting the bond-slip interface law reported in Figure 5, experimental tests have been simulated making use of the model recently proposed by the authors for FRP-plates RC members. The model adopts axial displacements and axial forces of different materials as unknown variables. Interface laws between different materials are defined, and the governing equations are solved by Finite Difference Method.
In Figure 6, strains in FRP-plates along the bonded length are reported,
for different values of applied force. Results obtained by numerical simulations agree well with experimental results (considering the unavoidable scattering of experimental results), so assessing the proposed interface law.
Moreover, Figure 7 shows the corresponding profiles of shear stresses along
the bonded surface, obtained from numerical simulation. Note the softening
interface behavior, at the beginning of bonded length, when the maximum
5000-li
50007
L=50.80 mm
L-101.6 rnrn
40004
2 3000
w
1/3
2000
1000
20
x (rnrn) 40
00
5000 -
60
120
5000 -
L= 152.4mm
40
80
120
160
L=203.2rnrn
50
x (mm)
100
150 200 250
x (mm)
Figure 6: Strains in FRP plate (CFJT-Plate' tests): experimental results and numerical simulations adopting the proposed non linear interface law.
8-
L=101.6 mrn
L=203.2mrn
11.57 kN
12.813 kN
2.109 kN
$0
'
40
x (mm)
80
120
50
100
150 200 250
x (mm)
Figure 7: Shear stresses along the FRP - concrete interface for different loadings.
Non Linear Bond-Slip Law for FRP-Concrete Inteflace I71
33
8000
4000
0
0
50
100
150 200
250
BL (mm)
Figure 8: Maximum transmissible force vs. bond length (CFJT-Plate2tests): experimental results and numerical results adopting the non linear interface law.
slip is greater than 0.05 mm, i.e. for axial forces about 60 percent of failure
loads. Softening interface behavior corresponds to a change of curvature in
FRP strain diagrams (see Figure 6).
Finally, maximum transmissible load as a function of bond length is reported in Figure 8. Good agreement between numerical and experimental results is found.
Comparison with experimental results by Miller, Nanni and De Lorenzis
Analogous study has been performed with reference to experimental results
by Miller, Nanni and De Lorenzis. As already stated, the higher scattering
of experimental results is probably due to the fact that single-layer FRP
sheets (0.165 mm) were adopted in This case. The bond slip curve obtained
10000-
7-
8000-
6 -
L=304.8 m m
'i$
6000
-proposed
interface law
2000\
0.5
Slip (mm)
(a)
1.5
100
200
300
x (mm)
(b)
Figure 9: MND-Sheet3tests: (a) proposed non linear interface law, (b) strains in
FRP sheets, experimental results and numerical simulations.
I72 FRPRCS -6:Bond Behaviour
from shear stress - slip data is reported in Figure 9(a). The authors stated
that anchorage failure occurred by FRP peeling at the adhesive level. Maximum shear stress has been then evaluated, as proposed by the authors, as
~,,,,=0.01 84(tpEp)0,5=3.6MPa. This corresponds to neglecting the high values of shear stresses obtained for low-to-medium values of axial force (see
Figure 4). The remaining parameters have been set as n= 1.98 and S =0.068
mm. Softening branch is very pronounced, with significant values of transmissible shear stress for slips up to about 1.5 mm. Hence, the resulting fracture energy is greater than in the previous case (2.214 MPa.mm). Finally,
Figure 9(b) shows FRP-strains obtained from numerical simulations and
compared with experimental results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial support of MIUR (Ministry of Education, University and Research), PRTN 200 1 Grant, Project "Theoretical and Experimental Analysis
on Composite-Concrete Bonding for RC Members Reinforced by Composites", and ex 60% Grant are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
FIB TG 9.3. Externally bonded FRP reinforcementfor RC structures, FIB,

technical report, Bullettin no 14, July 2001.
Chajes M.J., Finch W.W. jr, Januska T.F. and Thomson T.A. jr., "Bond
and force transfer of composite material plates bonded to concrete", ACI
StructuralJ., Vol. 93, 1996, pp. 208-217.
Miller B., Nanni A. and De Lorenzis L., "Bond of FRP laminates to concrete", ACI Material J., Vol. 98(3), 2001, pp. 246-254.
Brosens K. and Van Gemert D., "Plate end shear design for external CFRP
laminates", FRAMCOS-3, H. Mihashi, K. Rokugo Eds., Aedificatio Publs,
Freiburg, Germany, 1998, pp. 1793-1804.
Ferretti D. and Savoia M., "Cracking evolution in WC tensile members
strengthened by FRP-plates", Eng. Fract. Mech., Vol. 70(7-8), 2003, pp.
1069-1083.
Roberts T.M., "Shear and normal stresses in adhesive joints", J. Eng.
Mech. ASCE, 1989, Vol. 115(1l), pp. 2460-2476.
Popovics S., "A numerical approach to the complete stress-strain relation
for concrete", Cem. Cone. Rex, Vol. 3(5), 1973, pp. 583-599.
Savoia M., Ferretti D. and Mazzotti C., "Creep behavior of RC tensile
elements retrofitted by FRP plates", ICCI-02, Omnipress Publs., S. Francisco, CA, USA, 2002.

EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF INTERFACE BETWEEN

CFRP AND CONCRETE USING CYLINDRICAL SPECIMENS
A.C.DOS SANTOS
Escola Polite'cnica da Universidade de SCo Paulo
T.N.BITTENCOURT
Escola Politkcnica da Universidade de S& Paulo
R.GETTU
Universitat Politicnica de Catalunya
In this work an experimental methodology to determine the bond capacity
of the interface between CFRP sheets and concrete was investigated. The
test setup has been developed to reproduce in a more realistic way the pure
mode I1 fracture behavior of the interface under shear and to evaluate the
maximum load capacity of this interface. Cylindrical concrete specimens,
also used in tests for compressive strength, have been adapted in this study.
Two concrete cylinders are placed end-to-end, bonded with FRP and pulled
apart. The tensile load, which separates the cylinders, subjects the FRPconcrete interface to shear. The results obtained for static, cyclic and long
term loadings indicate that the method is promising and of practical interest.
In this paper the results of the static loading tests are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Today a great number of new materials and techniques are available for the
retrofit and reinforcement of damaged structures. Among these, the use of
fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) is becoming one of the most common.
However, such a technique still presents uncertainties with respect to the
load transfer capability of the interface between the substrate and the
composite, for ultimate and service load conditions. The load transferred
through the interface between the reinforcing material (FRP) and the
substrate (concrete) is a key issue to ensure the effectiveness of the
reinforcement. One of the most important collapse mechanisms observed in
theses cases is the loss of adherence and consequent sliding of the FRP with
respect to concrete structure, characterizing a mode I1 fracture condition.
Therefore, a test methodology capable of correctly reproducing the
mode I1 fracture of the interface is important to evaluate its maximum load
transfer capacity. Cylindrical specimens can be used for this purpose. This
type of specimen is widely used in the civil construction industry and has
the advantage of being employed in cast and extracted forms. In the present
study, a test configuration is proposed for the evaluation of the shear failure
of the interface between FW sheets and concrete under static, cyclic and
long term loadings, although here only the static loading results are
discussed.
TEST PROCEDURE
Three strips of the fiber composite are glued on a set of two 150mm x
30mm cylindrical specimens placed end-to-end. This set is subjected to
uniaxial tension and the load is transferred through the strips of FRP from
one specimen to the other. (Figure 1). A small zone is left unbounded over
one specimen to serve as a defect where the shear failure is supposed to
initiate. A concrete with average compressive strength of 48 MPa and sheets
of CFRP have been employed is this investigation.
The definition of the minimum lengths of strips, so that reproductability
can be achieved, is the main objective of this work. Three distinct zones can
be identified: zone of adhesion above, flaw and zone of adhesion belcw.
The length of the last is always 1.5 times as the first, with the purpose of
inducing the failure in the zone above.
E
E
0
is
Lrn
Ls \upenor 4dhesion
E
E
ti
Lni Flaw
LI Inferior Adhesion
0
(1
150rnm
Numerical simuIation
A numerical study (2D and 3D) of the stress distribution along the interface
has been carried out in order to evaluate the most appropriate positions of
Analysis of Inteflace using Cylindrical Specimens I75
the three strips, as well as to determine the influence of their curvature

(Figure 2). This study permitted the definition of the flaw length
- to ensure
an interface shear failure. (Figure 2)
Figure 2 3D simulationofthe interfke zone
The distributions of the shear stress (T) a long the length over three
distinct vertical axes (Vl, V2 and V3) and along the width over three
distinct horizontal axes (Hl, H2 and H3) have been obtained. These
distributions agree with the ones found in the literature (Volbersen, (1938);
ACI 440F, (2001); fibl4, (2001); Machado, (2002));(Figure 3a). The results
also show that the shear stresses are practically constant along the width of
the strip, indicating that the curvature of the interface plays no key role in
the overall behavior of the test (Figure 3b).
10
AmOman)
0 1
0
I
8
ma(m)
Figure 3: Shear stress &Mon dongthe length andwidth ofthe inttxfBce
Preparation of Specimens.
The end plane faces of the specimens should be polished, while the surface
where the FRP is applied should be treated in a way that the coarse
aggregates are partially exposed. The adhesion zones are demarcated by

applying silicon over the unbounded or flaw area. This prevents the primer
and the saturant from having contact with the concrete below.
Application of FRP
The preparation and the application of FRP have been done under
controlled temperature and humidity. This way the effects of these two
variables over the tests have been minimized. The primer is the first to be
applied due to its low viscosity guaranteeing a deeper penetration in the
concrete pores. The application is made with a brush or a roller and should
not exceed a period of 20 minutes at 25" C (Figure 4a).
The saturant is applied before the hardening of the primer, otherwise
the chemical bonds between the layers will be compromised, affecting the
performance of the reinforcement. After applying the first layer of the
saturant, the CFRP sheet is positioned with the application of a little
pressure to impregnate all the fibers in the sheet (Figure 4b, Figure 4c).
Finally another layer of the saturant is applied on the CFRP sheet.
Figm 4 Applicationofthe shipsof CFRPsheds
The specimens should be kept in a climate-controlled room for 3 days in

order to obtain the necessary strength of the resin.
Testing of Specimens
Positioning of specimens
The prepared specimen is fastened to the loading plates using a chemical

adhesive. The slip (sliding) records are obtained through LVDTs positioned
Analysis of Inteface using Cylindrical Specimens I77
adjacent to the strips, allowing the control of unwanted load excentricities

(Dos Santos, 2001).
Test procedure
Three different loading schemes can be considered in this test setup:

monotonic, cyclic and long term loadings. In the monotonic test the loading
is achieved through an increasing displacement of the piston at a speed of
1 .O p d s . The data acquisition is done at a 1.O Hz frequency, with 10 data
points per second. Theses tests will be analyzed in this paper.
Test Results
In this study the tests have been organized in groups with a varying strip
width (Table 1) and with a varying adhesion length (Table 2).
ble 1 Properties o
Grw
1
2
7
3
Ta
W(i)
20
40
60
80
rs(i)
100
h(i)
40
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
Group
W(i)
4
6
2
40
rs(m)
25
50
75
Lm (
i )
40
100
The plots of the tensile load and the separation displacement (sliding of
the interface) of the specimens show a region of linear behavior. In this
region no residual displacements are observed when the specimens are
unloaded. Following the load trajectory, one may observe a decrease of the
stiffness and also the presence of residual displacements until the ultimate
load is reached.
The LVDT readings showed no major exccentricity in the load
application in each strip, because the determined sliding displacements for
each strip are similar in all the tests carried out (Figure 5). With respect to
the validity of the results of ultimate loads, one may verify that the values
obtained for each each strip are very close. This is in fact one of the
advantages of this test setup. In experiments with prismatic specimens the
presence of excentricities cannot be avoided and only one ultimate load

value can be determined for each test (Brosens, 2001; Souza, 1998). Here,
one obtains average results of three simultaneous interface tests.
Reproductibility
The results under monotonic static loading demonstrate the reproductibility

of the test. For all the tested groups of cylinders the ultimate load and the
associated displacements (sliding) have been found to present a low
deviation (Figure 5).
10
Proposed interface model
Once the validity of the test has been verified, an exponential expression to
represent the results can be proposed:
where P = load (kN); s = sliding of the fiber of FRP (pm); a, b = constant

parameters of the model, obtained experimentally. Comparing the loaddisplacement curves obtained for each group of tests with the one provided
by Eq. (l), it is verified that this equation reproduces in a satisfactory way
the interface behavior found in the tests (Figure 6).
Analysis of Interface using Cylindrical Specimens I79
Variation of strip width
The tests accomplished with Groups 1 , 2, 3 and 7 demonstrated that the

ultimate load increases with increasing width of the FRP strips. However,
the ratio between the ultimate load and the strip width (P,,,M/W) is
practically constant beyond a minimum value of the strip width (Figure 7).
O m U X ) 6 0 0 B W r m l m
SIP (rm)
Figure 7: (P,,/W)
x slip
Variation of the adhesion length

The results found for Groups 2, 4, 5 and 6 demonstrated that the ultimate
load-width ratio is practically constant beyond a minimum adhesion length
(Ls). This adhesion length (Ls) is found to be 100 mm (Figure 8). This
value has been adopted for the other group tests.
Fracture energy
Fracture energy values (Gf) can also be obtained in the tests. Some results
are listed in Table 3. One may observe a trend for the value of Gf to
converge to a value as the width of the strip reaches a certain minimum
value. However, this trend should be investigated more carefully in future
tests and analyses.
Test
Group01
Groupm
Grour,07
Group 03
Table 3: Fmchue empy values

TpofCP
w(m)
20
40
60
80
Gflh)
125
030
0.68
050
CONCLUSIONS
1. The simplicity of the test, the inexistence of large excentricities and
good reproductibility can be listed as the major advantages of the test
methodology presented here. The use of cylindrical specimens is very
common in the civil engineering activities. The test also allows the
Analysis of Inte$ace using Cylindrical Specimens 181
2.
3.
4.
6.
execution of 3 simultaneous interface tests, reducing the number of

specimens. The reuse of the specimens should be also stressed;
The ultimate load varried with the width of the strip and with the
adhesion length. However, above minimum values of each of them, the
ratio between the ultimate load and the width is practically constant.
The tensile load-sliding displacement curves showed a linear behavior
up to 75% to 85% of the ultimate load;
In all tests carried out a brittle rupture of the interface has been
observed;
The shear stress distribution along the length and the width of the FRP
strip has not been very much influenced by the strip curvature;
The proposed interface model equation presented a very good
comparison with the test results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been funded by CAPES and CNPq, brazilian research
agencies. The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Universitat
Politicnica of Catalunya (UPC) for the laboratorial support for this research.
REFERENCES
1. American Concrete
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Institute, Guide for the Design and

Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening
Concrete Structures, ACI 440F-00, Michigan, EUA, 200 1;
Federation International Du Beton (fib), Externelly bonded FRP
reinforcement for RC structures, Bulletin No 14, Switzerland, 200 1;
Bronsens, K.; Plate and shear design for external CFRP laminates,
thesis Doctorate, Belgium, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 200 1;
Machado, A. P.; Reforqo de estruturas de concreto armado com
fibras de carbono, Editora PINI, S%oPaulo, 2002
Souza, R.; Avaliaqilo da aderCncia de urn comp6sito armado com
tecido de fibra carbono a superficie do betilo; Relat6rio ICIST no
28/98, Instituto superior tecnico, Lisboa, 1998;
Volkersen, Die nietkraftverteilung in zugbeanspruchten
nietverbindungen
mit
konstanten
laschenquerschnitten,
Luftfahrtforschung, 1938;
A.C. Dos Santos, T.N. Bittencourt, R. Gettu, Determinaqgo
experimental da carga de colapso na interface entre o concreto e
Polimero Reforqado com Fibra (PRF), Revista IBRACON, vo1.29,

pp.3-18,2002. ISSN: 1415-224x3
8. A.C. Dos Santos, R. Gettu, T.N. Bittencourt, Study of the bond
failure between carbon fibers and concrete under shear,
Composites in Construction, October, Porto, Portugal, 10-12
October, pp. 223-226,200 1, ISBN-90-2651-858-7.

FRP ADHESION IN UNCRACKED AND CRACKED

CONCRETE ZONES
G. MONTI, M. RENZELLI AND P. LUCIAN1
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica,
Universita La Sapienza di Roma, Via A . Gramsci, 53 - 00197 Roma, Italy
The effectiveness of strengthening techniques employing FRP relies on the
adhesion between the FRP platekheet and the concrete surface of the
element to be strengthened, both in uncracked and cracked concrete zones.
When mechanical fastening is not used, the efficiency of the strengthening
element depends on the correct design of its anchorage zone. The
maximum stress taken by an FRP platehheet depends on its anchorage
length, along which it is transferred through a bond mechanism from the
FRP to the concrete surface. The bond mechanism is highly non-linear and
this renders the whole phenomenon extremely difficult to model. In this
paper, a fully non-linear finite element is developed, which is then used to
model anchorage zones. The accuracy of the FE in evaluating both the
anchorage strength and the associated (effective) bond length in uncracked
zones is demonstrated through correlation studies with experimental tests,
by also modelling the strain and bond fields along the anchorage length.
Predictive equations are proposed, with proper consideration of the nonlinear bond-slip behaviour at the plate/adhesive/concrete interface. For FRP
sheets attached to concrete in cracked zones, the above-developed model
has been used to predict the interaction between the two ends of an FRP
sheeuplate between two adjacent cracks. The model has been also extended
to include non-linear interaction with the existing reinforcement steel bars
in order to evaluate the cracks width for serviceability checks (not shown in
the paper). The accuracy of the model has been validated against a series of
anchorage tests, purposely carried out. The model has then been used in a
parametric study, from which two predictive equations for both the
maximum stress and the anchorage length are obtained, accounting for the
presence of cracks and for their spacing.
INTRODUCTION
Many studies, both theoretical and experimental, have been carried out on
FRP-concrete adhesion (for a list see, e.g., reference 1). A clear distinction
between two different cases exists; (a) in un-cracked zone and (b) in
cracked zones. In both cases, beyond a certain applied force, a crack could
form and propagate parallel to the bonded FRP platehheet near or along any
weak interface in the plate/adhesive/concrete packet. This has been
observed to be the most common anchorage failure mode for: (a)
platedsheets bonded on the beam sides for shear strengthening; or, (b) for
beams and slabs flexurally strengthened with FRP strips bonded along the
soffit, with debonding developing at a major crack and propagating towards
the plate end. This failure mode is referred to as debonding in concrete2.
Various predictive equations are available in the literature for
determining the anchorage strength associated to a given anchorage length,
mostly for uncracked concrete zones, while for cracked zones still some
aspects need to be clarified. To the authors knowledge, no finite element
(FE) has been developed to stepwise model the nonlinear response.
The FE here developed allows one to analyze the response of an FRP
sheet, both in the un-cracked end zones of a RC beam, and at midspan,
where the presence of cracks considerably modifies the resisting
mechanism.
FRP ANCHORAGE ZONE : FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION
The differential equation underlying the phenomenon is expressed
incrementally, due to the nonlinear nature of the bond-slip constitutive law3:
where: tf = FRP platehheet thickness, E f = (constant) tangent modulus of

FRP, Au(x) = unknown (incremental) slip field along the abscissa x, and
E b = (variable) tangent modulus of bond. The constitutive law of FRP
( of = Ef . cf ) is linear-elastic up to failure. All non-linearity in the overall
response is due to the local bond-slip relation ( ATb = Eb(u).Au) at the
weakened concrete layer where debonding occurs.
The discretized expression of Eq.(l) is obtained by assuming a
polynomial approximation for the unknown slip increment field as:
FRP Adhesion in Uncracked and Cracked Zones I85
A&) = N(5). Au in 5 = ( - 1 , l ) , in terms of the nodal displacements Au . In

matrix form, the discrete equilibrium equation is then written as:
[Kf + K b ] . A U =As
where Kf is the element material stiffness matrix:
(2)
-1
and K b is the element bond stiffness matrix ( tf
= FRP
thickness):
Also, AS = {ASI M,} is the load vector and B(<) = dN(<)/dk is the
shape function vector for the strain field along the FRP sheet. This
formulation does not depend on the law used to describe the local bond-slip.
Any law can be adopted. Here, a simple yet accurate law4 was chosen. This
very simple law depends on three parameters: (1) the peak bond strength:
T~~~
= kb
1.8.fCt,
with: kb =
1.5 . (2 - by /bc)
1 +bf/lOOmm
(5)
where fCtm = concrete mean tensile strength, and kb , which accounts for
scale effects, depends on b f = width of the FRP platelsheet, and b, = width
of the concrete surface; (2) the slip at peak bond strength, corresponding to
local interface cracking in the FRP/concrete interface:
where t o , E, = adhesive thickness and elastic modulus, respectively, E, =

concrete elastic modulus, and dref = 50 mm and (3) the slip at ultimate,
corresponding to local debonding of FRP from the concrete surface:
y =l.l.kb.Cf
with: C f = 0 . 3 m m
(7)
FRP ANCHORED IN UNCRACKED CONCRETE ZONES
Figure 1 shows the applied force vs. end displacement diagram at the pulled
end of a FE model of an FRP anchorage zone under increasing applied
force. Three characteristic points, denoted by squares, are noted: (1)
separating the linear from the non-linear response, corresponds to the
initiation of interface cracking at the pulled end; (2) corresponding to the
attainment of the ultimate slip y at the pulled end and to the initiation of
debonding; here the maximum anchorage force Fmaxis achieved and the
current bond length is termed effective and denoted by L,; and, (3)
corresponding to the debonding penetration into the anchored length. The
associated bond distributions are depicted in the boxes within Figure 1.
00
01
02
03
04
0.5
End Displacement(mm)
Figure 1. Force-slip response of FRP sheet in uncracked concrete zone.
Through parametric studies conducted with the FE, two predictive

equations for both anchorage strength and effective bond length have been
developed6 and assessed against a large number of tests:
where p=1 for L 2 L, and p=sin(7cL/2Le) for L < L, (L is the available

FRP anchorage length), and, ,z
is given in (5). The safety factor Y d can
be assumed as 1.3.
FRP Adhesion in Uncracked and Cracked Zones 187
FRP ANCHORED IN CRACKED CONCRETE ZONES
The response of an FRP sheet anchored to a beam, in both a constant and a

variable bending moment zone is considered (Figure 2). Between two
adjacent cracks, at a spacing s, , a beam slice can be analysed, with the
FRP sheet subjected to two opposite tensile forces at the cracks. Two cases
are studied: 1) the slice size sr, is larger than twice the effective length
L, , and 2) the slice size s,
is smaller than twice the effective length Le .
Figure 2: Beam slices in constant (left) and variable (right) bending moment zones.
Case: ,s,
2 2L, in a constant bending moment zone
Figure 3 shows the bond stresses and the force along the FRP sheet at the
~
onset of debonding. The bond stress is normalized with respect to T
The force is normalized with respect to the anchorage strength in Eq.(8). No
interaction takes place between the two ends of the sheet (at midpoint both
the bond stress and the force are zero), because the available bonded length
is sufficient to equilibrate the applied force. The two parts of the sheet
behave in the same way as shown in Figure 1, therefore the anchorage
strength (i.e., the applied force at the onset of debonding, which is equal to
the area under the bond stress curve) is given by Equation (8). Note that
interface cracking (i. e., where the normalized bond stress reaches f 1 )
progresses from the two ends towards the slice midpoint.
805
$07
$04
b03
E
02
01
05
0
05
NolrnallzedFRP lenqht U2Le
Figure 3. (a) Bond stress along the FRP; (b) Force along the FRP for srm 2 2L,
85
Normalized FRP lenght UZLe
Normalized FRP ienght u 2 ~ e
Figure 4. (a) Bond stress along the FRP; (b) Force along the FRP for , s
< 2Le
Case: srm < 2Le in a constant bending moment zone

Figure 4 shows the bond stresses and the force along the FRP sheet at the
onset of debonding. In this case there is interaction between the two ends of
the sheet (at midpoint both bond stress and force are non zero), because the
available bonded length is insufficient to equilibrate the applied force and
therefore the two parts "hook" to each other. Figure 4(a) shows that the area
under the bond stress is lower than in the previous case, while Figure 4(b)
shows that the anchorage strength is higher than that given in (8).
Response in variable bending moment zones
The same remarks be extended to the case of variable bending moment

zones. The FRP sheet is subjected to different forces at the two ends (for
illustrative purposes, a ratio of 113 has been chosen). The same diagrams as
in the previous figures are shown in Figure 5 and 6 . It is seen, as expected,
that delamination occurs on the more stressed end (on the right) giving rise
in both cases to the same anchorage strength as Eq.(8).
c
-0 6
01
-0 8
'
'
L
-
-1
4 5
O
05
Normalad FRP lsoght W L e
05
05
Nomalked FRP lsnghl V2Le
Figure 5. Same as Figure 3, in a variable bending moment zone.
.Q6
i05
*
fo4
go3
02
01
-8s
NormaIliadFRP lenoht W L e
41
41
01
01
N~mallz(KIFRP Isnght m e
Figure 6. Same as Figure 4, in a variable bending moment zone.
Note how the available bond length is divided between the two sheet
parts in proportion to the applied force: that subjected to a higher force
requires a longer bond length. Note also that interface cracking progresses
only from the pulled end on the right.
A parametric study for the determination of the anchorage strength of
FRP anchorages in cracked concrete zones has been carried out. The results
have been elaborated through regression analyses, which led to the

following equation for the anchorage strength in cracked zones:
which is valid for an available bonded length L = s,,/2 I L, . In the case

where L=s,.,/2> L,, then the term in brackets, which represents a
modification factor of the bond strength due to the hook effect, is equal to
1 and Equation (8) applies. Because this factor modifies the uncracked
bonded strength (8) by a factor whose maximum value is 1.25, it can be
stated, for the sake of conservativeness, that the maximum bond strength
can be taken as in Equation (8) both for uncracked and cracked concrete
zones.
Comparison with Experimental Tests
The behaviour described in the previous section, as predicted through a
numerical model, has been confirmed through direct observation of
purposely performed experimental tests. Specimens have been prepared as
shown in Figure 7, by cutting three slices (S-1, S-2, S-3, as described in
Table 1) that have been joined together through FRP sheets at opposite
faces. The FRP sheets have been instrumented with strain gauges along the
length of Slice 2 in order to measure the stress field. Specimens type T10
represent small slices (with L = s,., / 2 I L, ), while type T20 represent
large slices (with L = srm/2> L,). Concrete cubic strength was 25 MPa,
while FRP modulus was 230,000 MPa.
Concrete
Figure 7. Specimen for adhesion tests.
Table 1 . Geometrical characteristics of test specimens (measurements are in mm).
ble 1 Properties o
ble
1
Properties
o
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
Ta
Ta
In Figure 8 and 9, the most relevant results are presented as obtained

from test specimens 1-T10-80 (representing a short slice) and specimen 1T20-80 (representing a long slice) along with the corresponding
simulations. In both figures, the diagrams on the left represent the FRP
force fields along the slice length with increasing applied force, while those
on the right represent the relationship between the FRP force at mid-slice
and the applied force at the two ends of the specimen. The latter diagrams
serve to show the activation of the hooking phenomenon. In the short
slice, this phenomenon is activated at an earlier stage with respect to the
long slice. It should be noted that in both cases correlation between the
experimental results and the predictions obtained with the model is
extremely satisfactory at every force level.
30
25
g*0
I5
10
0
0
0
20
40
60
FRP lenght (mm)
80
10
20
30
40
Applied Force (KN)
50
60
I00
Figure 8. Short specimen 1-T10-80. Left: FRP force fields at various levels of
applied force. Comparison between experiment (continuous) and model (broken).
Right: Variation of FRP force at mid-slice. Comparison between measurements of
Right and Left Strain Gauges and model.
16
16
-14
g12
$0
118
2 6
4
0
0
50
100
FRP lenght (mm)
150
200
10
15
20
Applled FOI-
25
30
35
40
45
(KN)
Figure 9. As in Figure 8, for long specimen 1-T20-80.
CONCLUSIONS
A FE model for anchored FRP to concrete has been formulated,

implemented and used in a series of studies aiming at defining design
equations for FRP sheets anchored in uncracked and cracked concrete
zones. Under the opposing tensile forces at the cracks, the FRP sheet
behaves as in uncracked concrete if the cracks are widely spaced (more than
twice the effective bond length), while it develops a sort of hook resisting
mechanisms if the cracks are closely spaced. Correlations to experimental
tests are presented and predictive equations are proposed for both cases.
REFERENCES
1 . Chen, J.F., and Teng, J.G. (2001). Anchorage strength models for FRP and steel
plates bonded to concrete. Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 127(7).
2. fib (2001). Design and Use of Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement (FRP
EBR) for Reinforced Concrete Structures. Bulletin no. 14, f l b Task Group 9.3
FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures.
3. Monti, G., Filippou, F.C., Spacone, E. (1997). Finite element for anchored bars
under cyclic load reversals. J. of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 129(5).
4. Holzenkampfer, P. (1994). Ingenieurmodelle des Verburides geklebter
Bewehrung fur Betonbauteile. Dissertation, TUB, Germany (in German).
5 . Brosens, K., and Van Gemert, D. (1999). Anchorage design for externally
bonded carbon fiber reinforced polymer laminates. Proc. 4Ih Int. Symposium on
FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Baltimore, USA, pp. 635-645.
6. Monti, G., and Renzelli, M. (2003). Anchorage of FRP to uncracked concrete.
Journal of Compositesfor Construction, ASCE, in press.

OWorId Scientific Publishing Company
NEURAL NETWORK PREDICTION OF PLATE END

DEBONDING IN FRP-PLATED RC BEAMS
S.T. SMITH
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
J.G. TENG AND M. LU

The Hong Kong Polytechnic Universiv, Hong Kong, P.R. China
A large number of experimental studies have been carried out in the past
decade on reinforced concrete (RC) beams strengthened in flexure by the
bonding of a fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plate to the tension face.
Many of these studies have reported sudden failure by debonding of the
FRP plate from the RC beam which initiates at or near one of the plate ends.
Several strength models to predict this debonding have been developed but
their accuracy is often less than satisfactory. In this paper, a study
exploring the use of artificial neural networks as an alternative method for
the prediction of debonding in FRP-plated beams is presented. Following a
discussion of the background of the problem, the development of a reliable
artificial neural network (NN) model using existing test data is described.
The capability of the trained NN model is then illustrated by presenting
results from a parametric study.
INTRODUCTION
The flexural strength of a reinforced concrete (RC) beam can be increased

by bonding a fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) plate to its tension face, or its
soffit for the more commonly considered case of simply supported beams.
Tests on such strengthened beams have shown the strength of FRP-plated
RC beams to be limited often by the plate being suddenly separated
(debonded) from the RC beam before the flexural capacity of the beam
section has been reached. Considerable testing of FRP-plated RC beams has
been conducted in the past decade and a thorough review has been given by
Teng et al.'
The observed modes of debonding can be broadly classified into two
types': (1) those that initiate at or near a plate end and then propagate from
the plate end, and (2) those that initiate at a flexural or flexural-shear crack
and then propagate from such a crack towards a plate end. Debonding that
initiates near a plate end is referred to as plate end debonding and this
includes the failure modes of concrete cover separation and plate end
interfacial debonding as shown schematically in Figures l a and lb.
Debonding that initiates at an intermediate flexural or flexural-shear crack in
the beam and then continues to one of the plate ends is referred to as
intermediate crack induced debonding. This paper is only concerned with
plate end debonding, in particular, concrete cover separation.
Crack propagation
(a) Concrete cover separation
(b) Plate end interfacial debonding
Figure 1. Plate end debonding failure modes of FFW-plated RC beams
Considerable research has been conducted to develop models to predict

plate end debonding and a detailed summary of various models has been
given by Smith and Teng'. Smith and Teng3 assessed twelve existing
debonding strength models with a large test database consisting of fifty-nine
beams that had failed by plate end debonding. The twelve existing
debonding strength models showed varying behaviour when assessed
against the test data, leading to the conclusion that the prediction of plate
end debonding in FRP-strengthened RC beams is a very complex problem
and requires much further research. Many variables exist in this problem (i.e.
RC beam, FRF' and adhesive geometric and material properties) making it
difficult to assess their importance as well as incorporating them into a
reliable debonding strength model.
An artificial neural network (NN) is a powerful tool that can deal
effectively with ill-structured problems in which an explicit model is too
difficult to formulate or the behaviour is too complicated to explain.
Artificial neural networks attempt to imitate the learning process of the
human brain. They do not provide a scientific explanation for a specific
problem or produce a scientifically based solution, but do provide a mapping
between a set of inputs and outputs. NNs have been widely applied to many
areas including civil engineering4.
This paper presents the results of a study exploring the feasibility of
using NNs to predict plate end debonding in FRP-plated RC beams. A NN
model trained using the experimental data collected by Smith and Teng395is
presented. The capability of the trained NN model is then examined through
a parametric study using the NN model.
Plate End Debonding in FRP-Plated RC Beams 195
PLATE END DEBONDING FAILURES AND AN EXPERIMENTAL

DATABASE
Of the two plate end debonding failure modes shown in Figure 1, failure by
concrete cover separation has been reported much more frequently. This
failure mode can be quite easily identified in tests and has therefore been
described more accurately in the technical literature than the less common
mode of plate end interfacial debonding. For these reasons, this investigation
is limited to cover separation failures.
A total of fifty-nine experimental results of FW-plated beams failing by
plate end debonding (forty-four results for concrete cover separation and
fifteen results for plate end interfacial debonding) are given in Reference 3.
The forty-four concrete cover separation results were used for training and
testing the NN presented in this paper. Seven additional concrete cover
separation results were obtained from tests conducted at The Hong Kong
Polytechnic University. For inclusion in Smith and Tengs database3 the
following requirements had to be met, (a) failure of the beam was by plate
end debonding, (b) the FRP plate was neither prestressed nor anchored in
any form at its ends, (c) the beam never experienced loading before being
loaded to debonding failure, and (d) sufficient details for the various
geometric and material parameters were provided to enable the results to be
used with confidence. The tests reported by Smith and Teng satisfied the
requirements of Smith and Tengs database selection criteria3. Table 1
defines the input and output parameters considered by the present authors to
be of significance, their definition, and the units adopted in this study.
Twenty eight input parameters are listed as well as one output parameter
where the output parameter is the shear force at the plate end to cause
debonding. Table 2 gives the minimum, maximum and mean values and the
standard deviation for each of the input and output parameters.
NEURAL NETWORKS
The idea of parallel distributed processing has given rise to the back
propagation neural network algorithm that is conceptually simple but
theoretically capable of approximating a wide range of mathematical and
logical functions6. The Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) NN trained with the
back propagation algorithm (referred to as BPNN hereafter) is the most
popular and widely used network paradigm in forecasting and in the
majority of NN applications in civil engineering4. A typical BPNN has a
multi-layer structure (Figure 2). An iterative weight-adjusting scheme is
used to propagate backward the error term by modifying the weights of all
Table 1. Basic input and output parameters

Input
No.
1
2
3
4
Input
Symbol
bC
h
PC
E,
h
9
10
11
As
AS,
12
13
14
15
16
17
fct
As,
fYS
fYC
fYV
Es
EX
Definition (units)
Width of RC beam (mm)
Overall depth of RC beam (mm)
Concrete cylinder compressive strength (MPa)
Concrete cylinder splitting tensile strength (MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of concrete (MPa)
Distance from base of steel tension reinforcement to base of
RC beam (mm)
Distance from top of steel compression reinforcement to top
of RC beam (mm)
Centre-to-centre spacing of steel shear reinforcement
(stirrups) (mm)
Diameter of steel tension reinforcing bar (mm)
Cross-sectional area of steel tension reinforcement (mm2>
Cross-sectional area of
steel compression reinforcement (mm2)
Cross-sectional area of steel shear reinforcement (mm2)
Yield strength of steel tension reinforcement (MPa)
Yield strength of steel compression reinforcement (MPa)
Yield strength of steel shear reinforcement (MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of steel tension reinforcement (MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of
steel compression reinforcement (MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of steel shear reinforcement (MPa)
Thickness of adhesive layer (mm)
Modulus of elasticity of adhesive (MPa)
Width of FRP plate (mm)
Thickness of FRk plate (mm)
Tensile strength of FRP in the main fibre direction (MPa)
Modulus of elasticity of FRP
in the main fibre direction (MPa)
Method of formation of plate (pultruded, P, or wet lay-up, W)
Distance from support to nearer end of FRP (mm)
Distance from support to nearer concentrated load
(shear span) (mm)
Clear span of the beam (mm)
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Efrp
25
26
27
P/W
a
B
28
output
No.
1
output
Symbol
Definition (unit)
vex,
Shear force at plate end at debonding (kN)
ESY
t,
E,
bfr,
tf,,
ffrp
Plate End Debonding in FRP-Plated RC Beams I97
the connections in the NN structure in a stepwise fashion that is

mathematically guaranteed to converge6. An easy-to-follow elaboration on
the algorithm, the input-output first-order derivative of BPNN, along with a
comparison of the BPNN with the conventional multiple linear regression
technique can be found elsewhere'. For the remainder of this paper the
BPNN will be referred to simply as the NN for brevity.
Input Layer
,ut&%f
Node
Hidden Layer
Output Layer
Processing Element
BiasNode
Figure 2. Structure of a One-Hidden-Layer BPNN Model
The rate and accuracy at which a NN learns is dependent on its

architectural and learning parameters. The architectural parameters to be
varied are the number of hidden layers and the number of nodes in each
hidden layer, while the learning parameters to be varied are the learning rate,
momentum term, number of learning iterations, and initial weights. Despite
the considerable amount of research that has been undertaken on NNs, there
is still a lack of well-defined guiding rules for choosing
architecturalAearning parameter^^^'^, so the commonly adopted trial-anderror procedure was also employed in this study. Such an approach applied
to NNs with one hidden layer and standard sigmoid transfer functions was
used in this study.
NN Applied to RC Beams Strengthened with FRP

During the present study, an extensive literature search was conducted,
which revealed that only one archival journal article has been published to
date on the application of NNs for modelling FRP-plated RC beams". Flood
et al. predicted the deflection response of FRP-strengthened RC beams".
The value of Flood et al.'s study is limited by the fact that all his beam
samples had the same geometric and material properties. No work has been
found in the published literature so far which addresses the application of
NNs to the prediction of plate end debonding failures in FRP-strengthened
RC beams.
NN MODEL FOR PLATE END DEBONDING IN FRPSTRENGTHENED RC BEAMS
Training and Testing Data
Of the fifty-one experimental records for concrete cover separation from

Smith and Teng375,ten records were set aside at random and used for
validation of the NN, while forty-one records, also known as NN training
data, were used to train the NN. Of the ten validation records, five are
termed control data while the remaining five assessment data. The control
and assessment data sets were compiled by selecting every fifth
experimental record of the database with fifty-one records. Every oddnumbered experimental record selected formed the control data while every
even-numbered experimental record formed the assessment data. NNs are
usually not able to extrapolate12,therefore the value of a given parameter of
a record belonging to the control or the assessment data set should not fall
outside the maximum or minimum value of that parameter in the training
data. One of the experimental records initially selected for testing the NN
was found to be a sole outlier for a particular input parameter, consequently
the next experimental record in the database was selected in place. The NN
is considered trained when the error between the NN output and control data
is minimised. The trained NN is then independently checked with the
assessment data.
Training and Testing the NN
In the present study, the NN described in Reference 13 was trained using the
test data described above for the prediction of plate end debonding. In such
training, it is important to select suitable architectural and learning
parameters in order to achieve a well-trained NN. The architectural
parameters are the number of hidden layers and the number of nodes in each
hidden layer, while the learning parameters are the learning rate, momentum
term, number of iterations, and random initial weights. Training a NN is a
time consuming exercise given the trial and error nature of determining the
optimal architectural and learning parameters. A detailed account of the NN
training process is given el~ewhere'~.
An optimally trained NN (i.e. a trained
NN that fits best the training data, control data, and assessment data) is very
difficult to obtain due to the large number of permutations of the

architectural and learning parameters, but for practical purposes, a nearoptimal NN generally leads to little loss of accuracy but avoids an excessive
training effort.
2z
-2
l4
l2
10
3<
s
$
!>
-Training
6 4 -
Minimum assessment error
Minimum control error
-Control
Assessment
bleble
1 Properties
o o
1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Figure 3 illustrates how the number of iterations affects the accuracy of

the NN model when compared with the training data, control data, and
assessment data for the first set of random weights' with the number of
hidden nodes equal to the number of input data (twenty-eight), and the
learning parameter and momentum term equal to 0.2 and 0.1 respectively. A
minimum absolute error exists for the two validation data sets while the
training data gives ever closer predictions to the experimental results. A
problem that a NN can experience is over-training. The NN in Figure 3 risks
being over-trained as the number of iterations becomes excessive so the
optimal number of iterations becomes that to give a minimum error for the
control data. Note that the NN risks being overtrained when the assessment
data error is at a minimum. The behaviour of the control data error up to
100,000 iterations was investigated and only one minimum was found to
exist. It took approximately six minutes to complete 10,000 iterations on a
Pentium I11 1GHZ personal computer.
The effects of varying other parameters of the NN have also been
investigated but cannot be given here due to space limitation. The NN
architectural and learning parameters eventually adopted in this study are:
number of hidden layers = 1, number of hidden nodes = 29, learning rate =
0.1, momentum = 0.05, first initial weight set, and 1932 iterations.
Comparisons between the NN output and the training data, control data, and
assessment data, in terms of the shear force at the plate end at debonding Vdb,
are shown in Figures 4 to 6 respectively. The average absolute error for the
training data (Figure 4) is 1.82 kN (a relative error of 2.21 % over the output
range of 16.0 kN to 98.2 kN), the control data (Figure 5) is 4.86 kN (a
relative error of 9.03 % over the range 18.3 kN to 72.1 kN), and assessment
data (Figure 6) is 2.82 kN (a relative error of 5.67 % over the range 18.3 kN
to 68.0 kN). The relative error of the control data is higher as two of the five
results in Figure 5 are not predicted by the NN very well. Close inspection
of the control input data for these poorly modelled points revealed that only
one or two input variables have a considerable impact on the debonding load.
The NN model is clearly not able to detect dramatic changes in the
debonding load due to the variation of one or two input variables in this case.
The NN has, however, been trained to fit the training data satisfactorily as
well as the assessment data. Note that the assessment data did not consist of
dramatic changes in output due to the effect of one or two input variables.
.?
-0
40
20
0
Figure 4
20 40 60 80 100
Actual Result, Vexp(kN)
NN predictions versus training

data
2
3
4
5
Control Record Number
Figure 5. NN predictions versus control

data
Compared to all existing debonding strength models3, the predictions of

the present NN model is far more accurate, illustrating the power of the NN
approach. The main limitation of the NN model developed here is the size,
scope and quality of the data used or its training. For example, it cannot be
expected to provide accurate predictions outside the range of the training
data. It is also possible that the model did not fully capture the influence of
some of the input parameters.
60
50
40
.O 30
0
3 20
Y
l;
2
3
4
5
Assessment Record Number
Figure 6. NN predictions versus

assessment data
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Plate thickness, tfrp (mm)
Figure 7. NN prediction of V d b versus
soffit plate thickness
PARAMETRIC STUDY
The trained NN model was next employed to conduct a parametric studyI3
on a fictitious FRP-plated beam subjected to four-point bending. The
geometric and material properties of the RC beam, FRP plate, and adhesive
layer are given in the final column of Table 2 and were so chosen that they
are all contained by the lower and upper bounds of the training data. Figure
7 shows the effect of varying the thickness of the plate, while other results of
the parametric study are available elswhereI3. As the plate thickness is
increased, the debonding load is also increased. This trend was reported by
Beber et al.I4 and David et al." where the plate thickness was the only
parameter varied in their tests. Some debonding strength models'6217
predict
the debonding load to reduce as the plate thickness is increased but this is in
contrast to the NN results and experimental observations. It should be noted
that the NN model is based purely on the test data it is trained with, and as
the data of Beber et al.14 and David et al? was used to train it, the NN
predictions can be expected to follow the same trends as the training data.
These results show that the present NN model has accurately captured the
experimental trends of the training data. Of course, a larger test database
will enhance the reliability and power of the trained NN. The ultimate
moment capacities of the unplated and plated sample beam (with dimensions
given in Table 2) are 40 kNm and 98 kNm respectively. The NN predictions
in Figure 7 show that debonding will occur well before the ultimate capacity
of the plated section is reached.

Table 2. Statistical characteristics of input and output parameters for all fifty-one
experimental records and details of a sample beam
Input'
Range
Average
bC
h
100-154
100-305
25.7-51.7
2.44-4.20
22,754-39,900
13.0-47.7
13.0-40.0
50-250
6-20
85-792
57- 157
14-157
350-586
350-738
350-738
185,000-23 1,000
195,000-23 1,000
195,000-231,000
0.37-2.00
2,000-12,800
45- 152
0.50-5.30
161-3,140
10,343- 181,000
pultruded I wet
lay-up
0-3 75
300- 1,065
900-2.800
pc
fCt
EC
h
h"
S
AS
As,
AS,
fYS
fYC
fP
ES
ESC
Esv
t,
E,
bfrn
tfrp
ffrp
Efr,
Piw
a
B
L
130
218
41.1
3.40
29,939
30.4
27.6
93
10
214
84
77
469
499
482
204,765
207,487
206,039
1.08
7,76 1
106
1.86
1,204
82,526
Standard
Deviation
20
74
6.7
0.43
4,768
11.5
10.3
38
3
173
44
51
85
131
119
11,546
10,374
9,368
0.72
3,354
36
1.27
774
47,089
Sample
Beam
150
280
40
4.0
30000
35
35
120
16
402
157
157
460
460
460
200,000
200,000
200,000
1.o
10,000
150
1.5
2,500
150,000
P
101
602
1.702
96
248
619
150
1,000
2.500
Sample
Std
Deviation
Beam
16.0-98.2
50.5
21.8
vex,
Twelve beams did not contain compression reinforcement and ese beams have
been omitted from the statistical analyses of the input parameters h , A,,, f,,, and Esc.
output
'
Range
Average
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented the results of a study exploring the use of NNs for
the prediction of plate end debonding failures in FRP-plated RC beams. The
prediction of such debonding failures is a complex problem involving many
parameters, but the NN trained using existing data has been shown to
provide accurate predictions. The authors believe that a trained NN has two
important applications, one is to use it to gain new insights as demonstrated
by the results from the parametric study and another is to use it directly in
structural design as a predictive tool when sufficient test data is available.
An advantage of the NN approach is that its power and reliability can evolve
with the expansion of the available database. For the same reason, its
limitation also rests with the scope, distribution and quality of the available
database. A similar study should be undertaken again in the future when a
larger test database can be assembled. It will be interesting to see whether
the NN trained with the limited test database used in this study will give
comparable results to a NN trained with a larger database. This will have
important implications as to the size of the training database required to
adequately train a NN for the plate end debonding problem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was commenced while the first author was under the
employment of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. The authors wish to
thank The Hong Kong Polytechnic University for the financial support
provided through the Area of Strategic Development Scheme.
REFERENCES
Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T. and Lam, L., FRP-Strengthened RC
Structures, John Wiley & Sons, UK, 2002,245 pp.
Smith, S.T. and Teng, J.G., FRP-strengthened RC structures. I: Review
of debonding strength models, Engineering Structures, 24(4), 2002, pp.
385-395.
Smith, S.T. and Teng, J.G., FRP-strengthened RC structures. 11:
Assessment of debonding strength models, Engineering Structures, 24(4),
2002, pp. 397-417.
Adeli, H., Neural networks in civil engineering: 1989-2000, ComputerAided Civil and Infiastructure Engineering, 16,2001, pp. 126-142.
5. Smith, S.T. and Teng, J.G., Shear-bending interaction in debonding

failures of FRP-plated RC beams, to be published.
6. Rumelhart, D., Hinton, G. and Williams, R. Learning representations by
backpropagating errors. Nature, 323, 1986, pp. 533-536.
7. Zhang, G.B., Patuwo, B.E. and Hu, M.Y. Forecasting with artificial
neural networks: the state of the art International Journal of Forecasting,
14(1), 1998, pp. 35-62.
8. Lu, M., AbouRizk, S. and Hermann, U., Sensitivity analysis of neural
networks in spool fabrication productivity studies, Journal of Computing
in Civil Engineering, ASCE, 15(4), 2001, pp. 299-308.
9. Adeli, H. and Hung, S.L., An adaptive conjugate gradient algorithm for
efficient training of neural networks, Applied Mathematics and
Computation, 62, 1994, pp.81-102.
10. Al-Deek, H.M. Comparison of two approaches for modeling freight
movement at seaports, Journal of Computers in Civil Engineering,
ASCE, 15(4), 200 1, pp. 284-29 1.
11. Flood, I., Muszynski, L. and Nandy, S., Rapid analysis of externally
reinforced concrete beams using neural networks, Computers and
Structures, 79,2001, pp. 1553-1559.
12. Flood, I. and Kartam, N., Neural networks in civil engineering. I:
Principles and understanding, Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering,
ASCE, 8(2), 1994, pp. 131-148.
13. Smith, S.T., Teng, J.G. and Lu, M., A neural network model for plate
end debonding in FRP-strengthened RC beams, to be published.
14. Beber, A.J., Filho, A.C. and Campagnolo, J.L., Flexural strengthening of
WC beams with CFRP sheets, Proceedings, Eighth International
Conference on Structural Faults and Repair, edited by M.C. Forde,
London, U.K, 1999.
15. David, E., Djelal, C., Ragneau, E. and Bodin, F.B. Use of FRP to
strengthen and repair RC beams: experimental study and numerical
simulations, Proceedings, Eighth International Conference on Structural
Faults and Repair, edited by M.C. Forde, London, U.K, 1999.
16. Raoof, M. and Zhang, S., An insight into the structural behaviour of
reinforced concrete beams with externally bonded plates, ICE
Proceedings: Structures and Buildings, 122, 1997, pp. 477-492.
17. Saadatmanesh, H. and Malek, A.M., Design guidelines for flexural
strengthening of RC beams with FRP plates, Journal of Composites for
Construction, ASCE, 2(4), 1998, pp. 158-164.

BOND BEHAVIOUR OF CFRP STRIPS GLUED INTO SLITS

M. BLASCHKO
Bipnger Berger AG, Department of Civil Engineering
Kistlerhofstr. 144, 813 79 Munich, Germany
Experimental and theoretical examinations were carried out on the

structural behaviour in bond of CFRP strips glued into slits. The test results
are described and discussed. A conclusive bond model is derived, which
explains stresses and deformations of the concrete and of the CFRP strip. It
correlates with the test results well. A design approach, which can easily be
used in practice, is proposed for the bond capacity of this system.
INTRODUCTION
"CFRP strips glued into slits" is a new method of supplementing concrete

structures with reinforcement and thus of strengthening them [ 11. The
method consists in gluing CFRP strips into grooves which are cut into a
concrete specimen perpendicular to its surface, see Figure 1. Therefore it
belongs to the category of "FRP mounted near surface".
concrete
I
I.
I
I
...
/-7inner reinforcement
&
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 1. CFRP strips glued into slits
The strips are between 1 to 2 mm jn thickness and about 20 mm in

width. The depth of the cut grooves should be about 3 mm larger than the
width of the strip and the width of the grooves should be about 3 mm larger
than the thickness of the strip. Therefore the adhesive layer is about 1 to 2
mm in thickness.
A large program on experimental and theoretical investigations was
carried out to find the design parameters needed to use CFRP strips glued
into slits in practice [2]. This paper focuses on the bond behaviour between
the CFRP material and the concrete member.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
In a first step, experimental examinations of the structural behaviour in

bond were carried out.
Tests
About 100 pull-off tests were carried out on concrete specimens of 300 mm
by 300 mm in cross-section (Figure 2). The bond length, dimensions and
material properties of the strip, the concrete strength, the treatment of the
concrete surface, the type of loading and the distance a, between the
concrete edge and the strip were varied. The distribution of the axial tensile
force in the CFRP strip, the slip between the strip and the concrete member
and deformations of the concrete block were measured.
bondless area
bond length Iv
Figure 2. Pull-off test
The parameter a,, which is defined as the distance between the concrete
edge and the longitudinal axis of the strip, was introduced into the tests to
simulate the behaviour of a strengthened beam (Figure 3). But during the
tests it was seen that this parameter is very useful to simulate the stiffness of
the concrete surrounding the strip.
Bond Behaviour of CFRP Strips Glued into Slits 207
distance from
the edge
Figure 3: Definition of the parameter ur
Results
Different failure modes were observed. If the bond length increased in
length by about 150 mm and the strip was far away from the concrete edge
(e. g. a, > 100 mm), the strip failed in tension.
Bond stress zv M P J
30
25
20
15
10
0
0
25
50
75
100
Distancefrom loaded end [mm]
Figure 4: Bond-stress-distribution along the bond length for different load levels
(bond length 1" = 100 mm, distance a, = 150 mm)
If the strip was applied very close to the concrete edge (e. g. a, <
20mm), the concrete comer was split off. In all other cases the bond failed
inside the adhesive layer. That means that a cohesive failure in the adhesive
occurred. But even after a bond failure had occurred, the strip had to be
pulled completely out of the concrete member with a certain force.
A typical distribution of the bond stresses along the bond length is
shown in Figure 4 for a test with a bond length of 1" = 100 mm. It can be
seen that the highest bond stresses are located at the loaded end of the strip
for low load levels. The more the load is increased, the further they move to
the unloaded end of the strip.
The shear-slip-relationships can be calculated from the distribution of
the axial force in the CFRP strip and the strain of the strip. The result is
shown in Figure 5. It can be seen that there is not one typical relationship.
In detail there are different relationships, each valid at a certain section of
the bond length. It can be concluded that there must be an important second
influence on the bond stress distribution beside the slip.
bond shear stress TV [Nlmm']
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 00
0 20
0 40
0 60
0 80
1 00
slip s [mm]
Figure 5. Shear-slip-relationshipsfor different sections of the bond length

(bond length I"= 100 mm,distance a, = 150 mm)
Figure 6 shows the deformations of the edge of the concrete member
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the CFRP strip, which was placed
at a distance from the edge of a, = 20 mm. In this case the deformations
reached high values of about 0.1 mm. They are much lower the more the
distance a, increases. Further more the maximum of the deformation curves
moves towards the unloaded end of the bond length with increasing load
just as the maximum of the bond stress distribution does.

concrete deformations at the edge v, [mm]
-40
0.120
40
: :
80
:
x along bond length [mm]

120
160
200
: : ' : : : ' : :
: : :
240
: : :
+FL=20kN
bond length Iv = 200 rnm

I
I
Figure 6. Deformations at the edge of the concrete member for different load levels
(bond length lv = 200 mm, a, = 20 mm)
BOND MODEL
The experimental observations can be explained by the deformations of
the concrete perpendicular to the strip.
The bond stresses create deformations in the surrounding concrete and
the deformations themselves influence the bond-slip-behaviour of the
adhesive (see Figure 7). Near the loaded end of the strip the concrete moves
away from the strip and therefore creates tension in the adhesive layer
perpendicular to the shear stresses. Because of this tension the maximum
shear capacity of the adhesive is reduced. The load transfer is reduced in
this area. On the other hand, the concrete is pressed against the adhesive at
the unloaded end of the strip. Therefore the load transfer increases here.
I/
lv
,half
of CFRP-strip
. - symmetric line
F.12 f-
FJ2
Figure 7: Interaction between bond-stresses, deformations and stresses perpendicular

to the axis of the CFRP strip
A conclusive bond model is derived, which takes these effects into

account. The bond-slip-behaviour of the adhesive is modelled using the
differential equation of the shifted bond:
EA, + EA,
EA, EA,
*
where s = slip between CFRP strip and concrete, bL = width of the strip, zv
= bond (shear) stress, EAL = stiffness of the strip and EA, = stiffness of the
concrete.
The behaviour of the concrete is modelled using the differential
equation of the elastic supported girder:
where v = deformation of the concrete, EA, = idealized stiffness of the

concrete edge, ci = idealized elastic support of the concrete edge and pv
resp. m, = load calculated from the bond stresses.
Both equations are connected with a failure criterion, which is based on
the failure criterion of Mohr [3] and supplemented with a friction model:
where rKmax
= maximum transferable bond stress, g,= shear capacity of
the adhesive, v, = deformation at which the normal stress in the adhesive
reaches the tension capacity of the adhesive.
In Figure 8, the measured distribution of the tensile force in the CFRP
strip along the bond length is compared with the results of the model. It can
be seen that there is a very good correlation for all load levels.
Tensile force in the strip FL(x) [kN]
40
30
20
10
25
50
75
100
Distance from the loaded end [mm]
Figure 8: Measured and calculated distribution of the tensile force in the CFRP strip
along the bond length for different load levels
DESIGN APPROACH
On the basis of the results of the experimental data and the bond model a
design approach, which can easily be used in practice, is proposed for
calculating the bond capacity.
If the slip between the strip and the concrete exceeds a certain value, the
transferable bond stress is limited to the friction between the strip and the
concrete. Therefore two equations have to be used to calculate the bond
capacity according to the bond length. The first equation is valid until the
adhesive still behaves elastic-plastic and the second equation takes the
friction stresses into account. For simplification the border between both
equations is fixed to a constant value of the bond length.
for I , 51 15mm :
for I , > 115mm
K.[
FV,k= b, . z ~. , ~ 26,2 + 0,065 - tanh
. (1,
(;o)
- 1 15)
(4b)
where FKk= characteristic (5%-fractile) bond strength [N], b, = width of the

CFRP strip [mm], ZK,k = characteristic shear strength of the adhesive, a, =
distance between strip and edge of the concrete member [mm] (a, I 150
mm) and 1, = bond length [mm].
10
20
30
Fv,sikuhted
40
50
60
70
[kNl
Figure 9: Comparison between calculated and measured values for the bond capacity
In both equations (4a and 4b) the value a, has to be limited to 150 mm if
a, > 150 mm, because then the stiffness of the concrete around the strip is
not influenced any more by the free edge of the concrete specimen. The
shear strength TK,k of highly filled, two-component epoxy resins is within
the range of 20 to 25 N/mmz.
Figure 9 compares the measured bond capacity from the tests with the
results of the proposed design approach. It can be seen that there is a good
correlation.
Bond capacity Fv,r [ky
80
++-* = 100 m m
60
+a=
50 m m
40
00
200
100
300
Bond length IV[mm]
Figure 10: Bond capacity of a CFRP strip glued into a slit according to the bond
length lv and the distance from the edge a,
Figure 10 shows the resulting bond capacity according to the bond

length for different distances from the edge a,. It can be clearly seen that the
bond stresses - the slope of the curves in Figure 10 - are varying along the
bond length. They become constant after a certain bond length and are then
limited to the friction. If the distance to the edge a, is close to 0, the
resulting curve is similar to the bond behaviour curve of CFRP strips glued
onto the concrete surface.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the results of pull-off tests, which were carried out on
the structural behaviour in bond of CFRP strips glued into slits. A bond
model is described, which explains stresses and deformations of the
concrete and of the CFRP strip. It shows that the deformations in the
concrete have a strong influence on the distribution of the bond stresses and
therefore on the bond capacity. A design approach is proposed for the bond
capacity of this system.
The very strong and stiff bond behaviour of CFRP strips glued into
slits can be explained by the three dimensional distribution of the bond
stresses in the concrete (Figure 11). In the system of strips glued into slits
all bond stresses and tensile forces are kept more or less within the plane of
the concrete, because the strips are thin compared to their width. There are
no tensile stresses perpendicular to the surface of the concrete member.
On the other hand in the system of an embedded bar, the radial
distribution of the bond stresses create forces which push the bar out of the
concrete surface. Therefore this system can fail by spalling of the concrete
cover.
distribution of
bond stresses
Figure 11: Bond stress distribution in the cross-section of a CFRP strip glued into a
slit and of an embedded reinforcing bar
REFERENCES
1. Blaschko, M. and Zilch, K., Rehabilitation of concrete structures with
CFRP strips glued into slits, Proceedings of the 12th International
Conference on Composite Materials, Paris, July 5 - 9, 1999.
2. Blaschko, M., On the mechanical behaviour of concrete structures with
CFRP strips glued into slits, PhD thesis, Technische Universitat
Munchen, 200 1 (in German).
3. Schneider, W. and Bardenheier, R., Versagenskriterien fur
Kunststoffe. Zeitschrift fiir Werkstofftechnik, Vol. 8, 1975, pp. 269280 (in German).
ble 1 Properties o
Ta

LOAD CAPACITY OF CONCRETE BEAMS

STRENGTHENED WITH EXTERNAL FRP SHEETS
Z.J. WU AND J.M. DAVIES
Manchester Centre for Civil and Construction Engineering, Manchester, Mi50 I QD
A theoretical method to predict the loading capacity of a FRP reinforced
concrete beam is developed. The beam, subjected to three-point bending, is

externally reinforced with unidirectional FRP sheet near the bottom surface of
the tensile zone. No slip between the FRP sheet and plain concrete is
assumed. Only Mode I fracture propagation is considered. A fictitious crack
approach which has been used previously in conjunction with finite element
method in the fracture analysis of concrete is adopted here to estimate the
equivalent bridge effect of the fracture process zone (FPZ) of concrete. The
predicted results of loading capacities are then shown graphically.
INTRODUCTION
A worldwide interest is being given to the use of fibre reinforced polymer

(FRP) in the rehabilitation of infrastructure, particularly of concrete
structures. In the present research, a flexural FRP reinforced concrete beam
with rectangular cross section and subjected to an external loading system
of three-point bending is considered. Along the axial direction, the beam is
reinforced with unidirectional FRP sheets near the bottom surface of the
tensile zone (Fig. 1).
The research is intended to develop a theoretical method to predict loading
capacity of such a FRP reinforced concrete structure, based on the
consideration of the constitutive relations and deformation properties of
individual constituents, that is, plain concrete and FRP sheets. From the
global equilibrium of the cracked cross-section, the change of the loadbearing capacity of the beam against crack depth is determined. A fictitious
crack approach which has been used previously in conjunction with finite
element methodI7*in the fracture analysis of concrete is adopted here to
estimate the equivalent bridge effect of the fracture process zone (FPZ) of
concrete.
The constitutive relation of plain concrete and FRP sheets which will be
used as the basis of the model to be developed is given in the next section.
Detailed modelling analysis of the loading-bearing capacity of the FRP
reinforced concrete beam is then presented. Numerical results that
218 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement f o r Flexure
demonstrate the effect of the FPZ on the loading capacity quantitatively are
shown graphically.
.......... .............................
._.................................
sheet
Fig. 1 Three-point bending FRP reinforced concrete beam with rectangular cross
section.
CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS OF CONCRETE AND FRP SHEET

The constitutive relation of plain concrete is given by
(E
2 E , ,tensilesoftening)
(0 I E I E , ,tensile)
(1)
that is, the compressive behaviour of the concrete is given by a parabolic

curve proposed by Hognestad3 ( f, and E , are the maximum compressive
stress and the corresponding strain of concrete, respectively), and the
tensile behaviour is basically characterized by a linear stress-strain relation
up to the ultimate tensile strength. Beyond the ultimate tensile strength or
maximum tensile stress f, (=EG, where G is the tensile cracking strain),
further strain increase gives a decreasing stress, which is commonly known
as strain-softeningy4.In the cracked concrete beam structure, it is mainly
reflected by the existence of tortuous segments (fracture process zone) in
Concrete Beams Strengthening with FRP Sheets 219
the front of the crack (Fig.2). Many studies have shown that the softening
behaviour of plain concrete should be described by using stress (4)displacement (w),relation which is considered as a property of materials,
rather than a stress-stain relation. In current research, an arbitrary q(w) is
assumed in theoretical analysis. The numerical calculations are for two
extreme cases, that is, the upper and lower limit analyses, to show the
influences of the choice of q(w).
The FRP sheets in reinforced concrete structures are normally used to
carry tensile stresses. The stress-strain laws of the FRP sheets (glass fibre
or carbon fibre reinforced plastic ones) used in civil engineering are almost
linearly elastic up to its ultimate strength. The tensile loads carried by the
FRP sheets are transferred from the concrete through the bond at the
interface of the FRP sheets and concrete. To facilitate the investigation on
the loading capacity of the reinforced beam, a perfect bond between FRP
sheets and concrete is assumed (no slip effect is considered).
h-b
Undamaged
wne
Fig.2 Sketch of FRP reinforced concrete crack and fracture process zone.
LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY OF THE FRP CONCRETE BEAM

Consider the FRP reinforced concrete beam shown in Fig. 1 . The beam has
a rectangular cross-section and a notch or precrack a0 at the midspan. When
the beam is loaded, the crack propagates to a, in which a FPZ (Fig. 2) is
developed. According to Hillberborgs fictitious crack model3, the bridging
stress in the FPZ is normal to the crack surface and can be given by the
softening stress-separation law of plain concrete. Assuming that plane
section remains plane after deformation, a linear distribution of strain over
the beam depth is obtained [Fig. 3(b)]. Combining this strain distribution
and the constitutive relations for both concrete and FRP sheets, the stress
distributions on the cross-section at the midspan of the beam can be shown

in Fig. 3(c).
The modulus of concrete can be obtained from Eq.( I), that is,
The resultant force in the compression zone of the concrete is given by
where
and xI is the depth of the neutral axis from the bottom of the concrete beam
where the origin of x lies.
The resultant tensile force on the cross-section consists of contributions
from three parts: the tensile stress in concrete following the linear elastic
law given by CT = EE from zero tof; ,the assumed stress distribution in the
vicinity of the crack tip, that is the FPZ, and the tensile force due to
extension of the FRP sheets. From Fig. 3(c), the resultant, T, can be
expressed by
in which Zp is the length of FPZ, q(w) is the distribution function of bridging

closure stress in the zone, and w=w(x) is one half of crack opening
displacement (Fig. 2). Tf,shown in Fig.3c, is expressed by
where Ef and Af are, respectively, the longitudinal modulus and total area of
the reinforced FRP sheets. The corresponding strain q is given by
Y
Ef =-
"I
x, - a
E,
(7)
The equilibrium of the beam requires that Eq.(3) must be equal to Eq.(5),
that is,
A E - XI
'x,-a
in which F, =
+-J;(x,-a).b+F,
I
= b L (d-xl)2
2
x1- a
':
:3'
(8)
xl -a
14,q(w) b dx is the resultant bridging force provided by
the FPZ which satisfies 0 5 F, < bl, . f,.

Letting a = a / d ,
becomes
J? - 3[(1- a)(l+ -)4L

J;
7 = x, / d - a ,
the equilibrium equation (8)
+4L ( L
+ -)v2
AP
+3[(1- a)'((l+-)2.L ---4J
4L Afn
J; bd J;
bd
J;
J; bd
from which 7 and hence the location of neutral axis can be determined if
F, is known and where n is the ratio of the modulus of the FRP sheets to
that of concrete. ( E , / E ).
Following the similar procedure used to derive Eq.(9), the bending
moment due to the internal stresses on the symmetric cracked cross section
is given by
The bending moment M is equal to the moment on the cross section due to
external loads and is PS/4 for the three-point bend beam (Fig.1). Hence, the
applied load P can be expressed by
(12)
, = S 1 d is the span-depth ratio of the beam. From the solutions of
where O
Eqs.(9) and (12), the loading capacity of the beam can be calculated once lp
and q(w) are known.
....
(c) stress distribution
Fig.3 Strain and stress distributions across beam section at cracked plane.
NUMERICAL RESULTS
In this section the new model is used to show the influence of a set of
material and geometric parameters on the loading capacity of a carbon FRP
reinforced concrete three-point bend beam. The material properties of the
(MPa),
plain concrete are as follows6: f,=23(MPa), E=4730
J; = 0 . 6 G ( M P a ) . Hence,
E,
= 0.002 based on Eq.(2). The geometric
parameters of. the beams are shown in Table 1. The beams are lightly
reinforced with a FRP sheet. The modulus of elasticity of the reinforcement
FRF sheets, Eh is taken as 90GPa.
Table 1. Geometry of the three-point bend beam

Span
S(mm)
1400
Depth
d(mm)
3 80
Total area of FRP sheets

A~ (mm2)
Initial notch
b (mm)
102
78.5
38
Width
a0
(mm)
Fig. 4 shows the loading capacity (load-crack depth curves) predicted

by the present model for the concrete beam reinforced with 1 mm thickness
FRP sheet. The curves shown in this figure are the results corresponding to
the different lengths of the FPZ, in which the solid lines are for Zp=O, that is,
the lower bounds of the loading capacity, while the others represent the
upper bounds of the capacity associated with the given lp. It can be seen that
the crack propagation of Mode I is arrested after its growth to a certain
position depending on the length of the FPZ. A larger FPZ results in a
smaller arrested crack and a higher load-bearing capacity.
100
200
300
Crack depth (a-lD)(mm)
Fig. 4. Load capacity against crack depth for h=lmm.
Fig.5 further shows how the load capacity is influenced by different

thickness of the reinforcement sheets (and hence different reinforcement
cross-sectional areas and reinforcement ratio). In this figure, the dotted
curve is in fact the same as the dotted one in Fig.4 because the ratio of FPZ
to the height of beam cross section ZJd for both dotted curves is the same
and equal to 0.01.
!.
g 20
U
-J
lo
0 -
Fig. 5. Load capacity ofthe beam with different sheet thickness when lD/d=O.O1
When the sheet thickness increases to 1.2mm (Afincreases to the value

of 122.4mm2), there is still a load drop but the maximum relative drop is
getting smaller. However, when the thickness of the sheet is thinner (say
h=0.5mm), a larger load drop is observed. Hence an appropriate reinforced
ratio is necessary to prevent a large load capacity drop once a crack has
formed.
The similar phenomenon and tendency can be observed if the elastic
stiffness of the reinforcement sheet is changed. Generally larger Young's
modulus of the reinforcement will lead to a higher load capacity and a
lower relative load drop percentage for the composite reinforced beam,
which means carbon fibre sheets are more effective than glass fibre ones in
retrofitting engineering.
CONCLUSIONS
A theoretical method to predict loading capacity of FRP reinforced concrete
flexural beams is developed. The constitutive law of FRP sheets and the
responses of plain concrete with appropriate tensile and compressive
stresses are incorporated in present model. The influence of the bridging
stresses provided by the FPZ at the tip of fictitious fracture is examined. It
has been shown that the FPZ has a considerable effect on the arrest of the
rack. A large FPZ is more effective in increasing the strengthening effect.
REFERENCES
Hillberborg A., ModCer M. and Petersson P-E., Analysis of crack

formation and crack growth in concrete by means of fracture mechanics
and finite elements, Cement and Concrete Research, 6(6), 1976: 773782.
Ingraffea A. R., Gerstle W. H., Gergele P. and Saouma V., Fracture
mechanics of bond in reinforced concrete, J. of the Structural Division,
ASCE, 110(4), 1984: 871-890.
Kong F. K. and Evans R. H., Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete. 31d
edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd, Berkshire, England, 1987.
Karihaloo B. L., Tension softening diagrams and longitudinally
reinforced beams, Fracture of Brittle Disordered Materials: Concrete,
Rock and Ceramics, eds. by Baker G. and Karihaloo B. L., E & FN Spon
Pub., London, 1995: 35-50.
Gerstle W. H., Dey P. P., Prasad N. N. V., Rahulkumar P. and Xie M.,
Crack growth in flexural members-- A fracture mechanics approach, ACI
Structural J., 89(6), 1992: 617-625.
Baluch M. H., Azad A. K. and Ashmawi W., Fracture mechanics
application to reinforced concrete members in flexure. Chapter 16 in
Applications of Fracture Mechanics to Reinforced Concrete , ed. by
Carpinteri, A., Elsevier Applied Science, London, 1992: 413-436.

REINFORCING EFFECTS OF CFRP AND AFRP SHEETS

WITH RESPECT TO FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF RC BEAMS
0. JOH
Division of Structure & Geotechnics, Hokkaido Universiv,
Kita- 13, Nishi-8, Kilaku, Sapporo, 060-8628 Japan
Z. WANG AND H. IBE

Technical Development Dept., Constec Engineering Corp., Tokyo, Japan
In applying fiber reinforced polymers such as carbon fiber, aramid fiber and
grass fiber to improve flexural strength of reinforced concrete members, it
is necessary to analyze the effects of these materials on behaviors of crack
width and deflection of the members, because elastic stiffness and ultimate
elongation of the materials are quite different from each other. In the
present study, tests were carried out on reinforced concrete beam specimens
of which bottom surface was reinforced by carbon fiber or aramid fiber
sheets, and the test results examined with respect to flexural strength,
flexural stiffness, crack width and ductility factor.
INTRODUCTION
Rehabilitation by fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) improves the bending
strength and stiffness of existing reinforced concrete members. Carbon fiber
(CF), aramid fiber (AF) and glass fiber (GF) have been used as practical
materials. Since CF has a high stiffness but a low ultimate strain, it can be
used to strengthen RC members but not to improve the ductility of RC
members. On the contrary, since AF and GF have relatively large ultimate
strain but small stiffness, these materials can improve the ductility of RC
members to a great degree','. However, these members are subject to large
deformation and severe cracking before demonstrating the desired ductility.
Therefore, the mechanical behaviors of RC members repaired by CF and AF
sheets must be clarified in order to develop a rational improvement method
for bending performance.
In the present study, experimental tests were performed on reinforced
concrete beam specimens strengthened by commercially available CF and
AF sheets, and the test results examined with respect to flexural strength,
flexural stiffness, crack width and ductility factor. This study is part of a
research and development on hybrid FRP sheets3.
228 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Flexure
EXPERIMENTAL WORKS
Design of Specimens
All specimens had a T-shape cross-section and were arranged using an

adequate number of stirrups in order to avoid shear failure. The depth of the
cross-section simulated actual reinforced concrete beams used in normal
framed buildings, but the width was approximately half the scale of the
actual beams in order to allow easy production of the specimens. Main beam
bars and slab bars were of normal-strength and stirrups in the beams were
of high-strength, as shown Table 1. Ready-mixed concrete of normal
strength, 24.6 MPa, was used. Two types of FRP sheets, CF and AF, which
have a medium and high elastic modulus, respectively, were used for the
experiments. An epoxy-type resin (FR) was used as the adhesive. Table 1
lists the mechanical properties of these materials and those of the steel bars.
The test involved three specimens. One specimen had no strengthening,
and the other two specimens were strengthened by either CF or AF sheets,
respectively. The reinforced concrete beams were identical in all specimens.
After generating beams of concrete of desired strength, the beams were
strengthened by FRP sheets. The strengthening process consisted of four
steps: scraping away weak surfaces from the beam bottom using a wire
brush, applying primer, flattening rough surfaces using putty, and using
epoxy resin to adhere to the beam two layers of FRP sheets, of either 70 or
80 mm in width, that spanned the entire length of the beam. The
improvement to stiffness and strength of RC beams obtained by the use of
FRP sheets depends on the stiffness, tensile strength and cross-sectional area
of the sheets used in the beams. In the present paper, these effects are
represented as the FRP stiffening ratio Gand the FRP strengthening ratio 73
which are defined as follows:
Ef afl Esa,, rf = fr a f l f , a l
(1)
where Ef,&, af are stiffness, breaking strength and cross-sectional area of
FRP sheets, respectively, and Es,f,,a, are stiffness, yield strength and crossL
$
ble 1 Properties o
Youngs Tensile Break

Fiber
Ta
reinforce- modulus strength strain
ment
CF
AF
FR
kN/mmz
390
78.5
2.33
N/mm2
3840
3430
46.5
0.985
4.37
___
Yield
Yield
strength strain
N/mm2
%
SD295-Dl9
352
0.21
SD295-Dl6
332
0.19
SHD685-DlO
723
0.40
Steel bar
Reinforcing Effects of CFRP and AFRP Sheets 229
Table 2 Details of beam specimens

Specimen
Tensile
bars & as
bm2)
Bending
span
(mm)
Type
Of
FRp
depth(mm)
width(mm)
x layers
C.S.
sera
Stiffen. Strg.
ratio ralio
"f2
(mm)
Tr
7zr
(?A)
(%)
2-D19:570 700
non
Non
non
non
non
BM4
BMI-CF 2-D19:571 1000
CF 0 . 1 1 0 ~ 7 0 ~ 215.4
5.1
29.7
BM2-AF 2-D19:572
1000
AF 0 . 1 6 9 ~ 8 0 ~ 2 27
2.8
46.6
Note: C.s.urea = cross-sectional area of FRP, Strg. ratio = strengthening ratio
FRP sheets
2400
Figure 1 Configuration of beam specimen (unit: mm)

sectional area of tensile beam bars, respectively.
Since the purpose of this test was to clarify the mechanical behavior of
the central part of the beam with constant moment distribution, the tips of
FRP sheets were extended to the end surfaces of the beams and anchored by
a steel plate and anchor bolts to avoid anchorage failure. Figure 1 and Table
2 show the configuration and strengthening method of the specimens.
Loading and Measurement Methods

All specimens were supported by simple beam systems and were subjected
to symmetrical two-point vertical loadings. The prearranged distances
between supports and between loading points were 2,200 mm and 700 mm,
respectively. However, the distance between loads of 1000 mm (bending
span) was applied to two strengthened specimens, because the concrete
strength was lower than expected and shear failure possibly occurred in
sections between loading and support points (shear spans) under the original
loading distance. Table 2 shows the details of the specimens. Vertical displacements at the loading points and the center of the beam were measured
230 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfor Flexure
on both sides of the specimens. The central deflection of the beams bb6,i;
was defined as the average of relative deflections measured at both sides,
and the relative deflection was calculated as the average difference in
deflection measured from the central point to the loading points.
RESULTS OF BENDING TESTS
Relationship of Failure and Load vs. Deflection Curve

All specimens failed in flexure accompanied by yielding of beam bars and
breaking of FRP sheets. The relations between bending moment in the
bending span and the central deflection are shown in Figure 2, and the key
results are listed in Table 3. Specimen BM4, without FRP sheets, showed a
remarkable increase of deflection and widening of flexural cracks after
yielding of the beam bars, and the M- am, curve of BM4 exhibited a gradual
increase in moment accompanied by strain hardening of the beam bars. In
specimens strengthened with FRP sheets, the resistant moment at initial
flexural cracking and at yielding, and stiffness before yielding were larger
than those of BM4. Since CF sheets of specimen BM1-CF broke at a
of
5.6 mm after yielding, the resistant moment decreased rapidly and the
M- &Id curve after breaking the CF sheets shifted to that of BM4. The
resistant moment of specimen BM2-AF, however, increased continuously
BM4
160
120
120
& 8o
80
2 4
E:
40
0
0
BM2-AF
160
- 160 1
20
40
60
BM1-CF
20
40
60
: Flexural moment in
bending span
-120
: Deflection at beam center

A : Yield of beam bars
X : Break of FRP sheets
&id
80
40
0
0
20
40
60
Figure 2 Moment versus deflection relations at midspan of beams

\I
0.80
BM1-CF
~l
Loadingpoint
--3C-M=101.3kNm (Just
before FRP breaking)
-0-M=98.3kNm (Before
FRP breaking)
+M=91.8kNm
(Just
after yielding)
+M=84. lkNm (Just
before yielding)
-+- M=53.9kNm
0.60
h
5 0.40
w'
0.20
0.00
-1
-800 -400
0
400
800
Distance from beam center (mm)
1200
A Support
3.00
*M=142.1kNm
(Just
before FRP breaking)
2.50
-0-M=142. lkNm
2.00
(Before FRP
breakin
t-M=llO!?kNrn
5 1.50
&
(Just
+M=23.7kNm
after cracking)
1 .oo
-6- M=98. lkNm (Just
after yielding)
0.50
0.00
-1200
A
-800 -400
0
400
800 1200
Distance from beam center (mm)
+M=84.0kNm
(Just
before yielding)
A Support
Figure 3 Strain distribution in FRP sheets

with increasing deflection until the AF sheets broke at a amid
of 41 mm after
yielding. Although AF sheets showed higher performance with respect to
deflection than CF sheets, the resistant moment also decreased rapidly to the
moment of resistance of the RC beam.
Strain Distribution of FRP Sheets

Figure 3 shows the observed strain distributions in the FRP sheets. The
strain distributions were similar to the moment distribution of the beams
before yielding of the beam bars, and the strain increased only in the
bending span just after yielding (see the strain distributions of BM1-CF at
M=98.3 and BM2-AF at M=98.1). However, the strain of BM2-AF increased
markedly not only in the bending span but also in the shear spans as load
and deflection increased, and the strain approached the breaking strain of the
AF sheets running the entire distance between both supporting points (see
the strain distribution of BM2-AF at M=141.2), because the bond stress
between the sheet and the concrete reached the bond strength and the bond
resistance was lost, particularly in the shear spans. Consequently, the strain
of the sheets did not concentrate in a small portion of the beam and the beam
resisted large deflection.
In the case of BM1-CF, the strain in the bending span reached the
breaking strain of the CF sheets, which is lower than that of the AF sheets,
before the bond stress in the shear spans was lost. Therefore, the beam
exhibited an exceedingly small ductility. This means that if a beam is
strengthened using twice the number of CF sheets (qy is approximately equal
to that of BM2-AF), the beam would show a slight increase in maximum
moment but not ductility.
ble 1 Properties o
Specimen
BM4
BMI-CF
BM2-AF
Mcr
6m;d
Kcr
My
(kNm) (mm) (GN) (kNm)

16.8 0.22
76
81.4
86
90.0
18.1 0.21
90
93.1
18.0 0.20
6mid
Ky
(mm)
4.04
3.30
3.36
(GN)
20.1
27.3
27.7
~ ~ I M Y caI/
(kNm) exp
80.6
0.99
86.2
0.95
82.6
0.89
bleble
1 Properties
oo
1 Properties
bleble
1 Properties
1 Properties
o o
ble
ble11Properties
Propertiesoo
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
Ta
at yielding of tensile beam bars
at initial cracking
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta Ta
Ta
EFFECT ON FLEXURAL PERFORMANCE
Strengthening Effect
The yield moments of the specimens having CF and AF sheets increased by
11% and 14%, respectively, compared to that of the non-FRP specimen
MJY).The increasing rate of yield strength by reinforcement of FRP sheets

should depend on the number of Gat least theoretically. Figure 4 shows the
relationship between M J M , and rl/ for the present test results, as well as
those for the test results of Pareek et al., who carried out flexural tests using
RC beams (1 20 mm in width, 200 mm in depth, 1800 mm in length and 400
mm in bending span) strengthened by a large number of CF sheets and other
types of sheets. The maximum moment of beams strengthened by FRP
sheets increased as 771 increased, but the upper limit of the moment increase
appeared in the region beyond a qf of 200%.
All specimens, however, exhibited brittle failure just after maximum
moment and their resistance reduced rapidly to that of the original beam
without FRP sheets. Therefore, high-stiffness CF sheets may provide a better
strengthening effect on the yield moment of a beam than AF sheets when the
cross-sectional areas of both fiber sheets are same because the q o f CF
sheets is larger than that of AF sheets, but the resistance reduction after the
maximum moment also becomes larger and the deflection at maximum
becomes smaller than those of beams strengthened by AF sheets. This means
that the arrangement of CF sheets in strengthening RC beams is riskier than
that of AF sheets. On the other hand, the arrangement of AF sheets cannot be
applied to improve the serviceability of RC beams in order to obtain high
flexural stiffness and avoid cracking because the AF sheets provide a higher
maximum moment at large deflection but a lower yield moment at small
deflection than the arrangement of CF sheets.
Calculated moments at yield ,,/My and at ultimate ,,/Mu (here, the term of
ultimate indicates the maximum and the breaking of FRP sheets) were
obtained using the following equations:
,,,My
= a,&
0.9d + af ( E / E s ) h0.9D
,,/Mu = as& 0.9d f affr0.90
(2)
where d is the effective depth of the RC beam and D is the beam depth.
These calculated results are presented, along with experimental results for
comparison, in Table 3 and Figure 5. The calculated moments of BM1-CF
were in relatively good agreement with the experimental moments, whereas
those of BM2-AF were underestimated. In particular, as a result of
disregarding the stress hardening of the beam bars and using a catalogue
value presented by the fiber manufacturer as the breaking strength of the AF
sheets, the calculated ultimate moment was extremely small. Hereafter,
calculated yield moment of the beam unreinforced by FRP sheets ,,/Msy was
defined as the first term in Eq.2, that is a value of a,& 0.9d..
f.
2;
15
1
0%
100% 200%
300% 400% 500%
FRP strengthening ratio qf
Figure 4 Increase of ultimate strength

2 ,
A
ca/Mu 'ca/Msy
Figure 5 Relation of calculated and

experimental strengths
1.8
% 1.6
0F-series: Covered by one layer
\"
CFRP sheet
1.4
c] FS1-series: Covered by 1 layer CF
1.2
1
0%
20%
40%
60%
FRP stiffening ratio c,

Figure 6 Increase of stiffness at yielding
sheet confined by U-shape sheets

FS2-sereies: Covered by 2 layer CF
sheets confined by U-shape sheets
.A
Covered &
by AFRP
Our tests
Stiffening Effect
Based on the results shown in Table 3, the stiffening effect of FRP sheets at
initial flexural cracking was not as large as the average rate of increase (=
stiffness ratio of FRP beam Kfi to non-FRP beam Ks,,), which was 13%.
However, the stiffening effect of FRP sheets became larger at yielding as the
rate was 37%. Figure 6 shows the relationship of the rate of increase in
stiffness and the FRP stiffening ratio <p The rate of increase in stiffness
slightly depended on a <fin the range of <f less than 20%, but the deviation
between these values was so great that the relation could not be clarified.
One reason may be that the stiffness depends on the bond condition between
the sheets and concrete, and future investigation is necessary.
Effect on Crack Width

Crack widths appearing at the level of tensile beam bars on the side surfaces
of the beams with FRP sheets were narrower than those of the non-FRP
beam when subjected to the same moment. Maximum crack width of the
BM1-CF and BM2-AF specimens at yielding was approximately 0.2 mm,
Reinforcing Effectsof CFRP and AFRP Sheets 235

the width at maximum moment just prior to breaking of the sheets was 0.5
mm in BMl -CF and 1.4 mm in BM2-AF. The location of maximum crack
width in each crack changed from the beam bottom to the mid-depth of the
beam, as shown in Figure 7. The effect of FRP sheets on the reduction of
crack width was due to the combination of resistant moment and the
repression of crack widening at the beam bottom, where the crack width was
maximum. Therefore, the effect was found to depend on the stiffness of FRP
sheets, the FRP strengthening ratio, and the bond strength.
top of beam
mid-depth
bottom of beam
Figure 7
Crack pattern of BM2-AF reinforced by AF sheets
Ductility
The ductility factor of specimen BM2 strengthened by AF sheets (here, the
factor was defined as a ratio of beam deflection at maximum moment to that
at yielding), was six times larger than that of specimen BM1 strengthened by
CF sheets. The effect of CF sheets on increase of resistant moment at
yielding was higher than the effect of AF sheets, whereas the effect of CF
sheets on increase of ductility was not expected.
CONCLUSIONS
The load versus deflection relationship, the strain distributions of steel bars
and fiber sheets and the processes of cracking and failure were discussed
and an estimation of resistance was carried out, based on the results of
approximately 30 tests performed by the authors and other researchers. As a
result, the following conclusions are derived:
(a) The rate of increase of flexural strength of RC beams was approximately
proportional to the FRP strengthening ratio, which was defined as the
ratio of (fiber tensile strength) (fiber cross-sectional area)/(beam bar
yield stress) (cross-sectional area of tensile beam bars).
(b) The ductility factor of the beam strengthened by CF sheets was approximately two at maximum resistance, accompanied by sheet breaking,
whereas that of the beam strengthened by AF sheets was no less than
approximately 12 which implied large energy absorption before the
sheets broke.
(c) Maximum crack widths for all specimens, witWwithout fiber sheets, were
approximately 0.2 mm at yielding of the beam bars, whereas those for
specimens having CF and AF sheets were 0.5 mm and 1.4 mm,
respectively, at maximum resistance. Therefore, sufficient consideration
is needed to design serviceability for RC members strengthened by AF
sheets, because the remaining crack width after yielding becomes large
and may not be within allowable limits.
Since these results show that it is difficult to improve both initial
stiffness and ductility of RC beams by using independent FRP, the
development of hybrid FRP sheets which show not only high initial stiffness
but also large breaking elongation are in need of further study3.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was subsidized by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Science
and Technology (Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B)(2), Subject No. 11450201).
The FRP sheets used for the experiment were provided from Nittetsu
Composite Co., Ltd. We would like to express our deepest gratitude for this
support.
REFERENCES
1. Pareek, S., Kurata, M. and Sotoyama, R., Flexural Strengthening of

Reinforced Concrete Beams by Continuous Fiber Sheets, Transactions
of Japan Concrete Institute, V01.2 I( I), 1999, pp.201-207.
2. Morton, S., Externally Bonded Composites for Strengthening Concrete
T-Beam Bridges, Proceedings of the forth FRPRCS, Baltimore, ACI
SP-188, 1999, pp.687-696.
3. Joh, O., Wang, Z. and Ibe, H., Stress-Strain Relationship of Hybrid
Fiber Sheets Consisted of Carbon Fiber and Other Material Fibers, The
Third Middle East Symposium, Aswan, December 17-19, 2002,
CD-ROM.

OWorld Scientific Publishng Company
FLEXURAL BEHAVIOR OF RC BEAMS EXTERNALLY

REINFORCED WITH CARBON FIBER SHEETS
Y. TAKAHASHI
Dept. of Civil Engrg, Hokkai Gakuen Univ.,I-1,Minami26-j0u, Nishi 11chome, Chuo-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 064-0926, Japan
Y. SAT0
Div. on of Struc and Geotech. Engrg, Graduate School of Engrg, Hokkaido Univ,
Kita 13-jou, Nishi 8-chome, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
This paper presents the results of an experimental program on the behavior
of RC beams strengthened using continuous carbon fiber reinforced plastic
(CFRP) sheets. Externally reinforced concrete beams with epoxy-bonded
CFRP sheets were tested to failure using a symmetrical two-point
concentrated static loading system. Ten specimens were cast for this test
program. One of them was a control beam without CFRP sheets, three of
them were reinforced with only CFRP sheets on the tension surfaces of the
RC beams to enhance their flexural strength, three of them were reinforced
with a soft adhesive layer and CFRP sheets, and the remaining three were
reinforced with a soft layer and CFRP sheets plus 5-cm-wide strips of CFRP
sheet wrapped around the web. Experimental data on strength, stiffness,
strain of tension steel rebar and CFRP sheet, deflection, and failure mode of
each of the beams were obtained. The results generally indicated that (1) the
flexural strength of the strengthened RC beams increased; (2) the ductile
behavior of the beam reinforced with strips of CFRP sheet was significant;
(3) the failure mode was a breakage of the CFRP sheet by the joint use of a
soft adhesive layer; and (4)the maximum load was determined by the CFRP
sheet breakage.
INTRODUCTION
A continuous fiber reinforced sheet is considered to be an effective material
for strengthening and rehabilitation of existing RC structures, and the
number of existing concrete structures in which these reinforcing sheets are
used has been increasing. The purpose of reinforcing existing concrete
structures with continuous fiber sheets is mainly to increase flexural and
shear strength of members. A large deflection capacity is also required for
strengthening a bridge pier.
A continuous fiber sheet, especially a CFRP sheet, is excellent in terms
of tensile strength, lightness, and resistance to corrosion and chemical
attack. In addition, a CFRP sheet can be handled easily because of its
flexibility. Many studies have been carried out to try to establish a rational
retrofit design method. However, the strength and deflection of a structure
member reinforced with a CFRP sheet are often governed by the peeling of
the sheet unless the CFRP sheet is wrapped around the member on its web
side. In this case, the tensile strength of the CFRP sheet cannot be well
exhibited'32.
To try to resolve these problems, the static bending tests were carried
out using specimens with strip type CFRP sheet wrapped up to entire web
height. A large deformability soft adhesive layer (layer thickness: 0.5 mm)
was placed between the concrete and CFRP sheet interface before bonding
the vertical CFRP strips.
The flexural behavior of a RC beam with CFRP sheets on the bottom
surface and the strain behaviors of CFRP sheets and tension steel rebars
were examined. The epoxy generally used for CFRP sheets was used as an
impregnating adhesive resin.
OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENT
Ten reinforced concrete beams, 200x300 mm in cross section and 2200 mm

in length, were cast for the test program. Beam sketches, dimensions, and
detailed reinforcement are shown in Fig. 1. The reinforcement consisted of
two D19 (deformed steel bar with a nominal diameter of 19.1 mm) rebars at
the bottom with a total area of 573 mm2, resulting in a reinforcement ratio of
1.146 percent, and two D6 (deformed steel bar with a nominal diameter of
6.35 mm) rebars at the top. All specimens were reinforced in shear by
closed stirrups of D10 (deformed steel bar with a nominal diameter of 9.53
mm) rebars, equally spaced at 100 mm center-to-center throughout the span
of the specimen. A chamfer of 15 mm in radius was made in the corner edge
of each specimen.
All of the beams were simply supported over a clear span of 1600 mm
and subjected to monotonic static loading under two concentrated loads to
failure as shown in Fig.1. The midspan and loading point deflections were
recorded at each load increment of 5 kN using linear variable displacement
transducers (LVDTs). Strain gauges were attached to the CFRP sheet from
the center to both supports of the beam at a pitch of 100 mm, and strain
gauges were also mounted on the tensile steel rebar.
The beams were divided into four categories according to the
reinforcement schemes shown in Table 1. Specimen FO was a control beam
without CFRP sheets attached to the beam soffit (group A). Specimens in
group B were reinforced by bonding of CFRP sheets only to the beam soffit:
RC Beams Reinforced with Carbon Fiber Sheets 239
one, two and three CFRP sheets in specimens F1, F2 and F3, respectively.
Specimens in group C (F4,F5 and F6) were reinforced with CFRP sheet as
in group B as well as a soft adhesive layer (hereafter called "buffer layer")
applied between the CFRP sheet and bottom concrete face, as shown in
Fig.2. Specimens in group D (F7, F8 and F9) were reinforced by the same
procedure as those in group C but with an additional 5 cm wide strip of
CFRP sheet (hereafter called "U-jacket") in some places, wrapped up to 30
cm in height (full height of the web), as shown in Fig. 3.
CFRP sheet
Fig. 1 Test specimen
Fig.2 Cross sectional detail
The CFRP sheets were bonded to the concrete surface by similar

procedures for all beams. The concrete surface was initially roughened
using a handy-type grinder to insure a good bond between the epoxy glue
and concrete surface. The surface was then thoroughly cleaned of debris
Fig.3 Wrapped appearance by U-jacket
using an airjet. The resin and hardener were mixed and applied to both the
CFRP sheet and concrete surface. CFRP sheets were bonded to the beam
soffit in the longitudinal direction. The concrete was composed of high
early-strength Portland cement, sea sand and river gravel. The water-cement
ratio and fine-coarse aggregate ratio were maintained at 45% and 38%,
respectively.
The experimental results are shown in Table 1, and the mechanical
properties of the materials used for these test specimens are shown in Table
2. In this study, the failure modes of test specimens were examined, and the
strains in a tension steel rebar and CFRP sheets, and the deflection at
midspan of the specimen and that just under the loading point were recorded
at each load increment. For comparison with experimental results, the
beams were also analyzed by the section analysis method.
Ultimate Strength and Failure Modes
As shown in Table 1, reinforcing with CFRP sheets increased the ultimate
strengths of the specimens. The failure mode of the specimen with only
CFRP sheets attached to the beam soffit was delamination of CFRP sheets
from the concrete.
Table 1. Test results
bleble
1 Properties
1 Properties
o o
bleble
1 Properties
1 Properties
o o
bleble
1 Properties
1 Properties
o o
bleble
1 Properties
o o
1 Properties
bleble
1 Properties
1 Properties
o o
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
C.B:Control beam, FTF:Flexural Tension Failure, P:Peeling, FCC:Failure of

Concrete Cover
Ta
Ta ,BC:Breakage of CFRP sheet, BU:Breakage of U-jacket
Table2 CFRP
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
AMOUNT OF FIBER
CFRP sheet
Thickness
Elastic modulus
Tensile strength
Strain of breakape
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Tensile strenpth
Elon Pation
7
Rebar
:LA)
Buffer material
I
I
0.167mm
230Gpa
3480MPa
15130~
371MPa
570MPa
3 77MPa
537MPa
1MPa
123%
On the other hand, specimen F4, in which a buffer layer and one layer
of CFRP sheet, and specimen F7, in which U-jackets were used in addition
to the reinforcement used in the specimen F4, failed due to the breaking of
the CFRP sheet in the center of the span length (Photo 1). Specimens F5 and
F6, in which two layers and three layers of CFRP sheets were used,
respectively, as well as a buffer layer, failed through the concrete cover near
the intermediate point between the supporting point and the loading point
(Photo 2).
Photo 2 Specimen F5
Photo 1 Specimen F4
Specimens F8 and F9, in which buffer layers, CFRP sheets and Ujackets were used, failed due to horizontal breakage of the U-jacket at points
15 cm and 25 cm from midspan section in the corner of the wrapping after
peeling of the CFRP sheets. The failure mode changed from breakage of the
CFRP sheets to failure through the concrete cover when the number of
CFRP sheet layers were increased and a buffer layer was used.
Compared to the maximum load of the beam without a CFRP sheet, the
maximum load of RC beams with CFRP sheets increased 32% on average
and that of RC beams with CFRP sheets and U-jackets increased 36% on
average.
350
350
300
300
250
250
3 200
150
200
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
10
15
D E F L E C T I0
(a)
N In m
20
25
Fig. 4 Load-deflection relationships
10
15
DEFLECTIONlnm)
(b)
20
25
Deflection Behavior and Strain Distribution of Tension Steel Rebars

Load-deflection relationships at the loading point are shown in Figs .4 (a)
and (b). Fig.4 (a) shows the relationships between load and deflections of
the specimens withlwithout a buffer layer and U-jackets and with two CFRP
sheet layers. Fig.4 (b) shows the relationships between load and deflections
of the specimens with a buffer layer and different numbers of CFRP sheet
layers. The values calculated by the section analysis for the beams with two
CFRP sheets are also shown in Fig.4(a). In this analysis, the compressive
stress-strain curve of concrete given in reference3 and the tensile stressstrain curve of concrete, including the tensile stiffening mode4, were used.
The reinforcement ratio used in the analysis is the total area of the
reinforcement divided by the area which is the section width is multiplied
by twice the concrete cover. The beam was divided into 60 layers of 5 mm
in thickness in the section height direction and 160 segments of 10 mm in
length in the longitudinal direction, and the deflection of the beam was thus
calculated by integrating the curvature at each segment. As shown in
Fig.4(a), the maximum load and ultimate deflection were increased by the
use of a buffer layer in the concrete-CFRP sheet interface. The figure also
indicates that an increase in ultimate deflection can be expected by using Ujackets, but that an increase in maximum load can not be expected. The
analytical deflection values seem to evaluate of the actual deflection of
beams correctly up to around 200 kN, but after this value, the calculated
deflection is smaller than the actual deflection. This is because the
calculation process does not consider the reduction in rigidity. An increase
in the number of CFRP sheet layers resulted in an increase in maximum
FO
I0000
20000
30000
40000
Strain ( x 10")
Fig. 5 Load-strain relationships of the tension steel rebar
load. However, the ultimate deflection tended to decrease with increase in

the number of CFRP sheet layers (see Fig.4(b)). The toughness tends to
decrease with an increment in the number of CFRP sheets; the decrease in
toughness is considerably improved by U-jackets.
Load-strain relationships of the tension steel rebars just under the point
of applied load are shown in Fig.5. This figure shows the relationships
between the beams witWwithout a buffer layer and U-jackets for the two
layer of CFRP sheets. The yield of the tension steel rebar occurred at around
220 kN regardless of whether a buffer layer had been used or no. However,
the yielding load increased at around 275 kN with the use of a U-jacket.
These results indicate that the CFRP sheet takes enough of the applied load
from the strain distribution in the CFRP sheet which is described later.
Strain Distribution in CFRP Sheets

Load-strain relationships of CFRP sheets on the beam soffits of all
specimens at the midspan are shown in Figs. 6(a), (b) and (c) for group B,
group C and group D, respectively. The parameter in each figure is the
number of CFRP sheets. Figs. 6(a) and (b), show that in the case of beams
without U-jackets, the load reached the maximum value (and failure mode
was peeling of the CFRP sheet) at a strain of 0.5 0.8% and the beam with
a buffer layer, the load reached the maximum at a strain of 0.8 - 1.5% p
(strain of 15% being almost the sheet breakage strain). The transition of
tension force on the concrete-CFRP sheet interface was smooth when a
buffer layer was used and the tension force was applied uniformly to the
350 I
350
300
300
250
250
5 200
-a
m
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
4000
8000
12000 16000
Strain ( x 10")
(4
4000
8000
12000 16000
Strain ( x 10"
(b)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
4000
8000
12000
16000
Strain ( x 10")
(C)
Fig.6 Load-strain relationships of CFRP sheet
CONCLUSIONS
The results of these experiments are very encouraging. It has been

demonstrated that bonded CFRP sheets, U-jackets and a buffer layer are
indeed a feasible method for upgrading the strength and stiffness of an RC
beam. The following conclusions are made:
(a) Failure of a beam in which a buffer layer was not used was caused by
debonding of the CFRP sheet. In the case of a beam with one CFPR
sheet and a buffer layer, the failure mode was by breakage of the
CFRP sheet (also in the case of a beam with U-jackets). A beam with
two or three CFRP sheets failed as a result of a sudden failure of the
concrete cover, and a beam with two or three CFRP sheets and Ujackets failed as a result of debonding of the CFRP sheet and breakage
of a part of the U-jackets at the corner.
(b) Without the use of a buffer layer, the increase in ultimate deflection
cannot be expected by simply increasing the number of CFRP sheets,
but the ultimate deflection was about 2.8 times higher in specimens
with a buffer layer and U-jackets than in those without these.
(c) The yielding load for the tension steel rebar was raised by using a
buffer layer and U-jackets.
(d) The possibility of determining the maximum load on the beam by
CFRP sheets breakage was suggested by the results of tests on
specimens in which a buffer layer and U-jackets were used.
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Nippon Steel Composite
and Shin Nippon Oil Co., Ltd. for providing the CFRP sheets and epoxyglue material, respectively, and to former students who contributed to the
experimental project work at Hokkai Gakuen University. This project was
financially supported by a research grant from the Academic Frontier
Promoting Center at Hokkai Gakuen University, which is gratefully
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Takahashi, Y., Hata, C., and Maeda, T., Experimental Study on
Flexural Behavior of Aramid Rods Reinforced Concrete Beam
Strengthened with an Externally Bonded Carbon Fiber Sheet,
Transactions of JCI, V01.20, 1998, pp.97-104.
2. Takahashi, Y., Sato, Y., Ueda, T., Maeda, T., and Kobayashi, A.,
Flexural Behavior of RC Beams with Externally Bonded Carbon Fiber
Sheets, Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on NonMetallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Vol. 1, 1997,
pp.327-334.
3. Japan Society of Civil Engineering (JSCE), Standard Specification for
Design and Construction of Concrete Structures (Design)@ Japanese),
1996, pp.24.
4. Okamura, H. and Maekawa, K., Nonlinear Analysis and Constitutive
Models of Reinforced Concrete, Giho-do Inc., 1991, pp.36-38.

STRENGTH AND FAILURE MECHANISM OF RC T-BEAMS

STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP PLATES
K. LEE AND R. AL-MAHAIDI
Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University

Clayton, Victoria, Australia 3800
Advanced photogrammetry measurement technique was used to study the
deformation mechanism of shear deficient reinforced concrete T-beams
post strengthened with web bonded L-shaped CFRP laminate strips. Four
large-scale T-beams with identical reinforcement details were fabricated
and tested to failure. Three of the beams were shear strengthened with the
external CFRP reinforcement at different spacing. All beams were
designed to exhibit shear failure. Approximately 1500 monitoring points or
targets were placed on the beams' and CFRP reinforcement's surfaces to
record the positions of the individual targets at selected load levels. All
beams were instrumented to measure strain in the CFRP reinforcement,
deflections of the beams and slip between the CFRP and concrete at
selected locations. Photogrammetry measurement and experimental results
are presented.
INTRODUCTION
Background
Today, the post strengthening of reinforced concrete structures using
externally bonded FRP has become a common practice. The relative
simplicity in the application combined with the FRP's superior corrosion
resistance and weight to strength ratio have replaced conventional
construction materials such as steel as the preferred medium for
strengthening. Its light weight meant easier handing and application, which
eliminates the need for mechanical lifting o r anchoring devices. This in turn
minimizes disruption to services for the duration of the strengthening and
maintenance process. Several shear-strengthening arrangements exist for
the post strengthening of T-beams. Prefabricated L-shaped CFRP laminate
strips were used in the current study. The external reinforcement was
bonded to the soffit and web of the beam extending into the flange. Testing
carried out by EMPA, the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing
and Research, using L-shaped CFRP plates, has shown that the
strengthening system to be effective (see references 1 and 2). It does not

appear to suffer from end anchorage problems common in other systems.
In the present study, four large-scale beams were fabricated and tested
to failure. The first beam was used as the control specimen with no
strengthening carried out. The second, third and fourth beams were
strengthened with the L-shaped laminate strips spaced at 0.75D,0.60D and
0.50D where D is the overall depth of the beam. The experimental results
and failure mechanisms are presented and discussed.
Beam Details and Test Set Up
The steel reinforcement details of the T-beams are illustrated in Figures 1

and 2. The beams were designed to have significantly higher flexural
capacity than the shear capacity to determine the failure mode of the CFRP
strengthening system.
I
120
720
i
c225_1
Figure 1 . Cross-sectional details of beams
s2 ::
1
s4b.x
qnnn
Figure 2. Longitudinal details of beams
The CFRP arrangements on the beams are illustrated in Figure 3. The

beams were designated as 'Control' beam, Beam '0.75D',
Beam '0.60D and
Beam '0.50D. The beams were subjected to four-point loading using two
hydraulic actuators under displacement control. The shear span to depth
ratio (aJd) was approximately 3.0. Strain gauges were bonded to the shear
reinforcement and CFRP reinforcement to determine the contribution of
each component. The labelling of the gauges is shown in the figures. The
loading configuration is illustrated in Figure 4.
RC T-Beams Strengthened with CFRP Plates 249
1-
1
I
c3 '
c2r
rl
clc:
C 6 R C8:
c5
c7
c 4 h
c9
C12'
C11'
i
I
~'
I
I
Figure 3. CFRP reinforcement arrangement
Load
Load
975
1265
1520
1265
975
Figure 4. Loading configuration
Material Properties
The shear and flexural reinforcement used were lOmm diameter round bars
and 28mm diameter deformed bars with average yield stresses of 351MPa
and 445MPa respectively. The average concrete strength of the T-beams
was 3 1.9MPa. The CFRP L-shaped plates consist of layers of carbon fibres
aligned longitudinally and held together in a durable epoxy-based thermoset
matrix. The nominal width of the plates is 40mm with a thickness of
1.2mm. The plates have a 90' bend with an internal radius of 25mm. The
tensile elastic modulus is approximately 137,00OMPa, which has been
determined from tensile tests carried out on CFRP coupons. The leg lengths
of the CFRP are 200mm and 5000 mm respectively. Figure 5 illustrates the
250 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcemenl f o r Flexure
application of the CFRP reinforcement. High-pressure water jet was used to

clean the concrete surfaces exposing the aggregates.
I igure 5 Application or CFRP reinforcement
Photogrammetry Measurement Set Up

Figure 6 illustrates the experimental test set up with photogrammetry targets
of Beam OSOD, which was a typical set-up of all the beams.
Figure 6 Lxperimental test set up of Beam 0 50D
Monitoring points or targets were placed at selected locations on the

beams surface. For each beam, using a specifically designed camera, threedimensional digital photogrammetric measurements were made at twelve
camera locations or epochs at selected load levels. The camera consists of a
flash and digital data measurement device that records and stores
information about the positions of the individual targets. The information is
then processed in a separate computer workstation and results of the
displacements of the individual targets are available within minutes of the
imagery being recorded. The accuracy of the system employed was
f0.06mm. Approximately 1500 targets were placed on each beam on the
concrete surface as well as on the L-shaped CFRP plates.
The
photogrammetric measurements allow the determination of the shear crack
width development with load and movements of the L-shaped CFRP plates
relative to the concrete layer.
Load Displacement Response
The load versus displacement response of each T-beam is illustrated and
compared in Figure 7. The load shown in the diagram corresponds to the
measured support loads at the span where failure occurred.
!z
400
300
200
L.
s 100
C
E
0
0
5
10
15
20
Midspan displacement (mm)
25
Figure 7. Load displacement behaviour of T-beams

Table 1. Comparison between experimental and predicted ultimate loads
Beam
Control
'0.750'
'0.600'
'0.SOD'
Shear capacity
247.1
381.0
398.3
446.2
V,,,cfijRu,con,rol
1.54
1.61
1.81
At the early stages of loading, the stiffness of all the beams was almost
similar to each other. The presence of the external shear reinforcement did
not affect significantly the initial stiffness of the strengthened beams
compared to the control beam at first loading. For the control beam, as the
load level increased further, shear cracks began to propagate and widen
causing significant deflection. For the strengthened beams, the CFRP
reinforcement impeded shear crack propagation and growth hence the stiffer
response. Table 1 summarises the shear capacities of the four T-beams.
Main Flexural Reinforcement Response
The main flexural reinforcement in the different T-beams exhibited almost
identical load strain responses, straining linearly with load until structural
failure as shown in Figure 8. The main reinforcement did not yield in any
of the beams indicating that flexural failure did not occur. The use of the
external shear reinforcement did not increase the flexural stiffness of the
beams but had increased the utilisation of the beams' flexural capacity.
Fo0
3300
:
200
m
0
2 100
0
0
500
1000 15pO
Strain ( ~ 1 0)-
2500
2000
Figure 8. Behaviour of main flexural reinforcement
Internal Shear Reinforcement Response
The internal shear reinforcement responses are compared in Figure 9. At

low shear load level, there was very little difference in the responses
between the T-beams. In all of the beams, the stirrups were carrying very
small loads. In all the beams, shear cracks formed at approximately the
same shear load level. The presence of the external CFRP reinforcement
had an insignificant influence on the initial formation of shear cracks. As
the cracks started to widen sufficiently, the external CFRP reinforcement
contributed to carrying part of the total shear load. There is a general trend
that the smaller the spacing of the external reinforcement, the lesser the
strain hence load carried by the stirrups at a given shear load. The stirrups
with gauges S 1 and S2 at the failure spans yielded before the beams reached
its respectively peak shear loads whereas the stirrups with gauges S3 and S4
did not yield when failure occurred.
-400
3 300
0
200
eI
2 100
0
'
1000
' ' I
1718 I
2000
3000
Strain (x10-'j
n
' ' I
'
'
4000
Figure 9. Behaviour of stirrup at location S1, S2
CFRP L-shaped Reinforcement Response

The load strain responses for C 1, C4, C7 and C9 at the failure span of Beam
0.75D are illustrated in Figure 10. It can be observed that the behaviour of
the CFRP reinforcement was very similar to the internal shear
reinforcement. At low shear load levels, the CFRP reinforcement showed
small strain readings. The CFRP adhesive system has relatively low
stiffness and therefore would sustain load only when shear cracks had
formed and widened to a particular width. The shear load level at which the
reinforcement began to carry larger load was similar for all the strengthened
beams, which was approximately 1 5 0 k ~ .The CFRP reinforcement where
strain gauge C9 was bonded carried very little shear load as it was outside
of the shear span. The general trends in the behaviour of the CFRP
reinforcement in the Beams 0.60D and 0.50D were similar.
400
300
d
5m 200
2 100
Lo
-1500
1500
4500
Strain (x1O6)
7500
Figure 10. Behaviour of CFRP of Beam 0.75D
Failure mechanism
The control beam failed due to formation of two large diagonal shear cracks
at the west span (see Figure 11). For beams 0.75D and 0.60D, the abrupt
ripping of the concrete portion at the CFRP bend zone caused failure. For
beam 0.50D, shear cracks extended to the web-flange junction and
propagated into the flange. This caused concrete around the flange
anchorage zone of the CFRP reinforcement to pull out from the flange
resulting in a sudden transfer of shear force to neighbouring CFRP
reinforcement. The reinforcement then failed at the bend zone in a similar
manner to beams 0.75D and 0.60D. Prior to failure, photogrammetry
measurements indicated that significant portions of the CFRP reinforcement
had debonded from the concrete on the web. The control beam failed in a
ductile and gradual manner whereas the strengthened beams failed in an
abrupt manner with a significant drop in load level almost immediately after
reaching the peak load. Failure occurred in the west span of all the beams
except for Beam '0.50D.
Figure 11. Shear failure in beams
Beam Deformation
The displacements of the targets hence beam deformations at the failure
span are illustrated in Figure 12. Each line shows the displacement of the
targets from zero loading to the load level of the photogrammetry survey
taken prior to failure. The lengths of the lines simply indicate the relative
magnitude of the displacements. The illustrations show the displacements
of the targets on the beams with respect to the targets on the concrete
overhang at the support, which are held stationary. All targets on the
concrete overhang were held fixed as they displaced almost like a rigid
block. Unlike the shear span, the concrete overhang at the support was a
non-critical section.
In the Control Beam, the paths of the shear cracks in the web are clearly
identified by the sudden change in length of the lines. At the midspan, the
targets displace mainly in the vertical direction. At the shear span, targets
on the lower side of the shear cracks displaced fairly vertically with respect
to the targets on the concrete overhang. Significant portions of the targets
on the web and flange in the shear span on the upper side of the shear crack
can be observed to have remained stationary with the concrete overhang. In
the web, it can be observed clearly that the shear deformation mechanism
were simply the separation of two rigid blocks of concrete at the location of
the shear crack.
Control
'0.75D'
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. I. I. I.I .I I 1I I1 I1 I 1I 1I 1I II I1 I1 11 11 1I I1 I 1I 1I I1I 1I
.............
..................... I , I I I IIIIIIII
'0.60D '
. . .. ..
1
I
Displacement of targets on beam

I
1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 I1 ,, ,, , .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .
Ill
l l ~ l ' " " " " " " " " " " " " " " ".
ll I l I l l l l l l I o . . . . . . . .
. . . .. .. ... .. .. . . . . .
............ .
'0.50D'
n
Figure 12. Deformation of T-beams
Although the load levels at which the photogrammetry survey taken

were higher compared to the load level in the control beam, the location of
the shear cracks for the strengthened beams were not as apparent as the
control beam. This shows that the external CFRP reinforcement have
reduced the shear crack width. The general deformation mechanisms of the
strengthened beams do not differ significantly from the control beam.
Similar to the control beam, the concrete overhang and a portion of the web
and flange in the shear span remained quite stationary. Near the lower side
of the shear crack closest to the support, targets on both the concrete and
CFRP plates at the shear span displaced almost vertically with respect to the
concrete overhang. The rigid blocks displaced almost vertically with
respect to each other at the location of the shear crack. This implies that the
CFRP plates were loaded mainly along the longitudinal direction.
CONCLUSIONS
In the study, a maximum increase in shear capacity of 81% was achieved in
one of the T-beams strengthened with the external CFRP reinforcement. All
of the beams had failed in shear. The presence of the CFRP external
reinforcement did not delay the initial formation of shear cracks but
impeded its propagation and growth. The deformation mechanisms in the
strengthened beams were similar to the beam that has not been strengthened.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Australian Research Council,
DEETYA, Sika Australia Pty. Ltd. and Sika AG, Switzerland for providing
partial funding and the materials required for this research.
REFERENCES
1. EMPA, Testing of CFRP Shear Strips on Reinforced Concrete TBeams TI and T2, Report No. 169219E/l, Swiss Federal Laboratories
for Materials Testing and Research, 1998,39 pp.
2. EMPA, Testing of CFRP Shear Strips on Flexural Beam T3, Report
No. 169219E/2, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and
Research, 1998, 17 pp.

EFFECT OF BEAI S ZE 0 I [TERFACIA SHEAR

STRESSES AND FAILURE MODE OF FRP-BONDED BEAMS
K. S. LEONG AND M. MAALEJ
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore
1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore I I 7576
This paper presents the essentials of a research program, both experimental

and numerical, designed to study the interfacial shear stress concentration
at FRP cut-off points and the failure modes of RC beams strengthened in
flexural with externally-bonded carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP)
sheets. The test variables include the RC beam size and the CFRP
thickness. The objectives are to investigate the effects of reduced scaling
and the influence of the FRP thickness on the interfacial shear stresses and
the failure modes of the FRP-strengthened beams as well as to confirm the
validity of proposed analytical models for the prediction of interfacial shear
stresses. The experimental works involve flexural testing of 17 FRPstrengthened beams under third-point loading. Three different effective
beam depths and two CFRP thicknesses are considered.
INTRODUCTION
Epoxy-bonding of fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) has emerged as a new

structural strengthening technology in response to the increasing need for
repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures. Because of its
excellent strength- and stiffness-to-weight properties, corrosion resistance,
and the benefit of minimal labor and downtime, FRP has become a very
attractive construction material and has been shown to be quite promising
for the strengthening of concrete structures. Although epoxy bonding of
FRP has many advantages, most of the failure modes of FRP-strengthened
beams occur in a brittle manner with little or no indication given of failure.
The most commonly reported failure modes include ripping of the concrete
cover and interfacial debonding. These failure modes occur mainly due to
interfacial shear and normal stresses concentrations at FRP-cut off points
and at flexural cracks along the beam. Although there are various analytical
solutions proposed to evaluate the state of stress at and near the FRP cutoff
points as well as the maximum CFRP tensile stress for intermediate crackinduced debonding, there is a lack of definite laboratory tests and numerical
analyses supporting the validity of the proposed models. The main
objective of this study is, therefore, to investigate the interfacial shear stress
concentration at the CFRP cut-off regions as well as the failure mode of
CFRP-strengthened beams as a function of beam size and FRP thickness
and compare the test results with theoretical and numerical predictions.
Because most structures tested in the laboratory are often scaled-down
versions of actual structures (for practical handling), it would be interesting
to know whether the results obtained in the laboratory are influenced by the
difference in scale.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Seventeen simply-supported, under-reinforced, normal strength concrete
beams were tested in flexure under third-point loading. The variables were
the size of beam and the FRP thickness. For each variable, two specimens
were cast. The beams were geometrically scaled in all aspect except for
aggregate size and stirrups spacing. The stirrups were placed in order to
avoid shear failure.
Specimen Reinforcing Details
Three sizes of beams (breadth x depth x length = 115x146x1500mm,
23Ox292x3000mm and 368~467~4800mm)
were considered in this study.
The beams were designated as Series A, B and C and had size ratios of
1:2:3.2. For the size-effect investigation, two groups of beams were
considered. The first group consisted of Beams A3-A4; B3-B4 and C3-C4
and had a CFRP reinforcement ratio (pp=AJAc) equal to 0.106% of the
gross concrete cross-sectional area (i.e. A, = 107.8xO.l65mm,
2 15.6x0.330mm and 368x0.495mm, respectively). The second group
consisted of Beams A5-A6; B5-B6 and C5 and had a CFRP reinforcement
ratio equal to 0.212% of the gross concrete cross sectional area. Beams in
each group were geometrically similar beams but of different sizes. Results
for Beam C5, which required six layers of CFRP are not presented in this
paper as these were not available yet at the time of the writing. Further
details on the specimens are provided in Table 1 and Figure 1.
The CFRP cut-off points for Series A, B and C were 25, 50 and 80 mm,
respectively. Ready-mix concrete with 9mm maximum coarse aggregate
size was used to fabricate all the specimens. A clear concrete cover of 15,
30 and 51.2 mm was used for specimens in Series A, B and C, respectively.
The concrete fracture energy and the tensile splitting strength at test-day for
both Series A and B were 133 N/m and 3.41 MPa, respectively, while those
Effect of Beam Size on Inter$acial Shear Stresses 259
for Series C were 128 N/m and 3.24 MPa, respectively. A summary of
other related material properties is given in Table 2.
Series
Beam
Table 1. Description of specimens

Dimension
Internal reinforcements
fmm)
Tensile Comp. Shear
D
A
A I , A2
A3, A4
A5, A6
BI, B2
B3, B4
B5, B6
CI, C2
C3, C4
c5
120
120
120
240
240
240
384
384
384
1500
1500
1500
3000
3000
3000
4800
4800
4800
A,/bd
A,/bd
(%)
(%)
(%)
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.71
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
1.14
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
0.82
2T20
R12-120
A./b.s
Exfernal
reinforcements
(CFRp sheet)
Sheet
No. of
layers
(mm)
0
1
2
0
2
4
0
3
6
$1D'/:ly
133
3T32
3T20
SERIES B
SERIES A
0
0.165
0.330
0
0.330
0.660
0
0.495
0.990
SERIES C
Figure 1. Section details ofbeams
Property/Materials
Yield stress (MPa)
Yieldstrain (%)
Ultimate stress
Table 2. Material DroDerties

Series A
Series B
Series C
R6 TI0 Conc. R12 T20 Conc. R16 T32 Conc.
348
0.17
460
547
324 544
324
0.35
- 0.17 0.35 - 0.20
584 39.8" 488 644 39.ga 492
@fp4
42.8b
42.8b
Modulus (GPa)
237 180 27
199 183 27
188
28-Day cylinder strength Test-Day cylinder strength
552
0.45
650 41.0~
181
42Ab
25
The CFRP composite consisted of 0.165 mm thick carbon sheets

bonded to the tensile face of each beam using a two part-epoxy resin. The
tensile strength, modulus and maximum elongation of the CFRP reported by
the manufacturer were 3550 MPa and 235 GPa and 1.5%, respectively. The
details of CFRP properties are shown in Table 3.
Table 3. CFRP properties provided by manufacturer
Property E , ('Pa)
Value
3034
G , ('Pa)
1084
t , (mm) E , (GPa) f,,,(MPa)

0.636
235
3550
E,,,
(mm/mm)
0.015
Instrumentation
Four and Five strain gauges were installed on the transverse and
longitudinal reinforcements, respectively, and one strain gauge was
installed on the top middle of the concrete specimen. To measure the
interfacial shear stress distribution following the method proposed by
Maalej and Bian', the CFRP sheets were instrumented with 27, 29 and 31
electrical strain gauges distributed along the length of the sheet for Series
A, B and C, respectively.
Test Procedure
The beams were tested in third-point bending using an MTS universal
testing machine with a maximum capacity of 1000-kN for Series A and
2000-kN for both Series B and C. The beams were simply-supported on a
pivot bearing on one side and a roller bearing on the other. A total of four
LVDTs (Series A) and three LVDTs (Series B and C ) were used to measure
the displacements of the beams at the supporting points, the loading points
and at midspan during testing.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Load-deflection curves for all specimens are plotted and summarized in
Table 4 and Figure 2. It can be seen that all CFRP-strengthened beams
performed significantly better than the control beams with respect to loadcarrying capacity. However, the observed strength increases were
associated with reductions in the deflection capacity of the respective
beams. The CFRP-strengthened beams failed prematurely with no concrete
crushing occurring at ultimate load and only one type of failure modeintermediate crack-induced interfacial debonding-was observed.
Effect of Beam Size on InterJacial Shear Stresses 261

Table 4. Summary of test results
series
A1 (ctrl)
A2 (ctrl)
A3
A4
A5
A6
BI (ctrl)
B2 (ctrl)
B3
B4
B5
B6
CI (ctr()
C2 (ctrl)
c3
c4
CC
Beam Load atfailure
Deflection atfailure
Pf,,, (kq % of ctrl. Af,,, (mm) %of ctrl.

60.4
38.6
60.7
46.4
77.5
128
22.0
52
75.5
125
21.8
51
87.4
144
21.0
49
85.8
142
20.9
49
203.9
59.5
200.3
50.6
263.5
130
35.0
64
260.3
129
34.9
63
294.7
146
32.2
59
284.3
141
30.4
55
520.0
76.2
519.1
74.3
652.9
126
52.4
70
669.3
129
56.4
74
concrete crushing; I U D
A,,, / L
(%)
' p
2.57
3.09
1.47
1.45
1.40
1.39
1.98
1.69
1.17
1.16
1.07
1.01
1.59
1.55
1.09
1.17
f~r,
9910
8213
6745
6273
7463
7995
5761
4691
5824
7731
Failure
mode
CC
CC
ICID
ICID
ICID
ICID
CC
CC
ICID
ICID
ICID
ICID
CC
CC
ICID
ICID
Intermediate crack induced interfacial debonding
Effects of Strengthening
Figure 2 shows the load-deflection curves for beam Series A, B and C . The
average strengthened capacity for beams strengthened with 0.106% CFRP
(Group 1) was 27.0%, 29.0% and 27.5% higher than the control for Series
A, B and C, respectively. For beams strengthened with 0.212% CFRP
(Group 2) the average strengthened capacity was 43.0% and 43.5% higher
than the control for Series A and B, respectively.
Figure 2 also shows that beams with higher CFRP reinforcement ratio
have lower deflection capacities but higher stiffnesses based on the
measured load-deflection curves. The average midspan deflection capacity'
for Group 1 beams (pp = 0.106%) was 51.5%, 63.5% and 72% lower than
the control for Series A, B and C, respectively. For Group 2 beams (pp =
0.212%) the average midspan deflection capacity was 49%, and 57.0%
lower than the control for Series A and B, respectively. It can also be seen
that up to a load of approximately 60kN, 200kN and 400kN for Series A, B,
and C , respectively, a linear load-deflection response is exhibited by all the
beams. As the strengthened beams approached yielding, the strain in the
CFRP sheets was still larger than that in the reinforcing bars, suggesting
satisfactory bond transfer between the CFRP sheets and the beams.
The results shown in Table 4 indicate that the strengthening ratios SR
(defined as the strength of beams with CFRP reinforcement divided by the
strength of control beams) for beams with same CFRP reinforcement ratios
pp but different sizes are similar, suggesting that the beam size does not
significantly influence the extent to which a RC beam can be strengthened
(provided that the beams are not shear-critical). However, the deflection
capacity, expressed as a fraction of total span length seems to be different
for the different Series of beams, with larger beams showing smaller
(relative) deflection capacity.
100
350
J
p-
80
A4 ,Al(ctrl)
y'A3
zi
'45
A6
300
5'
250
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
800
50
20
40
60
600
f...
200
20
40
60
80
Figure 2. Load-deflection curve for all Series of beams
On the other hand, if one looks at the deflection ductility index of the
CFRP-strengthened beams, defined as the deflection at failure divided by
the deflection at which the longitudinal bars yield2, there seems to be no
significant difference among the values for the different Series of beams.
The calculated ductility indices for beams A3-A4, B3-B4 and C3-C4 were
1.34, 1.35 and 1.30, respectively, and those for beams A5-A6 and B5-B6,
were 1.18 and 1.16, respectively as shown in Figure 3. The data suggest
Effect of Beam Size on Interfacial Shear Stresses 263
that geometry scaling the beams does not affect the deflection ductility of
the beams significantly.
1.2
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
g0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
00
00
05
15
10
00
05
10
15
s/s,
Figure 3. Normalized load-midspan displacement curve for Group 1 and 2
Failure Modes
All control beams failed in the conventional mode of steel yielding followed
by concrete crushing. The failure mode for all CFRP-strengthened beams
was intermediate crack-induced interfacial debonding. Upon debonding, a
very thin layer of concrete and aggregate generally remained attached to the
CFRP sheet. A comparison was made between the experimental results and
the analytical results using the model proposed by Smith and Teng3 for the
ultimate strain in the CFRP for intermediate crack-induced interfacial
debonding. An average value of 1.1 for a was used in the model and the
results are shown in Figure 4.
.z 14000
Exp. values
Avg. exp. values
\ -Predicted (Smith and Teng)
5e 12000 0
.-
t;
10000 8000-
.9 6000
.-C
4000-
Group 2
100
200
300
Beam depth (mm)
Estimated
point
400
500
Figure 4. Comparison of measured and predicted3 CFRP debonding strains
It can be seen that Smith and Teng's model predicted fairly well the CFRP
strain at failure with the experimental results being within 15% of the
predicted results. From Figure 4, it can be seen that when the beam size
increases, the CFRP failure strain decreases. Although the CFRP failure
strain decreased with increasing beam size, the strengthening ratio did not
seem to be affected. It seems that the reduced contribution of the CFRP (in
terms of the maximum CFRP tensile strain that was able to develop) to the
strength increase in large-size beams is offset by the reduced nominal load
capacity of the unstrengthened beam4 (see Figure 5), leading to almost
similar strengthening ratios among the different beams. To further illustrate
this, the nominal bending moment (M,) corresponding to the peak load
(plotted as a function of the beam depth) for the control specimens is shown
in Figure 5a. The bending moment is normalized to My, the lowest possible
bending (yielding) moment calculated according to My = f#,(0.9h), where
0.9h = effective beam depth. It can be seen that Series A generally have
higher nominal bending moment capacity compare to Series B and C. A
similar pattern can also be observed from the plot of nominal stress at
ultimate load (defined as o,=PJbd) versus beam depth shown in Figure 5b.
12
1.0
0.8
'
$0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Strength limit
My = f y A s (0 9 4
AI-A-
B1-B2
4.0
5'0
Cl-C2
J-
c)
-eCtrl.
specimen
(average)
200
00
Beam depth tmm)
600
Figure 5a. Nominal bending moment at

peak load as a hnction of beam depth
1.0
{
0
-3-
Ctrl. specimen
(average)
200
400
Beam depth (mm)
600
Figure 5b. Nominal bending stress at

peak load as a function of beam depth
Interfacial Shear Stresses

The interfacial shear stress distributions along the CFRP interface at the
CFRP curtailment region were computed according to the procedure
proposed by Maalej and Bian'. The results show that the interfacial shear
stresses vary significantly along the CFRP sheet in the curtailment region
with the peak stress occurring at the FRP cut-off point. However, the
interfacial shear stresses for all beams are generally low enough not to
Effect of Beam Size on Integacial Shear Stresses 265
cause failure by end-plate debonding or ripping of the concrete cover, The

results also indicate that the interfacial shear stresses increase with
increasing load, and the peak shear stress values at ultimate load for both
beam Groups 1 and 2 (pp = 0.106% and 0.212%, respectively) increase with
increasing size of the beam. For Group 1 (pp = 0.106%) the peak
interfacial shear stresses were 0.81, 0.88 and 1.32 MPa for Series A, B and
C, respectively. For Group 2 (pp = 0.212%), the peak interfacial shear
stresses were 1.37 and 1.53 MPa for Series A and B, respectively.
To further support the experimental results, nonlinear finite element
modeling was carried out. The finite element software package DIANA
(Version 8) was used to analyze the CFRP-strengthened beams because of
its ability to model the nonlinear behaviour of both steel and concrete,
including cracking. Only half of the beam was analyzed with appropriate
constraints at the centerline. In this study, two-dimensional four-node
plane-stress elements were used and line-interface elements were used to
model the interfacial layer between the adhesive and the concrete
To evaluate the effect of beam size may have on the peak interfacial
shear stresses, the above FE beam model as well as the analytical model
proposed by Smith and Teng were used to compute the interfacial shear
stress distributions. The peak shear stresses were plotted in Figure 6 along
with the experimentally-obtained values. It can be seen from this figure that
for both Group 1 and 2 the peak interfacial shear stresses seem to increase
with increasing beam size as well as with increasing CFRP reinforcement
ratio. The peak shear stresses predicted by Smith and Tengs model seem to
be in good agreement with the both the experimental results and results
obtained from finite element modeling.
2.4 -
2.4
3
a 2.0
z2.0
81.6
z1.6
D
2 1.2
0.8
E 1.2
0.8
-5
................ ................ ...........

,
;
5 0.4
Group 1,&=0.106%
0.0
100
200
300
400
bw(m
0.4
0.0
500
Group 2,4=0.212%
...........
/
/
t
Num,
---c-.
+
-
++
Smith,Tenz
EXp.(nominal)
100
200
300
400
Beam depth (mm)
Figure 6. Variation of peak interfacial shear stress for different

percentages of CFRP composite area.
500
CONCLUSIONS
Tests in this study showed that increasing the size of the beam leads to
increased interfacial shear stress concentration in CFRP-strengthened beams
as well as reduced CFRP failure strain. The work has also led to the
following conclusions:
(a) The beam size does not significantly influence the strengthening ratio,
nor does it significantly affect the deflection ductility of CFRPstrengthened beams.
(b) The models proposed by Smith and Teng3,5to predict intermediate
crack-induced debonding and interfacial shear stresses at FRP cut-off
points were found to agree fairly well with observed test data.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the assistance of Mr. Michael Chen,
a third year MIT student, with the laboratory work during his three-month
attachment with National University of Singapore. Part of this research was
supported by a research grant (R-264-000- 105-1 12) from the National
University of Singapore.
REFERENCES
1. Maalej, M. and Bian Y., Interfacial Shear Stress Concentration in FRPStrengthened Beams, Composite Structures, 54,2002, pp. 4 17-426.
2. Bencardino, F., Spadea G. and Swamy, R.N., Strength and Ductility of
Reinforced Concrete Beams Externally Reinforced with Carbon Fiber
Fabric, ACI Structural Journal, 99(2), 2002, pp. 163-169.
3. Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T. and Lam, L., FRP-strengthened RC
structures, John Wiley & Sons, LTD, England, 245 pp.
4. Ozbolt J. and Bruckner M., Minimum Reinforcement Requirement for
RC Beams, in Minimum Reinforcement in Concrete Members, Ed., A.
Carpinteri, ESIS Publication 24, Elsevier, Oxford 1999, pp. 181-201.
5. Smith, S.T. and Teng, J.G., Interfacial Stresses in Plated Beams,
Engineering Structures, 23,200 1, pp. 857-871.

DEBONDING FAILURE OF RC STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

STRENGTHENED WITH FRP LAMINATES
G. CAMATA , E. SPACONE AND V. SAOUMA
Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering,
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428, USA
Previous researches have shown that the failure mechanism of traditional
RC members changes when strengthened with Externally Bonded FRP
(EB-FFW) reinforcement. Although the failure mechanisms of the poststrengthened system have been extensively studied, brittle failure modes
such as mid span debonding and end peel off need to be further
investigated.
The influence of various parameters on the failure
mechanisms, such as adhesive behavior, concrete cracking, slip between
FRP plate and concrete, geometry of the RC beams, imperfection of bond
between adhesive and concrete, are still not fully explained. In order to
consider the effects of material nonlinearity on the strengthened beam
response, this paper investigates the brittle failure modes using a Finite
Element Program based on Non Linear Fracture Mechanics. The model
accounts for localized and distributed damage and is capable of describing
the geometrical discontinuities that cause the brittle failure mechanisms.
The numerical results compare well with available experimental data. A
parametric study is presented to elucidate the influence of the shearkpan
ratio on the failure mechanisms.
INTRODUCTION
Advanced composites materials, initially developed by the military and
aerospace industries and more recently introduced in the repair and
construction of the civil infrastructure, offer unique mechanical and
chemical characteristics in terms of stiffness, strength-to-weight ratio and
durability when compared to conventional structural materials, with great
potential for a wide variety of applications to aging structures. The
necessity to increase the load carrying capacity of existing structures, the
need to repair older, deteriorated constructions, and the need to reduce the
maintenance costs of new structures encourage engineers to consider Fiber
Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) as alternative construction materials.
A number of researchers reported that the failure mode of an FRPstrengthened RC beam changes due to Externally Bonded Fiber Reinforced
Polymers (EB-FRP) reinforcement. This change depends on several
mechanical and geometric parameters. A simply supported beam can

exhibit various possible failure mechanisms, which can be classified into
two types:
Type 1failures (which occur after large deformations):
1. FRP tensile rupture after yielding of the tensile steel reinforcement
when the FRP strain exceeds its maximum value.
2. Shear failure at the plate end with full composite action. For beams
strengthened with very short plates, steel yielding can progress to a
point along the beam where there is no FRP and a crack has formed
in the concrete, effectively forming a plastic hinge at the plate ends.
(Seim et al. 2001).
3. Concrete crushing when the concrete compressive strain exceeds its
ultimate value and the reinforcing steel has yielded.
Type 2 failures (less ductile):
4. Concrete crushing when the concrete compressive strain exceeds its
ultimate value, while the reinforcing steel has not yet yielded.
5. Shear failure. The shear demand exceeds the shear capacity (Seim
et a1 200 1).
6. End peeling. A crack initiates in the vicinity of one of the plate
ends and propagates horizontally at the level of the reinforcing
steel.
7. Mid span debonding. Plate debonding in the concrete cover
initiated by the development of a flexural crack in the maximum
bending moment region.
Various researchers are currently trying to explain the premature

debonding (failure modes 6 and 7) of FRP plates in flexural strengthening
(among others, Spacone and Limkatanyu, 2000, Malek et al. 1998). ACI
(2000) suggests design details and procedures to avoid sudden failure due to
debonding of the strengthening plate while fib (2001) describes the
debonding and failure modes due to the loss of composite action and offers
some useful guidance for proper detailing. There are however no guidelines
available for a simple and rational design of end anchorages. Moreover, the
influence on the failure mechanisms of various parameters such as adhesive
behavior, concrete cracking, slip between FRP plate and concrete, geometry
of the RC beams, imperfection of bond between adhesive and concrete,
needs further investigation. Because the debonding failures always start
around cracks, a localized damage approach is used in this study, which
Debonding Failure of RC Structural Members 269
uses nonlinear fracture mechanics, combining a smeared and a discrete

crack approach. This paper presents the results of a Finite Element (FE)
study on different fracture and mechanical parameters that affect the failure
modes involving loss of composite actions and focuses on two tests
performed by Zarnic et al. (1999). The two flexural specimens were
designed to represent a beam and a slab and they were tested in four points
bending. The dimensions of the elements is presented in Table 1.
Type
Deptht
(h)
Beam
Slab
300
120
mm
Table 1. Dimensions of the specimens

Width (b) Length
Reinforcement Ratio
mm
(L)
(c))
mm
AJbd
200
3250
0.56%
800
3250
0.40%
The specimens were cast using a 25 MPa compressive strength

concrete. The reinforcing steel has a yield strength of 400 MPa. The
specimens were strengthened with Carbon FRP (CFRP) pultruded plates.
The plates were 1.2 mm thick and 50 mm wide. The epoxy resin used to
glue the plates to the RC members was 2 mm thick. The beam was
strengthened with one plate and the slab with two plates. One beam and one
slab were not strengthened to serve as reference specimen. The Youngs
Modulus of the unidirectional composite is ECFRP=150
GPa, and the tensile
strength is 2400 MPa. The failure mechanisms reported by the authors were
mid-span debonding for both tests.
ANALYSES
Description of the models
The analyses were carried out using Merlin (MERLIN Users Manual,
2001), a FEA program developed at the University of Colorado, Boulder. A
combination of smeared and discrete crack approach was used.
The smeared crack model implemented in the program (Cervenka,
1994) couples the Rankine smeared crack model in tension with the three invariant plasticity model of Menetrey and Willam (1995) in compression.
In compression, the model uses nonlinear hardening up to the peak strength
and linear softening in the post-peak regime.
The discrete crack model used is a generalization of the classical
Hillerborg et al. (1976) Fictious Crack Model, modified to account for the
shear effects along both the fracture process zone and the true crack. In this
model the crack is decomposed into a true crack and a Fracture Process
Zone (FPZ) along which cohesive stresses are present but a strain
discontinuity exists. The interface strength is described by the following
failure function (Cervenka, 1994):
F = (r: + ~ f
- 2cTan(bf)(o,
)
- o)- Tan2( 4 f ) ( 0 2- 0 ; ) = 0
(1)
where: c is the cohesion, @is the angle of friction, a, is the interface tensile
strength. zj and z2 are the two tangential components of the interface
traction vector and o i s the normal traction component.
Figure 1 . Bi-linear softening law
Bilinear softening laws describe the cohesive stresses in the FPZ. The
critical opening and sliding corresponding to zero cohesion and tensile
strength are denoted by w, and wc, respectively, and they are determined
from the condition that the area under the linear or bilinear softening law
must be equal to mode I fracture energy GIF and mode I1 fracture energy
GilaF as shown in Figure 1. GilaF is not the pure mode I1 fracture energy, but
is the energy dissipated during a shear test with high confining normal
stress. Bruhwiler and Wittman (1990) used experimental data to determine
the shape of the softening diagram for structural concrete and found that the
optimal values for concrete with 25 mm maximum size aggregate are: c10
=
0.4 oto,w = 0.8 GIF / otO,clc = 0.4 c, wlc = 0.8 GIIaF/ c. The stiffness
degradation is modeled through a damage parameter, which is a relative
measure of the fractured surface.
ANALYSES
The investigations are performed through a two-dimensional analysis and
using plane stress elements. The specimen is discretized using 3-node
elements for the concrete continuum, the FRP and the resin; line-to-line 4-
node interface element for the interface elements and 2-node truss elements
for the steel reinforcement. Concrete is modeled using non linear fracture
mechanics. FRP and epoxy glue are characterized by a linear elastic model
and for steel J2 Plasticity is used. The material parameters used in the
anlyses were those given by Zarnic et al. (1999) or were induced from the
experimental Load-Displacement curves. Other non-specified paramenters
were computed based on ACI 318-95 and CEN (1995). The shape of the
softening curve of the discrete crack intererface is defined following
BruhwiIer and Wittman (1990). The symmetry of the problem is exploited
by modeling only half of the beam. Figure 2 illustrates the boundary
conditions and crack configurations used to model the specimen. One
vertical crack is inserted under the load and one along the interface
concrete/epoxy glue.
Steel relnforcemcnr
Figure 2. Boundary conditions and cracks configuration (Beam A, Zamic et al. 1999)
The mesh is refined close to the plate end and under the load, which are
the points where the strains present large discontinuities.
Figure 3. Mesh discretization (Beam A, Zarnic et al. 1999)
The analyses are performed by increasing the displacement by 0.2 mm

increments at the top of the specimen after application of the specimen selfweight. The material parameters used in the FE analyses are presented in
Table 2.

Table 2. Material properties used for the analyses of Zarnic et al. (1999)
soecimens
Material Parameter
Values
Concrete [Smeared Crack Model]
Modulus of elasticity E
Poisson's ratio v
Tensile Strength f
Specific mode I fracture energy GIF
Compressive strength f,
Compressive critical displacement wd
Return direction in Haig-Westergaard space p
Factor for shape of MCnetrey-Willam surface e
Onset of nonlinearity in compression f,,,
Plastic strain at compressive strength E,,
30 Gpa (CEN 1995)

0.2
1.75 MPa (ACI 3 18-95)
70 N/m (load-displacement)
-25 MPa (Zarnic et al., 1999)
-0.005 m
0
0.55
-15 MPa
0.0008
Interface parameters
Shear Stifhess Kt
Normal Stifmess K,
Tensile Strength otO
Cohesion c
Friction Angle 4t
Dilatancy Angle
Specific mode 1 fracture energy GIF
Specific mode I1 fracture energy GilaF
Ratio of irreversible displacement y
Maximum dilatant displacement urn,
Stress at break point of bilinear softening law ol0
Crack opening at break point of bilinear softening law
1250 GPa/m (assumed)

1250 GPa/m (assumed)
1.75 MPa (ACI 3 18-95)
2.2 MPa (load-displacement)
53 degrees
45 degrees
0.3
0.01 m
0.700 MPa
0.000050 m
Wl.3
Cohesion at break point of bilinear softening law clc

Crack sliding at break point of bilinear softening law wlc
0.880 MPa
0.00040 m
EXPERIMENTAL PREDICTION
Beam
The numerical prediction follows very closely the experimental results as
shown in Figure 4. Three loading stages are highlighted in Figure 4. At
point c, the beam starts cracking. The FE model does not consider the slip
between the steel reinforcement and the concrete and this probably explains
why, after cracking, the experimental and numerical responses differ. This
is due to the slip. At pointy, the bottom reinforcing steel yields, leading to
a drop in the response stiffness. Finally, at point d the CFRP strip debonds
at mid span.

120
s 80
--
k
d
e
U
10
20
Midspan Deflection, A [mm]
30
Figure 4. Comparison of experimental and numerical results
Figure 5 shows the amplified deformed shape at failure (loading stage d

in Figure 4).
..........
.**
0.
Figure 5 . Mid span debonding failure mode (deformation amplification = 40)
Figure 5 also clearly shows that at failure the plate end is still glued to
the beam (Figure 5, Detail A). The plate debonds under the load (Figure 5,
Detail B) and traces accurately the experimental behavior reported by
Zarnic et al. (1999).
Slab
The failure analysis shows that, similarly to experimental results reported

by Zarnic et al. (1999), the slab fails because of mid span debonding. The
numerical load-displacement response closely traces the experimental
curve, as shown in Figure 6 .
.................
............
,.:
Figure 6. Deformed mesh, boundary conditions and details on the debonding failure
1
'
'
Strenshtened Slab
30
60
Midrpan Deflection, A [mm]
Figure 7. Comparison of experimental and numerical results
As for the strengthened RC beam, the difference between experimental

and numerical results in the load-displacement curve is probably due to slip
between the steel reinforcement and the concrete that the FE model does not
represent.
PARAMETRIC STUDIES
Using the geometric configuration and the material properties of the beam
discussed in the previous sections, a series of parametric studies are
performed to elucidate the influence of the plate length on the peak load and
on the failure mode.
To differentiate between different plate lengths, a normalized plate
length L, = LFR& is defined, where L is the beam span and L F R p is the plate
length, as shown in Figure 8.

120
:-: 80
g
40
9
0
0
10
20
Midopan Deflection, A[mml
30
Figure 8. Parametric study
Figure 8 reveals the influence of the plate length on the failure load.
The graph shows that decreasing the plate length decreases the load
carrying capacity of the strengthened beam. Figure 5 illustrates that the
original experiment by Zamic et al. (1999) in which L, = 0.93 (the plate
ends 100 mm from the support) failed because of mid span debonding.
With decreasing L,, the location of debonding changes from mid span to the
plate end. The value of L, = 0.83 (the plate ends 250 mm from the support)
correspond to the length at which the failure changes from mid span
debonding to end peeling. For L, = 0.79 (the plate ends 300 mm from the
support) the failure is plate end peeling. These results indicate that there
exists a certain anchorage length, beyond which an increase in plate length
does not lead to an increase in failure load.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
This study applies nonlinear fracture mechanics to the analysis of the failure
mechanisms of RC beams strengthened in flexure with externally bonded
FRPs. The analyses focus on the change from ductile to brittle failure
modes that occur because of the externally bonded FRPs. The influence of
various parameters on the failure mechanisms, are investigated. The
following conclusions can be drawn from the studies performed:
(a) the model applied accurately describes the failure modes analyzed
(shear failure at the end of the plate, plate end peeling and mid span
debonding).
(b) A series of parametric studies point out that there is a certain plate
length that marks the limit between debonding under the point load and
plate-end peeling. For the geometric configuration and material
properties considered in these studies, very small difference in load

capacity is noted in beams that fail by plate-end peeling, indicating the
existence of a plate effective bond length, beyond which any increase in
the plate length does not increase the beam strength.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
American Concrete Institute ACI 3 18-95. (1996). Building Code Requirement

for Structural Concrete (ACI 3 18-95) and Commentary (ACI 3 18R-95)
American Concrete Institute, Third printing, October.
American Concrete Institute ACI 440. (2000). Guide for The Design and
Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems For Strengthening Concrete
Structures. American Concrete Institute, July.
Bruhwiler, E. and Wittmann, F. (1990). Failure of Dam Concrete Subjected to
Seismic Loading Conditions Engineering Fracture Mechanics.
CEN, (1995). Eurocode 2, Design of concrete structures, CEN/TC 250, ENV
1992-1-1, Bruxelles.
Cervenka, J. (1994). Discrete Crack Modeling in Concrete Structures PhD
thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder.
fib (2001). Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC Structures ,
Bulletin n. 14, fkdkration interantionale du bkton.
Hillerborg, A., ModCer, M., Peterson, P.E. (1976). Analysis of crack
formation and crack growth in concrete by means of fracture mechanics and
finite element. Cem. Conc. Res., 6(6), 773-782.
Malek, M., Saadatmanesh H. and Ehsani, M R. (1998). Prediction of Failure
Load of R/C Beams Strengthened with FRP Plate Due to Stress Concentration
at the Plate End ACI Structural Journal, March-April, 95(1), 142-151.
MenCtrey, P. and Willam, K. (1995). Triaxial failure criterion for concrete and
its generalization. ACI Structural Journal, 92(3), 3 11-318.
MERLIN Users Manual (2001), February 13, Prepared by: Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428,
htt~://civil.colorado.edu/-saoumdmerlin
11. Seim, W., Hormann, M., Karbhari, V, and Seible, F. (2001). External FRP
Poststrengthening of Scaled Concrete Slabs. ASCE Journal of Composites f o r
Construction, 5(2), 67-75.
12. Spacone, E. and Limkatanyu, S. (2000). Response of Reinforced Concrete
Members Including Bond Slip Effect. ACI Structural Journal, 97(6),
November-December, 83 1-839.
13. Zarnic, R., Gostic, S., Bosiljkov, V., Bokan Bosiljkov, V. (1999).
Improvement of Bending Load-Bearing Capacity by Externally Bonded
Plates. Proc. Creating with Concrete, R.K. Dhir and N.A. Henderson, eds.,
Thomas Telford, London, 433-442.

EFFECT OF END WRAPPING ON PEELING BEHAVIOR OF

FRP-STRENGTHENED BEAMS
P. PORNPONGSAROJ AND A. PIMANMAS
Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology
Thammasat University, Pathumthani 12121, Thailand
Reinforced concrete beams strengthened with externally bonded fiberreinforced polymer (FRP) are reported to have larger ultimate capacity
compared with the original beam. However, peeling of FRP from the beam
may occur before the beam can achieve its ultimate enhanced capacity.
Thus, the efficiency of F W can be greatly reduced due to this premature
failure. This paper reports an experimental program conducted to examine
the effect of end wrapping on peeling character of FRP-strengthened
beams. In the experiment, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) was
applied to strengthen reinforced concrete beam and carbon fiber reinforced
sheet was used as end wrapping material to provide restraint conditions.
Three different wrapping schemes, namely, U-, L-and X-wrappings were
examined. Without wrapping, the FRP strengthened beams showed little
strength improvement over the unstrengthened beam but the original
ductility was eliminated. For U-wrapped strengthened beam, end peeling
could be prevented but shear-flexural peeling took place instead. For Land X-wrapped beams, no sign of detrimental peeling was observed and the
beam failed in flexural concrete crushing mode.
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening of existing reinforced concrete members using fiberreinforced composites has been shown to significantly increase the loading
capacity of the member. However, the full flexural capacity of a
strengthened member is not always achieved due to the premature peeling
(separation) of FRP from the concrete member. Arduini and Nanni4
described two common types of peeling failure, that is, end peeling and
shear-flexural peeling as shown in Figure 1. The end peeling results from
the combination of shear and normal tensile stress localized in the vicinity
of the plate end. When the principal tensile stress reaches the tensile
strength of concrete, a crack initiates and propagates horizontally at the
level of tension steel, ripping off the concrete cover. The shear-flexural
peeling initiates at the base of flexural or shear-flexural crack, and

propagates towards the support.
Shear- Flexural Crack
Ripped-off Concrete
c-Direction of Peeling Propagation

Direction of Peeling Propagation
(b) Shear-flexural peeling
(a) End peeling
Figure 1. Two common types of peeling failure
Most of the previous researches concerning the peeling failure have

primarily focused on end peeling f a i l ~ r e ' , The
~ . research on shear-flexural
peeling has been relatively few6. In order to guarantee the safety of FRP
strengthening, peeling failure should be correctly predicted, otherwise
prevented so that concrete crushing or FRP rupture would occur instead. In
the past, some mechanical anchoring methods using bolts'x6have been used
but the result was not very successful. On the other hand, some researchers
reported the successful prevention of end peeling by providing U-wrapping
around the plate end. In this paper, the authors examined the effect of end
wrapping on peeling behavior of FRP-strengthened beams. Three types of
wrappings were considered: U-, L- and X-wrappings.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
Cross Section and Reinforcing Detail of Control Beam

The dimension of the beam cross section and reinforcement detailing are
shown in Figure 2. The longitudinal tension bar consisted of 2DB16 (16mm diameter deformed bar) and 2DB12 (12-mm diameter deformed bar).
The longitudinal compression bar consisted of 4DB 16. The transverse
stirrups consisted of RJ36 (6-mm diameter plain bar) spaced at 50 mm center
to center. The clear concrete covering was 30 mm. The beam was designed
to be under-reinforced in flexure. A large amount of stirrups was provided
to prevent premature shear failure.
Effect of End Wrapping on Peeling Behaviour 279
Figure 2. Cross section and reinforcement detailing of the beam specimen
Material Properties
The average tested compressive strength of concrete at 28 days was 44
MPa. The tested yield strength of RB6, DB12 and DB16 were 398.8, 479.7
and 553.8 MPa, respectively. The tested tensile strength of RB6, DB12 and
DB16 were 512.3, 639.9 and 630.7 MPa, respectively. The FRP used in the
experiment was carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP). The thickness of
the plate and sheet was 1.2 and 0.1 1 1 mm, respectively. The width of the
plate was 100 mm. The nominal tensile strength of the plate and sheet was
2200 and 3482 MPa, respectively. The nominal tensile modulus of the plate
and sheet was 150000 and 230535 MPa, respectively.
Figure 3. Loading method
Test Series: Loading Method and Wrapping Schemes
A total of eight beams were cast. The beams were divided into two series,
namely series A and B, according to the loading method. Each series
consisted of four beams. In series-A, the beams were tested under threepoint bending (Figure 3(a)) with shear span-to-effective depth ratio (dd) of
6.28. In series-R, the beams were tested under four-point bending (Figure
3(b)) with shear span-to-effective depth ratio (dd) of 4.40.
Figure 4 shows details of all tested beams together with specimen

designation. The three- dimensional view of the U-, L- and X-wrappings is
shown in Figure 5.
LA
se
Note ( I ) A Series-A, B Series-B, P FRPplate only, U FRPplate + U-wrapping

L FRP plate + L-wrapping, X FRP plate + X-wrapping
(2) Number indicates the distance (mm)from center ofsupport to the end of FRP plate
Figure 4. Detail of each tested beam
Bottom View
Top View
U-wrap
X-wrap
Figure 5. Three dimensional view of U-, L- and X-wrappings
EfSect of End Wrapping on Peeling Behaviour 281
The U-wrapping was assumed to provide the vertical restraint against

peeling while L- and X-wrappings were assumed to provide both vertical
and horizontal restraints since they were capable of counteracting both
tensile and shear stresses at the plate end (see Figure 6). The FRP sheet was
used as wrapping material since it is sufficiently flexible to be wrapped
around the corner of the members.
The unbonded length measured from the center of support to the plate
end was 200 mm for beams A, A-200-P and all beams in series-B and 420
mm for beams A-420-P and A-420-U. The ratio of unbonded length over
half-span length was 0.2 and 0.42, respectively while the common range of
this ratio was 0.013-0.155.This relatively high ratio was selected in order to
create a very severe stress concentration around the plate end.
All beams were tested to failure. For beams in series-B, a transferred
steel girder was used to transfer the applied load to the two designated
points on the beam. The load was measured with a load cell. Displacements
were measured at mid-span and supports with LVDTs. The initiation and
propagation of cracks were observed and marked with a waterproof pen.
Capacities of Control Beam
Based on the material properties and dimension of the beam specimen, the
flexural capacity was calculated using sectional analysis. The concrete shear
capacity was calculated by the Modified Okamura-Higai equation'. The
stirrup shear capacity was calculated using equilibrium equation assuming
yielding in all transverse stirrups cut by an inclined crack. Table 1
summarizes the shear and flexural capacities of the control beam.
Force in fiber
.)
Normal and shear stress transferred

from FRP to concrete
'
Figure 6. Resistance to normal and shear stresses by L- and X-wrappings
Table 2 summarizes the loading capacity, moment capacity at failure,

percentage of load increase compared with the control beam and failure
characteristics of all beams. The load-deflection relations for beams in
series-A and B are shown in Figure 7 and 8, respectively. The cracking
patterns for all beams at the end of test are shown in Figure 9.
Table 1. Shear and flexural capacities of control beam
Properties
Series-A
Series-B
Shear spadefective depth (d4
6.28
4.40
Shear capacity of concrete (VJ, kN
33.2
33.2
Shear capacity of tie (VJ, kN
70.3
70.3
Total shear capacity, kN
103.5
103.5
Yielding moment capacity (M,), kN. m
44.15
44.15
Yielding load (P,), kN
88.29
126.55
Table 2 Summary of test results

Specimen
Loading
Loading
capacity
Ultimate
moment
( niv.rn)
Percentage
of load
increasea
Failure mode
cze
(kn.m)
PA)
89.45
44.72
0.0
CC after yielding
105.66
95.68
149.41
117.79
52.83
47.83
74.70
41.23
18.13
6.96
67.03
-7.82
B-200-U
147.12
5 1.49
15.13
SFP
EP
CCfollowing EP
EP
Premature CC and
SFP
B-200-L
165.79
58.03
29.74
A
(Control beam)
A-200-P
A-420-P
A-420-U
B-200-P
cc
cc
176.44
61.76
38.08
B-200-X
Note: aThe percentage of load increase is computed relative to the control beam. The
negative value indicates the reduction in loading capaciv.
CC: Concrete crushing, SFP: Shear-flexuralpeeling, EP: End-peeling

160 I
Mid-span deflection (mm)

Figure 7. Load versus mid-span deflection of beams in series-A
200 1
10
15
20

Figure 8. Load versus mid-span deflection of beams in series-B
Series-A Beams
Beam A was the control beam with neither FRP plates nor sheets attached.
It failed by concrete crushing after yielding of main steels. Beams A-200-P
and A-420-P were strengthened with a ply of FRP plate without sheet
wrapping at the ends. The number 200 and 420 indicates the distance in mm
from the plate end to the support. These beams were tested to examine the
effect of bonded length on the peeling behavior. The load versus mid-span
deflection curves of these two beams are compared in Figure 7. Both beams
failed in a brittle manner due to FRP peeling. However, the peeling
character was different. FRP plate of A-200-P peeled at the base of a shearflexural crack formed at the section 400 mm from the support (see Figure
9(b) and Figure l(b)). On the other hand, FRP plate of A-420-P peeled at
the end of the plate (see Figure 9(c)and Figure l(a)).
As shown in Table 2, the ultimate load of A-200-P is higher than that of

A-420-P. It is seen that the distance between the plate end and the support
affected the peeling behavior and the loading capacity. As the FRP plate
was terminated nearer the support, the normal tensile and shear stresses in
the vicinity of the plate end were smaller, probably because of vertical
restraint from the support reaction. The end peeling may thus be avoided by
running the FRP close to the support. However, the beam may not be safe
against shear-flexural peeling. Even though the loading capacity associated
with the shear-flexural peeling is larger than that associated with the end
peeling, the shear-flexural peeling is equally undesirable. This is so because
the location and the load at which shear-flexural peeling occurs are harder
to predict, and therefore more difficult to prevent than the end peeling.
(4
(h)
Figure 9. Crack pattern observed at the end of test
Beam A-420-U was tested to study the end peeling behavior under
vertical restraint. The beam was provided with U-wrapping at the FRP plate
end. The loading capacity was 68.5% higher than the control beam and 56%
higher than A-420-P (see Figure 7). The end peeling took place but the
growth was restrained by the U-wrapping as shown in Figure lO(a). A close
observation around the wrapping (Figure 1O(b)) revealed that the restraint
condition varied along the FRP width, that is, the fiber plate was most
strongly restrained vertically near the side faces of the beam and less
strongly restrained near the central zone. This should be particularly taken
into account when designing the end wrapping for wide structural members.
Series-B Beams
All beams in series-B were tested under four-point bending. The
comparison of load versus mid-span deflection is shown in Figure 8. The
graph also shows a horizontal line indicating the loading capacity of the
control beam under four-point bending. In the experiment, the control beam
was tested under three-point bending (series-A) only. However, since all
beams have identical cross sectional dimension and reinforcing details, the
loading capacity under four-point bending could be calculated from the
tested bending capacity of the beam under three-point bending.
Zone
Restraint zone
(b) Non-uniform restraint condition along the width of the beam

Figure 10. Peeling character under non-uniform vertical restraint condition
Beam B-200-P was provided with a ply of FRP plate without end
wrapping (Figure 4). The fiber plate peeled off at the end (Figure 9(e)) at
the load lower than that of the control beam (Figure 8). Beam B-200-U was
provided with a ply of FRP plate and U-wrapping. Instead of the end
peeling failure, a diagonal shear crack appeared at the inner edge of the
fiber sheet, propagated toward the compression zone and caused concrete
crushing suddenly. Similar to the effect of terminating the FRP end close to
the support, the U-wrapping had the tendency to block the end peeling by
providing vertical restraint, but on the other hand, motivated shear-flexural
peeling followed by premature concrete crushing.
Beam B-200-L and B-200-X were provided with a ply of FRP plate for
each beam with end wrapping in L and X patterns, respectively. The loaddisplacement relations of these beams are compared with other beams of Bseries in Figure 8. Both failed by concrete crushing without any sign of end
peeling or shear-flexural peeling.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented an experimental program to investigate the effect of
end wrapping on peeling behavior of FRP strengthened beams under
different bonded lengths and end restraint conditions. It was found that the
peeling character of FRP depended on the bonded length and the end
restraint condition. When trying to prevent end-peeling failure by using
vertical wrapping or running the FRP plate close to the support, the shearflexural peeling might result instead. The shear-flexural peeling is very
undesirable because it is hard to predict not only the load when it occurs but
also the location. The L- and X-wrappings were used to provide both
horizontal and vertical restraints. With these wrappings, there was no sign
of end peeling or shear-flexural peeling. The beams could fail in flexural
concrete crushing failure mode.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Mr. Thammachat Kulprapa, Nontri Ltd. Co.
for providing the FRP materials for the experimental works.
REFERENCES
1. Sharif, A. et al., Strengthening of Initially Loaded Reinforced Concrete
Beams Using FRP Plates, ACI Structural Journal, 91(2), 1994, pp.
160-168.
2. Saadatmanesh, H. and Ehsani, M.R., Fiber Composite Plates Can
Strengthen Beams, Concrete International, 12(3), 1990, pp. 65-7 1.
3. Ritchie, P.A., Thomas, D.A., Lu, L.W. and Connelly, G.M., External
Reinforcement of Concrete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Plastics,
ACI Structural Journal, 88(4), 1991, pp.490-500.
4. Arduini, M. and Nanni, A., Parametric Study of Beams with Externally
Bonded FRP Reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal, 94(5), 1997,
pp.493-501.
5 . El-Mihilmy, M.T. and Tedesco, J.W., Prediction of Anchorage Failure
for Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer plates, ACI Structural Journal, 98(3), 200 1, pp.30 1-3 13.
6. Hollaway, L.C. and Leeming, M.B., (Eds.) Strengthening of Reinforced
Concrete Structures, CRC press.
Okamura,
H. and Higai, T., Proposed Design Equation for Shear
7.
Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams Without Web Reinforcement,
Proceeding of JSCE, 300, 1980, pp.131-141.

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON DEBOND-CONTROL OF

AFRP FOR FLEXURALLY STRENGTHENED RC BEAMS
S. SAWADA AND N. KISHI
Civil Engineering, Muroran Institute of Technoloa,
Muroran 050-8585, Japan
H. MIKAMI
Technical Research Inst. of Mitsui Const., Co. Ltd,
Nagareyama 270-0132, Japan
Y. KURIHASHI
Material Division, Civil Engineering Research Inst. of Hokkaido,
Hiragishi, Toyohira, Sapporo 062-8602, Japan
In this paper, in order to establish a rational sheet debond-controling
method for RC beams, which fail by debonding, static four-point loading
tests were conducted on RC beams with strengthened Aramid FRPs
(AFRPs) using the u-shaped jacketing method, with jacketing area (height
x width) and volume of AFRPs as variables. Results obtained from this
study were as follows: (1) by jacketing with AFRPs over half the lower
height to the neutral axis and over rebar yield area in the shear span, the RC
beams can be strengthened to the desired point of analytical flexural
ultimate state; and (2) without jacketing in U-shape but bonding FRPs only
on the side-surface in the rebar yield area in the shear span, debonding of
flexural strengthening FRPs can be also controlled.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, many experimental and analytical studies on RC beams
strengthened with FRPs have been conducted all over the world. From the
experimental results of flexurally strengthened RC beams with FRPs, it has
been clarified that two types of failure mode can be expected: one is
Flexural Compression Failure (FCF) which is the case where RC beams
failed due to sheet debonding after reaching the analytical ultimate flexural
limit state; and another type is Debonding Failure (DF) which is the case
where RC beams failed due to sheet debonding before reaching the
analytical ultimate state*. Therefore, FCF-type RC beams can be designed
and applied in practice without any need to control FRPs debonding.
However, in the case of DF-type RC beams, practically, a rational method
to control FRPs debonding up to the desired analytical ultimate state must

be established. Many methods for controlling FRPs debonding have been
proposed. It has been shown that by jacketing with FRPs in a U-shape on
flexural FRP reinforcement, debonding can be controlled without any
anchoring requirements3. However, a method to specify the jacketing area
and volume of the required FRP reinforcement has not been established.
From this point of view, in this study, in order to establish a rational
debond-controling method for flexural FRP reinforcement of DF-type RC
beams, static four-point loading tests were conducted on flexurally
strengthened and U-shape jacketed RC beams. In these experiments, the
following were investigated: ( 1)debond-control effects of the proposed
method; (2)debonding mechanism of flexural FRP reinforcement after
jacketing with U-shape FRPs; (3)rational jacketing area (height x width);
and (4)rational sheet volume for U-shape jacketing.
EXPERIMENTAL OVERVIEW
Dimensions of Strengthened RC Beams
Figure 1 shows the dimensions of the RC beams used in this study. All RC
beams were of rectangular cross section with double reinforcement.
Dimensions of the cross section were 150 x 250 mm and clear span was 2.6
m. The shear-span ratio ald was taken as 5.0. RC beams were designed to
be reached the ultimate state with flexural failure mode, SD345 D13 and
D19 rebars were used as the lower and upper reinforcement, respectively,
and SD295 D10 rebars were used as stirrups. These were arranged at
intervals of 100 mm over the whole span. The longitudinal rebars were
welded to 9 mm thick steel plate set at both ends of the RC beam to save the
length for anchoring.
anchor plate 9mm
n
2600
3000
Figure 1. Dimensions of RC beams
Flexural strengthening for RC beams was performed by bonding two

plies of AFRPs with a mass of 830 g/m2 and width of 130 mm onto the
tension surface of the RC beams of the DF type. Bonding length in the shear
Debond-Control of AFRP 289
span was taken as (L,,+l.OD) (= 80 cm) based on experimental results2, in

which L,, (= 55 cm) is a length of analytical rebar yield area and D (= 25
cm) is height of the cross section. The analytical results were estimated by
means of multi-section method which is formulated assuming AFRPs being
perfectly bonded up to the ultimate state and plane section remains plane.
U-shape Jacketing of FRPs
It is clear from experimental results4 for flexurally strengthened RC beams

without U-shape jacketing that FRPs debonded due to being peeled-off at
the tip of diagonal cracks that occurred in the area of lower cover concrete
near loading points in the shear span. Since the peel-off of FRPs developed
by progressing of axial rebar yielding in the shear span, it may be controlled
by confining the side-surface of rebar yield area in the shear span. Thus, in
this paper, U-shape jacketing area in the longitudinal direction was decided
on the analytical rebar yield area, Lyu (= 55 cm) in the shear span. For
comparison, the case of area of (L,, + 1.OD) was also included.
To investigate the rational jacketing area in height from the lower edge,
the following three cases were considered: (1)to half height (= 95 mm) of
ana-lytical neutral axis at ultimate state; (2) to height (= 190 mm) of
analytical neutral axis at ultimate state; and (3)to the upper edge (= 250 mm)
of cross section of RC beam.
Specimen
Table 1. RC beams
Flex. St. FRPs
U-shape FRPs
mass
mass
length
g/m2
g/m
mm
UG
UI-L
UI -M
height
mm
95
140
415
550
190
250
280
550
800
95
550
190
250
Test Specimens and Material Properties

In this paper, a total of nine flexurally strengthened and U-shape jacketed
RC beams as listed in Table 1 were examined. The beams were designated
using three variables: mass of U-shape jacketing FRPs; height of U-shape
jacketing FRPs from the lower edge of RC beam; and special treatment for
U-shape jacketing. UO, U1, and U2 of the first variable stand for the cases:
non jacketing FRPs; jacketing FRPs with mass of 140 g/m'; and 280 g/m2,
respectively. L, M, and H of the second variable stand for the jacketing
height of FRPs: half height (= 95 mm) of neutral axis at analytical ultimate
state; height (= 190 mm) of the neutral axis; and beam height (= 250 mm),
respectively. SD and EX of the third variable stand for the cases: not
jacketing FRPs and only bonding FRPs on the side-surface; and expanding
jacketing area in the shear span upto the region of (Lyu+ D).
The bonding area of flexural strengthening sheets and U-shape jacketing
FRPs and the location of each strain gauge glued on FRPs are shown in
Figure 2. The lower surface of RC beams was heavily chipped to improve
bond performance of the flexural FRP reinforcement. The U-shape jacketed
side- surface area was ground using a disc sander. The material properties
of AFRPs used in this study are listed in Table 2.
location of strain gauge
location of strain gauge
side
face
.^
side
face
bottom
face
hottom
face
side
face
flexural strengthening sheet
,o
hottom
face
Figure 2. Strengthened area with AFRPs and location of strain gauge
Mass
g/m2
140
280
415
Table 2 . Material properties of AFRPs (nominal value)

Thickness
Tensile strength
E-modulus
Strain limit
mm
GPa
GPa
%
0.0965
0.193
0.286
2.52
115
2.19
Bending and shear capacities of the strengthened RC beams were

estimated by the multi-section method and modified truss theory5,
respectively, to confirm that the bending capacity is less than the shear
capacity even after strengthening. The ultimate compressive strain of
concrete was assumed to be 0.0035 based on the specifications of Japan
Concrete Standard'. Average compressive strength of concrete at the
commencement of experiment was 29.7 MPa. Tensile strength of rebar was
412 MPa.
Four-point loading test with a pure bending region of 500 mm was
applied. The shear span ratio was 5.0. Strain gauges were glued on to
measure the strain distributions of flexural and U-shape jacketing FRP
reinforcement. Surcharged load (hereinafter, load), mid-span displacement
(hereinafter, displacement), and strain distributions of FRPs were measured
and were continuously recorded by using digital data-recorders to precisely
investigate the debonding process of FWs.
Relationship between Load and Displacement
Figure 3 compares the non-dimensional load-displacement curves among
the beams with the same jacketing volume of FRPs, in which the
experimental results for Beam UO and numerical analysis results were also
included. The analytical results were obtained by means of multi-section
method mentioned previously. Each load and displacement were normalized
by these values (Py,4) at rebar yielding to investigate the flexural
strengthening effects of FRPs after rebar yielding.
2.0
Analytical
Analytical
1.5
Ul-H
'
"
'
'
s/sy
s/sy
U1-type
(b) U2-type
Figure 3. Comparisons of load-displacement curves among Ul/U2-type RC bepms
(a)
It is observed that Beam UO reaches the ultimate state with DF mode

because the stiffness was decreased after rebar yielding. On the other hand,
all U-shape jacketed beams reached an ultimate load greater than the
analytical load carrying capacity regardless of the amount of sheet volume
and a height of U-shape jacketing. From these results, it is made clear that
bonding of flexural FRP reinforcement will be sufficiently ensured by Ushape jacketing with 140 g/m mass FRPs up to half height of the neutral
axis at analytical ultimate state.
Figure 4 compares the non-dimensional load-displacement curves of Mtype beams with U-shape jacketing and with bonding side-surface (Figure
4a), and of L-type beams with varying U-shape jacketing area in
longitudinal direction (Figure 4b). From the results of Figure 4(a), it is
observed that U-shape jacketing (Ul-M beam) results in the largest load
carrying capacity. Even though the load and displacement at ultimate state
for U1-M-SD beam are smaller than those for U1-M beam, these are above
the analytical values. This implies that by bonding only the side-surface of
the rebar yield area in the shear span, peel-off of flexural FRP
reinforcement can be controlled up to the analytical ultimate state.
2.5
2.0
2.5
,..,
Analytical
Analytical
, ,
2.0
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
Q?
0.5
0.5
.......
U1-M-SD
0.0
0.0
3 4
6/Sy
3 4
6/6Y
(b) U2-L-EX
Figure 4. Comparisons of load-displacementcurves between experimental and
analytical results
(a) U1-M-SD
From the results of Figure 4(b), it is observed that by extending the Ushape jacketing area to the height of cross section of beam, both load
carrying capacity and displacement were slightly increased. However, the
flexural FRP reinforcement was broken at the pure bending region, thus
demonstrating anchoring performance of U-shape jacketing. Then, it is
suggested that by U-shape jacketing in the rebar yield area LYuin the shear
span, debonding of flexural FRP reinforcement may be rationally controlled.
Strain Distribution of Flexural FRP Reinforcement
Figure 5 compares the strain distribution of flexural FRP reinforcement at
two non-dimensional displacement points among U 1/U2 type beams
including UO beam. These points correspond to sheet debonding in UO
beam ($4 = 3.19) and the analytical ultimate point (a4= 4.17). From the
results at 274 = 3.19, it is observed that the strains in the pure bending
region of both types of beams were around 1% and were similar to those
from analytical results.
Analytical
uo
____ UlIU2-H
at sheet debonding
of UO beam
-3
20000
10000
5000
Hrebar yield area at analytical ultimate point
-U1-M-SD, UZ-L-EX
----- UlIU2-L
S/Sy = 3.19
- UlIUZ-M
SfSy= 3.19
15000
' 38 '
38
'
L1
at analytical ultimate point
(a) U1- beams
(b) U2- beams
Figure 5. Strain distributions of flexural strengthening FRPs
On the other hand, in the shear span, larger strains over 2% were locally
distributed in Beam UO. This may be due to FRPs being peeled-off at the tip
of diagonal cracks. However, in the cases of U-shape jacketed and/or sidesurface bonded RC beams, the strains were distributed similarly to those
from analytical results except near the loading points. From these results, it
is seen that by U-shape jacketing and/or side-surface bonding, peeled-off of
flexural FRP sheets can be controlled.
From the results at analytical ultimate state (a/& = 4.17), it is seen that
experimental strains in the pure bending region were close to the analytical
values except for large strains at the flexural crack opening, despite the size
of U-shape jacketing area. On the other hand, in the jacketing area of the
shear span, extremely large strains were occurred and some strains were
over 2%. These may be due to the following reasons: (1) diagonal cracks
occurred in the area of lower cover concrete near loading points in the shear
span corresponding to an increase in load; even though the rebar yield area
in shear span was jacketed in a U-shape; and (2) flexural FRP reinforcement
was peeled off at the tip of the diagonal cracks and was locally broken.
However, flexural FRP reinforcement was not debonded in the whole area
and the applied load remained almost the same level as the analytical load
carrying capacity.
From these results, it is clear that: (1) by U-shape jacketing in the rebar
yield area of the shear span, development of diagonal cracks in the area of
lower cover concrete near loading points in equi-shear span can be
restrained; (2) progressing of sheet debonding from the local area can be
controlled; ( 3 ) the strain distributions in flexural FRP reinforcement may
not be significantly affected by the amount of mass and area of U-shape
jacketing FRPs; (4) bonding the side-surface results in ultimate state being
reached earlier than U-shape jacketing, but it can achieve the analytical load
carrying capacity; ( 5 ) load carrying capacity can be increased by enlarging
jacketing area, but the beams may reach the ultimate state with flexural FRP
reinforcement breaking; and (6) it is good enough to jacket the beam using
U-jackets in the rebar yield area Lyu in the shear span to control debonding
of flexural FRP reinforcement.
Vertical Strain Distribution of U-shape Jacketing A FRPs
Figure 6 shows the fiber strain distributions in the vertical direction in the
U-shape jacketing FRPs for U1-type beams. These were considered at four
loading stages: (1) at rebar yield point; (2) at the same non-dimensional
displacement corresponding to sheet debonding in Beam UO; ( 3 ) at the point
of analytical ultimate state; and (4) at the point of maximum surcharged
load. From this figure, it is seen that: (1) strains at rebar yielding were
small for all beams; and at the point corresponding to debonding in Beam
UO the strains in the area from the lower edge to 10 cm high were in the
region of 0.3%, Thus, the U-shape jacketing FRP sheet shared the tensile
force in vertical direction of the beam. This means that U-shape jaketing
FRPs has restrained the peel-off action of flexural FRP reinforcement,
which would occur due to the concrete blocks generated in the lower cover
concrete being pushed down. After that, the strains kept increasing, and at
the maximum loading point, the strain was over 0.6%.
A
at rebar
+at sheet
-0- at analytical
yield point
debonding of UO beam
ultimate point
25
-t at maximum
loading point
to supporting point
to loading point
20
15
Ul-L
10
5
0
25
20
15
Ul-M
zE
10
25
0
20
15
U1-H
10
5
n
"
0.0
0.6 0.0
0.6 0.0
0.6 0.0
0.6 0.0
Strain (YO)
0.6 0.0
0.6
Figure 6. Vertical fiber-strain distributions in U-shape jacketing AFRPs of

U 1-type beams
It is thus clear that: (1) U-shape jacketing FRPs may control debonding of
flexural FRP reinforcement due to peel-off action of the lower cover
concrete; and (2) the peel-off action of the FRP reinforcement can be
sufficiently controlled by U-shape jacketing with 140 g/m' mass FRPs.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to establish a rational sheet debond-controlling method for flexural

strengthening FRPs of DF type RC beams, the U-shaped jacketing method
was proposed. Static four-point loading tests were conducted on flexurally
strengthened and U-shape jacketed RC beams with Aramid FRPs (AFRPs)
with jacketing area and volume of AFRPs as variables. The results obtained
from this study were as follows:
1) By U-shape jacketing in the rebar yield area of shear span, the loadcarrying capacity of debonding failure type of flexural strengthened RC
beams can be strengthened to the desired analytical ultimate state.
2) It is experimentally confirmed that debonding of flexural strengthening
FRPs due to peel-off action can be controlled by U-shape jacketing in
the rebar yield area of shear span with FRPs.
3) Debonding of the FRPs can be rationally controlled by U-shape
jacketing up to the half height of neutral axis at analytical ultimate state
using FRPs with 15 % mass of the flexural FRP reinforcement.
4) By bonding the FRPs on only side-surface of the U-shape jacketed area,
debonding of flexural FRP reinforcement can be controlled upto the
analytical ultimate state.
REFERENCES
1. Kishi N., Mikami H., Matsuoka K. G., and Kurihashi Y., Failure
Behavior of Flexural Strengthened RC Beams with AFRP Sheet,
Proceedings of FRPRCS-5, pp.87-95,2001.
2. Kishi N., Mikami H., Kurihashi Y., An Experimental Study on LoadCarrying Behavior of Flexural Strengthened RC Beams with AFRPs
Sheet, Journal of Japan Society of Civil Engineers, No.683IV-52, pp.
47-64,200 1 (in Japanese)
3. Kishi N., Mikami H., Kurihashi Y., Sawada S., Experimental Study
on Estimation of Required Bonding Length of Sheet for Flexural
Strengthened RC Beams with AFRPs Sheet, Journal of Structural
Engineering, JSCE, Vol.48A, pp.987-997,2000 (in Japanese)
4. Kurihashi Y., Kishi N., Mikami H., Sat0 M. and Matsuoka K. G.,
Experimental Study on Flexural Bonding Property of AFRPs Sheet
Glued on RC Beams, Proceedings of the 7th EASEC, pp.1271-1276,
1999.
5 . JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures, 2002. (in
Japanese)
FRPRCS-6,Singapore, 8-1 0 July 2003

BWorld Scientific Publishing Company
TESTS ON RC T-BEAMS STRENGTHENED IN FLEXURE

WITH A GLUED AND BOLTED CFRF LAMINATE
A. NURCHI, S. MATTHYS, L. TAERWE AND M. SCARPA
Magnel Laboratoryfor Concrete Research, Ghent University
Technologiepark-Zwunaarde 904, B-9052 Ghent (Zwijnaarde), Belgium
J. JANSSENS
ETEC / TRADECC / ECC NV
Terbekhofdreef 50-52, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
The use of externally bonded FRP reinforcement for strengthening or
rehabilitation purposes is becoming a well documented technique worldwide. Often it appears in the design that the full capacity of the FRP can not
be achieved: premature failure due to debonding mechanisms may occur at
fairly limited stress levels. Newly developed FRP laminates, with fibres in
different directions, are suitable to be used in combination with extra
mechanical anchorage (e.g. bolts). Tests on RC T-beams performed at the
Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research demonstrate that the use of bolts
in the most critical zones can prevent or postpone premature debonding
failure and significantly increase the strengthening factor. Furthermore an
appropriate design of the anchorage can improve the post-peak behaviour
of the beam with high residual strength after debonding of the laminate and
with less brittle failure modes.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years the interest in Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
reinforcement in construction has considerably increased. Especially its use
as Externally Bonded Reinforcement (EBR) has been developed world-wide
as a very efficient technique for structural strengthening and rehabilitation.
When using FRP laminates to provide flexural strengthening to RC
members, the resisting moment of the strengthened element is normally
evaluated assuming perfect bond between FRP and concrete (full
composite action) followed by verifying debonding mechanisms. Often it
appears that failure may occur at limited FRP strain levels, due to activation
of premature debonding mechanisms such as concrete rip-off, peeling, etc.*
It is therefore of interest to improve the anchorage capacity of the external
FRP reinforcement.
A possible solution is the use of bolts to provide extra anchorage

strength and hence to prevent or postpone debonding. However, the
unidirectional laminates generally used can not be bolted, since they are
very weak in transferring forces to the bolt anchorage. Newly developed
multi-directional FRP laminates offer a good solution in this case. Fibres
(typically +45") in addition to the longitudinal ones provide sufficient stress
transfer capacity and allow for the use of bolt anchorages3.
To prove the effectiveness of the use of bolts and hence the advantages
of the new type of laminate, a test programme was set up at the Magnel
Laboratory for Concrete Research.
TEST SET-UP AND SPECIMENS

Four-point bending tests have been executed on RC T-beams with a span of
4 m. The dimensions and details of the reinforcement of the T-beams and
the test set-up are given in Figure 1. In total, 5 beams have been tested,
including one reference (unstrengthened) beam, and 4 beams strengthened
with multi-directional CFRP laminate, with or without the use of additional
mechanical fixings by means of bolts (type M12, class 4.6 and M16, class
8.8, see Table 1 and Figure 2).
Figure 1. Dimensions and reinforcement of test specimens
Beam
1
2
3
4
5
Table 1. Configuration of the beams

Description
unstrengthened
CFRP
CFRP -+ 2 x 2 bolts
CFRP + 2 x 6 bolts
CFRP + 2 x 6 bolts (stronger anchorage)
RC T-Beams with Glued and Bolted CFRP Laminate 299

Beam 3
FRP plate
230 x 100 mm'
'L
steel bolls M12 (d 4.6)
1 wo
Beam 4
_-
160 160 160 135 p 2 3 5
1
FRP plate
230 x 100 mm'
\K
steel Dolls M12 (a 4 6)
Beam 5
-strengthened
FRP end
steel plate
230x 1OOx 1 5
steel bolts M i 2 (cI 4 6 )
M I 6 (d 6 8)
Figure 2. Layout of the bolts
For all the strengthened beams, one layer of multi-directional PC

CarboComp Plus was used, with a length of 3.66 m. The strips are about 1.8
mm thick and 100 mm wide, with fibres over the full length in the
longitudinal as well as in the plus and minus 45" directions. They are glued
with epoxy adhesive PC 5800 BL. The concrete surface was roughened by
sand blasting.
In Beams 3 and 4, an additional multi-directional CFRP was glued at
each end of the laminate, and two bolts (threaded bars) were installed with
epoxy adhesive (PC 5800). The bond length equalled 180 mm, above the
internal reinforcement. In the concrete cover (20 mm) the bolts were
unbonded. Prior to testing the bolts were pretensioned with a force of about
10 kN in order to activate them soon (see also for a comparison between
prestressed and unprestressed bolts). Strain gauges mounted on some of the
bolts were used to control the prestressing level. In Beam 4, also four bolts
with the same characteristics as those of the anchorage zone were placed
along the shear span at each end (Figure 2). No extra FRP layer was used
for the inner bolts. Prestressing up to 10 kN was also provided in this case.
In Beam 5 a special laminate was used, with the same properties as for
the previous beams along the span, but with improved strength (thickness of
2.75 mm and higher amount of carbon fibres) on a length of about 350 mm
at both ends. Furthermore, steel end plates and bolts with increased diameter
and strength were used to realise the end anchorage. These bolts were
pretensioned prior to testing with a force of approximately 20 kN. The
configuration and prestressing force of the 4 bolts along the shear span was
the same as for Beam 4. More details on the layout of the bolts for Beams 3,
4 and 5 are given in Figure 2.
The concrete used for the beams had a mean cylinder strength of 38
MPa at 28 days. The mechanical properties of the concrete were determined
by testing (at the same age of testing the T-beams) and are reported in Table
2. The mean tensile properties of the internal and external reinforcement
determined by testing, are given in Table 3.
Beam
1
2
3
4
5
Table 2. Concrete mechanical properties

Age oftest
fc
fc cube fcr.hend fo.spi,i
[days]
[MPaJ
[MPa]
[MPa]
[MPa]
34
35.9
52.3
4.47
4.59
38.7
52.1
63
4.65
3.94
94
46.4
59.9
5.76
3.91
141
44.4
58.7
5.40
4.18
204
46.7
59.9
6.59
4.35
Table 3. Mean tensile properties of the reinforcement

0 or tn
fy
JI
GI
Material
rmm1
[MPaJ
[MPa]
[%oJ
14
590
680
100
Steel S.500
PC CarboCornp
1 .oo
2700'
15.3
Plus
*) Based on nominal thickness t,
E-modulus
[MPa]
38850
45970
43110
38530
39010
E
WPaI
210000
190000'
During testing deflection and strain measurements were made at different

locations. In case of the strengthened beams several strain gauges were used
to record the strain distribution along the EBR and to measure the increase
of the force in the bolts.
The beams were loaded stepwise up to 30 kN (corresponding to the
service load of the reference beam), then unloaded and re-loaded up to 60
kN (for Beam 1 the last step was 40 kN, for Beam 2 it was 50 kN). The load
was then gradually increased until failure, at a speed of about 1.5 kN/min).
TEST RESULTS
An overview of the cracking load, yielding load, maximum load,
strengthening ratio and failure aspect of the tested beams is given in Table
4. The load vs. midspan deflection curves are given in Figure 3.
Table 4: Main test results
Beam
test
[days]
34
63
94
141
204
fc
[MPa]
Qcr
[kN]
Qy
[kN]
Qmax
[kN]
Qmax
/Qref
At
Qmax
At
ultimate
1
35.9
10
53
68
1.00
YS/CC
38.7
2
10
72
85
YS/CR
1.25
46.4
10
75
3
92
1.35
YS/PV
AF
4
44.4
10
79
102
1.50
YS/PV
AF
5
46.7
YS/PV
AF/CC
118
1.74
15
75
YS:yielding of steel, CC: concrete crushing, CR: concrete rip-oft PV: peeling due to vertical
crack displacement, AF: anchorage failure
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Deflection [mm]
Figure 3. Load vs. deflection curves (Beams 1 to 5)
All the tested beams show the same behaviour in the uncracked state,
where the reinforcement has negligible influence. Cracking occurred at
about 10 kN per point load (in case of Beam 5 the cracking load was
somewhat higher, 15 kN). At about 53 kN the steel reinforcement in the
reference beam yields, leading to a large increase of the deformation (that
is, deflection). Failure occurred by concrete crushing at 68 kN.
The strengthened beams, due to the presence of the external
reinforcement, are significantly stiffer than the reference beam after
cracking. Furthermore, yielding of the internal steel occurs at a much higher
(about 40%) load level: 72 kN for Beam 2, 75 kN for Beam 3, 79 kN for

Beam 4 and 75 kN for Beam 5. Even after yielding of the steel
reinforcement the load considerably increases. The maximum attainable
load is limited, by debonding of the laminate.
In Beam 2 the so-called concrete rip-off mechanism was activated, and
failure occurred at 85 kN (corresponding to a strenghtening factor of 1.25).
This failure mode initiates when shear cracks, starting at the end of the
external reinforcement, develop along the internal reinforcement, resulting
in the detachment of the concrete cover (Figure 4). As the laminate is lost
and the only reinforcement is the internal steel, the load bearing capacity of
the beam drops considerably.
Figure 4. Concrete rip-off (Beam 2)
In Beam 3 concrete rip-off could be prevented. At about 70 kN, when

the first shear cracks were observed at the end of the laminate, the tensile
force in the bolts started to increase (as revealed by strain gauge
measurements), indicating the activation of the bolt anchorage. The load
could be increased up to 92 kN (strengthening factor 1.35), when debonding
occurred away from the anchorage zone due to vertical crack displacement.
After debonding, the load on Beam 3 dropped (due to pressure release in the
jack following the sudden decrease in beam stiffness), but increased again.
Indeed, as the bolts started working in shear providing anchorage of the
laminate, the external reinforcement could further act as an unbonded
tension member. This is clearly demonstrated by the strain gauge
measurements.
Figure 5 represents the profile of the strain along the laminate (half of
the span) at different load levels. At low loads the strain in the laminate is
the same as in the concrete at the bottom fibre (perfect adhesion), and the
diagram has a shape similar to the moment line (linear from the support till
the point load and horizontal between the point loads). The discontinuity in
the diagram at 400 mm from the support is due to the change in the
thickness of the laminate (extra end plate). After the maximum load (after
debonding) the distribution of the strain changes significantly (dotted lines

in Figure 5). An almost constant strain distribution along the whole length
of the laminate is obtained between the end anchorages.
BEAM3
6,5
-50
kN
-8OkN
I 4
3.5
-92
3 2.5
kN
.o - 5 9 K N - u
2
1.5
----8OkN-u
~-
0.5
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Distancefrom the support [mm]
Figure 5 . Strain along the laminate (Beam 3)
With the FRP laminate acting as an external unbonded tension member,

it was possible to attain a load of about 80 kN. Since bond is missing and
the bolted anchorage deforms (bolts are bent, slip of the laminate at the
bolts), the stiffness of the beam is low, resulting in large deflections (Figure
3). At 80 kN the bolted anchorage failed: the laminate was pulled through
the bolts (Figure 6 ) . At this point the external reinforcement is no longer
effective and the beam tends to behave like the unstrengthened one.
Figure 6. Anchorage failure (Beam 3)
The test results of Beam 4 indicate a similar behaviour as Beam 3 at the

first stage. At 72 kN the first shear cracks were observed and the outer bolts
started working in tension, preventing the rip-off mechanism. At 95 kN

initiation of peeling due to vertical crack displacement was detected, but for
Beam 4 this did not lead immediately to complete debonding. Only at 98 kN
the debonding extended to the bolted zone, and a maximum load of 102 kN
(strengthening factor 1.5) could be reached. At this point the load dropped
to 71 kN, but the bolts could further provide anchorage to the laminate, and
the load increased again up to 90 kN, when failure of the bolted anchorage
initiated in the same way as for Beam 3 (slip, damage at bolt location,
laminate pulled through the bolts).
65
BEAM4
/-c----Lix---'---."-"-
2-
55
-I
E
4.5
kN
-80
kN
-90
kN
L 3.5
B
-50
3
2.5
102 kN
2
1.5
90.6kN-u
I
0.5
0
200
400
6W
8w
IWO
12W
1400
1600
1800
20W
Distance from the support [mml
Figure 7. Strain along the laminate (Beam 4)
By comparing the load vs. deflection curves (Figure 3) some differences

may be noted between Beam 3 and Beam 4. After the first peak load (higher
for Beam 4) and the decrease in the load due to the loss of bond, the load
could pick-up in a faster way in Beam 4, and the beam with the unbonded
laminate behaved slightly stiffer. This can be explained by considering that
the series of bolts along the shear span reduces the free length of the
laminate, leading to a higher efficiency of the unbonded tension element.
The diagram of the strain along the laminate (Figure 7) shows that even
after the first peak load the strain increases almost linearly along the bolted
zone. This proves how the inner bolts still allow some force transfer
between the concrete and the unbonded laminate, due essentially to friction
and mechanical interlock.
The behaviour of Beam 5 is similar to the other strengthened beams at
the first stage (Figure 3 ) . At about 72 kN the first shear cracks appeared at
the end of the laminate, and the outer bolts started working, preventing the
concrete rip-off mechanism. A higher load than Beam 4 could be reached

before debonding started. At 116 kN debonding due to vertical crack
displacement initiated and the load dropped to 112 kN. Nevertheless, the
load could increase again, up to 1 18 kN (strengthening factor 1.74), when
debonding propagated to the whole length. After this the external
reinforcement started working as an unbonded tendon. Anchorage was
provided essentially by the outer bolts. Furthermore, a certain load transfer
between the laminate and the concrete was still taking place along the shear
span, due to friction and mechanical interlock (inner bolts were keeping the
laminate in contact with the concrete). In this situation it was possible to
attain again a load of 1 18 kN.
At this point significant damage of the laminate was observed
(detachment of part of the surface layer in the flexural zone, deformation of
the holes due to the action of the bolts), as well as at the end anchorage
(bending of the bolts). This damage resulted in increased deformation
followed by load drop to 80 kN (likely related to sudden slip at the
anchorage), after which the load increased again until failure of the
anchorage. This occurred at 107 kN, when significant deformation of the
steel anchorage plate caused loss of bond between steel and CFRP, with
subsequent slip of the laminate which was pulled through the bolts.
Furthermore, crushing of the concrete at the point loads was observed
(Figure 8).
Figure 8. Beam 5 at ultimate: anchorage failure and concrete crushing
306 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcemen?for Flexure
CONCLUSIONS
Based on this test programme, the following may be observed:
(a) By means of bolts at the laminate ends, anchorage failure such as
concrete rip-off can be prevented.
(b) The use of bolts over the shear span significantly postponed debonding
of the laminate due to vertical crack displacement.
(c) Due to the bolt anchorage, after debonding the laminate acts as an
external tension member. This results in increased deflections at
ultimate and less brittle failure modes.
(d) If the end anchorage is designed sufficiently strong, the bearing
capacity of the strengthened beam after debonding (external
reinforcement acting as an unbonded tension member) equals at least
the initial bearing capacity of the beam with bonded external
reinforcement. In this way a pseudo-ductile behaviour is obtained with
large deformation capacity of the beam at ultimate load.
REFERENCES
fib Task Group 9.3, Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC
structures, Federation Internationale du Beton, 200 1.
2. Matthys S., Structural behaviour and design of concrete members
strengthened with externally bonded FRP reinforcement, Doctoral
thesis, Ghent University, Belgium, 2000.
3. Matthys, S., Taerwe, L., Blontrock, H., Janssens, J. and De Neef, D.,
Tripling the bearing capacity of a concrete floor at the zoological
garden of Antwerp: research and application, Composites in
Constructions (CCC 2001), Porto, October 10-12,2001, pp. 695-700.
4. Matthys, S., Taerwe, L., Nurchi, A., Scarpa, M. and Janssens, J., Tests
on multi-directional CFRP reinforcement for strengthening of concrete
beams, International Conference on Performance of Construction
Materials in the New Millennium, Cairo, February 18-20,2003.
1.

PARAMETRIC STUDIES OF RC BEAMS STRENGTHENED

IN FLEXURE WITH EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP
S. LIMKATANYU
Dept. of Civil Eng., Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University
Hadyai, Songkhla, , 901 10, Thailand
H. THOMSEN
U.S. Army, United States Military Academy
West Point, New York, 10996, USA
E. SPACONE
PRICOS Department, Faculty of Architecture, University of Chieti
Viale Pindaro 42, 6512 7 Pescara, Italy
G. CAMATA
Dept. of CEAE, University of Colorado
Boulder, Colorado, 80309-0428, USA
Demands on infrastructures, post-strengthening and retrofitting are
unavoidable when existing structures age or are necessary to meet changes.
A recent methodology to enhance the flexural strength of RC beams uses
FRP strips or sheets glued to the tension side of the beam. A number of
researchers have shown that the failure mode of an FRP-strengthened RC
beam can switch from the ductile mode of an under-reinforced beam to the
brittle one. This paper investigates the influences of this strengthening
methodology on the response and failure modes of a reference RC beam. A
nonlinear fiber frame element with bond-interface between the concrete and
the FRP plate serves as the numerical tool to investigate the effects of the
plate length and plate width on the responses of simply supported
strengthened RC beams. In this paper, the geometry of the beam is kept
constant. The parametric studies agree with the experimentally observed
results according to which the most commonly encountered failure modes
due to loss of composite actions are affected by the plate geometric
properties.
INTRODUCTION
In the use of FRP sheets or strips to enhance the flexural strength of RC
beams, it is crucial to understand the effects of the FRP reinforcement on
the beam failure mode, particularly for the development of the rational
design criteria under ultimate loads. The literature review of test results of
RC beams strengthened with externally bonded FRP indicates that several
failure modes, from ductile to brittle, were observed. The list of failure
modes is categorized here into two types. Type 1 encompasses modes
maintaining composite action up to failure of strengthened beams and Type
2 includes failure modes due to the loss of composite action. The failure
modes due to loss of composite action, however, are the most commonly
encountered. Consequently, this paper focuses only on the results of
analytical studies affecting the failure modes due to loss of composite
action. The parametric investigations presented hereafter emphasize on the
effects of plate length and of plate width on the failure mechanism of a
reference under-reinforced RC beam.
PARAMETRIC INVESTIGATIONS ON FRP-STRENGTHENED
RC BEAMS LOADED IN FOUR POINT BENDING
All the parametric investigations presented in this study use the same
reference under-reinforced beam shown in Figure 1. A similar beam was
tested up to failure under four-point bending condition by Zarnic et all. The
analytical model uses a 2-node displacement-based beam element with
bond-interface between the concrete and the strengthening plate (
Figure 2). The element formulation is presented in Limkatanyu and
Spacone2 and the element is implemented in the general-purpose finite
element program FEAP3. The material properties used in this study are
summarized in Table 1. For the bond-interface between the concrete and the
reinforcing plate, a linear elastic bond law up to failure is used. A bond
elastic stiffness of 2.38 GPa is used in the numerical simulations, while a
value of 3.1 MPa is used for the bond strength. This value of bond elastic
stiffness is computed based on shear deformation of epoxy layer using the
material properties reported in Table 1. The bond strength, which is similar
to the shear strength of concrete, correlates well with test results of Zarnic
et all. Plate debonding is not due to epoxy failure, but to concrete shear
failure at the concrete-epoxy interface, where a state of almost pure shear
exists4.
Parametric Studies of RC Beams with FRP 309

960 mrn
~,.
980 rnm
960mm
_I_
-7-
r
A
LFRP
L = 2900 mm
L*=LFR&L
0.879
0.914
0.948
0.966
L'=0.5*(L - LFRp)
175
125
75
50
Beam FE schematic mesh
CROSS SECTION
4 = 384 rnm2
r.
800 rnm
. . .
I
:
4' = 256 mm2

/
11120rnrn
strengthening plates
Figure 1 Geometry and cross section of simulated RC beams
Figure 2 Two-node displacement-based beam element with bond-slip and

layered section
Material
Concrete
Steel Bars
Epoxy Resin
CFRP
Elastic Modulus
(GPa)
27
210
12.8
140
Compressive
Strength (GPa)
25
460
Tensile
Strength (GPa)
1
460
4
1800
Effect of CFRP Plate Length

The CFRP plate length is the first parameter to be studied. To distinguish
between different plate lengths, a non-dimensional parameter L* = LFwI L,
is introduced as shown in Figure 1. The plates have a constant width of 100
mm and thickness of 1.2 mm.
The responses of beam of Figure 1 for increasing values of L* are shown
in Figure 3 . All of the beam responses are in the same equilibrium path,
varying only in the point of failure, where plate debonding occurs. Figure 4
shows the relationship between the increase in ultimate load and the plate
length. A number of observations can be drawn from Figure 4. First, the
ultimate load capacity of the beam increases with an increase in plate
length. Second, the location of debonding shifts from plate end (end
peeling) to midspan (midspan debonding) as the plate length increases.
Finally, these results show that a certain effective length exists. In other
words, if the plate is adequately anchored, the beam fails due to
delamination under the load and no increase in strength is further gained.
To analyze the observations drawn from Figure 3 and Figure 4, the
distributions of concrete-FRP interface bond-forces at the load-step before
failure are shown in Figure 5. The plate end and the loaded point show
discontinuities in bond-force distributions. The bond-force discontinuity at
the plate end is due to the change in beam cross-section. Under the loaded
point, the plate force increases rapidly due to the fact that the plate carries
much more of tensile forces after the steel reinforcement yielded in the
maximum moment region.
Figure 5 also shows that the location along the beam where the bond
failure takes place changes from under the applied load to the plate end.
Shorter plates mean that large bond-stress jumps only at the plate end
because the steel does not yield under the load, while longer plates allow
the beam to resist a larger load and the steel reinforcement can reach the
yielding state under the loading point, hence inducing large bond forces,
Parametric Studies of RC Beams with FRP 31 I
which finally cause bond failure. It should be mentioned that these

observations are peculiar to the RC beam geometry used in this study. More
refined parametric studies are needed to investigate the effects of plate
lengths on-responses of RC beam with different geometries and
reinforcement.
30
Failure, L
' = 0.914
/\
Failure, L' = 0.879
25
Failure, L" = 0.948
Ha 20 1 Failure, L' = 0.823

\
15
1 - Control RCBeam I
LI
10
'I/ A
0
10
20
30
CFWRCBeams
50
40
60
Midspan Displacement, A [mm]
Figure 3 Response of beams strengthened with CFRP plates of different length
1.8
@ Concrete Cover Delamination at Plate End
1.6
Concrete Cover Delamination under Load
>8
1.4
ci
1.2
1
0.80
0.85
0.90
L*
0.95
1.oo
Figure 4 Ultimate-load increase for beams with CFRP plates of different length

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
400
800
Distance along beam [mm]
1200
Figure 5 Bond force distribution at failure for beams strengthened with CFRP
plates of different lengths
A well-known issue in the use of FRP plates to enhance the flexural

strengths of RC beams is the loss in ductility of the strengthened beams.
The responses of a strengthened RC beam are schematically presented in
Figure 6. Point A corresponds to first concrete cracking, point B to first
steel yielding, and point C to failure. Two definitions of ductility are used
by Thornsen; one is based on displacement, and the other is based on
energy. Only the energy-based ductility is used in this study because both
definitions result in the same conclusions. The energy ductility DE is
defined as the ratio between the energy of the system at failure E, and the
energy of the system at first steel yielding E,.
Force
Displacement (A)
I
AY
AU
Force
A
EU
Displacement (A)
Energy Ductility D, = EJE,
Figure 6 Definition of energy ductility
The influence of the plate lengths on the energy ductility of the

strengthened beam is shown in Figure 7. As expected, the overall ductility
of the strengthened beam is lower than that of the non-strengthened beam.
Longer plates also result in higher ductility. For very short plates, the
ductility is lower than 1, implying that delamination occurs prior to yielding
of steel reinforcement as was already noted in Figure 5 .
_.""
~ ._ . _ ._ _
. _ . . _ .Control
. _Beam
_ .~ u_m t_y2 .2 _
2.00 -
D.
::::://-0.50
0.00
Figure 7 Energy ducility for beams strengthened with CFRP plates of different
Effect of CFRP Plate Width

As shown in the preceding section, bond stresses at the FRP-concrete
interface play a crucial role in the failure of RC beams strengthened with
externally bonded FRP. The bond stresses are directly related to the
interface contact-area. The bond stress should decrease with the increase of
contact area. The simplest way to change the contact area is to introduce
FRP plates with varying plate width w. The area AFRPof CFRP plate of
Figure 1 is kept constant while the width and thickness are adjusted. The
plate length is kept constant at L* = 0.966. This length provides the full
anchorage.
Figure 8 demonstrates the responses of the RC beam with CFRP plates
of different widths but constant sectional area, while Figure 9 shows the
increase in the ultimate load capacity of the strengthened RC beam. As
expected, the ultimate load capacity increases with the plate width. No
increase in load-capacity is gained for plates wider than 250 mm due to the
fact that for wider plates, the failure mode changes from concrete-cover
delamination to FRP rupture. As the FRP-concrete contact area increases,
the bond forces are distributed over a larger area, thus allowing a higher
bond stress to take place prior to failure as shown in Figure 10.
0
120
40
80
Midspan Displacement.A [mml
Figure 8 Response of beams strengthened with CFRP plates of different width
50
100
150
200
Plate wdth [mm]
250
300
Figure 9 Increase in ultimate load for beams reinforced with CFRP plates
of different width
600
-E
400
200
0
0
400
1200
800
Distance along beam [mm]
Figure 10 Bond force distribution at failure for beams strengthened with CFRP
plates of different width
Figure 11 shows the energy ductility for different plate widths.

Increasing the plate width also results in an increase in the beam ductility
and for large widths the ductility of the strengthened beam is much higher
than that of the control beam. It can be concluded that larger widths lead to
more cost-effective strengthening6. However, it is important to note that
larger plates prevent concrete breathing and this issue needs to be further
studied.
7,
6~
5 -
4 DE
3 -
-._-.-1-
Control Beam O w i l d y = 2 21
04
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Plate width [mm]
Figure 11 Energy ductility of beam strengthened with CFRP plates of different

width
CONCLUSIONS
This study uses a recently developed RC beam element with bond-interface

between the concrete and the strengthening plate to investigate the failure
mechanism of RC beams strengthened in flexure with externally bonded
FRPs. Only the failure modes due to the loss of composite action between
the concrete and the FRP reinforcement are focused in this study. The
following conclusions can be drawn from these parametric studies.
(a) As seen in the parametric studies, the FRP plate length has significant
effects on the failure mode of strengthened beams. For beams subjected
to point loads, there is a certain plate length marking the border
between debonding under loading point (for longer plate) and plate-end
peeling (for shorter plate). The change in failure mode is caused by the
large bond-stress values at the plate end and under the loading point.
For shorter FRP plates, the peak bond stress is at the plate end, while
for longer plates, the peak bond stress is under the loading point due to
the fact that longer plates allow steel yielding penetration, hence
31 6 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement f o r Flexure
inducing larger bond stresses under the loading point. The energy
ductility increases with the plate length until the failure mode shifts to
midspan debonding, with no increase in ductility for longer plates.
(b) The FRP plate width has important effects on the failure mode of
strengthened beams. Wider plates of equal cross-section seem to reduce
the bond-stress at the interface between the concrete and the FRP plate,
hence allowing a more effective use of the FRP strength and resulting in
larger beam flexural capacity. For the plate length studied in this paper,
very wide plates show a shift in failure mode from midspan debonding
to FRP rupture because the wider plate causes higher stresses in FRP
plates. The energy ductility increases with wider plates and can be
higher than that of the non-strengthened beam.
REFERENCES
1. Zarnic, R., Gostic, S., Bosiljkov, V., and Bosiljkov, V.B.,

Improvement of Bending Load-Bearing Capacity by Externally
Bonded Plates, Proc. Creating with Concrete, London, 1990, pp.433442.
2. Limkatanyu, S. and Spacone, E., WC Frame Element with BondInterfaces. Part 1: Displacement-Based, Force-Based, and Mixed
Formulations, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, 128(3), 2002,
pp. 346-355.
3. Taylor, R.L., FEAP 7.4: A Finite Element Analysis Program,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
California at Berkeley, 2002.
4. Aprile, A., Spacone, E., and Limkatanyu, S., Role of Bond in Beams
Strengthened with Steel and FRP Plates, ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering, 127(12), 2001, pp. 1445-1452.
5. Thomsen, H.H., Failure Mode Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Beams
Strengthened in Flexure with Externally Bonded Fiber Reinforced
Polymers; Master Thesis, Department of Civil, Environmental, and
Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado at Boulder, 2002.
6. Arduini, M. and Nanni, A.E., Parametric Study of Beams with
Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement, ACI Structural Journal,
94(5), 1997, pp. 493-501.

CONCRETE COVER FAILURE OR TOOTH TYPE FAILURE

IN RC BEAMS STRENGTHENED WITH FRF' LAMINATES
M. M. LOPEZ
Department of Civil and Env. Engineering, Penn State University
212 Sackett building, University Park, PA 16802-1408, USA
A. E. NAAMAN
Department of Civil and Env. Engineering, University of Michigan
2340 G.G. Brown building, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2125, USA
Among the different types of failure modes observed in RC beams
strengthened in flexure using externally bonded FRP laminates, failure of
the concrete cover has not being fully understood. This is however an
important failure mode since it can compromise the integrity of the
strengthened element. This paper presents the analysis of the experimental
data available from an experimental program as well as the formulation of
an analytical model of the concrete cover or "tooth type" failure. From the
testing of simply supported beams strengthened with different levels of FRP
reinforcement it was found that debonding of the FRP laminate at the
epoxy-concrete level generally precedes the failure of the concrete cover.
An analytical model of this type of failure was developed based on an
energy approach; it shows that the impact of the energy released from the
stretched FRP plate is' large enough to break the concrete cover at the level
of the first layer of longitudinal reinforcement. Because of the existence of
flexural cracks, the concrete breaks in the form of several "teeth" mostly in
the constant moment region. The methodology proposed in the paper is
shown to accurately predict the occurrence of the concrete cover failure.
INTRODUCTION
Fiber Reinforced Polymeric (FRP) laminates, which have been used in the
aerospace industry for several decades, are becoming increasingly popular
in the construction industry for strengthening purposes. These laminates,
particularly carbon fiber reinforced (CFRP), offer the advantages of
composite materials such as immunity to corrosion, a low volume to weight
ratio, a high strength to weight ratio, and unlimited delivery length (in sheet
form), thus eliminating the need for joints'.
Among the different types of failure modes observed in RC beams
strengthened in flexure using externally bonded FRP laminates, failure of
the concrete cover has not being fully understood. This is however an
important failure mode since it can compromise the integrity of the

strengthened element.
BACKGROUND INVESTIGATIONS
A research project was developed at the University of Michigan on repair
and strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using externally glued
CFRP plates2. Its main objective was to provide experimental verification
and recommendations for implementation of a repair technology in which
thin fiber reinforced plastic laminates are glued on the surface of concrete
beams to strengthen them in bending, shear, or both. Relevant experimental
data obtained from this project was used to corroborate the analytical model
presented in this paper.
The experimental program for bending comprised fourteen reinforced
concrete T-beams. The test parameters included two levels of steel
reinforcement ratio before strengthening, and up to four strengthening levels
(number of CFRP layers). Two commercially available strengthening
systems were tested, a sheet system (system A) and a plate system (system
B). Other selective parameters investigated included two different concrete
covers, two conditions of cover preparation, three different end anchorage
systems of the glued-on sheets, and the pre-loading of the beam.
From the bending tests performed it was found that for a given steel
reinforcement ratio, the ultimate load capacity increased with the
strengthening level, or the number of CFRP sheets. It was also found that
the majority of specimens failed by debonding of the interface between the
epoxy and concrete, originating a delamination of the CFRP plate. Only
one beam (beam 2) failed by tensile rupture of the CFRP laminate. The
interfacial failure was present for both types of strengthening systems and
for different numbers of CFRP layers. Naaman et a12present a more detailed
analysis of the effect of each parameter on the flexural response of these
beams.
In the case of the beams strengthened with system A, it was observed
that for all the beams that failed by debonding at the epoxy-concrete level, a
secondary type of failure was present immediately after. The impact energy
released from the tensioned CFRP, prior to full debonding, tore out the
concrete cover, which was already cracked vertically by flexure, along the
longitudinal reinforcing bars in the constant bending moment region (tooth
failure), see Figure 1.
Concrete Cover Failure or Tooth Type Failure 319
Figure 1. Concrete cover (tooth) failure - beam 3
CONCRETE COVER (TOOTH) FAILURE MODEL
As it was mentioned previously, when the FRP debonds, the entire beam
loses the strengthening level it gained and the impact of the energy released
from the stretched FRP plate can tear out the concrete cover up to the level
of the longitudinal steel at the beam portion where the FRP has not yet
debonded, as was observed in eight beams out of fourteen tested in bending.
If the concrete that surrounds the longitudinal rebars cannot withstand this
impact energy originated by the release of the stretched FRP, the concrete
will break at the rebar level. From observation of the experimental tests, this
type of failure occurs mostly in the region of constant moment or close to it.
As stated before, even if this is a secondary type of failure, it is an important
one for the stability of the system and should therefore be addressed.
Debonding Process
During the monotonic loading of the strengthened beam, the FRP laminate
deforms, following the shape of the RC beam. The elongation of the
laminate at every load step is used to calculate the strain energy available.
Two methodologies are presented:
First, assuming no debonding of the FRP has occurred yet, the FRP
laminate is fully bonded to the concrete surface, except at the crack tips.
Following the methodology described by Lopez3 in her doctoral
dissertation, section analysis is performed at every cracked section along the
span. The deformation of the FRP laminate between two crack tips can be
calculated using Eq. (1):
where Q I I
1 - v12v21
for a laminate and N2 (x) is the variation of the axial
force in the FRP between two crack tips as defined by Lopez3. El

correspond to the elastic modulus in the fiber direction, vI2is the poisson's
ratio, and hf and Bf correspond to the width and thickness of the laminate.
Eq. (1) is evaluated between x = 0 and x = S. x = 0 is the origin of the local
x coordinate of an element of beam between two cracks of spacing S.
To find the total elongation of the FRP laminate a summation of the
axial deformation values given by Eq. (1) is done along the bonded length
of the FRP up to the point of interest (Xi), which corresponds to the location
where debonding occurred (Figure 2a):
where X, is the point along the span where the elongation of the FRP is
calculated, j = i corresponds to the section (i) located at X, j = n corresponds
to the location of a section at the edge of the FRP laminate, and x = 0 and x
= S are the local limits of the integration of an element of beam between
two cracks spaced a distance S.
A simplified methodology to calculate the elongation (6) of the FRP
laminate is to assume that it deforms as an elastic spring with an equivalent
stiffness (Ke). By using the material constitutive relations of the laminate
( Q I I )and assuming that the change of deformation of the FRP laminate is
proportional to its bonded length, the following relationship can be defined:
(3)
where
Ke =
QllX
h/X B/
Lbonded
(4)
and
where N 2 (X) is the force on the FRP from a section analysis at the location
X, (Figure 2b) and Lbonded is the bonded length of the FRP laminate prior to
interfacial failure.
Once the elongation of the FRF laminate is known at every load step,
the strain energy Ubonded can be evaluated as fol~ows:
s
Ubondrd =
IN2(x)dd
(6)
For the simplified method,
Ubonded =
1 N2(X)
2
Ke
- ___
(7)
which corresponds to the area under the curve of the load-displacement

diagram, as shown in Figure 2. Ubonded is the strain energy available before
debonding of the FRP laminate. Once debonding occurs, the stretched FRP
is released. The accumulated energy is transformed into an impact energy
that will break the tooth of concrete cover located in the region where the
FRP still remained bonded. Note that some of this impact energy is
dissipated during the debonding process.
---T-1
U
yb
Bf
X
Load. FRP
U strain
U deb0 ding process
nergy 1,oad FRP
a) Method 1:
-+
N~(x) from ~ o p e z j
Elongation, 6
Elongation, 6
U unbonded FRP
c) Strain Energy
remaining
after debonding
process
section analysis
Figure 2 . Strain energy of stretched FRP
The evaluation of the amount of energy dissipated during the debonding

process is done by calculating the strain energy Uunbon&d for an equivalent
beam with an unbonded FRP laminate. The energy dissipated during the
debonding process (interfacial failure) corresponds to,
uprocess = Uunbonded - Ubonded
(8)
The remaining energy Uunbonded is released as impact energy. Naaman

and Alkhairi4 presented a methodology for the analysis of concrete beams
prestressed with unbonded tendons. This methodology was followed and
modified in order to predict the behavior of the analyzed beam. The use of a
bond reduction coefficient (Qr) allowed to modify the strain in the bonded
FRP to find the average strain in the unbonded FRP.
From the calculation of the average strain in the unbonded FFW, stresses
and forces can be derived from the constitutive relations for the FRP
laminate. Furthermore, the strain energy for the unbonded FRP can be
evaluated as:
6
Uunbonded =
JN2(x)aa
(9)
which corresponds to the area under the curve of the load-displacement

diagram (Figure 2c). Since the FRP material remains linear elastic during
the unbonded process, it can be inferred that Uunbonded= R,, Ubonded.
Concrete Cover Failure

To evaluate the amount of energy necessary to break the concrete (tooth) at
the level of longitudinal reinforcement, the following analysis is considered:
Assume the element of concrete (tooth) between two cracks to act at the
constant moment region acting as a cantilever beam (Figure 3a). Before
debonding, the FRP laminate glued at the bottom is in equilibrium.
However, when interfacial failure occurs the FRP at one side of the tooth
(left side in Figure 3b) debonds, resulting in a major misbalance in the stress
carried by the FRP of the tooth.
1 1
I
I
n
1I I
a) Concrete tooth before debonding
TFRP=
-t
FRP
released
Impact
Energy
b) Release of the laminate after fully debonding
S, crack
Bf,width
FRP laminate
c) Fracture surface tooth

Figure 3 .Concrete cover (tooth) failure mechanism
Due to the sudden nature of the crack propagation, this misbalance

translates into a net impact force F that hits the concrete tooth (an easy
analogy is to assume the FRP laminate as a rubber band that is suddenly
release in one end). The direction of the impact energy can be clearly seen
in the photographs of experimental bending tests. Figures 4 and 5 (a and b)
show the different aspects of the tooth failure mode.
Figure 4. Debonding of the FRF' laminate (system A, beam 3)
Figure 5. Detail of the concrete cover (tooth) failure
Figure 4 shows the location where the FRP was initially glued to the
bottom of the concrete (left side of the beam). The interfacial failure not
only pulls the longitudinal FRP, but it also tears the U-shaped anchorage
sheet wrapped around the vertical sides of the beam. Figure 5a. shows the
region of the concrete cover to the left of the first concrete tooth that
failed. Observe the large vertical displacement on the left side of each
remaining tooth and the direction of the splitting crack that runs at the
rebar level. Figure 5b. shows a detail of the constant moment region. Note
that the only remaining concrete tooth at the cover level has rotated
toward the right side of the beam (where the FRP was still bonded).
Assuming that the concrete remains elastic during the impact load (F),
the strain energy per tooth u l o o l h is calculated using a fracture mechanics
approach. Consider G,, the critical strain energy release rate, as the energy
necessary per unit width to open a crack one unit of length. The energy
necessary to break the concrete tooth at the upper base will be G, multiplied
by the cracked surface (Acrack,Figure 3c).
uooih-rap = Gc
XAcmck
(10)
A value of Gc = 10 J/m2 is considered a reasonable value for concrete.
Fukuzawa et al evaluated the critical mode I1 strain energy release rate
(G,) for the interface between concrete and the FRP strengthening system.
It was found that the values of Gllc increased with an increase of crack
length. Values found ranged from 5 to 9 J/m2, which is very close to the
value considered for concrete only.
Another surface of failure can also be considered: the interface between
the concrete and the epoxy (bottom base of the concrete tooth, Figure 3c).
The energy necessary to fail this interface can be calculated using GI,, and
the bonded area of the FRP in one tooth.
Uloorh-boriorn =
Gllc X Abonded
(1 1)
This approach assumes that when & , b o n d e d is larger than Uioolh,

the tooth
is broken. Numerical evaluation of the Eqs. (10) and (1 1) is presented in the
next section.
Numerical Examples
Three beams (from a total of 14) were selected from the experimental
program: beam 3, beam 4 and beam 8. Only beam 8 (system B) did not
exhibit concrete cover failure. Failure at beam 3 was particularly clear of
the path followed by the released energy (see Figure 1). A summary of the
experimental test parameters is presented in Table 1.
In the case of beam 8 strengthened with the plate system, the bonded
width of the CFRP plate (40 mm) was smaller than the width of the concrete
beam (1 00 mm). From the experimental test of this beam, it was observed
that debonding of the plate occurred almost simultaneously at both sides of
point loads, therefore the CFRP plate was released at both ends, resulting in
no failure at the level of the concrete cover. When beam 8 was tested again
with a CFRP plate of the same width as the concrete beam, the failure of the
concrete cover was at the level of the reinforcement and it was very
extensive.
Table 1. Summary of the test parameters of selected bending specimens
Beam
Steel reinj
No. CFRP
Initial failure
ratio
layers
mode
3
0 . 2 7 ~ ~ ~ ~
Interfacea
0 . 2 7 ~ ~ ~ ~
Interface
0.54~max
40mm (system B)
Interface
0.54pmax
lOOmm (system B)
Concrete cover
8
8-1
For each beam numerical calculations were carried out following the
methodology proposed. Results are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Results from numerical analysis of bending tests
Beam
3
4
8
8-I
Uunbonded
(N-m)
62.7
100.79
13.21
13.21
Uloolh- lop
Uloorh-bottom
(N-m)
(N-m)
6.07E-02
6.07E-02
6.07E-02
7.38E-02
7.38E-02
2.95E-02
6.07E-02
7.38E-02
The numerical analysis of the proposed model show that the energy
supplied by the release of the FRP laminate is much larger (by three orders
of magnitude) than the energy necessary to break a concrete tooth at the top
base, therefore several concrete teeth can be broken, as was observed in the
experimental tests (Figures 5 a & b). The energy released also leads to
debonding between the concrete tooth and the FRP sheet and dissipates in
several forms including noise, microcracking, permanent deformation,
crushing of concrete, as experienced in the experimental tests.
a Failure at the interface between the concrete surface and the adhesive epoxy
resulting in debonding of the CFRP laminate
For the case of a beam with an FRP of width smaller than the concrete
beam (beam S), the energy necessary to peel the bottom was smaller (by
half) than the energy necessary to break the top of the tooth. When the
width of the FRP was increased, the situation reversed (beam 8-1).
CONCLUSIONS
This paper analyzes the tearing of the concrete cover due to the release of
energy of the stretched FRP laminate. A failure criteria is developed based
on the calculation of the energy available and the energy necessary to break
an element of concrete between two cracks at the level of the longitudinal
reinforcement. The following conclusions were drawn:
(a) The methodology proposed can accurately predict the occurrence of the
concrete cover failure. The energy accumulated by the stretching of the
FRP laminate was up to 3 orders of magnitude higher than the energy
necessary to break the concrete cover at the level of the steel
reinforcement.
(b) Fracture energy and bonded area of the FRP laminate determine the
likelihood of the concrete cover failure. The fracture energy approach
used in this methodology shows that the layer with the smallest fracture
energy determines the plane of the crack propagation.
REFERENCES
(ACI 440.2R3-02),American Concrete Institute, 2002.

2. Naaman, A., Park, S., Lopez, M., Parameters Influencing the Flexural
Response of RC Beams Strengthened using C F W Sheets, Fifth
International Conference (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, July 200 1.
3. Lopez, M.M., Study of the Flexural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete
Beams Strengthened by Externally Bonded Fiber Reinforced Polymeric
(FRF) Laminates, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Michigan, 2000.
4. Naaman, A.E. and Alkhairi, F.M., Stress at Ultimate in Unbonded
Post-Tensioning Tendons: Part 2 - Proposed Methodology, ACI
Structural Journal, 88(6), 1991, pp. 683-692.
5. Fukuzawa, K., Numao, T., et. al., Critical Strain Energy Release Rate
of Interface Debonding Between Carbon Fiber Sheet and Mortar,
Proceedings of the Third International Symposium: Non-Metallic (FRF)
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Oct. 1997, Vol. 1, pp. 295-302.

INFLUENCE OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES OF FRPS ON

STRENGTH OF FLEXURAL STRENGTHENED RC BEAMS
G. F. ZHANG AND N. KISHI
Dept. of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Muroran Institute of Tech.,
Muroran, 050-8585, Japan
H. MIKAMI
Technical Research Inst. of Mitsui Const., Co. Ltd.,
Nagareyama, 270-01 32, Japan
In this study, an investigation on the influence of material properties of

Fiber Reinforced Plastic sheet (FRPs) on load-carrying capacity and failure
behavior of flexural strengthened Reinforced Concrete (RC) beams is
reported. Four-point loading tests on seven RC beams with two types of
cross section were conducted. Four kinds of FRPs were investigated and
axial stiffness (E-modulus x thickness) was similar among the beams with
the same section type. From this study, it can be observed that when FRPs
with high axial stifhess are used, the FRPs will be peeled-off rapidly due
to diagonal crack occurring at the loading-points besides the equi-shear
span, and midspan deflection tends to be small comparing with cases
where FRPs with low axial stiffness are used.
INTRODUCTION
Fiber Reinforced Plastic sheet (FRPs) is often bonded onto the tension
surface of the existing Reinforced Concrete (RC) members to upgrade the
flexural load-carrying capacity and to improve their serviceability. Due to
the high strength of FRPs, load-carrying capacity of RC members can be
increased dramatically. However, strengthened RC members may reach the
ultimate state under the following conditions: (1) FRPs breaking when the
strain exceeds its ultimate point; (2) FRPs being peeled-off near the edges in
its axial direction due to failure of cover concrete; and (3) FRPs being
peeled-off due to diagonal crack occurred in the lower cover concrete at
loading-point besides in the equi-shear span. Therefore, the ultimate loadcarrying capacity and failure behavior of the strengthened RC members may
be dependent on the strengthening conditions.
So far, many experimental and analytical studies on load-carrying
capacity and failure behavior of the flexural strengthened RC beams with
FRPs have been reported. These results have clearly indicated that the
ultimate load-carrying capacity of the RC beams may be influenced by the
roughness of bonding surface of concrete and not by bonding length of FRPs

when FRPs are bonded in the region for longer than an effective length.
In this paper, in order to investigate the influence of material properties of
FRPs on load-canying capacity of the RC beams, four-point loading tests of
flexural strengthened RC beams with FRPs were conducted, with four kinds
of FRPs. The ultimate load-carrying capacity and failure behavior of the RC
beams with almost the same axial stiffness of FRPs and the same section
type are discussed.
EXPEFUMENTAL OVERVIEW
In this paper, a total of seven RC beams as listed in Table l 4 were
considered. These RC beams were grouped into two types according to the
size of cross section: A-type (150 x 250 mm) and B-type (1 50 x 400 mm).
Three kinds and four kinds of FRPs were used for A-type and B-type beams,
respectively. Each beam was designated using two variables: beam type (A:
A-type, B: B-type); and type of FWs (AT, AK: a family of Aramid FRPs,
C1, C2: a family of Carbon FRPs). Based on each material property
described later, axial stiffness (= EJX tf> of FRPs for each type beam was set
to be similar to each other as much as possible. For example, the amount for
A-type beams was distributed in the region from 29.7 through 38.4 kN/mm.
Material properties of each FRPs are listed in Table 2. From this table, it is
seen that the Young's-moduli of C1 and C2 are almost twice and four times
that of AK, but the breaking strain of C2 is less than one third and one fifth
of that of AK and AT, respectively.
Table 1. List of specimens
Specimen
A-AT
A-AK
A-CI
B-AT
B-AK
B-CI
B- C2
Section VPe
Width x Height
(mm)
Fiber
Type
Ply of
Sheet
AT
AK
150 X 250
c1
B type
150 x 400
AT
AK
c1
c2
1
2
2
2
1
A type
Width of
sheet
br (mm)
130
130
E~x
(kN/mm)
29.7
33.7
38.4
59.3
67.5
76.8
81.4
Influence of Material Properties of FRPs on Strength 329
Table 2. Material properties of FRP sheet

Fiber type
Mass per Thickness Tensile E-modulus Ultimate

Unit area
strength
elongation
(dd)
AT (AramidAT-90)
AK (Aramid AK-60)
CI (Carbon UT70-30)
C2 (Carbon FTS-EA82-2)
Anchor plate 9mm
200 100
525
415
300
340
i)(mm)
0.378
0.286
0.167
0.1 85
of(Gpa) Ef (GPa)
2.35
78.5
118.0
2.06
3.40
230.0
2.40
440.0
&ji
PA)
2.99
1.75
1.48
0.55
2400
3000
100 200
(mm)
Figure 1. Details of specimens
Figure 1 shows the dimensions of RC beams used in the study. All RC

beams had rectangular cross sections with double reinforcement. Dimensions of
the cross section were 150 x 250 mm and 150 x 400 mm for A-type and Btype beams, respectively. Clear span was 2600 mm and SD345 D16 and
SD295 D10 rebars were used as axial rebar and stirrup for both types of
beams, respectively.
Stirrups were arranged at intervals of 100 mm. Each FRP sheet, 130 mm
wide, was bonded on the tension surface from the center to the location 100
mm inside the supports. Here, the concrete surface to be bonded with FRPs
was chipped heavily to improve the bonding performance.
Bending and shear capacities of strengthened RC beams were estimated
by using multi-section analysis method and modified truss theory5,
respectively. It was confirmed for all RC beams that bending capacity is less
than shear capacity even after strengthening. Analytical results were
obtained assuming FRPs to be bonded perfectly on the concrete surface up
to ultimate state. As for the material properties, average compressive
strength of concrete was 3 1.5 MPa and average yield strength of axial rebar
was 407.0 MPa. Ultimate compressive strain of concrete for numerical
analysis was assumed to be 0.0035 based on the specification of Japan

Concrete Standard.
Four-point loading test method with a equi-bending span of 500 mm
long was applied in this study. The experimental setup is shown in Photo 1.
Shear span ratios of A-type and B-type beams were 2.9 and 5.0 respectively.
Strain gauges were glued on the FRPs at intervals of 100 mm to measure
the strain distribution of FRPs. Surcharged load (hereinafter, load), mid-span
deflection (hereinafter, deflection), and axial strain distribution of FRPs
were recorded continuously by using digital data-recorders to precisely
investigate the debonding process of FRPs.
Photo 1. Experimental setup
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Load-Deflection Curves
Figure 2 compares the load-deflection curves obtained experimentally with
analytical results. In this figure, numerical analyses for B-C1/C2 beams
were terminated due to sheet breaking. From this figure, it can be seen that:
(1)load carrying capacities of A-type and B-type strengthened RC beams
estimated by numerical analysis were increased more than 25 % and twice
the values before strengthening, respectively, except for the case of B-C2
beam; (2) analytical maximum load and deflection were almost the same
among same type RC beams and they were 80 kN and 32 mm for A-type
beams and 210 kN and 28 mm for B-type ones except B-C2 beam,
respectively. In the case of B-C2 beam, analytical maximum load and
deflection were smaller than those of the other beams because this beam

100 I
250
AT sheet
Sheet debonded
A-AT
'0
E p f/ = 29.7 k N / m
40
60
Deflection 6 (mm)
20
80
"0
20
30
Deflection 6 (mm)
10
40
AK sheet
-2
50
debonded
Sheet
debonded
A-AK E p t f = 33.7k N / m
25
20
40
60
Deflection 6 (mm)
B-AK
80
10
20
30
Deflection 6 (mm)
debonded
C1 sheet
E,xr/= 67.5k N / m
40
,Sheet
50
debonded
P
3
25
'0
A-CI
B-CI E p y = 76.8k N I m
E f x ' f = 38.4k N l m
20
40
60
Deflection 6 (mm)
80
10
20
30
Deflection 6 (mm)
250 r
C2 sheet
40
- Ana.
0
20
30
Deflection6 (mm)
10
40
(b) Btype
Figure 2. Load-midspan deflection curves

reached the ultimate state due to sheet breaking. These suggest that
analytical results for RC beams strengthened with a similar axial stiffness of
FRPs will be almost the same except for the case of sheet breaking at an
early loading stage.
On the other hand, from the experimental result, the characteristics of
FRPs debonding were remarkably different depending upon the material
property of FRPs. That is to say, in case of A-type beams, the beams

reached ultimate state under the Flexural Compressive Failure (FCF) mode
because sheet was debonded after reaching the analytical ultimate limit state.
For B-type beams, the ultimate state was reached due to sheet debonding
before the analytical ultimate limit state and this is called the Debonding
Failure (DF) mode. Observing the experimental results in detail, the it is
seen that the higher the axial stiffness E f x tj of FRPs, the smaller are the
maximum load and deflection. This tendency is more pronounced for A-type
beams than for B-type ones. Beam B-C2 reached the ultimate state due to
sheet breaking.
Axial Strain Distributions of FRPs
Figure 3 compares the experimental and analytical strain distributions of

FRPs at deflections S= 32.5 mm and 6= 18.2 mm for A-type and B-type
beams excluding B-C2 beam, respectively. These are near the analytical or
experimental ultimate state. In the case of B-C2 beam, the results at a
deflection 6= 9.35 mm which is near the point of sheet breaking are shown
in this figure.
From Figure 3(a), it is observed that for A-AT/AK beams, each
experimental strain distribution in the pure bending region was similar to
that of the analytical one. In the rebar yield area obtained by numerical
analysis, the experimental strain distribution formed a small plateau near
loading points. This means that: (1) debonding of FRPs was initiated at the
tip of diagonal cracks occurring in the lower cover concrete near the loading
points and propagating toward the supports; and (2) strain plateaus were
formed in the region were FRPs are peeled-off.
On the other hand, in the case of A-Cl beam, measured strain
distributions in both pure bending region and shear spans were remarkably
higher than the analytical values. In particular, strains in the pure bending
region exceeded 2%. This is because the sheet in the pure bending region
was broken locally near the locations of strain gauge. Furthermore, the sheet
debonding progressed quickly toward the supports in the shear span of the
left-hand side because the strains in this region were higher than the
analytical values.
Figure 3(b) shows that the plateau of measured strain distribution in
Beam B-Cl was the longest among the three beams. This implies that the
FRPs in Beam B-C1 were peeled off widely at the same deflection
compared with the other beams. This can be interpreted as that shear stress
occurred widely at the bond interface between concrete and FRPs due to a
higher axial stiffness Efx +of B-C1, as discussed in the next section.
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
15000
10000
5000
A-AK
20000r ' ' ' '

15000
10000
5000
0
A-C1
'I
' '
I'
'
'
B-AT
0-AK
' ' I
10000
5000
0,
*
10000 5000 0,
(a) at deflection 6 = 32.5 mm
Over the measuring limit

of strain gauge
I
Rebar yield area
(b) at deflection 6 = 18.2 mm

20000
15000
10000
5000
0
(c) at deflection 6 = 9.35 mm

Figure 3. Axial strain distributionsof FRPs
Measured strain distribution in Beam B-C2 in Figure 3(c) were higher

than the analytical strains in the pure bending region; and the strains near the
loading points exceeded 0.55% which is the nominal breaking strain of C2
fiber. This is because that sheet has broken locally across cracks at this
location.
Debonding Behavior of FRPs

To investigate the debonding mechanism of FRP flexural strengthening for
RC beam, a schematic diagram is illustrated in Figure 4 by referring to the
experimental results shown in Photo 2. From this figure, the following
mechanism of FRPs can be proposed: (1) relative displacement at the tip of
diagonal crack in the horizontal and vertical directions, u and v are increased
A Loading point
(a) At deflection 6 = 18.65 mm
&Loading point
(b) At deflection 6 = 21.5 mm
Photo 2. Peeling off of FRPs (B-AK beam)

Loading point
e,
4
Concreie
Rebar
FRPs
I
...............
.
..
n L
..............
/
,'
Suppoifing point
:..xi "
Debondinrof FRPs
'
v 7
Figure 4. Schematic diagram for FRPs debonding
with increasing surcharged load 6; (2) as a result, normal and shear stresses,
o, and z, occurred in the bonding interface between FRPs and concrete will
be increased; and (3) FRPs may be debonded due to the resultant of
interfacial normal and shear stresses reaching an ultimate value. This
phenomenon is well known as peeled-off of FRPs.
Following the debonding mechanism of FRPs mentioned above, it is
seen that debonding of FRPs depends on the magnitude of normal stresses o,
and shear stress 5 occurred in the interface. Furthermore, it can be
considered that, at the same deflection of the RC beam, the higher the axial
stiffness Efx t,of FRPs, the larger will be the interfacial shear stress z, . This
is because the value z, increases correspondingly with the increment of the
tensile stress dq-that occurred in FRPs, which is obtained by multiplying the

Youngs modulus with incremental axial strain of FRPs.
Therefore, it suggests that flexurally strengthened RC beams with higher
axial stiffness E f x q o f FRPs tend to reach the ultimate state earlier due to
peeled-off of FRPs at smaller deflections than RC beams strengthened with
FRPs having a smaller axial stiffness.
Effectiveness Factor Re of FRPs
The experimental load-carrying capacity, tensile capacity of FRPs, measured
maximum tensile force in FRPs (hereinafter, measured tensile force) at sheet
debonding point, and ratio of measured tensile force to tensile capacity of
FRPs (hereinafter, effectiveness factor Re) are listed in Table 3. Here, the
measured tensile force was estimated by multiplying Youngs modulus El,
thickness tr, width bf and measured average strain of FRPs 9 in the purebending region. The results for Beam A-C 1 were excluded because the FRPs
were broken locally in the pure bending region. The results of Beam B-C2
were also excluded because it reached the ultimate state with sheet breaking.
Table 3. Effective ratio Re of FRPs
Specimen
A-AT
A-AK
B-AT
B-AK
B-CI
Ultimate load Measured tensile Tensile capacity Effectiveness

of FRPs
factor Re
force of FRPs
fkN)
(1) (kN)
(2) FN)
(r)/(2)
87.2
66.6
115.5
0.58
84.6
60.6
76.6
0.79
164.6
81.3
231.0
0.35
160.1
156.9
94.2
88.9
153.2
147.6
0.6 1
0.60
From Table 3, it is seen that the effectiveness factor Re for AT-type beam
was the smallest among the beams with the same cross section. This implies
that AT-type beams reach the ultimate state with sheet debonding before
FRPs effectively reach its tensile strength. Comparing Re of AT-type beams
with that of AK-type beams, it is seen that the value of AK-types beams
tended to be larger. The effectiveness factor Re for AK-type beam was the
largest one among all RC beams considered here; and the value was 0.79
and 0.61 for FCF type (A-type) beam and DF type (B-type) beam,
respectively.
On the other hand, in the case of B-type beam, it can be seen that the
effectiveness factor Re of B-C1 beam was smaller than that of B-AK beam.
This result may be interpreted by considering the debonding mechanism

mentioned previously.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to investigate the influence of material properties of FRP sheet on
the load-carrying capacity and failure behavior of flexurally strengthened
RC beams, four-point loading tests were conducted on seven RC beams
strengthened with FRPs. Two kinds of FRPs, AFRPs and CFRPs, were used
for this investigation by setting the axial stiffness of FRPs to be almost the
same for the beams with same cross section type.
(1)
(2)
In the case where FRPs with higher axial stiffness are used, FRPs will
be peeled-off more rapidly due to diagonal crack occurring near the
loading-points in the pure shear region, and deflection tends to be
smaller.
Effectiveness factor Re of the FRPs with low Youngs modulus is
smaller than that with high Youngs modulus. The AK-type Aramid
FRPs gives the highest value of the Re among the four kinds of FRPs;
and the value is 0.79 and 0.61 for beams failing by flexural
compression type and debonding, respectively.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Chajes, M. J., Finch, W. W., Januszka T. F., and Thomson T. A., Bond
and Force Transfer of Composite Material Plates Bonded to Concrete,
ACI Structural Journal, V.93, No.2, 1996, pp. 208-2 17.
Volnyy, V. A., and Pantelides, C. P., Bond Length of CFRP Composites
Attached to Precast Concrete Walls, Journal of Composites for
Construction, Vo1.3, No.4, 1999, pp. 168-176.
De Lorenzis, L., Miller, B., and Nanni, A., Bond of FRP Laminates to
Concrete,ACI Materials Journal, V01.98, NO.3,2001, pp. 256-264.
Kurihashi, Y . , Kishi, N, Mikami, H, and Zhang, G.F., Effects of Emodulus of Sheet on Load Carrying Capacity of RC Beam Flexural
Strengthened with FRFs, Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute,
JCI, Vol. 24, No. 2,2002, pp. 1429-1434 (in Japanese).
Standard Specijications for Concrete Structures-2002, Structural
Performance VerlJication,JSCE, 2002 (in Japanese).
Triantafillou, T. C., and Plevris, N., Strengthening of RC Beams with
Epoxy-bonded Fibre-composite Materials, Materials and Structures,
Vol. 25, 1992, pp.201-2 11.

DUCTILITY OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP STRIPS AND FABRIC
M. VALCUENDE AND J. BENLLOCH
Department of Architectonic Constructions, Polythenic University of Valencia

Camino de Vera s/n, Valencia 46022, Spain
C.J. PARRA
Department of Structures and Constructions, Polythenic Univ. of Cartagena.
Calle Doctor Fleming s/n, Cartagena 30202, Spain
This experimental research has studied the flexural behaviour of carbon
fiber strengthened beams, when the anchorage conditions are improved by
using fiber fabric. The experimental work consisted of testing to failure 8
simply supported beams of rectangular cross section. Two of them were
control beams, 4 were strengthened by using strips, and in the other 2, after
bonding the strips on the beam tensile face, the ends of the strips were
wrapped with carbon fiber fabrics. The test results showed that the two
strengthened patterns had a notably influence on the specimens structural
performance, improving load capacity, modifying structural behaviour
(stiffness and ductility) and changing failure mode. As a result, the two
beams strengthened with strip and fabric showed a substantially different
behaviour to that of the beams just strengthened with strips. Hence, these
two beams showed a ductile behaviour, similar on one case and improved,
on the other case, to that of the control beams. Nevertheless, both the
failure load and the deflections during the first phase of the load process
were similar in the two strengthened patterns.
INTRODUCTION
The use of composite materials to strengthen concrete reinforced structures
(specially polymers reinforced with carbon fibers) tend to replace other
traditional methods for repairing, such as bonded steel plate. This is due to
several reasons: advantageous mechanical properties (better relationships
between strengtwweight and stiffnesdweight), good behaviour against
corrosion, and easiness and rate of placing. Since the late ~ O ' S ,numerous
researches''6 have been performed concerning these new materials,
generally obtaining important strength improvements when fiber carbon
materials are employed to strengthen concrete structures.
The specimens strengthened with this system show a loss of

d u ~ t i l i t y ~ On
, ~ , ~the
. one hand, it is important to bear in mind that an
increase in the quantity of tensile reinforcement without increase in the load
capacity of the compression zone, leads to a bigger depth of neutral axis,
and, therefore, a lesser strain of the most tensile fibers at the failure load.
On the other hand, carbon fibers show an elastic behaviour to failure,
without plastic regime. Finally, it is important to remember that the collapse
of the strengthened beam is not generally a flexural failure but a bond
failure (peeling-off) due to a complete loss of composite action between the
concrete and the FRP reinforcement. As a result, the failure occurs suddenly
and in a brittle manner.
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
The aim in this research work is to study the structural behaviour of the
reinforced concrete beams strengthened with carbon fiber reinforced
polymer strips when the anchorage end is improved by means of carbon
fiber fabric.
Eight simply supported beams with two types of flexural reinforcement
(types A and B) with a yield strength of 500 MPa were cast for the program.
All the beams were tested to failure (Figure 1).
Beam Type A
+ 100
Beam Type B
+ 100-
150
150
+300+
Fabric
x
x
+200+
PI24
4P/2
1.000
1.200
300Fabric
Figure 1. Details of test beams
&
Ductility of RC Beams Strengthened with CFRP 339
A standard mix concrete was used, with a maximum aggregate size of

12 mm, a cement content of 375 kg/m3 and a W/C of 0,4. The compressive
strength of the concrete at testing day is shown in Table 2.
The beams were strengthened with a carbon fiber strip, which show an
elastic behaviour to the failure. After bonding the strip on the beam tensile
face, the ends were wrapped with carbon fiber fabric. Mechanical properties
of both materials are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of strengthening materials
Strip
2.600
Tensile strength MPa)
Young's modulus (MPa) 165.000
Failure strain (96)
127
Dimensions (mm)
50 x 1,2
Fabric
3.500
230.000
Epoxy (strip) Epoxy fabric)

--30
3.800
12.800
195
305 x 0,13
-----
-----
To guarantee an adequate bond between concrete and strengthening

materials the surface laitance was removed, just until the aggregate was
visible. Later on, the beams were cleaned with a dissolving agent to remove
dirt. An adhesive based on epoxy resins was used to bond strips and fabrics.
Mechanical properties of these materials are given in Table 1.
The beams were designated according to the strengthening system used
(Table 2). Beams A-C and B-C were control beams without any external
reinforcement. Beams A-S 1, A-S2, B-S 1 and B-S2 had a carbon fibers strip
bonded on the tensile face. Finally, beams A-SF and B-SF, were provided
with external anchorages at the ends of the beam, in addition to the strip.
The end external anchorage was made up of carbon fiber fabric and was
wrapped around the beam (side and bottom faces) after bonding the strip.
Table 2. Summary of tested beams
Beam type
Beam designation
R
Y
A-C
AS1
A-S2
A-SF
B-C
B-Sl
B-S2
B-SF
Compressive strength
of concrete (MPa)
38.24
39,45
39,45
38,24
37,3 1
41,56
41,56
37,3 1
Strengthening
material
No
Strip
Strip
Strip and fabric
No
Strip
Strip
Strip and fabric
The midspan deflection was measured using two linear potentiometers

with a travel of 100 mm, and to measure the load a compression load cell
was used (Figure 2). All the sensors were connected to a data acquisition
system to scan and record the readings.
Figure 2.Test setup with external instrumentation
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The unstrengthened control beams (beams A-C and B-C) failed in flexure,
as expected, with crushing of the concrete in the compression zone and
excess of cracking in the tension zone.
On the other hand, in the strengthened beams, the strengthening pattern
had a great influence on the pieces: improving load capacity, modifying
structural behavior and changing failure mode (Figures 3 and 4).
Load Capacity
The failure load in all the beams tested was higher than the failure load of
the control beams. All the beams showed similar load capacity and no
difference was found between the beams strengthened with strips and the
beams strengthened with strips and fabrics (Table 3). These increases in
load capacity ranged between 35,55 % and 45,41 % in type A beams (A-S1,
A-S2, A-SF) and between 16,93 % and 26,56 % in type B beams (B-SI, BS2, B-SF).
Ductiliq of RC Beams Strengthened with CFRP 341

10
8
h
4
2
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
16
18
20
Deflection (mm)
Figure 3 . Load-deflection curves of type A beams

10
0
0
10
12
14
Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Load-deflection curves oftype B beams
Even though all patterns of strengthened beams showed similar strength

increments, other research works showed different results. For example, in
the works carried out by Grace3 or Bencardino4, the strengthened beams
improved their load capacity324and decreased in ductility4 when the
anchorage of the strip was strengthened with fabric. Nevertheless, it is
necessary to indicate that the order of placement of the strengthening
materials was not the same. In the above studies, the fabric was bonded
prior to the strips, probably with the aim of increasing the contact surface
between the concrete and the strengthening material and, therefore,
decreasing bond stresses.
Table 3. Summary of tests results

Beams
Failure
Failure mode
load fig)
Ductility indexes
Defection
Energy
Ductility ratios
Defection
Energy
A-C
5.904
Flexure
1,97
2,68
1 ,oo
1,oo
A-SI
8.003
Peeling-off
1,05
1,09
0,54
0,41
A-S2
8.585
Peeling-off
1,00
1,oo
0,5 1
0,37
A-SF
8.303
Peeling-off and
fabric rupture
2,94
4,78
1,49
1,78
B-C
6.126
Flexure
2,32
3,41
1,oo
1,oo
B-S1
7.163
Peeling-off
1,Ol
1,Ol
0,43
0,30
1,05
0,44
0,3 1
3,36
1,02
0,98
B-S2
7.710
Peeling-of
1,03
B-SF
7.753
Peeling-off and
fabric rupture
2,36
Structural Behaviour and Modes of Failure
The same structural performance has been observed in the tests for all
beams strengthened with carbon fiber strips (A-S1, A-S2, B-S1, B-S2).
Almost a linear behaviour until rupture with a sudden brittle failure by
debonding of the strip at the end anchorage was observed. All these beams
showed shear cracks due to an insufficient quantity of stirrups (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Failure modes of beams A-S1, A-S2, B-S1 and B-S2
In the case of Beams A-SF and B-SF, where anchorage conditions of

the strips were improved, the behaviour was different, and it is possible to
keep apart several phases. During the first phase, the behaviour was linear
and similar to that of the four previous beams. A sudden collapse of the
concrete-strip bond was produced at the same load levels. Thus, the beams
experienced a momentary loss of load capacity and a sudden increase in
deflection. But, since the strip still remains bonded to the fabric and the
fabric to the concrete, the beam is able to continue absorbing the load,
although with big deflection, reaching the definitive failure after fabric
rupture.
Even though there is a premature collapse of the beams due to
anchorage failure, almost all the flexural load capacity should have been
reached, because clear signs of flexural failure are observed: crushing of
concrete in the compression zone and excess of cracking in the tension
zone. The observed crack pattern was not produced by shear stresses but by
flexure (Figure 6).
Figure 6 . Failure modes of beams A-SF and B-SF
Therefore, the carbon fiber fabric has improved the structural

performance in two ways: on the one hand, as shear reinforcement, and on
the other, by improving the anchorage conditions of the strip. Nevertheless,
in spite of the fabric, the failure mode in the two beams tested is produced
by debonding of the strip at the anchorage end. Once the bond strength
between concrete and strip is destroyed, the latter continued to be partially
bonded to the fabric (Figure 7), acting as a tie and allowing the beam to
reach higher loads and additional ductility (Figures 3 and 4). In both cases,
the definitive collapse of the beams did not take place until the fabric
ruptured.
Figure 7. Rupture of fabric
Another important aspect illustrated by all the strengthened beams with

respect to the control beams is the improvement in stiffness. Studying the
slope of the load-deflection curves, shown in Figures 3 and 4, it is
concluded that for moderate levels of load (below cracking moment) the
structural performance of all the beams is very similar, although slightly
better for the strengthened beams. Theoretically these differences should be
about 5.5 % (increment of moment of inertia due to the strip), although it is
difficult to estimate experimentally due to the lack of accuracy of the load
cell during the initial phase of load.
Nevertheless, for higher load levels all the strengthened beams showed
less deflection, due to the stiffness increment over the control beams, of an
average of 30%. This value is close to 36%, which is the theoretical value
obtained by considering the relationship between the moment of inertia of
the transformed uncracked section and the moment of inertia of the cracked
section of the strengthened and unstrengthened beams.
Ductility
There is no experimental data available to evaluate the curvature of the
beam at the maximum moment section. Thus, as carried out by some
authors in other research works4, to analyse the ductility, some ductility
indexes have been defined in terms of structural characteristics such as
midspan deflection and area under the load-deflection diagram (as a
measure of energy absorption). These indexes are defined as:
Deflection ductility, p A= Au / A,
Energy ductility,
pE = EUI E,
(2)
where A, = Midspan deflection at ultimate load; Ay = Midspan deflection at
tension steel yielding; E, = Area under the load-deflection diagram at
ultimate load; and Ey = Area under the load-deflection diagram up to
yielding of tension steel (elastic energy).
The calculated ductility indexes and the ductility ratios of the
strengthened beams to those of the control beams without external
strengthening are shown in Table 3. The calculation of steel yielding
moment is quite simple in the beams without carbon fiber strengthening,
and just approximate in the strengthened beams, due to the quasi-elastic
behaviour of carbon fiber until rupture.
It can be concluded from data summarized in Table 3, that all beams
strengthened with carbon fiber strip have experienced a significant loss of
ductility. Depending on how it is quantified (deflection or energy), the
values that are obtained are of the range of a third or half of the values
obtained in the control beams, agreeing fully with those obtained by other
researchers4. However, the behaviour of the beams with additional
anchorage (A-SF and B-SF) has been very different, with similar values of
the ductility index in one case, or higher in the other case, compared to that
of the control beams. Thus, although the modification of the anchorage
conditions failed to increase the beam strength, a much more ductile
behaviour is obtained, and this must be kept in mind when the strengthening
is designed.
With regard to these last results, certain discrepancies can be found in
the literature, since some works show an increment of ductility when the
anchorage conditions of the strips are improved, and others do not. This is
probably due to the difference in the quality of concrete, the quantity of
external strengthening, the available surface of contact among fabric and
concrete or the order in which the two strengthening materials (strip and
fabric) are applied on the beam. As a result, more tests need to be carried
out so that the influence of these factors could be quantified more
accurately.
CONCLUSIONS
The major conclusions derived from this experimental study are given as
follows:
(a) The beams strengthened with carbon fiber strip and the beams
strengthened with carbon fiber strip and fabric show a similar increment
in stiffness and load capacity.
(b) The improvement of the strip end anchorage notably influence beam
ductility. Thus, the beams strengthened with strip and fabric show a
ductile behaviour, similar or possibly better than un-strengthened
beams, while the beams strengthened with strips only, exhibited
reduced ductility.
(c) The order of placement of the two strengthening materials, strips and
fabric, can influence the structural behaviour of the beams. In fact,
depending on the adopted solution, higher strength could be reached
with lower ductility.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge and would like express their
appreciation to Sika Valencia (Spain) and to Dominguis s.1. for providing
the composite materials and wrapping them around the specimens. The
contributions of M. Calabuig, R. Calabuig and J. Martinez are greatly
appreciated.
REFERENCES
1. Valcuende, M., Benlloch J. and Parra, C.J., Estudio Experimental de

Piezas de Hormigon Reforzadas con Fibra de Carbono, 15Ih Congreso
Nacional de Ingenieria M e c h i c a , Cadiz, December 10-13,2002.
2. Grace, N.F., Strengtening of Negative Moment Region of Reinforced
Concrete Beams Using carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Strips, ACZ
Structural Journal, 98(3), 2001, pp. 347-3 5 8.
3. Bencardino, F., Spadea G. and Swamy, R.N., Strength and Ductility of
Reinforced Concrete Beams Externally Reinforced with Carbon Fiber
Fabric, ACZ Structural Journal, 99(2), 2002, pp. 163- 1 7 1.
4. Grace, N.F., Sayed G.A., Soliman A.K. and Saleh, K.R., Strengthening
Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Laminates, ACZStructural Journal, 96(5), 1999, pp. 865-874.
5 . Ritchie, P.A., Thomas, D.A., Lu, L. and Connelly G.M., External
Reinforcement of Concrete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Plastics, ACI
Structural Journal, 88(4), 1991, pp. 490-5 0 0.
6. FIB, Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC Structures, Tecnical
Report, Bulletin 14, Federation Internationalle du BCton, 2001, 130 pp.

A REVIEW OF DUCTILITY DETERMINATION OF FRF'

STRENGTHENED FLEXURAL RC ELEMENTS
D. B. TANN, P. DAVIES AND R. DELPAK
School of Technology, University of Glamorgan
Pontypridd, CF37 IDL, United Kingdom
A comparative study has been undertaken in order to determine the
suitability of existing ductility evaluation methods when applied to RC
elements strengthened with Fibre Reinforced Polymers. The comparison
will involve considering a number of criteria such as consistency of
prediction, volatility of data, ease of application in practical cases and
accuracy of prediction. It is shown that the indices calculated for brittle
members can have variations when using the existing methods. It is also
seen that there is a discernible reduction in deformation based indices in
comparison to energy based ones. It is therefore proposed that a revised
deformability method is examined, utilising the deformations at
serviceability load (Ps)and 95% of ultimate load (Po.95u).
INTRODUCTION
General Comments
The consideration of structural ductility is of predominant importance to all
structural designers, as all appropriately designed structures must attain
sufficient ductility, under ultimate loads, to provide adequate warning of
failure and prevent sudden and brittle collapse.
The concept is particularly applicable to RC beams and slabs and to
prestressed concrete elements. During many experiments in RC beam
strengthening by steel plate bonding, it became apparent that sudden peeling
of the plates was one of the main causes of failure. This unpredictable
characteristic has many similarities with RC beam strengthening using other
materials such as Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs).
From a practical and commercial viewpoint, there are ample cases where
it may become necessary to strengthen a reinforced concrete member.
Historically, this has been achieved using section enlargement or, more
recently, by attaching steel plates to the tension surface. Over the past
decade, FRPs have increasingly been used in place of steel plates but
engineers have been hesitant in deploying this method of strengthening,
mainly due to the uncertainty of sudden failure. It is recognised that FRP
strengthened, reinforced concrete elements behave differently from their

steel reinforced counterparts, due to the primarily linear elastic stress-strain
characteristics of composites up to failure.
In this paper, the ductility or deformability indices from 55 beams (from
published experimental data), which are listed in Table 1, have been
calculated and studied using selected methods. All methods gave markedly
different sets of results for each particular beam. Also, each method gave a
wide range of indices for beams that failed in a brittle manner.
Aims
The overall aim of the study is to develop a method of determining the
ductility or deformability index of any structural element strengthened with
FRP. Firstly, a review will be carried out of the current methods of
calculating the ductility index of structural elements. Ultimately, it is
intended to develop a semi-automatic method of analysing experimental and
theoretical Load/Deflection or MomentlCurvature data to determine indices.
REVIEW OF CURRENT LITERATURE
The question of ductility for FRP reinforced concrete elements has been a
topic of considerable debate among researchers 123 45 . It has generally been
accepted that ductility can be measured by a dimensionless factor, i.e. a
ductility index, which can be calculated in several different forms from
two broader categories:
Deformation Based Methods
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
where A is the ultimate maximum deflection of a member and Ay is the

value where the steel reinforcement reaches its yield strength.
ii)
Curvature ductility:
,u0= @tl
(2)
@Y
where Qu is the curvature in the constant moment region at ultimate load and
Qy is the curvature in the constant moment region at the steel reinforcement
yield point.
Ductility Determination of FRP Strengthened Elements 349
As can be seen for both methods, an important deformation point to

ascertain is the steel reinforcement yield point. Due to the nature of FRP
strengthened elements to perform in a primarily elastic manner, this cannot
easily be identified, as illustrated in Fig 1 . Consequently, it is apparent that
the above conventional methods of calculating ductility indices may not be
considered as appropriate for FRP strengthened elements.
Energy Based Methods
i)
For energy based calculations:
Eu
pE, = -
(3)
EY
where E, is the area under the LoadDeflection curve at failure and Ey is the
area under the Load/Deflection curve at the steel reinforcement yield point.
ii)
Another set of energy calculations are given by:
where E,,, is the total energy, calculated as the area under the load-deflection
curve up to the failure load and E,, is the elastic energy.
This method was first published by Naaman and Jeong (1 995) but there
are . practical difficulties in identifying the elastic stored energy.
Consequently, Naaman and Jeong suggested that the elastic energy could be
estimated using an equivalent triangle area under the load-deflection curve,
with the slope of the estimated unloading line determined using the
following equation (see also Fig. 2):
EVALUATION OF EXISTING METHODS

Experimental results from a number of published sources were used to
evaluate the effectiveness of the various methods of determining ductility
indices. The element data is presented in Table 1, with the calculated
indices and failure modes listed in Table 2.
10
Ay?
15
A"
20
Deflection (mm)
Figure 1. Diagram illustrating difficulty of ascertaining

steel yield point for FRP strengthened elemend
10
15
20
Deflection (mm)
Figure 2. Example of calculation of equivalent

elastic stored energy'
Table 1. Element Data

E
lnt'l
m 0
$2
FRP
m E flexural
GE
rejnf't
Type* % Of
Concrete
Strength
X-S&.
End Failure
load
(N/mm2)
fkW
E
Q
Int'l
$2
FRP
m E flexural
6.g
rejnft
Concrete
Strength
End
Type* I % Of x-sect. (N/mm2)
Failure
load
IkN)
. .
~~
0.05
42.0
N 121.10
35.4
N
101.26
C, F
0.41
0
1A
08mm
3
x
c,
s
0.09
42.0
N
121.70
133.09
36.7
Y
1B
2x
C, F
0.82
C.
S
0.18
40.5
N
90.03 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126.70
21.0
N
1C
q 016mm C,F
0.41
....
34.3
N
86.80
C, P
0.23
9A
1D_ _ . _ _ _ _
C,_
F __
0.82
-102.29
- -_
---_
- _
_
_ _ _ . . _ _ _ _-_
________________--.
9B
C, P
0.23
29.0
Y
98.00
70.40
2A
G, P
1.52
9c
8
C, P
0.23
29.0
Y
96.70
82.40
37.5
N
28
G,P
3.03
3x
2X
C, P
0.23
37.8
Y
75.00
N 105.90 9D *
37.5
6.07
2C
_x
0lOmm G.P
9E
016mm C, P
0.23
33.2
Y
77.70
81.90
37.5
N
C, P
0.23
35.6
N
74.80
9F
-----_37.5
_ _ _ _ _ _ -N- _ --_-103.10
ih"
9G
C, P
0.23
29.6
Y 98.80
70.0
N
47.20
9H
C,
P
0.23
30.5
Y
98.30
36.70
42.0
N
G,P
1.76
3
x
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
--------g
g
3B
C, P
0.14
38.5
N
21.80
24.60
58.0
N
G. P
2.56
No.R6
3C 0
loA
Icw
41.9
Y
21.80
5'
10B 2
xNo.3 C, P
0.46
0.61 _ _ _ _ _ _ 47.6---_---Y- - - - - 34.40
_ 1_ oc
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - C, P
-----C, P
0.05
51.71
N
146.35
11A
c, P
0.11
51.71
N
169.03
11B
8A
88
8C
C. S
'E.
9
2
________________
6B
6C
6D
6E
6F
7c
.-.-
2T10
C, P
C, P
C, P
C, F
C. F
C;F
0.80
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.70
1.60
42.54
35.92
42.61
27.10
29.52
37.8
N
N
N
N
N
90.00
70.00
68.30
76.00
61.18
14.49
11c
11D
11E
11F
11G
11H
111
11J
11K
11L
11M
UI
4 x No,5
C,
C.
C,
C.
C,
C,
C,
C,
C,
C,
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
c, P
0.16
0.79
0.79
0.03
0.06
0.16
0.05
0.03
0.06
0.05
0.11
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
51.71
Y
Y
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
171.70
195.72
211.29
143.23
170.28
195.99
81.76
61.74
74.78
154.35
153.91
* FRP Type: C-Carbon,A-Aramid, G-Glass;P-Plate, F- Fabric
24
31
2
*,
c*,
2
Table 2. Calculated Indices and Modes of Failure
Beam Defleciion Curvature Enerpv
- 11)
. , Enerpv Deflection
NO.
PA]
Po
pEi
( 2 ) ~ ; ~ i2)pA2
1A 2.99 (2.93)
(5.13)
5.78 (5.84)
1.80
2.74
(2.89)
5.91 (6.00)
1.75
2.3 1
1B 2.94 (2.87)
(3.56)
5.92 (6.42)
1.72
2.72
1C 2.99 (3.02)
2.10
1D 2.02 (1.99)
(2.3i)
3.43 (3.42)
1.35
7.81
2.75
3.09
2A
3.940
2B
2.67
4.90
2.26
1.83
4.02
1.97
1.48
2C
2.25
5.19
2.29
2D
2.78
2.48
3.78
2.17
1.90
2E
2.22
5.42
2.54
1.44
3A
2.77
2.80
2.22
3B
1.80
0.85
3.33
5.07
1.45
3C
2.73
3D
2.00
3.38
2.27
1.24
4A
2.13
4.94
2.46
2.02
3.34
2.04
1.68
4B
1.72
4.71
2.43
1.90
4C
2.15
4.63
5A
2.10
5B
4.63
1.86
1.38
6A
2.43
1.83
1.84
6B
1.42
1.31
2.10
3.19
2.37
2.02
6C
2.11
1.54
6D
1.51
2.04
1.97
1.32
2.17
3.47
2.39
1.79
6E
2.17
2.40
2.10
6F
2.10
3.28
1.79
3.30
2.69
2.13
6G
2.17
2.10
5.13
3.44
7A
2.96
2.48
7B
2.11
3.35
1.64
2.56
3.33
2.70
7C
2.14
1.89
ir,,
Failure
Mode
SYICC
FR
SYICC
CCED
SYICC
SYICC
SYICC
SYICC
SYICC
FD
TO
TO
TO
TO
TO
TO
cc
CCIFD
TO
TO
SF
cc
cc
FD
cc
FRICC
FR
FR
*rl
Beam Deflection Curvature Energv (I) Energv Deflection Failure

No.
i2) PAZ
Mode
Po
(2) PEZ
(1) PA I
PEI
8A
2.94
4.79
2.78
3.48
SYIFR
8B
2.26
2.24
TO
3.48
2.52
1.78
8C
2.56
1.68
2.00
FD
9A
2.1 1 (1.5) 1.74 (1.5) 3.06 (1.9)
1.10
1.95
FD
4.34 (4.3) 2.75 (2.9) 10.14 (9.5) 2.45
9B
3.66
FD
3.74 (3.5) 3.19 (4.0) 8.82 (7.6)
2.92
FD
9c
1.91
(3.00)
(4.80)
9D
FD
(13..20)
(4.00)
9E
(5.80)
FDICC
(16.10)
(2.20)
(2.00)
9F
(3.20)
FD
(3.30)
(4.50)
9G
(I 0.90)
FD
(4.90)
9H
(3.80)
(8.40)
FD
2.08
2.15
1OA
3.15
5.16
SF
2.39
1.74
2.39
FR
1OB
4.03
3.30
2.12
2.97
FR
1oc
6.41
11A 3.66 (3.4)
4.43
6.56
TO
4.24
11B 2.83 (2.1)
2.70
3.00
TO
4.77
2.12
11c 2.12 (1.9)
2.48
TO
3.20
11D 2.86 (2.2)
2.86
TO
2.24
5.20
11E 2.96 (2.6)
2 46
TO
2.14
5.52
2.88
11F
2.90
4.83
3.50
TO
2.51
3.27
3.01
TO
11G
3.89
11H
2.99
2.46
5.36
2.50
TO
111
1.81
1.76
2.28
cc
2.61
llJ
2.28
FR
1.59
1.83
2.09
11K
1.88
cc
1.47
1.49
1.90
11L
2.86
TO
2.01
2.22
2.89
11M
1.so
1.39
2.69
2.04
TO
KEY: SY-Steel yiel4 FR-Fibre rupture; TO-Tearing-off of concrete cover; FD-Fibre delamination;
CC-Concrete crushing; SF-Concrete shearfailure
Note thatfigures in parentheses and italics are@om the associatedpublishedpaper, all other values are calculated
~~
Ductility Determination of FRP Strengthened Elements 353
The values of indices from Deflection 1, Energy 1 and Energy 2

methods, for members that had exhibited a brittle failure mode, were
analysed to determine whether there was an apparent trend in the calculated
values, together with an index based on the serviceability load. This index
was proposed by Tann, as FRP strengthened elements, when anaIysed using
conventional methods, produce what appear to be acceptable ductility
indices. However, the elements normally fail in a brittle manner because
the relatively large deformation is not inelastic and a large amount of elastic
strain energy is stored in the strengthened beams at failure. Consequently, a
more appropriate description, deformability index, was proposed and is
defined in Eq. (6).
Serviceability based deformability :
A u
PA2
=-
As
where A, is the ultimate mid-span deflection and As is the mid-span

deflection at the serviceability load (taken to be 67% of the ultimate load).
As can be seen in Table 2, the various methods produced widely

differing results for the ductility index relating to any given member, e.g.
element 2A, where the indices vary from 2.75 to 7.81, and element 9B,
where the indices vary from 2.45 to 10.14. Further analysis shows that
Deflection method 2 (using serviceability limit) has a significantly lower
standard deviation, therefore demonstrating a more consistent set of
calculated results. The mean, high and low values, together with the
standard deviation are detailed in Table 3.
Both deformation methods resulted in good correlation between data
(see Fig. 3), with slightly better congruence between the deformation
methods (87.5% correlation) than the energy methods (8 1% correlation).
The serviceability method could be further improved by the
replacement of A, with A0.g5, i.e. the deformation at 95% of the ultimate
load, as suggested by Tann. This would remove the misleading values of
deformation at 100% of ultimate load, which can be up to 4 times that at
95%, and provide a more representative value for the deformability index.
Of the two energy based methods, the first (E, / 5)produced a larger
variance in the values for ductility index. This method is particularly
sensitive to sections that are over-reinforced with FRP, as the energy at yield
can be relatively small compared to the total energy and give a large (and
possibly misleading) value for the ductility index.
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Beam No.
Figure 3 - Correlation of results between methods
Table 3. Comparison of various methods of calculating ductility index
PA 1
Method
AU 1 A y
Mean
High
Low
Std. dev. IS
2.45
4.32
1.42
0.65
PA2
All 1 As
2.55
4.24
1.84
0.52
PEl
Eu/q
4.22
6.56
1.83
1.28
Ductility Determination of FRP Strengthened Elements 3.5.5
CONCLUSIONS
A study has been conducted in order to evaluate the failure characteristics of
FRP strengthened RC elements. The method is focussed in having ductility
indices in order to assign numerical values to various states of failure. Of
the published methods, those that are exposed to maximum citation and
potential engineering use were considered.
It can be seen from the data discussed earlier, that the serviceabilitybased method produced the most consistent results as judged by the index
PA2 in Table 3 . It is found that, for practical design purposes it would be
easier to use this method with a clear reference point, i.e. deformation at
serviceability load.
The authors recommend that further analysis be carried out on the
deformability index, Eq. (6), and the introduction of A0.95 in place of A, to
determine the validity of this method.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the University of Glamorgan and the
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council for the funding which
enabled this work and further research to be carried out.
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Aridome, Y., Kanakubo, T., Furuta, T. and Matsui, M., Ductility of Tshape RC beams strengthened by CFRP sheet, Transaction of Japan
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Pisanty, A. and Regan, P.E., Ductility requirements for redistribution of
moments in reinforced concrete elements and a possible size effect,
Materials and Structures, 3 1,p.530-535, 1998.
Burgoyne, C.J., Ductility and Deformability in Beams Prestressed with
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15.
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Reinforced Concrete Beams Externally Reinforced with Carbon Fibre
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Almusallam, T.H. and Al-Salloum, Y.A., Ultimate strength prediction
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Preliminary Research on the Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Beams using GFRP, Proceedings of the Znd International RILEM
Symposium (FRPRCS-2), Ghent, August 23-25, 1995, p.541-550.
Capozucca, R. and Nilde-Cerri, M, Static and dynamic behaviour of
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Chajes, M.J., Thomson, T. A., Januszka, T.F. and Finch, W., Flexural
strengthening of concrete beams using externally bonded composite
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Ahmed, O., Van Gemert, D. and Vendewalle, L., Improved model for
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Spadea, G., Swamy, R.N. and Bencardino, F., Strength and ductility of
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Ghent, August 23-25, 1995, p.501-508.

A SEMI-EMPIRICAL APPROACH FOR THE PREDICTION

OF DEFLECTIONS OF FRP STRENGTHENED RC SLABS
D. B. TANN
Civil Engineering Mechanics Research Unit,School of Technology

University of Glamorgan, Pontypridd, Wales CF37 ID,UK
It is well known that once the concrete material develops into its non-linear
phase, the prediction of deflections in concrete slabs becomes more
difficult as the flexural rigidity EI varies with the increase of loading. This
paper proposes a semi-empirical method for the determination of
deflections of FRP strengthened RC slabs. The experimental component of
this work started by casting four CFRF' strengthened concrete slabs, which
were then loaded to ultimate failure. The deflection profile of each slab was
recorded for every load increment. The current study established a method
of quantifying the flexural rigidity from the experimentally obtained
moment-curvature and load-strain relationships. These EI values were then
substituted into the standard flexural differential equations to derive an
expression of slab deflection. The predicted deflections, at any point along
the slab for any given load case, were found to closely match the
experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
The deflections of conventional reinforced concrete (RC) flexural members

under short-term and long-term service loads can be predicted with
reasonable accuracy, this is well documented in many national design
standards such as the British codes of practice' (BS 81 10 - Part 2, BSI,
1985). For fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthened members, the
curvature under service load can be determined using similar principles
once the increase in the second moment of area, I, due to the presence of
FRP composites, is taken into account.
When dealing with flexural members strengthened by F W composites,
an important issue for the designers is the structural deformability and
ductility characteristics. Deformability is a measure of the member's ability
to deform, which is not necessarily an indication of ductile behaviour as the
deformation could result in substantial amount of stored elastic energy in
the strengthened structure. A brittle failure mode, often seen in FRP
strengthened members, causes considerable concern among structural
engineers. It is thus necessary to know not only the member deformation

under service load, but reasonable prediction of deflections at ultimate limit
state which also becomes essential in the design process. Once the
deflections at ultimate and serviceability conditions are known, the
elements deformability and ductility indices can then be conveniently
determined (Tann, 2001)2, thus enable the designer to optimise the design
for a ductile failure mode.
This paper therefore, aims to start the optimisation process, and develop
a semi-empirical approach to determine the flexural rigidity, EI, of FRP
strengthened flexural elements for the full loading duration up to ultimate
failure. From a conventional RC design viewpoint, most FRP strengthened
flexural members reported in literature are considered to be over
strengthened or at best in a balanced state. Ultimate failure of such
members tends to exhibit more brittle characteristics, due to the stored
elastic energy, than the conventional RC counterparts. In such cases, a
pseudo-linear elastic behaviour becomes evident (Tann, 200 1)2, which is
often indicated by the relatively steep load-deflection curves. Such
behaviour makes it viable to establish a numerical model of flexural
rigidity, and hence facilitate the determination of element deflections up to
ultimate load. An experimental study was therefore carried out to provide
database for the semi-empirical model.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
Four reinforced concrete solid one-way spanning slabs were cast at the
University of Glamorgan Concrete Laboratory. The dimensions of the slabs
are 3000 mm total length, 500 mm width and 100 mm overall depth. All
were identically reinforced with four high-yield T8 main bars (A, =
0.402%) and T6 secondary distribution bars at 200 mm centres. The
material properties of concrete and reinforcement were evaluated in the
laboratory and are listed in Table 1.
One slab (SC) was used as a control sample and tested to ultimate
failure. The other three slabs were strengthened with carbon fibre reinforced
polymer (CFRP) fabric sheets. The average thickness of the CFRP sheets
were evaluated to be 0.16 mm. Tensile tests were performed on 15 number
of single layer CFRP strips (250 mm length by 15 mm width), which were
also prepared at the time of lamination, to evaluate the salient elastic
properties, The salient results are shown in Table 2.
Deflections of FRP Strengthened RC Slabs 359
Table 1, Properties of concrete and steel reinforcement
Concrete
fy(N/mm)
E, (kN/mm2)
49.5
31.2
f,, (N/mm2)
E, (kN/mm2)
Steel Reinforcement
599.0
198.5
1. Compression tests were performed on twent four 100 mm cubes 28 days after the slabs
were cast. The average strength is given above &andard deviation 0.dl). 2.Average strength
based on tensile tests were carried out on four samples (standard deviation 3.4).
Table 2. Main elastic properties of CFRP sheets
Ultimate tensile strength ff(N/mm2)

Elastic modulus (kN/mm2)
Ultimate strain capacity (%)
Standard
deviation
Mean value
1991.6
236.2
71.2
11.5
0.04
0.84
All CFRP sheets were cut to be 2800 mm long (100 mm shorter of the
slab effective span). The first slab (SI) was strengthened with a single layer
of CFRP sheet, covering the full width, thus given a cross sectional area
ratio of 0.16%. Slab 2 (S2) was bonded with 3 layers of the same CFRP
sheets, giving a cross sectional area of 0.48%, while slab 3 (S3) was
strengthened with three 100 mm wide CFRP strips, equivalent to an area
ratio of 0.096%.
All slabs were load tested to ultimate failure through displacement
control and using a four point loading configuration as shown in Figure 1.
The loading speed was kept at a constant rate of 3.0 mm per minute. The
section strains, and vertical deflections along the slab were recorded at
every 0.5 mm of maximum span deflection for the first 5 m m and then at 1.O
mm interval thereafter.
4
I
950 mm
2900 mm
Figure 1. Load configuration
950mm
I,
I
I
indicates LVDT position
A large quantity of data on surface strains of concrete and CFRP sheets,

crack propagation and load-deflection behaviour were recorded at every
load increment. The summary of ultimate load and maximum deflections at
failure for all slabs are shown in Table 3 , while Table 4 lists the failure
mode of each slab.
Table 3. Summary of main test results
Slab
reference
sc
s1
s2
s3
Failure load
% change
Deflection
at failure
YOchange
(W
(+I
(mm)
(-1
14.40
38.20
80.40
3 1.60
nla
165.3
458.3
119.4
120.0
77.10
99.80
77.05
nla
35.7
16.8
35.8
Table 4. Failure mode of slabs

Slab
reference
s-c
s1
s2
s3
Failure mode
(all failure occurred in the constant moment zone)
Typical under-reinforced section ductile failure,

although concrete in compression not yet crushed.
CFRP partial rupture, followed rapidly by concrete
lateral shear failure.
Concrete failed in compression, and partial CFRP
debonding at slab edge.
Full rupture of all three CFRP strips, concrete in
compression approaching failure.
The graphs of load versus maximum span deflection for all four slabs
are shown in Figure 2. At an ultimate load of 14.4 kN, the control slab was
deemed to have failed as the mid span deflection reached 120 mm and the
maximum cracks widths were noted to have exceed 3.0 mm. This was a
typically under reinforced slab, the internal steel reinforcement had yielded
before failure, while the concrete in compression remained relatively lightly
stressed.
90
80
70
60
50
U
40
-I
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
Maximumspan deflection (mm)
Figure 2. Load-deflection of all four slabs
For the lightly strengthened slab S3, the ultimate failure occurred at a
load of 3 1.6 kN, when the CFRP strips within the constant moment zone
ruptured. Slab S1 failed in a similar manner at 38.2 kN, although only part
of the carbon fibres were seen to have ruptured. Lateral shear failure of
concrete also took place rapidly in the pure bending zone after the CFRP
rupture.
The over-strengthened slab S2 appeared to be most effective, with a
significant increase in ultimate load carrying capacity of 458% over the
control slab, and only a small reduction in its final deflection. However, this
small reduction in deflection relative to the control slab should not be
interpreted as the slab having a similar decrease in ductility, which was in
fact more dramatically reduced.
The deflection profiles of all slabs have been recorded up to a
maximum value of around 50 mm due to the effective range of the
displacement transducers. Shown in Figure 3 are the typical deflection
curves along the span of slab S2 for up to a load of 52.5 kN. Each line
represents a deflection profile under a given load. Based on these deflection
profiles, the moment-curvature relationship of the slab can be determined,
from which a semi-empirical expression of slab deflection can then be
derived as illustrated in the next section.

Distance from left-hand support (mm)
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
-10
-20
E
v
c
0
-30
%
-40
-50
-60
Figure 3. Recorded deflection profiles of slab S2 for each load

increment (values shown on the graph are at a load of 52.25 k N)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Curvature (XIO" l/m)
Figure 4. Typical experimentally evaluated moment-curvature (Slab S2)
60
SEMI-EMPIRICAL DEFLECTION EQUATION
The experimental moment-curvature for each slab was constructed, using

the simple bending theory, and based on the deflection data at each load
increment. Cross section strain measurements were also used to verify the
resulting curvature. Shown in Figure 4 is a typical moment-curvature
relationship for slab 2.
From the experimentally obtained moment-curvature relationship, it is
thus possible to establish a numerical expression for the flexural rigidity,
EI. The mean value of elasticity modulus for normal-weight concrete may
be derived from the following equation as suggested by BS8110 (BSI,
1997)3,
where KO is a constant closely related to the modulus of elasticity of the

aggregate used, and is taken as 20 kN/mm2 for normal-weight concrete. For
the current programme, Ec,28is therefore calculated to be 29.9 kN/mm2,
which is close to the experimentally evaluated figure of 3 1.2 kN/mm2.
The second moment of area of the CFRP strengthened slabs were then
derived from the experimental moment-curvature relationship of slab S2.
The following semi-empirical expression, therefore, defines the relationship
between the applied load, P, and the second moment of area of the CFRP
strengthened section, I,.
0.01A,
I =(-
Jp
P,&
+ -)Io
2P
where I, is the second moment of area of the transformed uncracked

section; Af is the cross section area of CFRP in mm, and P is the applied
load in kN. However, since the flexural rigidity is a constant value (Ec,2do)
before the concrete cracks, the minimum applicable value for P should be
taken as Pmimor the load at which concrete reaches its tensile strength. This
can usually be conveniently obtained using conventional elastic theory if
the concrete tensile strength is determined first. For current load and
material configuration, this minimum Pmi, is taken as 3.2 kN.
The slab deflections can now be derived. For the load configuration
shown in Figure 1, the deflection along the slab can be determined using
standard differential equations. The maximum deflection at the mid span

can be written as follows:
6max
Pa
(31' - 4a2)
24EI
1
-
(3)
where a is the distance from the support to the nearest point load (950 mm
in current case); and I is the effective span (2.9 m in current case).
Substitute equations (1) and (2) into equation (3), the final expression of the
deflections at mid span is therefore:
This is a generic expression for all four slabs in the current study. The
influence of CFRP sheets on the slab deflection behaviour is taken into
account by considering the increase in the second moment of area.
NUMERlCAL EXAMPLES
Equation (4) is used to determine the deflections for all four slabs which
shows good match with the experimental results. The comparison of the
predicted and actual deflection for all slabs are as illustrated by the four
pairs of graphs in Figure 5.
As can be seen, the predicted deflections match the actual values very
well for the three CFRP strengthened slabs. This is an indication that the
enhanced second moment of area in these slabs has been properly taken into
account by Equation (2). For the control slab however, the predicted
deflection values are generally greater than the experimental readings,
especially when approaching the final failure. This is due to the
characteristic behaviour of under reinforced conventional RC members
which is usually very ductile after the steel reinforcement yielded, while
CFRP strengthened slabs still exhibit a pseudo linear-behaviour.
The successful modelling in the current study suggests that the flexural
rigidity of FRP strengthened elements can be predicted reasonably well, the
designers can estimate deflections at any given load level.
*S
..., ..
-b
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Maximum span deflection (mm)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Maximum gin delleftion (mm)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Maximum span deflection (mm)
10 20
30 40 50 60 70 60
Maximum !pan deieefon (mm)
Figure 5. Comparison of actual and predicted deflections
CONCLUSIONS
It has been shown that the flexural rigidity of FRP strengthened RC slabs
can be reasonably well modelled, and hence the deflection at any loading
stage can be predicted. This is largely due to the fact that FRP strengthened
elements often exhibit an overall pseudo-linear behaviour even though the
concrete material and internal steel reach the non-linear stage.
Using the current approach, the full load-deflection curve can be
established for a given element up to ultimate limit state. This then enables
the engineer to determine the deformability/ductility characteristics of the
element at the design stage, and optimise the design if necessary to achieve
desired structural behaviour.
The current model is based on a small number of experiments. The
approach is fully valid and can be conveniently implemented into the design
process. It is logical to link the flexural rigidity of FRP strengthened RC
members with the applied load. The neutral axis depth, below which the
concrete cracks, is influenced by the applied load. Consequently, the load
affects the second moment of area of the section. Further analytical and
experimental work are being undertaken at the University of Glamorgan,
with the intention of establishing a definitive method for predicting
deflections of FW strengthened flexural members.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of MSc students Alex

Tasoulas, Richard Wang and Ray Lee for carrying out part of the
experimental work. Exchem Mining and Construction (UK) Ltd provided
CFRP materials and epoxy resins for this project.
REFERENCES
1. British Standard Institution, BS8110, Part 2, Structural use of concrete,
code of practice for special circumstances, 1985.
2. Tann, D. B. Retrofitting of Mechanically Degraded Reinforced
Concrete Structures Using Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites, PhD
thesis, University of Glamorgan, 200 1, pp. 386.
3. British Standard Institution, BS8110, Part 1, Structural use of concrete,
code of practice for design and construction, 1997.

CRACK WIDTHS IN RC BEAMS EXTERNALLY BONDED

WITH CFRP SHEETS
Y ZHANG AND H. TOUTANJI

University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899, USA
P. BALAGURU

Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, USA
Externally bonding fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets with epoxy
matrix is an effective technique for strengthening and repairing reinforced
concrete (RC) beams under flexure. A total of eight beams was tested and
analyzed; two of them were control beams and six were strengthened with
carbon fiber reinforced polymer sheets. The strengthened beams were
bonded with two types of epoxy matrices: organic and inorganic. The
variables in this study were the reinforcement ratios, the type of epoxy
matrices, and the concrete-FRP interface conditions. All beams were
subjected to four-point-bending test under load control while the crack
widths, deflections and mid-span strains at both compression and tension
faces were measured. An analytical method for predicting crack width at
different flexural loading levels was developed. Both experimental and
theoretical results are presented and compared. Results showed that there
is a good agreement between the experimental and analytical results.
INTRODUCTION
Crack width is one of main parameters that determine the serviceability of
structures. The application of proper crack-width-control criteria to the
design can minimize and in most cases eliminate problems, such as surface
deterioration and corrosion of steel reinforcement. In the case of traditional
steel reinforced concrete beams, it is clear that the cracking behavior
depends on the stress-strain relationship of the concrete as a significant
factor.' Reliable and effective models are universally adopted for evaluating
crack widths and deflections under serviceability conditions.2 Some recent
studies, both theoretical and experimental, have given various approaches
or formulation to investigate the post-cracking serviceability of RC beams
reinforced with FRP re bar^.^ In contrast, the cases of RC beams reinforced
with FRP sheets are much more complicated than those of concrete beams
reinforced with only steel or F W rebars for following reasons:
a. FRP sheet reinforcements are geometrically different from either steel

or FRP rebars in both shapes and locations in the layout of the cross
sections.
b. The external bonding of FRP sheets does not replace the embedded
steel rebars; therefore, the flexural mechanism is transferred from
concrete-steel models to concrete-steel-FRP sheet models.
c. New uncertain factors are imported to affect cracking behaviors of
FRP sheet reinforced concrete beams. They include dimensions and
mechanical characters of adhesive layer, bonding method (e.g. wetlay up or precured approaches), roughness of the concrete surfaces,
and temperatures of surrounding.
In summary, for externally FRP sheet reinforced concrete beams, the
stress-strain behavior and cracking behavior need to be remodeled for
practical design and analysis purpose. Currently, the discussion of this topic
has not been fully developed yet, due to lack of insufficient information and
effective analysis on the interwoven bond-slip relationships of concretesteel and concrete-FRP.
The objective of this study was to develop an analytical method for
predicting the crack width of externally bonded FRP reinforced concrete
beams at different flexural loading levels. To verify the compatibility of the
theoretical method, a comparison between the analytical and experimental
results of different types of specimens using different epoxy matrices was
made.
EXPERIMENT PROCEDURES
Two batches of normal-weight concrete were used to cast eight beams, each
with dimensions of 160mmx 108mmx 1800mm. The 28-day compressive
strength of the concrete ranged from 46.9 MPa to 53.8 MPa, with
coefficients of variation of 2.5% and 2.1% for the two batches, respectively.
Three and four layers of CFRP sheets were applied to the roughened
tension surface of each concrete beam. Wet-laid-up method was used for
bonding the FRP sheets. The CFRP sheets used in this study are
commercially available with unidirectional plain weave, a tensile strength
of 3,838 MPa, and the maximum strain 1.7%. To create diverse interface
conditions, the surfaces of some beams were primed with MABRAN primer
and cured for 24 hours, while the other beams were bonded without a
primer. Due to FRP strengthening and increasing strength capacity of the
beams, the shear reinforcement was not enough to insure flexural failure;
thus, extra shear strengthening was necessary to prevent shear failure of
Crack Widths in RC Beams with CFRP Sheets 369
concrete beams.4 Consequently, each CFRP reinforced beam was externally

shear reinforced, using 50 mm wide CFRP stripes bonded at 45 degree at
both sides of the beam, as shown in Figure 1. The characteristics of the
CFRP reinforcement with epoxy matrices are shown in Table 1.
Extra Shear
2#2 bars
(or 2#5
bars)
26p-E+j
26
Figure 1 . Test Beam Details and Four,-point Bending Setup
Table 1. Characteristics of CFRP reinforcement, Adhesive and Steel Rebars
1 Properties
bleble
1 Properties
o o
bleble
1 Properties
1 Properties
o o
bleble
1 Properties
o o
1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The experimental moment-crack width curves of all tested CFRP RC beams
are shown in Figure 2. The term "crack width" represents average crack
width within the constant bending zone. From the experimental results, the
following phenomena were observed for all tested CFRP RC beams:
1) The first flexural crack initiated at 10% to 20% ultimate moment Mu.
2) With the continuous formation of new flexural cracks, the trend of
moment-crack width behavior was unstable within a range of 10% to
40%Mu. After 40%Mu, the moment-crack width behavior was

stabilized in an essentially linear trend.
Steel yield between 70% to 80%M,, and the development of crack
width was accelerated afterward.
Beams with primer at concrete/CFRP interface exhibited bigger crack
width than those using organic or inorganic adhesive matrix as
adhesive layers.
The moment-crack width curves showed a similar shape to those
moment-strain curves, which indicates that the crack width was
potentially proportional to the CFRP strain E, under the same
applied moment M,.

It also can be concluded that the moment-crack width relationship is
composed of three regions: stabilizing stage, preyielding stage and
postyielding stage.
25
20
n
-L;
24
515
3 10
-It IN-3L-A
+OR-3L-A
.3
3
U IN-3L-B
--t OR-3L-B
-x- IN4L
+OR-4L
5 1
O I
0.05
0.1
0.15 0.2 0.25

Crack Width (mm)
0.3
0.35
Figure 2. Moment-Crack Width Relationships of All Specimens
0.4
Prediction of Crack Width
The crack width can be calculated by different approaches with various

approximation levels. In this study, the deformation of concrete under
tension was not neglected, so the average crack width of CFRP RC beam
was defined as total slip along a distance between two adjacent cracks. The
critical section - a beam section between two adjacent cracks - is shown as
in Figure 3 . The definition of crack width is expressed as following
equation:
Crack Width = 2
E,
(x) - E,, (x)&
(1)
where L is half of the crack spacing; E , and E , ~are strains of CFRP and
concrete (at the extreme tension fiber of concrete), respectively, and they
are assumed as functions depending on geometry argument (x) due to strain
distribution among all materials.
Based on an element selected from the critical section between two
adjacent cracks of a CFRP RC beam, equilibrium equations are established
as below (refer to detailed illustration and denotation shown in Figure 4):
AT, +AT, +AT, = A C
h, AT, +- h,yA T t h, AT,
(2)
= C,A C
(31
Shear stress acts on the adhesive layer can be expressed by the following
equation
Gyp(x)
z(x)b,Ax = ATp,or say z ( x ) = t, d.
(4)
where z(x) is shear stress, bp and tp are the width and thickness of the
CFRP, respectively. Integrating Equation (4), the function of tension stress
in CFRP can be obtained
Applying the boundary conditions, the tension stress in CFRP at the crack is
The constant C3 can be solved as:
Hence,
As defined in Equation (1) at the beginning of this section:
6'
Crack width = 2
E,
6'
f P (4 f,,
(4,
(x) - E,, (x)& = 2 EP
E,
(9)
2
After f p(x) and f,,(x) are substituted in Equation (9), the simplified result
is:
' p max
Crack width = 2-
tanh(wL)
Validity of the Model
To verify this model, comparisons between experimental and analytical

results of crack width were carried out and presented in Table 2 and Figure
5, which showed good matches.
In order to further validate the developed analytical model, the method
was also applied to a number of CFRP externally strengthened RC beams
tested by Toutanji et al'. The comparison results are shown in Table 3 and
show a good agreement between experimental and analytical values.
,Compression
Crack Spacing-
/
Bond stress$---/
0,
,
Tensile stress in
concrete&, (x)
X
Figure 3. Critical Section between Two Adjacent Cracks

I
I
hP
Center of the critical

section behveen two T,
adjacent cracks
Figure 4. Equilibrium Forces Acting on an Element Length of CFRP RC Beams
Table 2. Comparisons between Experimental and Analytical Results of Average

Crack Width
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Crack Widths in UC Beams with CFUP Sheets 375

20
16
h
9 12
8
B
." 8
g:
c
__ Experimental (IN-3L-A)
-_
Experimental (IN-3L-B)
-Analytical (IN-3L)
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
Crack Width (mm)
Figure 5. Comparisons between Experimental and Analytical Results of MomentCrack Width Relations
Table 3. Comparisons between Experimental' and Analytical Results of Average
Crack Width
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
ble 1 Properties o
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
(a) Organic and inorganic epoxy matrices exhibited approximately the
same effects on the cracking behavior of CFRP RC beams.
(b) Beams with primer at concrete/CFRP interface exhibited bigger crack
width than those using only organic or inorganic adhesive matrix at the
interface.
(c) Analysis method for prediction of moment-crack width was developed.
Through the developed method, given the necessary parameters and any
.applied moment, one can predict the average flexural crack width. The
experimental results obtained from this study and by others compared
well with the analytical results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the National
Science Foundation Grant CMS-990043 1.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nawy, E. G., Reinforced Concrete-A Fundamental Approach, 31d

Edition, Chapter. 8, pp. 273-326.
ACI Committee 318-95, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete and Commentary (318-95), American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1995.
Toutanji, H. A,, and Saafi, M., "Flexural Behavior of Concrete Beams
Reinforced with Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Bars," ACZ
Structure Journal, V. 97, No.5, Sept.-Oct., 2000, pp. 712-719.
Arduini, M., D'Ambrisi, A., and Di Tommaso, A., "Shear Failure of
Concrete Beams Reinforced with FRP Plates", Zn$-astructure; New
Materials and Methods of Repair Proceedings of the Material
Engineering Conference 804, ASCE, New York, 1994, pp. 123-130.
Toutanji H., Deng Y., Zhang Y., and Balaguru P., "The Use of
Inorganic Matrix for Strengthening of RC Beams with Carbon Sheets,"
Proceedings of FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, CICE, Hong
Kong, 2001, pp. 1117-1126.

NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS ON STRENGTHENED

STRUCTURES WITH HYBRID FIBER SHEETS
H. NIU AND Z. WU
Department of Urban & Civil Engineering, Ibaraki University
Nakanarusawa-cho 4- 12-1, Hitachi 3 16-85]I , Japan
In this paper, a special emphasis is placed on how to numerically simulate
the overall behavior of the structures strengthened by hybrid fiber sheets
including progressive rupture and different failure modes. Based on the
experimental observations from the uniaxial tension test of hybrid fiber
sheets, a macro-mechanical damage constitutive model is developed to
simulate the stress transfer mechanism caused by progressive rupture of
higher modulus type in the hybrid fiber sheets. It is then implemented into
a general-purpose finite element program using a user-defined material
subroutine to simulate the behaviors of hybrid fiber sheets loaded in tension
and the hybrid FRP-strengthened RC beams, which are compared with the
corresponding experimental data. In addition, some discussion are made on
the factors influencing the load drops in the hybrid effect.
INTRODUCTION
In the past decades, many efforts have been made to use fiber-reinforced
plastics (FRPs) as promising reinforcement in new buildings and especially
in strengthening damaged concrete structures. FRPs usually consist of glass,
aramid, or carbon fibers in a polymer matrix and possess light weight, high
strength, high resistance to corrosion and ease in handling as compared to
those of steel. However, unlike the cold worked steel, FRPs stay elastic
until failure, which occurs in a noticeably brittle way. Correspondingly,
FRP-strengthened concrete structures can fail momentarily without any
foreboding. Moreover, the gains in stiffness and yield load are also limited
in the strengthening effect of aramid or glass fiber composites. To improve
the performance of strengthened structures and efficiently utilize the
strengthening effect of FRPs, one idea to incorporate the ductility and the
stiffness is to use hybrid composites consisting of different types of glass,
aramid, vinylon and carbon fibers with different strengths and stiffnesses,
which fail at different strains during loading, thereby allowing a gradual
failure of the composites. Many attempts have been reported in the
~iteraturel-~.
Many experimental studies have shown that hybrid FRP rods or sheets
exhibit load drops due to the progressive rupture of fibers with lower
ultimate strains and such damage inside the hybrid FRP reinforcements is
very difficult to detect. An effective control over the damage processes
cannot be achieved without a good understanding of both the material and
structural damage processes. The objective of this study is to numerically
investigate the hybrid effect of external FRP sheets in tension and bending
tests. A macro-mechanical damage constitutive model is developed to
simulate the stress transfer mechanism caused by progressive rupture of
higher modulus type in the hybrid fiber sheets and the factors influencing
the load drops in the hybrid effect were also discussed.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
To investigate the strengthening effect of hybrid FRP sheets consisting of

higher modulus (C7: thickness 0.1 1 Imdlayer) and higher strength (C 1 :
thickness 0.143mdlayer) carbon fiber sheets, a series of specimens were
tested by Wu et al. Here the uniaxial tension tests and three-point bending
tests of RC beams were chosen to numerically study the damage processes
of high modulus fiber sheets and the overall hybrid effect. To provide a
basic knowledge of material mechanical behaviors, tension specimens of
FRP were manufactured through impregnation of epoxy resin, as shown in
Figure 1.
F R P sheets.
G l a s s . f i b e r tab
41t
250mm
12.5mm
Figure 1. Details of tension specimens
The average values of tensile strength and modulus of elasticity were

4266MPa and 2 . 8 10MPa
~
for C1 sheet, 2585MPa and 5 . 8 10MPa
~
for C7
sheet. Both of them were higher than the values from specification of
manufacturer (3400MPa and 2.3~10MPa for C1 sheet, 1900MPa and
5 . 4 105MPa
~
for C7 sheet). The expected ductility and limited load drop can
be achieved with an increase of the proportion of C1 sheet in the hybrid
fiber sheets, which can be clearly seen by comparing Figure 2(a) with
Figure 2(b) (where CUC7 denotes one layer of C1 with one layer of C7;
Numerical Simulations on Strengthened Structures 379
2CIlC7 two layers of C1 with one layer of C7). As shown in Figure 2, C7

sheet with higher modulus and lower ultimate strain exhibits a progressive
rupture with increase of amount of C1 in the hybrid fiber sheets. The slower
the damage process, the smoother is the loss in stress transfers to C1 fiber
sheets, which yields a pseudo-yielding plateau in load-strain curves.
8
-g 4
6
2
0
0.4
0.8
Seam (%)
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
strain (h)
(a) C1K7 hybrid sheets

(b) 2 C K 7 hybrid sheets
Figure 2. Load-strain curves
To further investigate the hybrid effect on the strengthened RC beam, a

series of beam specimens shown in Figure 3 were manufactured and tested
with one-point loading at the midspan. In Figure 4,it can be found that the
stiffness, yield and failure load, and ductility can be greatly increased in the
hybrid fiber sheets with two layers of C1 sheet and one layer of C7 sheet.
The progressive rupture of C7 sheet can lead to stress redistribution in
hybrid sheet and avoid the early debonding as shown in the cases with only
C1 sheets.
<FRP sheets
(unit: mm)
Figure 3. Details of FRP-strengthened RC beams

100
1: yield of reinforcing bar
2:partial rupture of c 7
3:debonding initiation
4: 111 FRP rupture
5:debonding hilure
80
40
+l
20
+2c1
-2CllC7
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Load-deflection curves of RC beams
In what follows, numerical models are developed to simulate the

mechanical behavior of hybrid fiber sheets in tension and bending tests,
where a macro-mechanical damage constitutive model is proposed to model
the stress transfer behavior caused by the progressive damage process of C7
fiber sheet in the hybrid sheets.
MECHANICAL MODELS FOR CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
Generally, a FRP-strengthened RC beam shown in Figure 3 consists of

concrete, steel bar, adhesive and FRP sheets. To accurately simulate the
response of the composite beam, it is necessary to establish appropriate
mechanical models to consider the crack propagation behavior in concrete,
bond-slip behavior between reinforcing bar and concrete, interfacial
behavior between FRP sheet and concrete and progressive damage process
in hybrid FRP sheets.
Concrete
In the present study, a rotating crack concept based on smeared crack model
is used to simulate initiation and propagation of crack in concrete6. Linear
tension softening and linear elastic-perfectly plastic curves are assumed to
simulate respectively tensile and compressive behaviors of concrete, as
shown in Figure 5, where E,, J;, fc are elastic modulus, tensile and
compressive strength of concrete, respectively, G/ is the mode-I fracture
energy of concrete, h is the crack band width related to the area of element.
After cracking a reduced constant shear stiffness is considered to model the
shear behavior of concrete.
Crack stress, (T,"'
fc
Unloadheloading path
Crack strain, E/
&,c'
(a) Linear tension softening model
\ Compressive stress, u
p7*
---__ _ _ _ _ _
0
Compressive strain, E
(b) Perfectly plastic compressive model
Figure 5.Models for concrete tensile and compressive behaviors
Reinforcing Bar
Reinforcing bar is assumed as a linear elastic-perfectly plastic material

discretely connected to concrete. In the analysis, von Mises yield criterion is
adopted to model this behavior. The bond-slip behavior between reinforcing
bar and concrete is shown in Figure 6a, which was used by Niu and Wu7.
A
3
Local bond stress, 7

Micro-debonding (initiation)
Unloadingheloading
Macro-debonding
0.2
0.4
0.6
Local slip (mm)
0.8
1 0
80
Local shear displacement, 6
(a) Reinforcing bar-concrete bond behavior (b) FW-concrete interfacial behavior

Figure 6. Local bond behaviors for reinforcing bar and FRP sheet
Interfacial Behavior
Generally, the contribution of adhesive to carrying tensile force is very

small as compared with that of FW sheet and so can be ignored. However,
the bond function between FRP sheet and concrete is very essential to the
strengthening effect. So the role of the adhesive is regarded to mainly

transfer stresses from concrete substrate to FRP sheet.
In view of the fact that FRP sheet is mainly loaded in tension and the
adhesive is mainly in shear, debonding propagation is very similar to modeI1 facture behavior. According to Niu and Wu, a simplified linear softening
curve from experiments is used to model the interfacial behavior of FRP
sheet and concrete, as shown in Figure 6(b), where whether debonding
occurs within the adhesive or the interfacial concrete only depends on the
choice of parameters.
FRP Sheets
Unlike steel, FRP sheets are anisotropic and cannot resist compression and
bending but only tension stress along their longitudinal direction. FRP
sheets of single type generally behave in linear elastic fashion until rupture.
However, when hybrid fiber sheets are subjected to loading, some
progressive damages such as matrix cracking, fiber-matrix debonding, fiberrupture and delamination may lead to a different mechanical behavior, as
shown in the experimental observation.
Considering that the shocks from such damages may rupture a portion
of unimpaired fibers, it is very important to evaluate the stress transfer
capacity upon the partial rupture of some fibers. Herein, from a
macroscopic point of view, a damage mechanical behavior shown in Figure
7(a) is used for simulating the stress transfer from C7 to C1 sheet during
progressive rupture of C7 sheet, where C7 and C1 sheets are expected to
achieve initial high modulus and final high strength respectively. As for C1
sheet, it is regarded to follow a linear elastic behavior till brittle rupture
[Figure 7(b)].
Tensile stress, 0
Initial ruoture
f,c7
Tensile stress, CJ
-----
Unloadingheloading
c7
Full rupture
Tensile strain, E
0
Tensile strain, E
u,c7
(a) High modulus C7 sheet in hybrid sheets
&Cl
(b) High strength C 1 sheet
Figure 7. Stress-strain relations for C7 and C1 sheet
FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATIONS

In this section, the proposed model to simulate the stress transfer due to
progressive rupture of C7 sheet is implemented into a general-purpose finite
element program DIANA6 and then used to investigate the hybrid behavior
of pre-mentioned tension and flexural tests. Here FRP sheet is modeled by
truss element whose behavior is coded into a user-defined material
subroutine and perfect bond condition is assumed between fiber sheets. In
the analysis, displacement control is used to locate the load drop and the
material parameters are as follows: Ec,=5.2x1OMPa, &=2,496MPa,
~ ~ , , r 0 . 0 0 9E,1=3
4 ; .2x 1OMPa, J;cI=4,800MPa,E~,,~=O.O15.
Tension Test of FRP Sheets
20
5000
4500
4000
9
g
16
h
g 12
3500
3000
:
2500
*
3 8
2000
1500
I000
500
0
4
0
0 0.20.40.60.8
1.21.4 1.6 1.8
Strain (%)
(a) Output at one integration point
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Sh;lin(%)
(b) Numerical simulation results
Figure 8. Tension test of different FRF sheets
As shown in Figure 8(a), the output of C1 and C7 sheets at one integration

point confirms the correctness of implemented model, where the stressstrain relation for C7 sheet is only applicable to simulating its stress transfer
behavior upon progressive rupture, not to its individual mechanical behavior.
Without considering the stress transfer behavior, there always exhibits a
significant load drop till the load taken by C 1 sheet is reached at the rupture
of C7 sheet and then follows the loading behavior of C1 sheet. So this
model is very essential to interpret the experimental results and make an
optimization design of hybrid fiber sheets. It should be noted that in Figure
S(b), for the case of C1/C7 hybrid sheets this model may result in an
impractical behavior, which is due to the fact that the stress transfer is very
quick between two fiber sheets upon rupture of C7. A good agreement can
be achieved by using a linear rupture behavior for C7. With increasing

amount of C1, progressive rupture of C7 can be found and this model can be
used to predict the hybrid behavior for this case [see Figure 8(b)].
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Strain(%)
(a) Hybrid ratios of C1 to C7
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Stram (%)
(b) Rupture strain for C7 (2ClK7)
Figure 9. Hybrid effects for different proportions and rupture strains of C7
To further investigate the effect of mixture ratios and the stress transfer
behavior (softening behavior governed by rupture strain of C7) on hybrid
behavior, the area ratios of C1 to C7 sheet are varied from 0.5 to 2.0 by
fixing one layer of C7 sheet, and different rupture strains of C7 are used.
From Figure 9(a), it is easy to conclude that load drop can be significantly
reduced with an increase of the volume of C1 sheet, but there is no doubt a
certain limit in the hybrid design over which no expected or efficient hybrid
effect can be achieved. This is also in agreement with the experimental
observations of Apinis et al.3 who mixed a small amount of carbon fibers
which is first to rupture in the hybrid design with aramid or glass fibers.
Figure 9(b) demonstrates that the amount of load drop or the expected
hybrid effect also depends on the stress transfer behavior caused by
progressive rupture of C7. The slower rupture process or the better effect
can be achieved.
Flexural Test of RC Beams

Due to the symmetry of the tested RC beams shown in Figure 3, only half of
the structure is used to investigate the hybrid effect of the strengthened RC
beams. The finite element meshes are shown in Figure 10. The material
parameters used in the present study are as follows: Ec=3.51x 104MPa and
~ 0 . 1 3for concrete, Es=2.1x105MPa and f,=358MPa for steel bar,
z-8.0MPa, ks=160MPa/mrn and Gfb=l.2N/mm for the FRP-concrete
interface, which is calibrated from the experimental results of the most

dominant debonding mode occurring from the concrete substrate. First,
J=3.0MPa, Gf=O.l2N/mm, f,=49.3MPa (denoted by N) are used to
investigate the hybrid effect. The predicted final failure modes for all three
strengthened beams are debonding within the concrete substrate. So for this
case the concrete property may affect the strengthening effect of FRP sheets.
To clarify this, J;=4.0MPa, Gf=O. 15N/mm, f,=55.OMPa (denoted by H)
are then adopted to simulate the corresponding structural behavior.
Figure 10. Finite element discretization model for FRP-strengthened R.C beams
As shown in Figure 1 I, numerical results are in good agreement with

the experimental ones on the whole. But due to the failure mode of 2Cl/C7
being different from that of the experiment (rupture of FRP sheets), the
expected hybrid effect is not achieved. Due to debonding within concrete
substrate being directly related to the concrete cracking behavior,
strengthening effect can be improved by increasing the concrete strength
and its fracture energy.
It should be noted that the proposed model is based on a macroscopic
behavior, which makes it unable to capture load fluctuations in the
experiment of hybrid specimen.
5i
71
90
90
75
75
60
60
45
45
a 30
15
15
lo
l5
2o
Deflection (mm)
25
30
10
15
20
Deflection (mm)
25
30
(b) Effect of concrete property

(a) Numerical vs. experimental results
Figure 1 1 . Comparison of numerical and experimental results for RC beams
386 FRPRCS-6: Extemlly Bonded Reinforcement for Flexure
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental observation, a macroscopic damage constitutive
model is proposed for modeling the stress transfer behavior upon
progressive rupture of higher modulus fiber sheets in the hybrid sheets. This
model can be used to interpret the experimental phenomena and investigate
the hybrid behavior in the structural design. The application of this model to
tension and RC beam tests is also demonstrated. It is found that hybrid ratio
and stress transfer behavior may be used to control the load drop due to
rupture of higher modulus sheets. However, some further work is still
needed to calibrate the parameters of the model from the experiments.
REFERENCES
1. Razaqpur, A.G. and Ali, Mir Mazher, A New Concept for Achieving
Ductility in FRP-Reinforced Concrete, Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Composites in Infiastructure (ICCI96),
Tucson, Arizona, USA, January 15-17, 1996, pp. 401-413.
2. Harris, H.G., Somboonsong, W., KO, F.K. and Huesgen, R., A Second
Generation Ductile Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) for Concrete
Structures, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on
Composites in Infiastructure (ICCI 98), Tucson, Arizona, USA, January 57, 1998, Vol. 2, pp. 66-79.
3. Apinis, R., Modniks, J., Tamuzs, V. and Tepfers, R., Ductility of Hybrid
Fiber Composite Reinforcement FRP for Concrete, Chalmers University of
Technology, Goteborg, Division of Building Technology, Publication No
98:2, Work No 21, 1998, 8 pp.
4. Wu, Z.S., Sakamoto, K., Niu, H.D. and Kurokawa, T., Retrofitting RC
Beams with Innovative Hybrid Fiber Sheets, Proceedings of The Seventh
Japan International SAMPE Symposium, Tokyo, Japan, November 13-16,
200 1, pp.383-386.
5 . Wu, Z.S., Sakamoto, K., Niu, H.D., Shimada, M. and Murakami, S.,
Strengthening Effects of Concrete Flexural Members Retrofitted with
Hybrid FRP Composites, Proceedings of The Third International
Conference on Composites in Infrastructure (lCClO2), San Francisco,
California, USA, June 10-12,2002, CD-ROM.
6. DIANA-7 Users Manual, TNO Building and Construction Research,
Lakerveld b.v., The Hague, 1998.
7. Niu, H.D. and Wu, Z.S., Strengthening Effects of RC Flexural Members
with FRP Sheets Affected by Adhesive Layers, Journal of Applied
Mechanics, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 5,2002, pp.887-898.

FIBER-SECTION FE FOR FRP-STRENGTHENED RC BEAM

IN FLEXURE, SHEAR AND CONFINEMENT
G. MONTI
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica,
Universitri La Sapienza di Roma, Via A. Cramsci, 53 - 00197 Roma, Italy
M. BARBATO
Structural Engineering Department,
UCSD, 9500 Gilman Dr. - 92095-0085 La Jolla, CA, USA
A fiber-section Finite Element (FE) for Reinforced Concrete (RC) beamcolumns is developed that includes three types of FRP-strengthening: 1) in
flexure, 2 ) in shear and 3) in confinement for ductility increase. Flexural
strengthening is modeled by adding layers of the material FRP to the RC
section. The FRP constitutive law is elastic in tension with the failure stress
accounting for possible debonding, as a function of the adhesion properties
of the platekheet to the concrete surface. The FRP contribution to the
element strength and stiffness is accounted for under the hypothesis of
plane sections. Shear strengthening is computed by adding the FRP
contribution to the ultimate sectional shear resistance. The acting shear is
computed through equilibrium of the nodal generalized forces after
convergence in every load step. The sectional shear strength is given by
three additive terms: the concrete mechanisms resistance ( Vc), which
decreases as the section curvature demand increases, the transverse steel
contribution (Vy) and the FRP contribution (5).A new equation is
proposed to evaluate the contribution of the FRP sheet crossing the crack.
The confinement exerted by FRP wraps on RC elements is accounted for
through a cyclic model of FRP-confined concrete, on the basis of an
existing monotonic model12. Such a model has been validated against
purposely performed experimental cyclic tests on concrete cylinders.
Comparisons between experimental tests and numerical simulations are
presented. The so-developed FE is fully cyclic and force-based. This latter
property allows the modelling of each structural member with a single FE
and thus reducing the computational effort in case of large frame analyses.
This renders the FE suitable for use in non-linear dynamic analyses of FRPstrengthened RC frames.
INTRODUCTION
In the research fields that study the response and the performance of FRPstrengthened RC elements, many experimental results are nowadays
available in large number in the literature. Currently, there is a strong need
of reliable and robust formulations of finite elements (FE) that could help
researchers model FRP-strengthened RC elements and predict their
response under different strengthening configurations, e.g., in parametric
studies for design.
In the present work, such a model is presented. It consists of a forcebased frame FE that allows an affordable modelization of FRP-strengthened
RC frames, even under dynamic conditions, through a considerable
reduction of the computational effort for large systems. In fact, coarse
meshes can be obtained with only one finite element per column or beam,
thus drastically reducing the degrees of freedoms (dofs) of the structural
model' .
The FE response is obtained through fiber-based sections. The sectional
response is obtained through the well-known fiber discretization, which
automatically couples axial and flexural response.
In this work, an additional feature is implemented in the FE: the
stepwise check of possible shear failure. The applied sectional shear is
computed through equilibrium of the nodal generalized forces after
convergence at every load step, with a procedure that is a natural extension
of the formulation and without any additional computational cost. The shear
resistance is evaluated as a sectional property, depending on geometry and
material properties, and is updated at each load step after convergence in
order to account for the degradation of the concrete contribution when the
section curvature demand increases'.
Typical FRP-strengthening techniques - in flexure, shear and
confinement - have been incorporated in the FE. The model is non-linear in
concrete and steel and is able to represent possible debonding phenomena
occurring at the interface between FRP and concrete. New equations for
debonding and shear are here proposed.
The proposed FE serves as a valuable tool for performing non-linear,
either static or dynamic, analyses of RC frames before and after FRPstrengthening. The accuracy of the developed FE is validated through
correlations to experimental tests for both flexural and shear strengthening.
The developed FE has been implemented under the framework of the
general purpose FE program FedeasLab developed by F.C. Filippou at UC
Berkeley.
'
Fibre-Section FE of FRP-Strengthened RC Beam 389
TREATMENT OF FRP-STRENGTHENING FOR FLEXURE
Modeling of Reinforcement
The effective modeling of RC frames, that are FRP-strengthened for flexure
requires the consideration of three aspects:
(a) the representation of FRP debonding;
(b) the FRP constitutive law including debonding;
(c) the FRP contribution to both strength and stiffness.
Modeling of FRP debonding
Debonding is a possible failure mode in FRP plateshheets strengthening RC
elements in flexure. In the literature, there are many semi-empirical models
that describe and evaluate debonding stresses of FRP platedsheets
externally bonded to a concrete surface. In this work, two predictive
equations are adopted6 which yield the maximum stress ffdd that the FRP
sheet can carry on uncracked concrete (anchorage zones) before debonding,
and the corresponding effective bonded length L, . The term effective
refers to the widely adopted definition: the anchorage length beyond which
no increase in the carried FRP stress is obtained. The adopted formulae
are:
where L is the actual FRP anchorage length, and p=1 for L 2 Le and
7C.L
p = s i n r for L < L, , and rmaX

is the peak bond stress, equal
L * L,
zmaX= kb .1.8. fctm
with: kb =
1 +bf/lOOmm
where fctm = concrete mean tensile strength, kb

effects, bf
accounts for scale
width of FRP platehheet, and bc= width of concrete surface.
In Eq.( l), the suggested value for the yfd factor is 1.3.
FRP constitutive law including debonding

The FRP constitutive law in tension is elastic up to delamination. Stiffness
in compression is neglected. Two (independent) parameters are needed:
& fdd = f f d d / E f = FRP ultimate strain at debonding, E f = FW elastic
modulus.
Possible prestressing can be included in the model by introducing an
initial deformation given as: E j o = F,,/(tf . b f . E j ) , where Fpr is the
prestressing force, and t f , b f are the FRP platekheet thickness and width,
respectively.
The adopted constitutive law is:
where ffdd is given in (1) and corresponds to debonding.
FRP contribution to strength and stiffness

The FRP contribution to the element strength and stiffness is accounted for
through the usual hypothesis of plane sections. This allows one to consider
FRP platedsheets in analogy with a reinforcement positioned at the tension
side of the section, whose contribution is automatically accounted for
within the fiber-section state determination.
Correlation Studies with Experimental Tests
An extensive study consisting of numerical simulations of experimental
tests reported in literature has been performed to validate the proposed FE
for FEU flexural strengthening. All the experimental tests considered (and
listed in Table 1) are four points loading tests on simply supported beams.
Table 1 shows the correlation between the experimental values and
those obtained through the finite element, while Figure 1 graphically depicts
the same correlation. From both, it can be observed that the FRPstrengthening feature of the finite element shows an extremely satisfactory
overall prediction capacity.
Table 1 . Comparison between experimental and FE-predicted ultimate loads

Failure mode
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Triantafillou and Plevris
Ta
Van Gemert et al. (1999)
Ta
lmusallam and Al-Salloum
Ta
Ta
Al Soulaimani et al. (1994)
Ta
Ta
Ritchie et al. (1991)
Ta
Ta
0.011
0.107
variance
standard dev.
flexure
FRP failure
debonding
shear
10 20
30
40
50
60
70 80
90
100
Experimental values (kN)

Figure 1. Comparison between experimental and FE-predicted ultimate loads
for flexural FRP-strengthening
TREATMENT OF FRP-STRENGTHENING FOR SHEAR

Modeling of Reinforcement
The sectional shear strength is given by three additive terms: the concrete
contribution (VJ, the transverse steel contribution (5)and the FRP
contribution (q).
The first two terms have been evaluated according to
reference 3 . As for the FRP contribution, a new equation is presented that
also considers for the case of side plating. Experimental t e d 4 show that
this contribution is mainly dependent on the strengthening geometry (strips
or continuous plates, side bonding or u-jacketing or complete wrapping) and
it is practically always due to debonding phenomena.
The following simplifying hypotheses are formulated:
(a) uniform distribution of shear cracks;
(b) the shear cracks are straight, inclined at a constant angle 8 and with a
linearly increasing width from the upper edge to the bottom one;
(c) FRP has only axial stiffness and fibers are inclined at an angle p ;
(d) the resisting mechanism is obtained from the Moersch truss analogy.
The following equation is thus obtained:
with b,
tf
wf
beam width, p f = 2 t f / b ,
FRP thickness), f f d d , e
shear strengthening ratio (with
effective strength of FRP sheet along crack,
width of FRP strips, r
distance between two consecutive FRP
strips (for continuous sheet r = 0 ), 8 = crack angle, p = FRP sheet (strips)

angle. Note that the crack angle is obtained asI6, derived from the MCFTI7:
where psi, pst
and pfr, p p
flexural and shear, respectively, strengthening FRP ratios.
flexural and shear, respectively, reinforcing steel ratios,
The effective strength f f d d , e of the FRP sheet along the crack, for the
case of side bonding, is given as*:
ffdd,e = f f d d
/Tr
.[ 1- k -
(3)
Zrid,eq
where f f d d is given in Eq. (I), k = 1- - , and:
where Le from Eq. (I), u1 = I.l.kbc4 (with c4 = 0.3 mm and kb from

Eq. (2)) = debonding slip, and &fdd = f f d d / E f
= debonding strain.
Correlation Studies with Experimental Tests

Some numerical simulations of experimental tests are reported to validate
the ability of the finite element to capture the contribution of FRP to the
shear strength. More extensive analyses are currently under way; however, a
satisfactory accuracy can already be appreciated even with so few tests.
Table 2 . Comparison between experimental and FE-predicted ultimate loads
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
mean
variance
standarddev.
I
1
1.08
~~
0.057
0.238
250
200
! 150
cp
>
*B
100
50
.M
bl
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Experimental values (kN)

Figure 2 . Comparison between experimental and FE-predicted ultimate loads
for shear FRP-strengthening.
TREATMENT OF FRP-CONFINEMENT FOR DUCTILITY

A cyclic model of FRP-confined concrete has been developed, on the basis
of an existing monotonic model*. The latter is based on an iterative
procedure through which the stress-strain relation is point-wise computed.
The cyclic model is based on a set of experimental tests purposely carried
out, from which the stiffness variation of unloading and reloading branches
has been determined. The model accuracy can be seen in Figure 3, which
shows the simulation of a cyclic test on a FRP-wrapped concrete cylinder.
-eqierimental
---model
10
Axial strain
15
20
25
%o
Figure 3. Cyclic stress-strain relationship for FRP-confined concrete: model vs. test
CONCLUSIONS
The FE presented in this paper has shown remarkable features of simplicity
of use and accuracy in modeling the mechanical behaviour of RC structures,
FRP-strengthened for flexure, shear and confinement (see also reference
19). A new equation for FRP-strengthening in shear has also been proposed.
REFERENCES
1. Almusallam, T.H., and Al-Salloum, Y.A., (2001). Ultimate strength prediction
for RC beams externally strengthened by composite materials. Composites: Part
B, 32,609-619.
2. Al-Soulaimani G.J., Sharif A., Basunbul LA., Baluch M.H. and Ghaleb B.N.,
(1994). Shear Repair for Reinforced Concrete by Fiberglass Plate Bonding,
Structural Journal, ACI, 91(3), 458-464.
3. ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on Shear and Torsion (1998). Recent Approaches
to Shear Design of Structural Concrete. J of Struct. Engrg, ASCE, 124(12).
4. Brosens, K., and Van Gemert, D. (1997). Anchoring stresses between concrete
and carbon fibre reinforced laminates. Proc. Third Int. Symposium on Non
Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for concrete structures, JCI, Vol. 1, pp. 271-278.
5. Khalifa, A., and Nanni, A., (2000). Improving shear capacity of existing RC Tsection beams using CFRP composites. Cement & Concr. Comp., 22, 165-174.
6. Monti, G., Renzelli, M., and Luciani P. (2003). FRP Adhesion to Uncracked
and Cracked Concrete Zones. Proc. 6th International Symposium on FRP
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-6), Singapore.
7. Priestley, M.J.N., Seible, F., Xiao, Y. and Verma, R. (1994). Steel jacket
retrofitting of reinforced concrete bridge columns for enhanced shear strength.
Structural Journal, ACI, 91(4), 394-405.
8. Ritchie A., Thomas D.A., Lu L.W, and Connelly G.M., (1991). External
Reinforcement of Concrete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Plastics. Structural
Journal, ACI, 88(4), 490-500.
9. Saadatmanesh H., and Ehsani M.R., (1991b). RC Beams Strengthened with
GFRP Plates. I: Experimental Study. J. of Struct. Engrg, ASCE, 117(11).
10. Sharif A., Al-Sulaimani G.J., Basunbul I.A., Baluch M.H. and Ghaleb B.N.,
(1994). Strengthening of Initially Loaded Reinforced Concrete Beams Using
FRF Plates. Structural Journal, ACI, 91(2), 160-168.
11. Spacone, E., Filippou, F.C., and Taucer, F.F. (1991). Fiber beam-column
element for seismic response analysis of reinforced concrete structures.
UCWEERC Rep. 91/17, Univ. of California, Berkeley, Richmond, California.
12. Spoelstra, M. R., and Monti, G. (1999). FRP-confined concrete model.
Journal of Composite for Construction, ASCE, 3(3), 143-150.
13. Triantafillou T.C. and Plevris N., (1992). Strengthening of RC Beams with
Epoxy Bonded Fiber Composite Materials. Materials and Structures, 25.
14. Triantafillou T.C., (1998). Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams
Using Epoxy-Bonded FRP Composites. Structural Journal, ACI, 95(2).
15. Taljsten, B., and Elfgren, L., (2000). Strengthening concrete beams for shear
using CFRP-materials: evaluation of different application methods. Composites:
Part B, 3 1, 87-96.
16. Benedetti, A., Aprile, A. (2003). Personal communication.
17. Collins M.P., (1978), Towards a rational theory for R/C Members in Shear,
ASCE Proc. of the Struct. Div., 104, no.4, 649-666.
18. Monti, G. (2003). A mechanical model for FRP-strengthening in shear, ASCE
J. of Composites in Construction, (submitted).
19.Barbat0, M., Monti, G., Santinelli, F. (2003). Fiber-section FE of FRPstrengthened RC beam for seismic analysis. Proc. Jib Symposium Concrete
Structures in Seismic Regions, Athens, 6-9 May.

QWorId Scientific Publishing Company
INTERACTION BETWEEN INTERNAL BARS AND

EXTERNAL FRP REINFORCEMENT IN RC MEMBERS
G. ZEHETMAIER AND K. ZILCH
Department of Concrete Structures
Technische Universitat Miinchen, 80290 Miinchen, Germany
In an experimental program, the interactions between embedded and
externally bonded reinforcement in strengthened RC members were
examined. Test results revealed significant effects of the different bond
characteristics on the distribution of tensile forces in the cracked section.
In this article, the performed tests are summarized and approaches to
quantify the influences of the bond behavior are described. Results
obtained from analytical models referring to single cracks are presented.
INTRODUCTION
Due to the increasing importance of retrofit of existing RC structures,
strengthening with externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) has received
growing attention. Steel plates or carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP)
bonded with epoxy-adhesives to the external surface of concrete structures
provide both an effective and an economical alternative to other
strengthening methods. In the case of strengthening existing RC members
with externally bonded reinforcement, two types of reinforcement with
totally different bond characteristics are combined. Notably, the brittle
bond behavior of the externally bonded CFRP strips compared to the more
ductile behavior of embedded reinforcing bars influences the distribution of
tensile forces in the cracked section. However, present state-of-the-art
design guidelines neglect the effects of the different bond behavior.
In Figure 1, two different approaches concerning the distribution of
sectional forces are shown. The fib-guidelines' suggest a distribution
according to the Bernoulli-constraint (cross sections remain plane)
(Figure la) for SLS and ULS, but in RC design the Bernoulli-hypothesis is
only accurate if the reinforcement layers show identical bond behavior. In
contrast to the fib-regulations, other technical literature2 suggests that only
the difference (Ff = Ftotal- FSy)acts on the externally bonded reinforcement
(Figure 1b).
The interaction of embedded and externally bonded
reinforcement has not yet been subject to detailed experimental or analytical
research. Only few results from tests related to different objectives are
available. However, a significant influence of the bond characteristics is
evident. To investigate these interactions between embedded and externally
bonded CRFP reinforcement, a considerable experimental program
accompanied by theoretical research was performed3.
I :
I :
t
Fs,=Asfs,
Fsy=&fsy:
'
Mh
"subscript "f' refers to externally bonded reinforcement; "s" refers to the embedded
reinforcement
Figure 1. Distribution of tensile forces in flexural members (grey: tensile forces
acting on the externally bonded reinforcement); (a) fib-guidelines
Bernoulli-constraint);(b)technical approvals'
BOND BEHAVIOR
In the preliminary experimental investigations, the bond behavior of the

reinforcing materials used in further tests was examined from specific bond
tests. For the embedded reinforcement, modified pull-out-tests (Figure 2)
were used to determine the bond stress - slip relationships. The specimens
provided realistic boundary conditions regarding the state of stress or
possible splitting failure and represented the cracked region of flexural
members. For calculations purposes, the bond behavior is described with a
modified local bond stress - slip relationship, formulated by Eligehausen4.
Figure 2 displays the bond stress versus slip between concrete and
reinforcement at the loaded end. The bond behavior of the CFRP strips was
examined by means of double lap specimens. Based on an assumed bilinear
bond stress - slip relationship the parameters describing the bond behavior
were derived from a regression analysis of the bond test results5. Figure 2
shows the resulting bilinear bond stress - slip relationship, for CFRP strips
Interaction between Internal Bars and FRP 399
epoxy-bonded to concrete. All bond test specimens had the same properties
such as concrete cover, concrete mix design or thickness of the adhesive,
that were identical to the main tests described in the next section.
Tr
1 f.,
CYl
-1
TL/fcmcyl[-l
0 35
0 30
bond test on EBR
+
+
experimental results
CFRP EBR - bond model
ribbed bars -bond model
smooth bars. bond modell
0 25
0 20
0 15
0 10
0 05
0 00
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
1F
slips, bzw. sL [mm]
Figure 2 . Bond stress vs. slip between reinforcement and concrete at the loaded end;
bilinear bond stress - slip relationship for CFRP-strips; test setup for bond tests
(concrete C20/25; embedded reinforcement: poor bond conditions)
The interactions between embedded reinforcing bars and externally bonded
reinforcement were examined in two test series. In the first series, 28
reinforced concrete prisms strengthened with prefabricated CFRP strips
were loaded with an axial tensile force. In addition, 27 tests with steel plate
strengthened RC prisms were carried out to compare the performance of
CFRP strengthened members with conventional steel plate - bonded RC
structures. The second series consisted of 12 strengthened flexural
members. With regard to the wide range of applications of externally
bonded in combination with embedded reinforcement, the following
parameters were varied: type and diameter of the embedded reinforcement,
concrete grade, ratio of the axial stiffness of the embedded and externally
bonded reinforcement and initial stage of cracking (single crack, stabilized
cracking).
Tests on Axially Loaded RC Prisms - Test Setup and Results

In Figure 3 , the test setup for the first test series is presented. To evaluate
the effects of different bond characteristics the measured reinforcement
strains in predefined cracks were compared to the calculated strain
assuming plane cross sections (E, = q = Ftoto,/(EsA,+ E'J).
t
2.::
L B
Ed
{j
--" i
30
loo
zoo
loo
e%
?E
5
m
--
gE!
5
Embedded
EBR
Reinforcement
V1
v2
v3
E&No
of
E,A, Tests
d s = 16 mm
CFRP
747
ribbed
steel plate (8015 mm7 0 93
d,= 12 mm
CFRP
(5011 2mm7
431
smooth
steel plate (8015 mm')
0 54
(50/1 2mm3
(5011 2 mm')
d.=8mm
CFRP
187
nbbed
steel plate (80/5 mm7 0 24
initial stage
of cracking
single crack
Figure 3. Axially loades RC prisms (senes 1);

test setup; outline of experimental program
Figure 4 displays a representative example of measured strains

compared to the expected strains assuming plane cross sections.
Additionally, the results of a numerical simulation with an incremental
integration algorithm and realistic bond models (see Figure 2) are displayed.
For three different load levels, the calculated strains along the free length of
the specimen are added.
The CFRP strains displayed in Figure 4 exceed the calculated values
based on the Bernoulli-constraint (plane cross sections) by 50% at
maximum. As a result, debonding is initiated at a load level equivalent to
80% of the calculated bond failure load.
All tests with axially loaded RC prisms strengthened with externally
bonded CFRP strips show similar results. Due to the short transfer lengths
of CFRPAEBRprior to debonding, the measured CFRP strains exceeded the
calculated values. In contrast to CFW-strips, the steel plates showed
considerably longer transfer lengths. This was a result of the greater
thickness of the plates. As a consequence, the measured strains in case of

steel plate-bonding were significantly lower than the expected strains (plane
cross sections assumed).
._
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2300
3000
3500
strain Iro-9
Figure 4. Test results: Combination of ribbed reinforcing bars d, = 8 mm and

externally bonded CFRP-strips (series V3); reinforcement strains in the predefined
crack, mean strain and results of numerical simulations versus axial tensile force
The interaction between internal and external reinforcement may be

expressed by means of a bond coefficient tr=E ~ / E , . For axially loaded
concrete prisms, the Bernoulli-constraint implies &= 1. The bond
coefficients based on measured strains are discussed together with
coefficients derived from simplified models in the next section. The main
influences on the distribution of sectional forces, characterized by the bond
coefficient 51may be summarized as follows:
(a) ratio of width bf to thickness + of the externally bonded reinforcement:

with increasing thickness &decreases
bond
behavior of embedded bars: with increasing bond strength the
(b)
bond coefficient 5 decreases
(c) concrete compressive strength: with increasing compressive strength 4
decreases
(d) initial stage of cracking: the biggest values of & were observed for
single cracks; additional cracks reduced the bond coefficient 8
Tests on Flexural Members - Test Setup and Results
In the second series, 12 flexural members representing slabs with low shear
forces were tested (Figure 5). The crack spacing was predefined by means
of small metal sheets. As in the first test series, for comparison reasons,
6 flexural members were conventionally strengthened with steel plates
cross section
d.= 12 m m
&?,
EBR
Embedded
-x- --*-
.Reinforcement
..............
...
'150
~~
ds=12mm
smooth
ds-12mm
NO.of
cmrk
_,_.__._
-?acing
E.b.TOCtC
CFRP (5C"-'
steel plate (BUD mm-,
CFRP (5C'" ^--*
u.34
CI
'"' "
EBR
L
i t
150 mm
2000 mm
250mm 250mm
2000mm
150mm
Figure 5. Flexural members (series 2);

test setup; outline of experimental program
Figure 6(a) exemplarily displays measured and calculated reinforcement

strains at midspan. The calculated strains are based on the Bernoullihypothesis. From Figure 6(b), it becomes obvious that the reduced spacing
of predefined cracks in series B2 (crack spacing 150 mm) compared to
series B1 (crack spacing 300 mm) results in less significant differences
between measured and expected CFRP strains.
-=-
b)
Bernoulli-hypothesis
~ ~ . ~ ~
[ 1~ l ~ r , ~ ~ t ~
CFRPEBR
2.00
1.50
1,oo
0,50
-o-
mean valuer -crack spacing 300 mm
-b
mean values -crack spacing 150 mm
0.00
0
2000
4000
strain 10.7
6000
8000
10
15
20
25
bending moment at midDpan M F WNm]
Figure 6. a) Test results: flexural member with a predefined crack spacing of

150 mm (series B2), strains at midspan; b) mean ratios of measured and expected
(Bernoulli constraint) CFRP strains at midspan
ANALYTICAL MODELLING OF INTERACTIONS

A description of the interactions between two reinforcement layers with
different bond characteristics can be derived by applying equilibrium and
compatibility conditions to a differential element. The resulting system of
differential equations represents a second order boundary value problem.
An analytical solution of the system of differential equations based on
realistic bond stress - slip relationships zj-csd and z, (s,) is not yet known.
Two basic approaches may be appropriate to calculate strains and stresses
of the reinforcement layers with respect to the effects of the different bond
behavior:
(a) Numerical simulation based on a realistic description of the bond
behavior: either by means of incremental integration along the
reinforcement axis or with Finite Element Methods
(b) Simplified approach based on energy considerations
A numerical solution on the basis of realistic bond models can be
achieved using incremental integration algorithms. The boundary value
problem has to be transformed into an initial value problem by
implementing an iterative solution procedure. Results of the numerical
simulation using the bond models displayed in Figure 2 are shown in
Figure 4. Due to the time-intensive iterative procedure, a numerical
simulation may not be appropriate for practical use. Therefore, a simplified
analytical model was developed. In this article, only the approach for single
cracks corresponding to the end anchorage of EBR at flexural members is
introduced.
Simplified Analytical Model - Single Cracks (End Anchorage)

The presented model refers to a load level dependent bond coefficient
6, used to calculate the reinforcement stresses and
strains in PC structures is based on the ratio of the mean bond stresses of
the different reinforcement layers and may be considered approximately
constant. In contrast to PC structures, the ratio of mean bond stresses zj-dz,,,,
for strengthened RC members is strongly dependent on the load level. The
analytical model is therefore based on the relationship between strain (E,
and .q respectively) and slip (s, and sf> at the cracked section. The
reinforcement layers are coupled with compatibility conditions (axial load:
s , ~= sf) considering the influence of concrete deformations to be negligible.
@ The bond coefficient
The correlation between E~ and ss for embedded reinforcement can be

derived on the basis of the ascending branch of the bond model formulated
by Eligehausen (Figure 7). Due to the assumed bilinear relationship
between zf and sf [(bond model in Figure 8 b)], only a piecewise definition
of the relationship between ?and sf depending on the existing bond length 1,
can be achieved. In Figure 7, examples for &+relations taking into account
the specified boundary conditions are displayed.
b)
c20/25
strain 6 %[ L ]
strain E, [ L ]
3.50
3,w
3.00.
.:.'
&v
2,5%
2.50
bond-parameter:
sfI = 0,035 mm
sP = 0,195 mm
5/r = 3.2 M a
1501
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
steel plate
0.0
'/=5mm
= 200.000 MPa
bond length:
I, = I,,, = 495 mm
E/
0.2
0.1
slip 6. [mm]
0.3
0,4
0.5
0.6
slips, [mm]
Figure 7. Relationships between slip and reinforcement strain at the crack

a) embedded ribbed reinforcing bars, d, = 8mm; b) externally bonded reinforcement,
bond parameters according to Niedermeier'
b)
---~
Tn
bond model
k
for I, 2 I,,,!82, :
1W
200
511
=m
3w
bond length It [mm]
Figure 8. Minimum Value of ( 6 a) bond stresses, strain and slip of the externally
bonded CFW-strip along the bonded length (parameters acc. to Fig. 7);
b) bond model and equations to calculate the minimum value of tf
Based on the &-+relations, bond coefficients trfor single cracks can be

derived. The value of 4 that represents the maximum redistribution of
tensile forces from externally bonded to internal reinforcement at single
cracks can be calculated using the equations given in Figure 8.
In Figures 9 and 10, the calculated values of 4 are compared to the
results from test series V1 and V3. From the test results and the calculated
values, it becomes obvious that the assumption of plane cross sections
(Bernoulli-constraint; axial load: 4 = 1) in the case of strengthening with
CFRP leads to an underestimation of CFRP stresses and strains.
2.30
2.00
t,30
c40150 test results
cm1251ert results
- c40150 calculated
...
C20125 ~ a l ~ u l a t e d
1,oo
x
. ..
0.30
C20125 test results

CZOI25 calculated
0.30
series V1 - CFRP
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.1
0.13
0.1
0.03
slip [mml
0.13
slip [mml
Figure 9. Results of series V1 (d, = 16 mm), experimental bond coefficients &and

calculated values versus the slip at the single crack; a) CFRP strips; b) steel plates
--
3.00
c40150 tert ,esYlb

C40150 calculated
CZOlZ5 test results
CZOlZ5 calculated
C40150 test r e i ~ l t s
- C40150 caIculnted
2.00
__
1.50
1.50
1.00
1.00
2.30
2.00
0.30
C20125 test results

CZOl23 CalCUlated
0.30
series V3 - CFRP
0.00
0.03
0.1
0.15
i l l p [mml
0.2
0.00
OZI
0.a
0.06
0.1
0.13
sllp Imm]
0.2
0.23
0.3
Figure 10. Results of series V3 (d, = 8 mm), experimental bond coefficients &and
calculated values versus the slip at the single crack; a) CFRP strips; b) steel plates
CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

Test results revealed significant differences between the assumed
distribution of sectional forces according to present design guidelines and
the measured distribution. These differencesmay lead in some cases to a
critical overestimation of the load carrying capacity of RC members
strengthened with externally bonded CFRP reinforcement. To quantify the
effects of the different bond behavior of internal and external
reinforcement, simplified mechanical models are presented. Among the
future tasks are the extension of the modeling to different stages of cracking
and the quantification of the possible redistribution of tensile forces from
the externally bonded to the embedded reinforcement.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support for the experimental
research from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG).
REFERENCES
1. fib bulletin No. 14, Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC
structures. federation internationale du beton, Lausanne, 200 1
2. Deutsches Insititut fur Bautechnik, Technical approval No. 2-36.1-6
Schubfeste Klebeverbindung zwischen Stahlplatten und Stahlbetonbauteilen oder Spannbetonbauteilen (Strengthening of RC and PC
structures with epoxy bonded steel plates), Berlin. 1990
3. Zilch K. and Zehetmaier G. and Niedermeier R., Zusammenwirken von
einbetonierter Bewehrung mit Klebearmierung bei verstarkten
Betonbauteilen (Interactions between embedded and externally
bonded Reinforcement in strengthened members), Report No. Z1-1349/1, Technische Universitat Munchen, Miinchen, July 2002
4. Eligehausen, R. and Popov, E. and Bertero, V., Local Bond Stress-Slip
Relationships of Deformed Bars under Generalized Excitations, Report
No. UCB/EERC-83/23, Earthquake Engineering Research Center,
University of California, Berkeley, October 1983
5. Niedermeier, R. and Zilch, K., Zugkraftdeckung bei klebearmierten
Biegetragern (Verification of the Envelope Line of Tensile Forces for
Flexural Members Strengthened with Externally Bonded Reinforcement), Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 96 (2001), 12, pp. 759 - 770
FRPRCS-6, Singapore, &lo July 2003

STRENGTHENING OF RC TWO-WAY SLABS

WITH COMPOSITE MATERIALS
0. LIMAM, G. FORET AND A. EHRLACHER
Laboratoire Analyse des Materiawr et Identijkation Ecole Nationale des

Ponts et Chaussees, 77455 Marne La Vallee
This paper deals with the strengthening of reinforced concrete two-way
slabs by means of composite material thin plates. The first part deals with
an experimental study on reinforced concrete (RC) two -way slabs with
carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) bands as external reinforcement
and internal steel reinforcement. The FRP-strengthened slab test presents a
failure mode with debonding of the external FRP bands from the slab. The
second part deals with limit analysis modelling. The strengthened slab is
designed as a three-layered plate, where the bottom layer is the composite
material, the middle layer is the steel and the top layer is the concrete. A
simplified laminated plate model is used to describe the behaviour of threelayered plate supported in four sides, which is subjected to a load at the
centre. The upper bound theorem of limit analysis is used to approximate
the ultimate load capacity and identify the different collapse mechanisms.
INTRODUCTION
The use of externally bonded FRP (Fibre Reinforced Plastics) for
strengthening bridges and other reinforced concrete structures has received
considerable attention in recent years. Several analytical and numerical
methods are available to describe and predict the behaviour of externally
bonded CFRP beams2. Experimental investigation conducted by Garden, et
al.3 on RC beams strengthened with composite material shows that two
cases can take place; the first called peeling-off failure where the whole
thickness of the cover concrete is removed. This failure mode leaves the
internal steel exposed and the cover thickness still bonded to the plate. In
the second case, the composite plate is left exposed with no concrete
bonded to it, after failure. Failure can thus occur in two interfaces. When
applied to multi-layered plates, classical Kirchhoff model fails to take into
account the shear stress at the interfaces. A high-order theory for plates has
been proposed to describe RC slabs strengthened with composite patches4.
Failure of multilayered structures often occurs by delamination. As a
consequence, analysis of separation between layers becomes essential for
these structures. The plastic method of limit analysis based on the yield line
theory, remains a robust and powerful tool for the analysis of RC slab
problem?, and limit analysis approach has been applied to RC beams
strengthened with composite material6.
In this paper, the strengthened RC slab with composite materialis
treated as a three layer plate. The upper bound theorem of limit analysis is
applied with a simplified plate model for multi-layered plate (M4)7. It is
used to describe the different collapse mechanisms with failure modes in
layers and interfaces. An estimation of the ultimate load then follows from
the upper bound theorem of limit analysis by equating the rate of internal
energy dissipation in the velocity discontinuities sets to the rate of work
done by the applied loading as the slab deforms in this mechanism.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM AND TEST RESULTS

In this program, two RC two-way slabs (70 mm x 1300 mm x 1700 mm)
were tested. The internal steel grid reinforcement comprised 6 mm diameter
bars spaced at 20 mm in the x and y directions. The concrete cover
thickness is about 17 mm. One slab is strengthened with external carbon
fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) bands. The control specimen slab was not
strengthened. The average 28-day concrete compressive strength is about 30
MPa and its modulus of elasticity is about 25 GPa. The steel tensile yield
stress strength is about 540 MPa and its modulus of elasticity is about 200
GPa. When tested, the slab is supported on four sides and subjected to a
load in the centre. Deflection is captured at the centre. The data is collected
automatically.
CFRP strips, 1.4 mm in thickness, 50 mm in width and 1500 mm in
length, were bonded on the tension face of the slab in the y-direction and
similar CFRP strips, 1000 mm in length, were bonded on the tension face of
the slab in the x-direction. The CFRP strips are spaced at 150 mm. The
tensile strength of the CFRP is about 2800 MPa and its modulus of
elasticity is about 160 GPa. Before bonding the strips, the concrete surface
was roughened using an electrical wire brush and cleaned.
The ultimate loading capacity of the control (non-strengthened)
specimen slab is about 48 kN. The control specimen slab presents a failure
mode with diagonal yield lines. However, complete debonding of CFRP
strips with some concrete still bonded to it was observed for FRP
strengthened slab (Fig. 1). The ultimate load capacity is about 120 kN.
RC Two-way Slabs with Composite Materials 409
Figure 2 presents its load-deflection curve. The non strengthened slab

presents more ductility than the strengthened one.
Figure 1. Debonding failure of FRP strengthened slab
--enon
strengthed s l a b )
strengthed slab
Interface shear
stress: 2 MPa
Interface shear
stress: 2,5 MPa
Deflction (cm)
Figure. 2: The load-deflection curves and comparison with theoretical results
MECHANICAL MODEL
Consider a rectangular RC slab strengthened with composite material

membrane with a thickness h, length 21, and width 2L (Fig. 3). The slab is
designed as a three-layered plate, where the bottom layer is the composite
material, the middle layer is the steel and the top layer is the compressive
concrete zone. The respective ply thicknesses are e ,e 2and e3 . A load Q is
applied at the centre of the plate in the z-direction. The multi-layered plate
is described as an open cylindrical domain R of R 3 , with a base
w E R and three layers, and (e, ,e, ,e,) is an orthogonal base vector of
R with (e,,e,) E w (Fig. 4).
!
I
Concrete
Composite
/
I
I
I
Ql
-L
eY
,
3
2
1
I
Figure 3. Three-layered plate
\
Steel
Yo
Ql
Ak
Ql'
Velocity and Stress Fields of Multi-Layered Plate Model

The multi-layered plate model (M4) gives 2n+ 1 generalised velocity fields',
(Uh with a E {1,2}) is the average displacement rate in e, and ey
where
u'
directions; W, is the overall average displacement rate in e, direction;

=I
N ( N & ( x , y ) with a,P E (1,2}) is the membrane stress tensor in layer i; and
z:+l
( x , y ) with a E {1,2}) is the inter-laminar shear stress at the interface
ij+l .
The
=I
generalised
strain
velocities
are
1 au
au
( E & ( x , Y )= -(>+A)
with a,P E {1,2}) being
2 h p h a
given
the
by
in-surface
deformation velocity tensor associated to the membrane stress tensor at
velocity tensor associated to the inter-laminar shear stress at the interface

(i,i+l).
Upper Bound Theorem of Limit Analysis

The upper-bound theorem of
involves collapse kinematic fields with
.
discontinuities in velocity fields, denoted y' in layer i and D in the
-1,1+1
interface (i,i+l). Velocity fields are kinematically admissible (KA) when

they occur with boundary limits. The dissipation functions are defined as
follows:
-1
N EGY
K'
where
Pd =
the
EG:I+I
= {QlVU KA,Q.q(U) I Pd(U)}
internal
J[7rT(6"+')]dw+
,=I
(i'.'+'.y) (1)
(N .n.y) and q ( y ) = sup.,,,+I
nN(y)= sup=,
2
1=I
energy
dissipation
is
(2)
by:
given
InN(., T ) d s , and the work done by the applied

r,"
loading as the slab deforms is given by Q.q(U), in which q(U) is the

generalised velocity associated withQ and r,"c o is the set of velocity
discontinuities. When Q @ K , the slab decomposes.
APPLICATION TO A THREE LAYERED PLATE

Boundary Conditions and Collapse Criteria
The boundary conditions are given by: U:(x,y)=O
for
x=-L,
for x = - I and W , ( x , y ) = o for (x,y) in d o , boundary of

0. The next criteria on generalised stress fields are considered as
fo 1lows :
u:(x,y)=O
N ' I I C< N ' I I < N'iit , - N ' Z Z C< "22
< N'zzt, ( N ' I z<~Nl12~
(3)
Collapse Mechanisms
Consider collapse mechanisms which result in a velocity discontinuity in
layers and interfaces. As indicated in Figure 4, the field o is divided into 4
open sets: ol, 02,wl' and 02'. In the case of layer mechanisms, they are
rigid regions intersections. An infinity of collapse mechanisms are
considered by varying the angle a .The velocity q(u)= W,(O) is related to
the load Q.
Layers Mechanisms
In the case of layers mechanisms, suppose that the velocity generalised
= 0, with i E {1,2}. The
shearing strain rates in interfaces are null: ,'+'
collapse mechanism concerning layer 1 and layer 2 is explored. It is noted
that A and B respectively in layer 1 and layer 2 represent the velocity
discontinuities between w1 and wl' in the x-direction, and A' and B'
respectively in layer 1 and 2 represent the velocity discontinuities between
o2and w2' in the y-direction. The KA velocity fields are given by:
-3
U = O in ol,
02,w1'andw2'.
Velocity strain rate is q(6)= w3(0,y) = w,(O,y) with -yo I y I y o . A

sufficient condition for collapse is -Q.q(U) 2 Pd(U) , which is thus given by:
(e2+e3> 2~
lQ12-L--
sin,
-2
+-2N12 cosa + NU
sina-
I-YO
cosa
e'+e2
+ N{I f sina( 1+-)+NU
-I
e2+e3
el+,*
+ N z t c o s w +>-I- e2+e3 I-yo
+ Ni2,cosa-
L
]-Yo
e1+e2 -I
el+e2 L
cosa(1 + -)
+ N Usina(1 + -)
e +e
e2+e3 I-yo
+2Yo":,,
(5)
el +e2
+Nfl,(l +->I>
e +e
By considering the velocity discontinuities with the layer mechanisms,

we get the other two sufficient conditions for collapse.
Interface Mechanism
In the case of interface mechanism, velocity discontinuities is considered in
interfaces.
-3
U = 0 , t 2 = 0 and c l = O i n a .
A sufficient condition for collapse is:

+2L2.rk: +-e2+e3 (41L)~::
e' +e2
IQI 2 ?[41Lr;;'
e' +e2
e Z f e 3 2 2.3
+2 L 72c 1
(6)
e' +e2
Mixed Mechanisms
In the case of mixed mechanisms, the velocity discontinuities are
considered in one layer and one interface. The mixed mechanism case
concerning layer 1 and interface (2,3) are explored. It is assumed that the
rate of generalised shearing strain between layers 1 and 2 is null.
e ' + e 2 2~
IQI'T-cosa
+ 2Yo"I
It
1+
e2 +e3
--I
-I
s i n a + N 1 2cosa+N12sina-
+ N:2t cosa 1-
*-yo
I-Yo
e2 +e3
(2LI -(I -yo) L) T y +-
el +e2
2.3
72c
(7)
When considering velocity discontinuity with a mixed mechanism,

three other similar conditions sufficient for collapse are obtained.
MODELLING AND COMPARISON WITH TEST RESULTS
The tension zone in concrete below the neutral axis is neglected. An
approximated method is used to calculate the depth of the neutral axis.
Failure can occur with kinematic field discontinuity in layer 1 (compressive
concrete ), layer 2 (steel) or layer 3 (CFRP strips). Failure can occur with
kinematic field discontinuity in interface (1,2), with separation of the

external strengthening membrane (CFRP strips) from the concrete. Failure
can occur also with kinematic field discontinuity in interface (2,3) called
peeling off failure; where the whole thickness of cover concrete is
removed. By considering a = 45, eight possible collapse mechanisms and
eight sufficient condition for failure are obtained.
2,3
2,3
It was noted that z,c = zZc is the concrete shear stress strength, and
is about 2.5 MPa. Also,
1,2
T , ~ = r,zmis
the shear stress strength at the
1.2
interface 1,2 in the x-direction, and zZc = r2z, is the shear stress strength
at the interface 1,2 in the y-direction. The value r, is the section strength
rate with CFRP strips in the x-direction and r2is the section strength rate
with CFRP strips in the y-direction. For the present RC strengthened slabs,
5 = r2 = 25%, and z, is the shear stress strength at the bonding interface
between concrete and CFRP strips, and is about 2.5 MPa. The calculated
results of maximum capacity at each mechanism are given in table 1.
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Layer mechanisms
Mixed mechanisms
Interface mechanism
Mechanisms
Ultimate loads (KN)
I and 2
2 and 3
I and3
I and (2,3)
3 and (1.2)
2 and (1,2)
2 and (2,3)
(1,2) and (2,3)
538
255
344
439
I86
123
341
3 74
According to the tests, failure occurs with strips debonding and the
ultimate load capacity is about 120 kN. The present model predicts failure
with a mixed mechanism with CFRP strips debonding and steel yielding,
and gives ultimate load capacity as equal to about 123 kN. A good
agreement between theoretical and experimental results is therefore found.
CONCLUSION
Results of the experimental study indicate that externally bonded CFRP
plates can be efficiently used to strengthen two-way RC slabs. Limit
analysis approach can predict correctly the ultimate load capacity of CFRP
bonded RC slabs. This analysis is validated by comparison with test results.
The model presents eight possible collapse mechanisms including three

layer mechanism, four layer mechanism and one interface mechanism. It
also gives simple sufficient conditions and the ultimate load capacity for
each collapse mechanism.
REFERENCES
1.
Meir U., Bridge repair with high performance composite material.

Mater Technique, 1987;4: 125-8.
2. Teng J.G., Lam L., Chan W., Wang J., Retrofitting of deficient RC
cantilever slabs using GFRP strips., J. Comp. Constr. L 2000; 4(2): p.
75-84
3. Garden H.N., Quantrill R.J., Hollaway L.C., Thorne A.M., Parke
G.A.R., An experimental study of the anchorage length of carbon
fibre composite plate used to strengthen reinforced concrete beams ,
Construction and building materials, 12(1998), pp 203-219.
4. Rabinovitch O., Forstig, Y., (( Strengtheneing of RC slabs with circular
composite patches a high-order approach D, composite structures, p225238, ~ 0 1 5 5 , 2 0 0 2
5. Famiyesin, O.O.R., Hossain K.M.A., Chia Y.H., Slade P.A.,
(( Numerical and analytical predictions of the limit load of rectangular
two way slabs D, 2001, Computes and Structures
6. Limam O., For&t G., Ehrlacher A., RC beams strengthened with
composite material: a limit analysis Approach and Experimental
Study, composite structures, 59 (2003) 467-472.
7. Philippe M., Naciri T. Ehrlacher A., A tri-particle model of sandwich
panels, Composite Science and Technology, 1999, p. 1 195-1206.
8. Johansen, K.W., Yield Line Theory, Cement and concrete
Association, London, 1962
9. Salengon J., (( Calcul a la rupture et analyse limite D, Presses de
1E.N.P. C.

EVALUATION OF EXTERNALLY BONDED CFRP SYSTEMS

FOR THE STRENGTHENING OF RC SLABS
K. Y. TAN, G. TUMIALAN AND A. NANNI
Department of Civil Engineering University of Missouri, Rolla, USA
Rolla, MO65409-0710
The use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites as
externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) for the repair and strengthening of
deficient structures has been taking place since the late 1980s. Continuous
efforts in material development and research activities, with strong links to
engineering practice, give this application more and more interest
worldwide. This paper presents an experimental study on flexural
strengthening of reinforced concrete (RC) slabs with different CFRP
systems, using different EBR techniques. All the slabs were tested to failure
under simply supported conditions. CFRP EBR increased the flexural
strength and reduced the deflections and crack widths of the strengthened
slabs. Two modes of failure, delamination and rupture of the CFRP
reinforcement were observed
INTRODUCTION
The wide acceptance and attractiveness of the externally bonded
reinforcement (EBR) technique using epoxy-bonded plates can be attributed
to the development of strong structural adhesives. The development of high
strength-to-weight ratio, ease of fabrication and bonding and excellent
resistance to electrochemical corrosion of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites has given this technique even more acceptance worldwide. Over
the last years, various types of FRP systems and EBR techniques have been
developed and extended the possibilities of FRP EBR.
In this experimental program, three different commercial products,
which include pultruded laminate plates, fiber laminate sheets and pultruded
laminate bars, were used to strengthen the RC slabs by four installation
techniques. The techniques used were cold cured adhesive bonding,
prestressing, wet lay-up and near surface mounted (NSM).
All the strengthened slabs were tested to failure under simply supported
conditions, subjected to a 6-point concentrated static loading system. A
control slab was used as a baseline to compare the strengthened slabs.
418 FRPRCS-6: Exfernally Bonded Reinforcementfor Flexure
Slab Details
A total of five slabs (1000 x 220 x 6300 mm) (39.4 x 8.6 x 248 in.) were
fabricated and cured under normal laboratory conditions. All the slabs were
reinforced in the longitudinal direction with two $10 mm (#3) and four $13
mm (#4) deformed steel bars, and in the transverse direction with $10 mm
(#3) steel bars, spaced at 200 mm (7.9 in.) center-to-center. The minimum
clear cover for the slabs was 30 mm (1.2 in.). (See Fig. 1.)
'
'
L
m
/
I
6.30
0.22
LONGITUDINAL STEEL DISTRIBUTION
-1
''0
f c = 27.6 MPa (4000psi)

fy=413.7MPa(60ksi)
Lenght = 6.3m(20.8ft)
Dimensions in meters
T-.LD.I-2m,.nj
0.03
022
CROSS SECTION A-A
Figure 1 . Typical Cross Section of Slab
Three different CFRP systems and four different EBR techniques were
used for the strengthening of the RC slabs. Table 1 summarizes the test
matrix. The procedures for the installation of each system are described in
the following section. All the strengthened slabs were tested after a curing
period, under normal laboratory conditions, of 7 days after applying the
adhesive.
Table 1: Test Matrix
~
Slab
EBR Techniaues
CFRP Systems
Control
N/A
N/A
Cold cured adhesive bonding
2 strips of laminate plates
B
C
D
Prestressing
Zstrips of laminate plates
Manual wet lay-up
I ply of Fiber laminate sheets

8 strips of laminate bars
Near surface mounted
CFRP Systemsfor the Strengthening of RC Slabs 419
Material Properties
a)
Concrete. The compressive strengths of concrete for the test specimens
b)
Steel reinforcement. An average yield stress of 413.7 MPa (60 ksi) and
are presented in Table 2.

E-modulus of 200 GPa (29000 ksi) were obtained from tensile tests.
c) CFRP systems. Table 3 shows the lower boundary mechanical

properties of the CFRP systems provided by the manufacturer. No
independent tests were performed to characterize the material.
d) Adhesive. The epoxy gel adhesive and saturant were both two-part
systems. After mixing, the epoxy gel adhesive had a paste-like
consistency while the saturant had a liquid form. Table 4 shows the
adhesive properties provided by the manufacturer.
Table 2: Compressive Strength of Concrete at 28 days
Slab
Compressive Strengths, MPa (psi)
Control
30.2 (4380)
A, B
33.8 (4900)
C, D
42.4 (6140)
Table 3: Material Properties of the CFRP Systems

CFRP System
Cross
section, Af
mm2 (in)
Ef
kN/mm2
(Mi)
Pultruted laminate
120 (0.186)
164 (23)
plate
Fiber laminate
240 (34.8)
117 (0.181)
sheet*
Pultruded laminate
112 (0.174)
164 (23)
bar
* Based on dryfiber cross-sectional area.
Tensile
strength,
N/mm2 (Ksi)
Ultimate
strain, %
2500 (360)
1.6
3800 (550)
1.55
2900 (420)
1.8
&
Table 4: Adhesive Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Epoxy gel
Saturant
69 (10 )
69 (10)
96.5 (14)
82.8 (12)
4.1 (600)
3.4 (500)
2
2
INSTALLATION PROCEDURES
All the concrete surfaces were sandblasted and cleaned to ensure good
bonding before strengthening. The adhesive was mixed in the specified ratio
until a uniform and complete mixture was observed.
Slab A: Cold cured adhesive bonding Laminate Plate

The epoxy gel was uniformly spread on the areas where the CFRP plates
were to be placed. The CFRP plates were cut into the designed length and
pressed into the wet epoxy gel using a hard roller. Air trapped between
layers was rolled out before the epoxy gel sets. The thickness of the epoxy
gel was approximately 1.5 mm (0.06 in.). (See Fig. 2a.)
Slab B: Prestressed Laminate Plate

The installation of prestressing CFRP system started with the preparation of
the moveable anchorage. This consisted of gluing one end of the CFRP plate
between two steel plates, held in place by means of screws. After the
moveable anchorage was cured for 24 hours, a fixed anchorage was
installed and the CFRP plate was glued between the steel plate and the
concrete surface. The steel plate was fastened to the concrete surface by
means of an insert. The fixed anchorage was cured for another 24 hours
before the CFRP plate could be stressed. While waiting for the fixed
anchorage to cure, another fixed anchorage was attached, on the other end
of the slab, to the concrete surface by means of an insert. Once the two fixed
anchors were installed, the system was ready for stressing with a hydraulic
jack. During the prestressing process, an epoxy gel was spread uniformly on
all areas where the CFRP plate has contact. The thickness of the epoxy gel
was approximately 1.5 mm (0.06 in.). Trapped air was released by rolling.
Each laminate plate was stressed to an initial elongation of OS%, which
represented 33% of the ultimate strain. After the epoxy gel cured, the
moveable anchor was removed while the fixed anchors remained in place.
(See Fig. 2b.)
Slab C:Manual Wet Lay-up Laminate Sheet

An adequate layer of saturant was spread uniformly on all areas where the
CFRP laminate sheet was to be placed. A single ply of CFRP laminate sheet
was cut to design lengths and pressed down with a bubble roller. A
second layer of saturant was reapplied to complete impregnation prior to
cure. (See Fig. 2c.)
Slab D: Near Surface Mounted Laminate Tapes
Eight grooves approximately 3 mm (1/8 in.) wide and 15 mm (5/8 in.) deep,
12.6 cm (5.0 in.) center-to-center, were cut into the substrate of slab. The
grooves were vacuum cleaned and then filled with saturant. The laminate
bars were cut to design lengths and lightly pressed into the grooves. The
grooves were refilled after part of the saturant was absorbed by the microcavities of the concrete. (See Fig. 2d)
(a) CFRF' Plates
(c) CFRP Sheet
(b) Prestressed CFRP Plates
(d) NSM CFRP Tapes

Figure 2: Test Specimens
TEST SETUP AND TEST PROCEDURE

Two heavy-duty pin rollers were used to support the slab on a span of 6.0 m
(20 ft.). The distance between each point load was 1.2 m (4.0 ft.). (See Fig.
3). A total of 5 linear variable differential transducers (LVDT' s) were
placed at 1.5 m (5 ft.) from each other, starting from the supporting edge,
for displacement monitoring. Strain gages were used to measure strains on

the CFRP systems and concrete. An 89kN (20 kip) capacity load cell was
used to measure the applied loads. All the data from the electronic devices
were recorded by a data acquisition system at a frequency of 1Hz.
PI
l-l
150
120
PI
PI
+ ++
1 50
I 50
1 50
41 2 0 4--120 &120 +120
Figure 3: Test Setup (dimensions in meter)
TESTRESULTS
Mode of Failure
A measure of the efficiency of the different CFRP EBR can be obtained by
considering the modes of failure and the failure loads of the slabs. Fig. 4
illustrates the failure modes of the strengthened slabs and Table 5
summarizes the experimental results. The Control Slab exhibited a typical
under-reinforced flexural failure. The test was discontinued after the steel
yielded before the concrete crushed at a load of 5.60 kN (1.26 kips) due to
excessively large cracks at the tension zone. This slab was used as a
baseline to compare the remaining slabs.
Slab A had a failure caused by delamination at a load of 13.7 kN
(3.08 kips). As a reference, the theoretical failure load based on laminate
rupture for Slab A was computed as 20.3 kN (4.56 kips), which is 48%
larger than the experimental load.
The introduction of initial prestressing provided Slab B with the ability
to resist high loads prior to cracking. The cracks that developed in Slab B
were fewer and finer as compared to Slab A. At a load of 20.7 kN (4.67
kips), sudden slippage took place at the fixed anchorage. The failure load
for Slab B was close to the theoretical ultimate load, 22.7 kN (5.10 kips).
In Slab C, a portion of the CFRP laminate sheet ruptured at a load of
21.3 kN (4.78 kips). After a brief time, the slab failed completely. No sign
of debonding was observed at both ends of the slab. The experiment failure
CFRP Systems for the Strengthening of RC Slabs 423
load was 37% lower that the theoretical ultimate load, 29.2 kN (6.57 kips).
This difference led to the conclusion that FRP rupture may have been
caused by stresses concentration at the crack edges.
Slab D reached the expected flexural capacity. The NSM laminate bars
at the constant moment region ruptured at a load of 24.1 kN (5.43 kips). The
test results positively proved that a good and uniform bond existed between
the NSM laminate bars and the concrete.
(a) Slab A
(b) Slab B
(c) Slab C
(d) Slab D
Figure 4: Failure modes of the strengthened slabs.
The load vs. deflection curves for all the slabs are shown in Fig.5. The
Control Slab started to yield after a load of 4.4 kN (1 .O kips) and continued
to deform thereafter. All strengthened slabs responsed approximately linear
before the concrete crack and with stiffnesses of about 84% greater than the
Control Slab. At a load of 13.7 kN (3.08 kips), Slab A failed suddenly and
exhibited low ductility.
Due to the prestressing in Slab B, lower deflections were observed at
the same level of loads as compared to Slab A. The plateau formation after
17.8 kN (4.0 kips) was interpreted as the beginning of delamination and
slippage at the fixed anchorages.
The CFRP laminate sheet had an axial stiffness, E& of approximately

1.5 times larger than the other CFRP systems. The influence of the Efifin
the stiffness of the strengthened slab was clearly observed in Slab C. Slab C
had a stiffness similar to Slab B before the steel yielded. The CFRP
laminate bar have a similar Eflfwith CFRP laminate plate, hence, Slab D
and Slab A had a similar stiffness and behavior after initial cracking.
Table 5: Test Result
Slab
Max. applied
load, P
kN (Kip)
E//EJ,
(%)
Failure
Increment,
moment *,
(%)
kN-m (lc-ji)
Normalized
Increment * *
(1)
Control
(2)
(3)
5.6 (1.26)
(4)
46.8 (34.5)
(5)
__
(6)
--
A
B
15.3
15.3
13.7 (3.08)
20.8 (4.65)
76.3 (56.3)
102.2 (75.4)
63
118
4.1
7.7
--
C
21.8
21.3 (4.78)
104.0 (76.6)
122
D
14.2
24.1 (5.43)
114.6 (84.5)
145
*Include slab self-weight. ** Column 5 divided by column 2
Midspan Deflection (in)

6
8
1
0
4
I
25
//
5.6
10.2
!I finnn
----
15000
4000
10
e)
Control Slab
SlabA
SlabB
SIabC
2000
+
5
-.--&--
10
l5 20
Midspan Deflection (crn)
o,o
-ii
25
Figure 5: Load vs. Deflection Curves
~looo
30
The load vs. strain curves of Slab A, B, C and D are presented in Fig. 6.
The following is observed:
a) The concrete strains for all the specimens were less than 0.003.
b) The CFRP laminate plate at Slab A delaminated when the strain at the
mid span reached 0.56%, which was 35 % of the ultimate strain.
c) The strains along the prestressed CFRP plate at Slab B started with an
initial elongation of 0.5%. Strain gages close to the anchorage showed a
dramatic increase at 18.5 kN (4.15 kips), indicating that delamination
had reached the edge of the fixed anchorages.
d) Slab C had strains patterns similar to Slab A.
c) The CFRP bars in Slab D were uniformly stressed along the slab until
they reached the ultimate strain.
Smm(l0.6)
(d) Slab D
Figure 6 : Load vs. Strain Curves
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this experimental program:

a) Significant increases in flexural capacity ranging from 63% to 145%
were registered in all strengthened slabs as compared to the Control
Slab.
b) During the test, it was observed that the CFRP EBR delayed the
presence of the first visible cracks and reduced the deflection.
c) The slab strengthened with CFRP plates failed due to delamination
starting from the constant moment region and propagated towards the
cutoff points.
d) Prestressing of the CFRP laminate plate had a positive influence on the
behavior of strengthened RC slab. The load capacity was substantially
increased and the deflection and crack formations were substantially
reduced.
e) Premature failure at fiber laminate sheet was due to high stresses
concentration at crack locations .
f ) The slab strengthened with NSM bars exhibited a behavior such that
CFRP reinforcement was fully utilized.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the S&P Clever
Reinforcement Company.
REFERENCES
1. Taerwe L., Matthys S., Pilakoutas K. and Guadagnini M., European

Activities on the Use of FRP Reinforcement, fib Task Group 9.3 and
ConFibreCrete Network, 5Ih International Conference on FRP
Reinforced Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, July 1618, 2001, Vol. 1, pp. 3-1 5 .
2. Triantafillou T., Matthys S. and Taerwe L., Design of Concrete
Members Strengthened with Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement 5Ih
International Conference on FRP Reinforced Concrete Structures
(FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, July 16-18,2001, Vol. 1, pp. 157-166.
3. American Concrete Institute International, Guide for The Design and
Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening
Concrete Structures ,ACI-440.2R-02, Farmington Hill, Michigan.
4. S&P Clever Reinforcement Company, Guide Line for S&P FRP
Systems, Brunnen, Switzerland, June 2000.

FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING OF TWO-WAY SLABS

USING FRPs
H. MARZOUK
Faculty of Engineering, Memorial University of Newfoundland
300 Prince Philip Dr., St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada, A I B 3x5
U.A. EBEAD AND K.W. NEALE

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sherbrooke
2500 boulevard de IUniversitC, Sherbrooke, QuCbec, Canada, J1K 2R1
Strengthening of two-way slabs using Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
materials is presented. The behaviour of two-way slabs strengthened in
flexure is discussed. Carbon FRP strips and glass FRP laminates can be
used to increase the flexural capacity of two-way slabs to an average of
36% over that of the reference (un-strengthened) specimen. An increase of
the initial stiffness was achieved for flexural specimens; however, an
apparent decrease in the overall ductility was evident. A finite element
analysis of the flexural-strengthened two-way slabs is also discussed. An
incremental elastic-plastic concrete model is implemented. In compression,
the concrete model is elastic until a yield point is reached after which
irrecoverable plastic strain exists. Pre-cracking and post-cracking
behaviours of concrete are considered in the study with special emphasis on
the impact of the FRP materials on the concrete fracture energy and hence
on the concrete tension stiffening. A full bond is assumed between concrete
and the steel and FRP materials. The comparison between the finite
element analysis results and the experimental results shows a good
agreement.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing attention has been placed to the applications of advanced
composite materials especially glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)
laminates and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips in the
structural engineering field. There is a wide range of recent, current, and
potential applications of these materials that cover both new and existing
structures. The flexural capacity of concrete beams can be increased by
bonding FRP sheets, strips or laminates to the tension side.,* In addition,
shear resistance of beams can be increased by using GFRP laminates
wrapped over three sides of beams at locations of high shear s t r e ~ s e s A

.~
large number of research works have dealt with the de-bonding of FRP
sheets to concrete beams.4 Some mechanical and finite element models have
been developed to provide design guidelines and to investigate theoretically
possible modes of failure of FRP strengthened beams based on experimental
data.5x6Limited research work has been conducted on the strengthening of
reinforced concrete slabs especially two-way slabs using FRP materials.
Some research works dealt with the strengthening of one-way slabs using
FRP materials in which slabs were treated in a very similar way to
beams.7
Materials
One m3 of concrete contains 1160 kg of gravel, 690 kg of sand, 350 kg of

cement, and 175 liters of water. The compressive strengths of concrete at
the day of the test ranged from 30 MPa to 35 MPa. The steel reinforcement
bars were CSA grade 400 deformed bars. Unidirectional GFRP laminates
and CFRP strips were used as strengthening materials. CFRP strips have a
thickness equal to 1.2 mdlayer, tensile strength of 2800 MPa, and elastic
modulus of 170 GPa. In addition, GFRP laminates have a thickness of 1
mdlayer, tensile strength of 600 MPa, and elastic modulus of 26.13 GPa.
As per the manufacturer specifications, CFRP strips and GFRP laminates
use different two-component epoxy adhesive resins.
Test slabs and setup
The tested simply supported specimens were square with 1900-mm side
length and 150-mm thickness as shown in Figure 1. Column stubs were
square of 250-mm side dimension and were located at the slab center. Two
un-strengthened specimens were used as reference specimens, Ref-P-0.35%
and Ref-P-0.5% of reinforcement ratios of 0.35% and 0.5%, respectively.
Specimens CFRP-F-0.35% and CFRP-F-0.5% and Specimens GFRP-F0.35% and GFRP-F-0.5% were strengthened using GFRP laminates and
CFRP strips, respectively. A hydraulic actuator of 700 kN capacity facing
the specimen was used to apply a uniform central load through the column
stub. A load cell was used to measure the load using four calibrated
electrical resistance strain gages fixed to the inner cylinder of the load cell.
Linear Variable Displacement Transformers (LVDTs) were built in the
actuator to measure the central deflection of the slabs. The central loads
Flexural Strengthening of Two-way Slabs 429
were applied using displacement control through a computerized function

generator with a rate of 0.25 m d m i n .
Strengthening and Loading Procedure
The concrete surface to be strengthened was roughened carefully using a

vibrating hammer. Dust and bond inhibiting materials were removed
carefully from the concrete and FRP surfaces. The epoxy resin was applied
on the concrete and FRP surfaces before bonding. FRP materials were
located at the tension side of the slab according to the configuration shown
in Figure 1. Fifty percent of the ultimate load carrying capacity of the
reference specimens was used as an initial loading for the specimens prior
to strengthening. The applied loads were completely removed to represent a
state of shoring two-way slabs in the field prior to strengthening.
Afterwards, the specimens were removed from the loading frame for
strengthening. After one week of curing, the specimens were relocated in
the loading frame and were subjected to the central load until failure.
K
'x
..mAddinanal FRF'stnps layer
Figure 1: Layout of the flexural-strengthening scheme

Ultimate Load Carrying Capacity
Strengthening increases the load capacity of the slabs. Specimens CFRP-F0.35% and GFRP-F-0.35% showed an increase of 44.4% and 38%,
respectively in the load capacity over that of the reference specimen, Ref-P-
0.35%. Moreover, Specimens CFRP-F-0.5% and GFRP-F-0.5% showed an

increase of 36.4% and 25.8 %, respectively in the load capacity over that of
the reference specimen, Ref-0.5% as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Experimental test results
Title
Cracking
load, KN
73
84
70
68
80
83
Ref-0.35%
Ref-0.5%
CFRP-F-0.35%
GFRP-F-0.35YO
CFRP-F-0.5%
GFRP-F-0.5%
Defl. at cracking
load, mm
7.00
6.25
7.25
7.69
6.03
6.35
Ultimate
load, KN
250
330
361
345
450
415
~
~~
Defl. at ultimate
load, mm
42.0 1
35.57
18.08
27.72
21.03
26.71
Deformational Characteristics
The average deflection at the ultimate load of the strengthened specimens
was about 0.63 that of the corresponding reference specimens. In general,
the strengthened specimens experienced smaller deformation compared to
the corresponding reference specimens due to the impact of the brittleness
of FRP materials on the overall behaviour of the slabs. Table 1 summarizes
the deflection values at first crack load (at the un-strengthened stage) and at
the ultimate load for the tested specimens. Figure 2 shows the loaddeflection relationship for the tested specimens.
f"oO
--C
10
15
25
30
Deflectionh r n l
20
YI
CFRP F 05%
10
45
Figure 2: Load deflection relationship for some of the tested slabs
Failure characteristics
The failure mode of the reference specimens was classified as flexuralductile. Flexural reinforcement yielded and the specimens showed relatively
large deflection values before reaching the ultimate load. Figure 3 shows a
typical failure mode for a specimen strengthened using CFRP for flexural
and shear strengthening, respectively. FRP materials contributed to

increasing the capacity until the bond between the FRP material and
concrete had failed. De-bonding cracks appeared at a late stage of the
loading causing a separation of the FRP materials as shown in Figure 3. The
specimens failed due to accelerated flexural failure following the FRP debonding. Neither CFRP strips nor GFRP laminates fractured.
Figure 3: A tested specimen after failure (CFRP-F-0.5%)
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Material Modelling
A plasticity-based concrete constitutive model was used in this study'. The

model utilizes the classical aspects of the theory of plasticity. A complete
representation of the model is defined by considering the following
concepts: strain rate decomposition into elastic and inelastic strain rates;
elasticity; yield; flow; and hardening.
The concrete model in compression is elastic until the initial yield
surface limit is reached as shown in Figure 4. The initial yield surface
defines the elastic limit at which the linear-elastic constitutive relationships
are valid. Further stresses of concrete cause an expansion of the initial yield
surface so that new yield surfaces are developed.
The constitutive concrete model addresses the tensile behaviour of
concrete by considering several aspects. These aspects are cracking, shear
modulus degradation, fracture energy, and tension stiffening. Cracking is
considered the most significant factor of the concrete tensile behaviour. In
the case of plain concrete, the fracture energy, G,. , is defined as the energy
required to form a unit area of crack surface and is considered a material

property based on the brittle fracture concept of Hillerb~rg.~
The fracture
energy,G,, is estimated as the numerical integration of the function
between the tensile stress, o t ,and the crack width or displacement, uI,
for the post-peak zone, i.e.:
Gf = Jo,du
Compression frulure
envelope (surface)
w,f:
(1)
-Bt-axial
c6mpresslon
Uni-axial
tension
ension
surface
Figure 4: Concrete in compression
Figure 5: Concrete in tension
In the case of reinforced or strengthened concrete, the calculations are

made based on the assumption of a smeared crack approach. Cracks exist in
reinforced concrete subjected to tensile stresses along with the steel
reinforcement. Subsequently, interfacial shear stresses between the concrete
and the reinforcement are transmitted to the concrete between cracks as
tensile stresses. Hence, concrete bonded to the reinforcement is loaded with
tensile stresses causing an increase of the overall stiffness. This
phenomenon is referred to as tension stwening. The numerical integration
of the o,- E, curve can be referred to as the fracture energy density, Wf.lo
Concrete behaviour in tension is linear until the cracking stress is
reached. The post-peak zone can be defined using broken lines as shown in
Figure 5. It has been decided to define the tension stiffening of concrete by
considering only two points on the post-peak zone of the of- E ,
relationship. The FW-concrete interaction is assumed similar to that of
steel reinforcement-concrete interaction. Hence, F W materials are defined
as smeared external reinforcement located at the tension side of the slab.
The concrete crl - E , relationship, and hence the fracture energy density are
calibrated. The calibration is based on the agreement of the FEA results and
the available experimental results. The agreement is achieved after several
FEA implementations for different values of the fracture energy density.
This calibration is conducted with respect to the ultimate load carrying
capacity of the slabs. For each implementation, the fracture energy density
of concrete strengthened with FRP materials is calculated as follows:
&l,mSX
Wr=
(2)
0
For the assumed tension stiffening model, the fracture energy density
can be calculated as follows:
Wf=3El,may
0,"
(3)
Material Properties
The modulus of elasticity of concrete, E,, is calculated as 26600 MPa. The
equal biaxial strength of concrete is assumed 1.16 times that of the uniaxial
strength of concrete.l 1 The yield stress of concrete is assumed 20 MPa. The
tensile strength of concrete, or , is assumed 0.08 times the uniaxial strength
of concrete that is equal to 2.8 MPa." The post-peak o,- E, relationship of
strengthened or un-strengthened concrete is assumed linear descending to
. 'The steel reinforcement is
zero tensile stress at maximum strain
assumed to have a yield stress of 440 MPa and a modulus of elasticity of
210 GPa. The assumption of the full bond between FRP materials and
concrete is inherited by the definition of these materials as smeared
reinforcing layers located at the tension side of the concrete slabs.
Geometric Modelling
One quarter of the slab is modelled due to the geometrical and loading
symmetry using a 5 x 5 mesh. The general layout of the finite element
model is shown in Figure 6 . Degenerated 8-node quadrilateral shear-flexible
shell elements with six degrees of freedom at each node are used for
modelling the slab. The degrees of freedom are three translations and three
rotations. This permits the transverse shear deformation to be accounted for.
Nine Simpson-type integration points are used along the thickness of each
shell element. In addition, a reduced 2 x 2 Gaussian integration rule is used
over the X - Y plane of the elements. Eight-node brick elements are used to
represent the column stub through which the load is applied. The brick
element has three translational degrees of freedom per node in the X, Y , and
Z directions. The discrepancy between the degrees of freedom of the
column stub brick element and the panel shell elements is overcome using
the Multi Point Constraints (MPC) technique. The MPC technique allows
constraints to be imposed between different degrees of freedom in the
model. Non-linear spring elements define the simply supported with corners
free-to-lift boundary condition as in Figure 6 .
Steel Reinforcement and FRP Representation

The slab reinforcement is treated as smeared unidirectional layers. These
layers are embedded in concrete and located at the centerline of the actual
reinforcing bars in the slabs. The layers are smeared with a constant
thickness that is equal to the area of each reinforcing bar divided by the
reinforcing bars spacing. CFRP strips and GFRP laminates are represented
in a similar way to the rebars. FRP materials are treated as smeared
unidirectional layers located at the tension surface of concrete. The
definition of FRP materials as smeared reinforcement inherits the
assumption of full bond with the concrete surface. In addition, the impact of
steel reinforcement and FRP materials on the tensile properties of concrete
is modelled through the suggested tension stiffening relationship for the
FRP strengthened portions of the slab. For the un-strengthened portions of
the slab, the tension stiffening model is used as was recommended by
Marzouk and Chen.
RESULTS OF THE FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

Load Carrying Capacity and Deformation
The assumptions of the fracture energy density, W, led to a good agreement
between the FEA and the test results in terms of the load carrying capacity
as shown in Table 2. The FEA underestimated the values of the deflections
for either the strengthened and un-strengthened specimens. The FEA gives a
stiffer deformational behaviour compared to the experimental results.
Figure 6: Geometric model layout

Table 2: FEA results
Title
CFRP-0.5%
GFRP-O.S?'o
Pexw
PtheoAW
450
415
424
416
.P e x d Ptheo
1.06
1 .oo
S J MMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The use of strengthening CFRP strips and GFRP laminates with the
suggested dimensions were sufficient to achieve positive results for
flexural-strengthening of slabs. The strengthened specimens using FRP
strips or laminates showed an average gain in the load capacity of about
36% over that of the reference (un-strengthened) specimens. In addition,
the strengthened specimens showed a stiffer behaviour than that of the
reference specimens. However, a decrease in ductility and energy
absorption was recorded due to the brittle nature of the strengthening of the
FRP materials. For the suggested strengthening technique, de-bonding
between FRP materials and concrete was the main cause of failure. Slabs
failed soon after de-bonding occurred due to exceeding flexural capacity.
None of the strengthening material type experienced rupture or failure.
A finite element model was used to analyze strengthened two-way
slabs. The finite element results are calibrated so that a good agreement
with the experimental results is achieved. The full bond between the steel
reinforcement or FRP materials and concrete can be assumed in the analysis
and lead to reasonably accurate results with low computational cost.
REFERENCES
1. Chaallal, O., Nollet, M. and Perraton, D. Strengthening of Reinforced
Concrete Beams with Externally Bonded Reinforced Plastic Plates:
Design Guidelines for Shear and Flexure, Canadian Journal for Civil
Engineering, 25, 1998, pp. 692-704.
2. Ritchie, P., Thomas, D., Lu, L. and Connelly, G., External
Reinforcement of Concrete Beams Using Fiber Reinforced Plastics,
ACI Structural Journal, 88(6), 1991, pp. 490-500.
3. Triantafillou, T. C., Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Beams Using Epoxy-Bonded FRP Composites, ACI Structural
Journal, 95 (2), 1998, pp. 107-1 15.
4. Meier, U., Deuring, M., Meier, H. and Schwegler, G., CFRP Bonded
Sheets, In Proceedings, Fiber-Reinforced-Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement
for Concrete Structures: Properties and Applications, Duebendof,
Switzerland, 1993, pp. 423-434.
5 . Nitereka, C. and Neale, K., Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Beams
Strengthened in Flexure with Composite Laminates, Canadian Journal
for Civil Engineering, 26, 1999, pp. 646-654.
6. Malek, M. A., Saadatmanesh, H. and Ehsani, M. R., Prediction of
Failure Load of R/C Beams Strengthened with FRP Plate Due to Stress
Concentration at The Plate End, ACI Structural Journal, 95 (l), 1998,
pp. 142-152.
7. Kikukawa, K, Mutoh, K., Ohya, H., Ohyama, Y . and Tanaka, H.,
Flexural Reinforcement of Concrete Floor Slabs by Carbon Fiber
Textiles, Composite Interfaces, 5 (5), 1998, pp. 469-478.
8. Hibbitt, K. and Sorensen., ABAQUS Users Manual (Version 6.2.),
Providence, R. I.: Hibbitt, Kalrsson and Sorensen Inc., 2001.
9. Hillerborg, A., Numerical Methods to Simulate Softening and Fracture
of Concrete, Fracture Mechanics of Concrete, 1985, pp. 141- 170.
10. Marzouk, H. and Chen, Z., Finite Element Analysis of High Strength
Concrete Slabs, ACI Structural Journal, 90(5), 1993, pp. 505-5 13.
11. Hussein, A. and Marzouk, H., Behavior of High Strength Concrete
under Biaxial Stresses. ACI Structural Journal, 1998,97( l), pp. 27-36.

@WorldScientificPublishing Company
TENSILE PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE IN

FRP-STRENGTHENED TWO-WAY SLABS
H. MARZOUK
Faculty of Engineering, Memorial University of Newfoundland
300 Prince Philip Dr., St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada, A l B 3x5
U.A. EBEAD AND K.W. NEALE
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sherbrooke
2500 boulevard de I'Universite', Sherbrooke, Que'bec, Canada, J I K 2RI
Reinforced concrete behaviour in tension can significantly be changed due
to strengthening. An overall increase in the post-peak stiffness based on the
tensile stress-strain relationship is observed. A simplified bilinear model is
introduced to define the behaviour of FRP-strengthened concrete in
tension. An expression of the fracture energy density is introduced to define
the area under the concrete tensile stress-strain relationship. The tensile
stress-strain relationship of concrete is referred to as the tension-stiffening
model. It is shown numerically that the ultimate load capacity of two-way
slab specimens is sensitive to the fracture energy density. Hence, a
distinction has to be made between the definitions of the tension-stiffening
model of FRP-strengthened and unstrengthened concrete. This distinction
is the focus of this paper.
INTRODUCTION
This paper presents a finite element analysis (FEA) aimed at investigating

the effect of FRP strengthening on the tensile properties of concrete. The
experimental results of the strengthened slabs are used to calibrate the finite
element model based on the ultimate load carrying capacity as presented in
reference 1.
The calibration FEA study simulates six specimens tested
experimentally'. The tested simply supported specimens are square with
1900-mm side length and 150-mm thickness as shown in Figure 1 . Column
stubs are square of 250-mm side dimension and are located at the center of
the slab. Two unstrengthened specimens are used as reference specimens,
Ref-P-0.35% and Ref-P-0.5% of steel reinforcement ratios of 0.35% and
0.5%, respectively. Specimens CFRP-F-0.35% and CFRP-F-0.5% and
specimens GFRP-F-0.35% and GFRP-F-0.5% are strengthened using GFRP
laminates and CFRP strips, respectively. Figure 1 shows the strengthening

configuration of the slabs. Details of the experimental program are
described in reference 1. The FEA study is carried out using the generalpurpose finite element code ABAQUS.3
8-1Omm
12-lOmm
300
1830
1830
I
4
Figure 1: A schematic representation of a strengthened specimen
FRP Strengthened Two-way Slabs 439
CONCRETE CONSTITUTIVE MODEL

A plasticity-based concrete constitutive model is used in this study. Details
of the concrete constitutive model are described in reference 2. The
constitutive concrete model addresses the tensile behaviour of concrete by
considering several aspects. These aspects are cracking, shear modulus
degradation, fracture energy and tension-stiffening.
In this study, an emphasis is placed on the appropriate tensile behaviour
of concrete in two-way slabs strengthened with externally-bonded FRPs.
Concrete bonded to the reinforcement or FRP materials is loaded with
tensile stresses causing an increase of the overall stiffness. In addition, the
distribution of cracks in the concrete is dependent on whether the concrete
is plain or reinforcedstrengthened. The term tension-stiffening is
introduced in the finite element analysis to consider the effect of the steel or
FRP reinforcement on the concrete tensile behaviour.
In the case of plain concrete, the fracture energy, Gr , is defined as the
energy required to form a unit area of crack surface and is considered a
material property based on the brittle fracture concept of Hillerb~rg.~
The
fracture energy,Gf, is estimated as the numerical integration of the
function between the tensile stress, cr,, and the crack width or
displacement, uI, for the post-peak zone of the
0 ,-
u, relationship, that is.,
Gr = 10,dU
In finite element simulations that adopt the smeared crack approach like
the one in this study, the tensile stress-strain relationship rather than stressdisplacement relationship is referred to when describing the concrete tensile
behaviour.
Some expressions have been developed to correlate the post-peak stress
and strain for concrete in tension. Based on some experimental evidence on
high strength concrete4, it was found that the post-peak relationship is
referred to may be defined according to the following relationship:
For E , & , ~
where:
a =c30,"
where E, is the concrete tensile strain and E
(3)
, is
~ the concrete tensile strain at
cr = 0,". In addition, the value of c3 is 0.3 1 for normal strength concrete'
and modified to 0.28 for high strength concrete4. Also, p is equal to 1.70
for normal strength concrete and 1.67 for high strength concrete.
In this analysis, the effect of the reinforcement ratio as well as whether
the concrete is strengthened or not is considered. The post-peak zone can be
defined using line segments rather than a continuous relation~hip.~.~
A
tabulated form for the values of the tensile stress,o, ,and the tensile
strain, E , , can be used to define the tension-stiffening model. It has been
decided to define the tension-stiffening of concrete by considering only two
points on the post-peak zone of the 0,- E , relationship as shown in Figure
2.
The numerical integration of the concrete tensile stress-strain ( 0, - E, )
relationship represents the fracture energy density, Wr , and can be
calculated as follows:6
6,IIl.X
W f =J o , ~ E ,
(4)
where
E,,,,
is the tensile strain when the tensile stress vanishes.
Denoting the maximum tensile stresso: and based on this approach,

the fractur; energy density, W,can be calculated as follows:
With respect to the properties of the materials, the modulus of elasticity

of concrete, E,, is calculated as 26600 MPa. The equal biaxial strength of
concrete in compression is assumed 1.16 times that of the uniaxial
compressive ~ t r e n g t hThe
. ~ yield stress of concrete is assumed 20 MPa. The
tensile strength of concrete, 0: , is assumed 0.08 times the uniaxial strength
of concrete, that is equal to 2.8 MPa.4 The post-peak 0, - E, relationship of
strengthened or unstrengthened concrete is assumed linear descending to
zero tensile stress at the maximum strain E , , , ~ . The steel reinforcement is
assumed to have a yield stress of 440 MPa and a modulus of elasticity of
FRP Strengthened Two-Way Slabs 441
210 GPa. The assumption of the full bond between FRP materials and
concrete is implicit by defining these materials as smeared reinforcing
layers located at the tension side of the concrete slabs. Details of this stage
of the finite element analysis can be found in reference 1 including the
geometric modeling and steel and FRP materials representation.
Attempt 1 Attempt 2 Attempt 3 Attempt 4
Attempt 5
Tensile strain, E t
Figure 2: Tension-stiffening model
In this FEA study, the
0,
E,
relationship, and hence the fracture
energy density, W, are calibrated. Values of ,m are assumed upon which

the fracture energy density, W, is calculated according to Equation 5 and
altered accordingly. The calibration is based on the agreement of the FEA
results and the available experimental results. Several attempts are
implemented in the finite element code by altering the definition of the
tension-stiffening model. Altering the definition of the tension-stiffening
model is done by changing the values of&,,,, and hence the area under the
bilinear relationship that is the fracture energy density, W,.
This calibration is conducted with respect to the ultimate load carrying
capacity of the slabs. Table 1 shows the FEA calibration implementation of
the attempts for different values of E,,,, . This table shows a comparison
between the ultimate capacity of the slabs based on the experimental
testing, P,, and on the FEA, PFEA.
Table 1: The FEA calibration runs
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
FRP Strengthened Two-way Slabs 443

Tensile Stress-Strain Relationships
Figures 3 and 4 show the tensile stress-strain relationships for specimens of
the calibration study at the center of the slab based on the FEA. It is clear
that, due to the contribution of FRP strengthening materials, the post-peak
behaviour of slabs is stiffened. The slope of the tensile stress-tensile strain
is decreased in the post-peak zone indicating the contribution of the FRP
strengthening materials in increasing the post-peak stiffness of concrete in
tension. The stiffened post-peak tensile stress-strain relationship leads to
higher values of fracture energy density, W, within a certain range of the
strain. This complies with the initial assumptions of the fracture energy
density shown in Table 1.
2.5
r_
2
+GFRP-F-0.35%
1.5
c
I!?!
0.5
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
Tensile strain
Figure 3: Tensile behaviour for GFRP strengthened slabs at the slab center
2.5
-
z3 1.5
5
.-s 1
Lo
I-
0.5
0
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
Tensile strain
Figure 4: Tensile behaviour for CFRP strengthened slabs at the slab center
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In this paper, a finite element analysis is presented. A calibration study is
conducted on a finite element model and is used to analyze FRPstrengthened two-way slabs. The finite element results are calibrated so that
a good agreement with the experimental results is achieved. An FRP
tension-stiffening model is recommended to predict the complete behaviour
of concrete in tension. The recommended model describes the tensile
behaviour of concrete slabs strengthened using FRP materials. The model
takes a form of a bilinear relationship between the tensile stress and tensile
strain. It was found that a distinction had to be made between the plain,
reinforced and strengthened concrete tensile behaviour when defining the
tension-stiffening model. FRP-strengthened concrete exhibits a stiffer postpeak response than conventional reinforced concrete.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ebead, U., Marzouk, H. and Neale, K.W., Flexural strengthening of

two-way slabs using FRPs, 6 International Symposium on FibreReinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Concrete Structures (FWRCS6), 2003.
Hibbitt, K. and Sorensen., ABAQUS users manual (Version 6.2),
Providence, R. I.: Hibbitt, Kalrsson and Sorensen Inc., 2001.
Hillerborg, A., Numerical methods to simulate softening and fracture
of concrete, Fracture Mechanics of Concrete, 1985, pp. 141-170.
Marzouk, H. and Chen, Z. M., Fracture energy and tension properties
of high strength concrete, Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,
1995,7(2), 108-1 16.
Guo, 2. and Zhang, X., Investigation of complete stress-deformation
curves for concrete in tension, ACI Materials Journal, 1987, 84(4),
pp. 278-285.
Marzouk, H. and Chen, Z., Finite element analysis of high strength
concrete slabs, ACI Structural Journal, 90(5), 1993, pp. 505-5 13.
Hussein, A. and Marzouk, H., Behaviour of high strength concrete
under biaxial stresses, ACI Structural Journal, 1998,97( l), pp. 27-36.
ExternallyBo
Bonded Reinforcement for Shear
Externally

SHEAR CRITICAL REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP STRAPS
G. KESSE AND J. M. LEES
Cambridge University Engineering Department,
Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 IPZ, United Kingdom
This paper reports on the strengthening of shear critical reinforced concrete

beams with pre-stressed Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) straps.
The straps can be used to enhance the shear capacity of beams and to
change the mode of failure from shear to flexure. In the experimental
programme, reinforced concrete cantilever beams were tested with or
without straps for a particular shear span to depth ratio. The main
parameters that were varied during the experiments were: the number of
straps, the strap location, the level of pre-stress and the existing crack state.
The experimental results are presented and discussed and conclusions
drawn regarding the potential shear capacity enhancement, the stiffness
improvement and the change in failure mode due to the presence of the
straps.
INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, an increasing number of reinforced concrete (RC)

structures are being assessed as having inadequate shear capacity. The
reasons for this include, design codes used in earlier years being less
stringent than todays standards and, in some cases deterioration of the
internal steel reinforcement. Even for structures designed adequately, loads
greater than the design capacity are being applied and thus the structures
have been rendered unsafe. Such structures must be strengthened in order to
serve their intended purpose.
External Prestressed Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) straps
provide a means of increasing the shear capacity of a concrete beam. The
straps are closed loops formed from CFRP tape. The straps are installed at a
specified spacing within the shear span and then prestressed. Experiments
by researchers at the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and
Research (EMPA) and the University of Cambridge have shown that the
shear capacity of RC beams can be enhanced using this system and the mode
of failure changed from shear to flexure. The straps do not corrode and
hence offer a further advantage in aggressive environments. However, the
material is brittle and thus all the parameters that govern the behaviour must
448 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement f o r Shear
be fully understood. The key parameters are the level of prestress, the
number of straps required, the strap spacing and the number of tape layers in
the strap. An additional factor is that, in previous studies, the straps have
been installed before any external loading was applied. This is not
necessarily representative of existing beams which might have sustained
some damage prior to being strengthened or repaired.
This paper reports on experimental work where the strap locations and
the number of layers in the straps were varied. The purpose was to determine
how these factors influence RC beams failing in shear and the resulting
modes of failure. Work on pre-cracked or damaged beams will also be
discussed.
EXPERIMENTS
Rectangular cantilever beams of dimensions 1200 mm x 105 mm x 280 mm
were designed for this series of experiments. The support block had
dimensions of 600 mm x 105 mm x 300 mm as shown in Figure 1. The
cantilever shape was chosen in preference to a conventional simply
supported beam because it presented a single shear span that furnishes less
voluminous data while enabling the detailed monitoring of cracks and beam
behaviour. In addition, the fabrication and testing procedures were greatly
simplified.
100.0
applied load
Steel pad
General layout
Figure 1. Beam layout with 2 straps
c105.0
Section
Shear Critical RC Beams with CFRP Straps 449
Figure 1 also shows the beam layout and reinforcement details.

Electronic strain gauges were attached to the longitudinal tension steel and
the internal shear links. The mix design and the properties of the
reinforcement are given in Table 1. The beams were installed in the testing
frame approximately 7 days after casting (see Figure 2a).
Table 1. Material DroDerties and reinforcement details
Reinforcement details
Dia. (mm)
Bar
4
6
Location
Shear links: Beams 2-8

Shear links: Beam 1
Beam -tension and
12
compression
Beam -tension
16
reinforcement
Tape for straps
Youngs Modulus = 130000 N/mm

Ultimate strain = 11000 micro strain
Thickness = 0.16 mm.Width = 12 mm
Area of
Steel(mm2)
Yield Stress
(N/mm2)
25.12 @, 200c/c
6 1.56@,75c/c
395
400
226.22
500
402.17
500
Concrete
Max aggregate size 10 mm
Concrete mix: 1:2:2
Forming and prestressing of the CFRP straps

The prestressing material comes in the form of a tape consisting of
unidirectional carbon fibres in a thermoplastic matrix. The thickness of the
tape is approximately 0.16 mm with a width of 12 mm. To form a strap, the
tape is wound around the beam web until the desired number of layers is
obtained. The outermost two layers of the strap are welded together but the
inner layers remain non-laminated. Strain gauges were attached to the outer
layer of each strap.
The prestressing procedure involves an arrangement as shown in Fig 2b.
The strap is jacked upwards, and then metal shims inserted underneath the
space created below the lower steel plate. When the required prestress has
been attained, the jack is released and the steel pad then rests on the shims.
The loading was applied vertically upwards in increments of 1.5 kN. After
each load increment, the crack pattern was marked and photographs taken.
Figure 2a. Beam in testing frame
Figure 2b. Arrangement for prestressing
The experiments were arranged in three major stages. The first stage
involved testing un-strengthened beams to establish the minimum and
maximum beam capacities and failure modes. In the second stage,
strengthened beams were tested. The key parameters under investigation
were the number of layers of tape, the number of straps and the strap
spacing. The final stage considered damaged beams where the beams were
cracked before the straps were installed. A summary of the experimental
programme, results and failure modes can be found in Table 2. For
comparison purposes, the strap strengthening increment predicted using the
45" truss analogy* is also shown (*the approach assumes the use of passive
ductile materials and may be inappropriate for prestressed CFRP straps).
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Beam
number
B 1-NS-NL
B2-NS-NL
B3-2s-10L
B4-1S-5L
B5-1s-5L-P
B6-2s-10L-F
B7-1 S-1 OL
B8-2S-5L
ieam number-no. straps-nolayers-; P denotes a precracked beam.

F-flexural failure; DT diagonal tension failure; S strap failul e.
Figure 3 shows the load versus displacement (measured directly on top

of the loading point) curves for all the beams tested. Beams 1 and 2 were
used to establish the maximum and the minimum beam capacities in terms
of flexural failure and shear failure. Beam 1 was tested at d d = 4.5 and
contained 6 mm shear links at 75 mm centers whilst the rest of the beams

were all tested at d d = 3.0 with the shear reinforcement as shown in
Figure 1 (4 mm links at 200 mm centers). Beam 1 failed in flexure with the
yielding of the tension reinforcement before the crushing of concrete. The
load displacement curve has been omitted from Figure 3 for ease of
comparison. Beam 2 failed in shear. The outermost shear crack developed
and propagated resulting in the failure of the beam by the splitting of the
compression zone (Figure 4a).
For the strengthened beams, the initial beam behaviour was similar to
that of the un-strengthened beams in terms of the stiffness and crack pattern.
For the beams with 1 strap, the strap was located in the middle of the shear
span (345 mm from support block) whilst for beams with 2 straps, the straps
were equally spaced within the shear span (230 mm apart).
Beams 4 and 8 both failed in shear with the shear crack crossing the
strap followed by the snapping of the strap. Beam 7 also failed in shear but
the strap did not break since the shear crack formed between the strap and
the support block leading to failure in the concrete. Beam 3 attained its full
flexural capacity and crushing of concrete occurred at the corner between
the beam and support. Snapping of the first strap followed flexural failure.
In the case of the pre-cracked beams (B5 and B6), the beams were
initially loaded to about 34 kN (i.e. 70% of unstrengthened beams shear
ultimate capacity) and then unloaded before the straps were installed. The
beams were then loaded until failure.
120
100
-5
m
80
60
0
J
40
20
0
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Displacement (m m)
Figure. 3. Load versus displacement curves
452 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Shear
DISCUSSION
The strengthened beams were significantly stronger (55 to 100%) than the
unstrengthened beam.
The straps are not bonded to the concrete and act like a tie inducing
transverse compression through the web of a beam. The strain in a strap leg
is thus uniform but the prestress force and the stiffness of the straps will
differ depending on the number of layers of tape used. Since all the straps
were prestressed to 50% of their ultimate capacity, straps made of 5 layers
of tape had an initial prestress of 12.5 kN whilst the 10 layer straps had an
initial prestress of 25 kN. In addition, the stiffness of the 10 layer straps was
twice that of the 5 layer straps.
Influence of the number of layers

Beams with 1 strap
Beam 4 and beam 7 both had a single strap installed in the middle of the
shear span and prestressed to 50% of the strap capacity. Figures 4b and 4c
show the crack pattern when the applied load reached 65 kN. It could be
observed that the outer shear crack for beam 7 could not develop as far as
that of beam 4 and the stiffer 10-layer strap managed to reduce the progress
of this crack. In contrast, the crack in beam 4 quickly progressed beyond the
strap.
The failure mode of beam 7 suggests that the 10-layer strap stopped the
shear crack between the strap and the loading point from developing. On the
other hand, it had a limited influence on the crack between the support and
the strap and thus the beam failed due to this crack. For beam 4 the strap did
not exert as much influence on the outer crack. Nevertheless, final failure
occurred at a load of 81 kN which was higher than the shear capacity of the
unstrengthened beam.
Beams with 2 straps

Beam 3 and beam 8 had 2 straps installed from the beginning of the test with
10 and 5 layers respectively. Whilst beam 3 failed in flexure, beam 8 failed
in shear. The crack progress can be observed from the traced crack pattern
(Figures 4d and 4e). Up to 50 kN, the two beams behaved in the same
manner and the crack pattern looked very similar. But when the crack
crossed the straps, the straps had a strong influence on the crack progress. It
could be observed that the cracks in beam 8 had progressed about twice the
distance of that of beam 3.
(el
I '
"
Figure 4. Beam crack patterns at specified loads (a) Beam 2 at 48 kN (b)

Beam 4 at 65 kN (c) Beam 7 at 65 kN (d) Beam 8 at 65 kN and
(e) Beam 3 at 65 kN
The prestress force applied to the concrete and the stiffness of the straps
thus control the rate of crack growth and also influence the mode of failure.
However, when a particular strap retards crack progress, other cracks in
unstrengthened regions remain free to grow and can lead to beam failure.
The influence of the strap spacing will be discussed in the next section.
As beam 3 failed in flexure it can also be concluded that the straps can
effectively enhance the shear capacity and change the mode of failure.
Influence of number of straps /strap spacing

The 45" truss analogy would predict that a single strap would be ineffective.
However, even beams with a single strap showed a capacity increase.
Beams with 5 layer straps

Beams 4 and 8 each had 5 layer straps but whereas beam 8 had two straps,
beam 4 had only one. The load deformation curves (Figure 5 ) show both
beams attaining almost the same load capacity and both failing in shear.
Although the beams had a different number of straps, the difference in
behaviour was not significant due to the nature of the failures.
90 7
80
70
z 60
5 50
40
-I 30
20
6
8
10 12 14
Displacement (m m)
16
18
20
10
0
Figure 5. Comparison of beams with 5-layer straps
Beam 4 had a single strap a distance 1.5d from the support and a crack
developed between the support and the strap. The strap was also not able to
stop the outer crack from developing and crossing through the strap. As a
result, these two cracks lead to failure of the beam.
On the other hand, beam 8 had two straps. The location of the first strap
was such that it stopped the first crack from developing. The second strap
also limited the propagation of the outer crack. However, the section in
between the straps was unstrengthened and the crack that developed in this
region easily then passed through the first strap to fail the beam.
The result suggests that the importance of the strap spacing is connected
to the stiffness of the straps. For the beams with the lower stiffness 5 layer
straps, the final crack pattern and ultimate shear capacity were similar
regardless of the strap spacing.
Beams with I0 layer straps
Beams 3 and 7 both had 10-layer straps but the number of straps differed.
The load deflection curves show beam 3 failing in flexure whilst beam 7
failed in shear (see Figure 6). The 2 straps of beam 3 managed to control the
crack growth whilst the single strap of beam 7 did not restrain the
propagation of the inner shear crack leading to the failure of the beam in
shear.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
10
15
20
25
Displacement (m m )
30
35
40
Figure 6. Comparison of beams with 10-layer straps
Since the unstrengthened beam failed by the propagation of the

outermost shear crack (see Figure 4a) and it is reasonable to assume that
stopping this outer crack might be sufficient to prevent shear failure.
However, the tests show that although this can be achieved, failure may
develop in adjacent unstrengthened regions in later stages of testing. Hence,
provided that the stiffnesses of the straps were adequate, two straps spaced
at a distance d apart were more effective.
Pre- cracked beams
From the load displacement curves (see Figure 3 ) the peak loads did not
change significantly for the pre-cracked beams but the stiffnesses of these
beams were lower than those of beams with straps applied at the beginning
of the test. This was expected as the pre-cracking induced some permanent
damage before strapping. The ability of the pre-cracked beam to attain the
same peak load could be a function of the load to which the beam was
initially subjected. From strain readings taken from the internal steel links,
the links were not carrying much load in the preloading stage and thus the
beam had not sustained significant damage. The prestressed straps will also
help close any existing cracks and thus it could be that the influence of
existing damage is mitigated, The influence of existing cracks in a passive
system may well be different. Tests are continuing where the pre-crack load
will be higher than that used in the earlier tests.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experiments carried out to date, all of the beams tested with
straps, whether single or double and irrespective of the number of strap
layers, had a shear capacity enhancement at least 55% higher than that of an
equivalent unstrengthened beam. All of the beams with a single strap failed
in shear whilst some of the beams with two straps attained their full flexural
capacity. The pre-cracking of the beams before installing the straps seems to
have no significant influence on the shear capacity gain. The crack path
does not appear be influenced significantly by the straps however the crack
growth and widths are reduced due to the presence of the straps. The mode
of failure depends on the strap stiffness, the strap location and the crack
path.
Further tests are being carried out to separate the effect of the prestress
force and the stiffness of the straps.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to EMPA for their support with this project.
REFERENCES
1. Lees, J.M., WinistBrfer A.U. and Meier U., External Prestressed CFRP
Straps for the Shear Enhancement of Concrete , ASCE, Journal of
Compositesfor Construction, 6(4), Nov 2002. pp. 249-256
2. Chan, K.M.C., Prestressed Non-laminated Carbon Fibre Reinforced
Plastic Straps, Fourth Year Project Report, Dept. of Engineering,
University of Cambridge, UK, 1999/2000.

EFFECTIVE SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE

BEAMS USING FRP SHEETS WITH BONDED ANCHORAGE
B. B. ADHIKARY
Frank Lam &Associates, Austin, Texas, USA
H. MUTSUYOSHI
Department of Civil and Env. Engineering, Saitama University, Saitama, Japan
M. ASHRAF
Engineering Associates (EA) Pvt. Ltd., Karachi, Pakistan
This paper presents the results of an experimental study for shear
strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using externally bonded FRP
sheets. The study focused on effect of bonded anchorage of sheets in
delaying or preventing sheet debonding. Three different models to estimate
the contribution of FRP to the shear capacity (V) of RC beams are
discussed and two separate equations to calculate Vare presented.
INTRODUCTION
From the past studies conducted by Chaallal et al., Chajes et a1.*, Sat0 et
aL3, and Uji 4, it has been shown that externally bonded FRP can be used to
enhance the shear capacity of RC beams. Bond of FRP sheets to concrete is
of critical importance for the effectiveness of externally bonded FRP sheets.
If this interfacial bond is compromised before rupture of the FRP sheets,
sheet-debonding failure occurs. This study presents the shear behavior of RC
beams strengthened with FRP sheets. Special focus is given for the
prevention of sheet debonding to get effective utilization of FRPs
mechanical properties. Anchorage of FRP sheets at the top surface of the
beam was provided in order to delay or prevent sheet debonding. Three
models available in the literature by the JSCE, Khalifa et aL6, and
Triantafillou and Antonopoulos7 for computing the contribution of FRP
sheet to the shear capacity of strengthened beams (5)
are presented and
compared with the experimental results. Two separate equations to calculate
V,are presented in this paper; when failure is likely to occur due to sheet
debonding and when bonded anchorage of FRP sheet is provided to the
beams.
a. Cross section
b. Longitudinal section
(Dimensions are in mm)
Figure 1 Details of test beams
A total of nine beams were tested. Figure 1 shows the typical dimensions
and reinforcement layout for RC beams. No stirrups were provided in the
potential shear failure zone. Longitudinal bars had an average yield strength
of 395 MPa and elastic modulus of 196 GPa. The cross sections of beams
were chamfered at 30-mm for AFRP strengthened beams, and the chamfered
edges were further smoothened in round shape at 100-mm diameter for
CFRP strengthened beams. Beam B-1 was kept as a control beam. Eight
beams were categorized into two series as CFRP series and AFRP series.
The beams were strengthened with epoxy bonded unidirectional FRP sheets
applied only to the shear spans, where principal fibers were kept
perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beams. Mechanical properties
of FRP sheets are shown in Table 1. Test variables were FRP type,
wrapping layout and anchorage length. Anchorage was provided by bonding
a length of sheet at top of the beam. Figure 2 shows the different wrapping
schemes used.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of FRP sheets
Sheet
CFRP
AFRP
Thickness
(mm)
0.167
0.286
Tensile strength
WPa)
3400
2000
Elastic modulus
(GPa)
230
120
Ultimate
elongation (%)
1.5
1.8
Shear Strengthening with Bonded Anchorage 459
AFRP-SERIES
1
A - I (AFRP1
(U.W r a p )
7
A 2
(80
AFRP
&ixdgs)
rl
0
A-3 (AFRP)
( I 1 0 mm anchorage)
100
%
%
i%
,!F(
Figure 2 Experimental test scheme (Dimensions in mm)
Figure 3 Sheet debonding in beam C-1
Figure 4 Concrete splitting in beam C-2
Control beam B-1 failed in shear at a load of 224 kN. All other beams,
except C-4 and A-4 failed also in shear at considerably higher loads than
that of control beam B-1. The ultimate failure loads, contribution of FRP
460 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfor Shear
sheet to the shear capacity of RC beam (Q),and increase in shear capacity

are shown in Table 2. It is confirmed that the FRP sheets applied on shear
spans not only increase the shear capacity, but also change the deflection
characteristics of beams. It is also found that the bonded anchorage of FRP
sheet not only increases the shear capacity, but also changes the ultimate
failure mode from sheet debonding to concrete splitting or flexure. Beams
C-1 and A-1 , which were strengthened using U-wrap of CFRP and AFRP
sheets, respectively failed in shear followed by debonding of sheet (Figure
3). Beams C-2 and A-2 failed by concrete splitting (Figure 4). Beams C-4
and A-4 strengthened by full wrapping of CFRP and AFRP sheets failed in
flexural mode.
Table 2. Experimental results
Beam
fc
'Shear
b ~ f
Increase
Failure mode
(MPa) strength (kN)
(kN)
(%)
B-1
38.0
224
diagonal shear
C-1
37.2
330
53
47.3
shear + debonding
C-2
41.0
457
116.5
104.0
shear + splitting
C-3
41.1
475
125.5
112.0
shear f splitting
C-4
42.4
500
138
123.2'
flexure
A-I
39.6
3 10
43
38.4
shear + debonding
A-2
41.8
400
88
78.6
shear + splitting
A-3
43.9
490
133
118.8
shear + splitting
A-4
43.5
488
132
117.9'
flexure
' Shear strength of beam is equal to half the failure load; bVfisFRP contribution to
the shear capacity of RC beam; is the percentage increase in failure load.
f
Figure 5 Load displacement (CFRP)
Figure 6 Load displacement (AFRP)
Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the load displacement relationships for CFRP
and AFRP strengthened beams, respectively. Each superior strengthening
scheme showed better load-displacement characteristics than the previous
one. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show the relationship of load and vertical strain
in FRP sheet for CFRP and AFRP strengthened beams. Maximum FRP
strain parallel to the fibers was measured as 6825 and 8225 microstrain for
beams C-4 and A-4, which is about 45% of the ultimate strain of the sheets.
Moreover, maximum FRP strain in beam C-1 is 3550 microstrain, which is
only 23.7% of the ultimate FRP strain, while for beam C-2, a strain of 6045
microstrain was attained, which is 70.28% increase as compared to the
control beam C-1 . This substantial increase in FRP strain in beam C-2 is due
to the provision of bonded anchorage. Table 3 shows FRP strain and
percentage increase in FRP strain for beams with provision of bonded
anchorage as compared to U-wrapped beams.
.>ooo
>om
>om
1000
aom
I ~ O
.?om
,o(
iooo
2mo
iom
moo
om
$om moo
moo
9000
FRP sheet Stran (micron)
FRPshed strain (mcron)
Figure 7 Load-FRP strain (CFRP series) Figure 8 Load-FRP strain (AFRP series)
I
600
-Trend
AFRP-Series
line (CFRP-series)
- - - -Trend
100
110
200
B o nd eA anchorage iengI h (m)
Figure 9 Anchorage length vs. bond

stress
210
,000
4000
I000
6000
line(AFRP-series)
7000
moo
'1000
MaximmFRPsIrain (micron)
Figure 10 Failure load versus maximum

FRP strain
For beams C-1 and A-1 failure was governed by to sheet debonding,
therefore measured bond stress for beams C-1 and A-1 may be taken as
bond strength. This was found to be 4.05 MPa. Beams with bonded
anchorage did not show sheet debonding at ultimate failure due to reduction
in bond stress at the interface. Influence of bonded anchorage on interface
bond stresses is shown in Figure 9.
Table 3. Maximum FRP strain

Beam
Anchorage Maximum FRP ahcrease in FRP Max. FRP strain /

(mm)
strain (p)
strain (%)
Ult. FRP strain
c-1
0
3550
0.277
c-2
80
6045
70.3
0.403
c-3
110
6368
79.4
0.425
c-4
200
6825
92.3
0.455
A-1
0
3420
0.19
A-2
80
7063
106.5
0.392
A-3
110
7825
129.0
0.435
A-4
200
8225
140.5
0.457
a Increase compared to C-1 and A-1 for CFRP and AFRP series, respectively.
FRF' SHEET CONTRIBUTION TO SHEAR CAPACITY
The shear strength of RC beams strengthened using externally bonded FRP

sheets is computed by Eq. (1). The FRP reinforcement is treated in analogy
to the internal steel if it is assumed that FRP develops an effective strain (qe)
that is less than the tensile failure strain (qu).
Therefore, Vf for FRP sheets
can be calculated by Eq. (2).
V, = pf Ef qedfbw(sin p +COS
p)
(2)
Khalifa et a1.6 proposed to use a reduction factor, R to ultimate strain to

calculate the effective strain in the sheet. They suggested two equations for
R to represent two possible failure modes of FRP bonded beams, namely
FRP rupture and FRP debonding. The effective strain is computed using the
lowest value of R. Triantafillou and Antonopoulos7 proposed three different
expressions to calculate the effective FRP strain. After computing the
effective strain, qe,the contribution of FRP sheet to the shear capacity can
be calculated from Eq. (2) with a multiplying factor of 0.9. Japan Society of
Civil Engineers (JSCE)5 proposes to use a coefficient called shear
reinforcing efficiency of the FRP sheet to evaluate the ultimate mean stress
of sheet and to determine the shear contribution of the sheet.
Table 4 shows the comparison of predicted and experimental values of
V,. It is seen that none of the models is able to predict V,correctly.
Table 4.Comparison between the calculated and experimental V, (kN)

Beam
no.
C-I
A-I
c-4
A-4
Khalifa et
al.
60.4 (1.14)
67.1 (1.56)
JSCE
Triantafllou and
Antonopoulos
72.3 (1.36)
Experiment
53.0
43 .O
137.6 (1.00)
154.8 (1.12)
138.0
85.3 (0.65)
156.0 (1.18)
132.0
Number in parenthesis is ratio of values from formula to that of experiment.
PROPOSED DESIGN EQUATION
Experiment showed that the U-wrapped beams failed due to sheet

debonding. Bonded anchorage resulted in more than 100% increase in FRP
effective strain and consequently in higher shear capacity. Shear capacity of
RC beams was found to be linearly proportional to the FRP strain measured
at failure (Figure lo). Past studies showed that effective strain in FRP sheet
depends on the product of elastic modulus and thickness of the FRP sheet.
Besides, bond strength of FRP to concrete also depends on the tensile
strength of concrete, consequently to its compressive strength.
1.5
1.2
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
P/Ed (0.2f:)
Figure 1 1 Model calibration for effective strain
In this study, past experiment^^^ on shear strengthening using externally

bonded FRP sheets and strips are used to calibrate an equation for
estimation of effective strain in FRP sheet at debonding failure. Only those
experimental results are used in which RC beams failed in diagonal shear
followed by FRP debonding. The value of pf Ef/(0.2.,2/3)is plotted versus
t+zfu as shown in Figure 11. This relation can be obtained from a best-fit
power-type curve to the experimental data, given by Eq. (3).
Eq. (3) is derived using most of the data for CFRP sheetslstrips, which
is a function of axial rigidity of FRP and tensile strength of concrete.
Therefore, the same equation is used for AFRP sheetdstrips using a factor
of 0.9.
1
&/el
- 0.034f
EfU
(for AFRP Sheet)
JZ
(4)
It is seen that the additional bonded anchorage of sheet resulted in

substantial increase in FRP strain. The increase in effective strain due to
is related to a non-dimensional parameter ldb,,
bonded anchorage (~3,~)
which is given by fitting a best curve to the test results. Effective strain in
FRP is equal to the sum of effective strain in FRP in debonding mode ( % I )
and increase in effective strain in FRP ( q k 2 ) due to bonded anchorage. Since
four beams tested with bonded anchorage failed due to concrete splitting,
the compressive strength of concrete (f',) is also considered while
estimating q e 2 .
For CFRP sheet:

I
<- JX
Efr -
0'03sf
ICJ
+ 0.0043 x f',5 In(l001, / b w )0 < ldb, I

0.5
For AFRP sheet:

&fe
O.O34f',j
<- &&-
+ 0.0046 x flC5ln(lOO1, / b,)
0 < lulbwI 0.5
For 1, = 0, Eqs. (3) and (4) should be used. Proposed equations are based on
data for p@f between 0.025 and 1.O. Since, qdq,depends on p&> proposed
equations are valid only for 0.025<pfEf<:1.O range. Proposed equations are
verified using the experimental results from the present study. It is found
that the proposed equation could estimate qi in a reasonably good
agreement with experimentally measured values (Figure 12). Further, T$

could be calculated using the proposed equations satisfactorily (Figure 13).
10000
160
140
8WO
120
00
6000.
-a
4000
2WO
100
Y 80
60
40
20
mm
-
Figure 12 FRP effective strain ( z ~ ) Figure 13 Contribution of FRP shect (6)
CONCLUSIONS
(a) Effectiveness of externally bonded CFRP and AFRP sheets for shear
strengthening of RC beams was confirmed. A maximum of 123%
increase for CFRP and 118% increase for AFRP strengthened beams in
their shear capacities were observed compared to that of control beam.
(b) FRP sheet with bonded anchorage is much more effective than U-wrap
scheme and is an effective way to delay or evade sheet debonding.
(c) Bonded anchorage of sheet resulted in a decrease of interface bond
stress and an increase in effective strain of FRP sheet at failure.
(d) The proposed equations can be used to estimate the contribution of FRP
sheets (Vj) to the shear capacity of RC beams with satisfactory accuracy.
REFERENCES
1. Chaallal, O., Nollet, M.J. and Perraton, D., Shear Strengthening of
RC Beams by Externally Bonded Side CFRP Strips, Journal of
Composites for Construction, ASCE, 2( l), 1998, pp. 1 1 1- 113.
2.
Chajes, M.J., Januska, T.F., Mertz, D.R., Thomson, T.A. Jr. and
Finch, W.W. Jr., Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Beams using Externally Applied Composite Fabrics, ACI Structural.
Journal, 92(3), 1995, pp. 295-303.
3. Sato, Y., Tanaka, T., Ueda, T. and Ono, S., Shear Behavior of RC
Beams Reinforced with Carbon Fiber Sheets, Transactions of the
Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 18, 1996, pp. 137-142.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Uji, K., Improving Shear Capacity of Existing Reinforced Concrete

Members by Applying Carbon Fiber Sheets, Transactions of the
Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 14, 1992, pp. 253-266.
Concrete Engineering Series 41, Recommendationsfor Upgrading of
Concrete Structures with Use of Continuous Fiber Sheet, Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, Tokyo, Japan.
Khalifa, A., Gold, W.J., Nanni, A. and Abdel Aziz, M.I.,
Contribution of Externally Bonded FRP to Shear Capacity of
Flexural Members, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE,
2(4), 1998, pp.195-203.
Triantafillou, T.C. and Antonopoulos, C.P., Design of Concrete
Flexural Members Strengthened in Shear with FRP, Journal of
Compositesfor Construction, ASCE, 4(4), 2000, pp. 198-205.
Minh, H., Shear Strengthening of RC Beams using Epoxy Bonded
Steel Plates, CFRP Sheets and Externally Anchored Stirrups, MS
Thesis submitted to Saitama University, Japan, 2001, 102 pp.
Ashraf, M., Shear Upgrading of RC Beams with Externally Bonded
CFRP and AFRP Sheets, MS Thesis submitted to Saitama University,
Japan, 2002, 144 pp.
APPENDIX I: Notation
of FRP shear reinforcement = 2+wf
of the beam cross section
= effective depth of the FRP reinforcement
= elastic modulus of FRP in GPa
= compressive strength of concrete in MPa
= bonded anchorage length of FRP sheet
= reduction factor
= thickness of FRP sheet or strip
= shear capacity contributed by concrete
= contribution of FRP sheet to the shear capacity
= nominal shear capacity of the beam
= contribution of stirrups to the shear capacity
= angle between principal fiber and longitudinal axis of beam
= effective FRP strain
= ultimate tensile elongation of FRP material
= FRP shear reinforcement ratio
= area
= width

Edited by S a n g Hwee Tan
@World Scientific PublishingCompany
BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

STRENGTHENED IN SHEAR WITH CFRP
A. CAROLIN
Department of Civil & Mining Engineering, LuleB University of Technology
Division of Structural Engineering, SE-971 87 LuleB, Sweden
B. TALJSTEN
Luled University of Technology, SE-971 87 LuleB, Sweden
and Skanska AB, 169 83 Soha, Sweden
The need for concrete strengthening and retrofitting is well known and a lot
of research is in progress in this field. In recent years the use of CFRP plate
bonding has been shown to be a competitive method both regarding
structural performance and economical aspects. However, most of the
laboratory tests have been undertaken on flexural strengthening. Although
not the only problem facing structures today, shear deficiencies are
becoming more and more prevalent. The topic of this paper is
strengthening for increased shear capacity of concrete structures.
Limitations of the widely used truss model are studied and presented. The
model especially shows limitations and needs when continuous T-beams
are strengthened. The model also addresses issues regarding behaviour in
Service Limit State.
INTRODUCTION
All over the world there are structures intended for living and
transportation. The structures are of varying quality and function, but they
are all ageing and deteriorating with time. Some of these structures will
need to be replaced since they are in such bad condition. With
environmental and economical aspects in mind it is untenable to replace all
structures. Instead the structures should be strengthened or retrofitted as
much as possible. It is not only deterioration that concerns strengthening,
since many of the structures are unable to sustain the increased demands
placed on them by the development of society. For instance, the design load
on bridges increases with our increased need for transportation. Other
reasons for repair or upgrading are: widening of bridges, design and
construction errors, problems initiated by temporary overload, and so on.
Strengthening methods are well developed when it concerns flexural
strengthening and they have therefore been used quite widely. When
increasing flexure capacity, the structure will be loaded closer to its

maximum shear capacity. Work has been done on many structures to restore
or upgrade the flexural capacity while the shear capacity has not been
addressed. It has been found in a full-scale test' that a flexural strengthening
can even induce a shear failure. A beam must have a certain safety margin
against shear failure since it is more dangerous and less predictable than
flexural failure2. Although not the only problem facing structures today,
shear deficiencies are becoming more and more prevalent. Even though the
equations in the codes that design the structure are conservative in most
cases they can overestimate the capacity in some cases. The design
equations that were used when the existing structures were built were much
less stringent compared to the codes of today. In Sweden3, the allowable
shear stress for a typical concrete member has almost been cut to half from
1967 to 1979. Due to the cost of performing full-scale tests, the derived
equations for shear have been compared to results from small-scale beams
and the effects from scaling have not been completely understood. One of
the chief concerns with shear is that failures often are very brittle with no,
or only small warnings preceding a collapse. All of the above mentioned
reasons provide a need for strengthening in shear.
One strengthening method which has gained acceptance all over the
~ o r l d ~is ,plate
~ , ~bonding with fibre reinforced polymers, FRP. The method
implies that a thin layer of fibre composite is bonded externally to a
structure's surface so that the fibres will act as an outer reinforcement. The
high number of undertaken projects confirms that the method is
competitive, both from a practical and economical point of view.
THEORIES
The two most well known models, for predicting the shear capacity of
reinforced concrete beams, are the truss model and the modified
compression field theory, MCFT. The focus in this paper will be on the
truss model because of the ease of use, wide acceptance and the fact that
many researchers are using it for predicting the contribution from externally
bonded reinforcement. Finite element models can also be utilized to
describe the behaviour of strengthened structures. However they will not be
investigated here since they are still rather time-consuming to use, the
results depend largely on the users understanding of finite element theories,
and they are not very suitable for application in codes.
Concrete Structures Strengthened in Shear 469
Truss Model
The truss model is also known as the strut and tie model and was derived in
the end of the 19 century by Ritter7. Many researchers considered the truss
model to give conservative but good results and the model has therefore
become the basis for many codes such as Eurocode and the code by AC19.
This model assumes that after cracking of the concrete, the behaviour of a
reinforced concrete beam becomes analogous to that of a truss with a top
longitudinal compression chord, a bottom longitudinal tension chord,
vertical steel ties (stirrups) and diagonal concrete struts (Figure 1).
Figure 1 : The truss model with struts and ties
The original truss model assumes that only the steel stirrups carry the
shear forces. When the model is used in many codes an empirical term is
added to the shear capacity to consider what has been called the concrete
contribution. This is a traditional addition model where other terms to
involve axial forces, for instance, can be added. The total shear capacity,
V, , can be calculated as the sum of all the terms as shown in Equation (1).
where V, is the contribution from steel calculated by the truss model, Vp is

contribution from axial forces,
V, represents other contributions such as
inclined compression chords and strengthening systems, and V, is the

concrete contribution, which often includes the dowel action, and is
determined by empirically found relationships. However, the Eurocode
divides shear elements into members with and without shear reinforcement.
The capacity of the concrete can be calculated for members not requiring
shear reinforcement. If shear reinforcement is required then no contribution
from the concrete is added.
Equation (2) is one way to calculate the contribution from vertical steel
stirrups by using the truss theory.
v,=- ASdfY
S
where As is the total area of the cross-section of one stirrup (two shears), d
is the effective depth of the beam, f y is the yield stress of the steel, and s
is vertical spacing between the stirrups. Equation (2) is derived for 45
degrees crack inclination and is conservative for smaller angles. The oftenassumed crack angle of 45 degrees has been discussed and there exist other
assumptions and derivations, especially for pre-stressed concrete. The truss
model does not consider any interaction among torsion, bending and shear.
Sometimes the conditions in the serviceability limit state indicate a need for
more reinforcement than in the ultimate limit state. In the truss model it is
assumed that all steel stirrups are yielding. This is only valid after a certain
deformation and is explained by the non-uniform distribution of shear
forces that act on a cross-section. For a rectangular uniform cross-section
the shear stresses can be described as Equation (3)5:
These stresses can be projected on a shear crack and transformed to

maximum principal stresses as shown in Figure 2.
When steel stirrups are used to reinforce a concrete beam the yielding
of steel distribute the strains over all stirrups crossed by the crack as the
deformations increase. When a shear crack forms and widens, the most
stressed stirrup starts to yield. If the crack continues to widen the
"neighbour" stirrups reach their yield limit and start to deform until all
stirrups in the crack have started to yield. The strains in each stirrup over a
crack are schematically shown in Figure 3. In the truss model, this is the
reason why yield strain can be used for all stirrups that are crossed by a
crack, when designing in ultimate limit state. In Service limit state this can
cause problems since the truss model assumes the same stress in all of the
stirrups. Actually some legs will be yielding before the others. The
behaviour is further described in the literature".
Figure 2: Shear strains over a rectangular cross-section and projected and converted
to maximum principal strains on a crack'.
"t
-I
1 "
.
b
E
Figure 3: Principle of work for steel stirrups5.
Truss Model and Plate Bonding

For shear, the FRP plate can be bonded to the web of the beam
throughout its entire length, or it can be bonded to the areas where the
highest shear is expected. Since fibre composites are anisotropic the
effectiveness of the plate primarily depends on the orientation of the fibres.
Also, the inclination of a crack will be different if it arises before or after
the fibres are applied". Further, the composite is linear elastic without any
yield plateau or capability to deformation after reaching maximum load.
The non-uniform strain field then causes a non-uniform stress field in the
composites (see Figure 4), when the first (middle) fibre reaches its ultimate
capacity and breaks, and the neighbouring fibres become more stressed and
rupture.
When calculating the contribution from fibres, depending on the
location on the possible crack, that is, height of the beam, the fibres will be
stressed differently. Compared to a situation where all fibres are utilized to

their maximum, the contribution for the non-uniform stress distribution
from pure shear corresponds to an average fibre utilization ratio of 0.67.
I"
Figure 4: Stresses and strains over the height of the cro~s-section~.
Shear- Moment Interaction

Pure shear over an area is very unusual in structural members. Most
members are simultaneously subjected to both shear and flexural loading.
By studying the strain field in a concrete member it is possible to predict a
possible shear crack. This shear crack is assumed to open in the direction
perpendicular to the crack plane. Fibres bonded over this possible crack
path will become stressed by the crack opening and then contribute to the
shear capacity of the beam. By studying the stresses perpendicular to a
possible crack path the effective stress in the fibres can be calculated. The
amount and direction of flexural moment depends on both location of the
structure and on the structural system. A simply supported beam is
subjected to sagging moments in the span and zero moments at the ends. At
the mid support of a continuous beam, large hogging moments are
prevailing.
Test of T-beams can be found in the literature. Most of the tests have
been conducted on simply supported beams with compression in the flange.
In many structures with T-beams, that is, in T-beams that are continuous
over supports, the flange is subjected to high hogging moments together
with high shear forces. The two test set-ups will cause different strain fields
over a crack. Considering that the anchorage of the fibres is of utmost
importance, it seems as though this situation may in fact pose a considerable
problem due to the anchorage occurring near the slab-web interface where
shear strains are high. This is illustrated in Figure 5 where the dashed line
indicates a slab-web interface.
Figure 5: Schematic strain profile over a crack with shear forces and sagging (left)
and hogging (right) moments
However, the truss model can still be used for describing the
contribution from externally bonded fibres which are anisotropic and linear
elastic. It is necessary to use a reduction factor on the effective fibre strain.
This reduction factor must consider fibre alignment, structural system,
shear-moment relation, and maximum allowed strain for concrete
contribution. The factor should be 0.45-0.67 depending on these parameters.
In the case of insufficient anchorage, the factor needs to account for this
too. Local debonding close to the crack can reduce the influence from the
non-uniform distribution. Except for the reduction factor and by the
simplification that the fibres only carry stresses in its direction, the equation
becomes similar to the equation for steel. The contribution calculated by the
truss model can also include all effects from anisotropic behaviour of the
composite. Further description and the derivation can be found in the
literature3.
THEORY IN COMPARISON WITH TESTS
Half-scale tests3 on simply supported beams reveal the non-uniform strain

profile, as shown in Figure 6. Strains have been measured in fibre direction
at seven heights on a 500 mm high beam strengthened in 45 degrees angle
and subjected to four-point bending. The test indicates average fibre
utilization compared to the most stressed fibre before debonding of 0.7.
Note that prior to debonding, the top fibres actually compressed in
accordance with the theory presented in this paper. The largest deformation
occurs in the middle of the beam. Since the fibres are sufficient anchored,
that is, wrapped around corners, a more uniform distribution can take place.
However, the fibres might first debond and this should not be allowed in
design. With sufficient anchorage, the rupture starts in the area of highest
strains, i.e. mid-section of the height, without debonding. By integration of
the strains in Figure 6, it is found that the fibre contribution at failure is 1.64
times the contribution at debonding. However, the load is only 15 % higher
and is explained by a decrease in concrete contribution when the strains are
increasing.
2
E
P
.g
s:
400
300
85 X of debonding load
200
n
0
I000
2000
3000 4000
5000
j
6000 7000 8000 9000
Strain [prnlrn]
Figure 6: Measured strain profile over shear span for fibres in 45 degrees and
completely wrapped.
Earlier r e ~ e a r c h ' * ~,' ~ has

~ ' ~ ~explained
'~
the effective strain by
development lengths of the fibres on each side of the crack and different
anchorage limitations. A strain limitation due to the shear crack width and
loss of aggregate interlocking has also been suggested16.This limitation is
also used in other proposal^'^. A reduction factor for the strengthening
effect of the composites has been suggested". The reduction is based upon
distribution of the strain in the shear span, and the bond length for the
composite. However, the model is also based upon FE-analysis and
experimental tests and is not applicable for a general case.
ISSUES, CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER STUDIES
The truss model for predicting contribution from a FRP shear strengthening
cannot be used without a reduction factor. A model with non-uniform strain
profile, anchorage limitations, and local debonding close to the crack should
be developed. More tests need to be done on large-scale specimens. The
behaviour in the Service Limit State should also be further analysed. Nonsymmetrical strengthening could be an issue in some cases and should be
investigated and be considered when writing a code. The combinations of
shear and bending ought to be treated in a more correct way than is done
today.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge LE Lundbergs Foundation for

economic support for this study.
REFERENCES
1. Tgljsten, B. (1994): Plate bonding Strengthening of existing concrete
structures with epoxy bonded plates of steel or fibre reinforced
plastics Doctoral Thesis, Luleg University of Technology, August
1994. 2nd Edition. 308 pp.
2. Talj sten, B. (2002): FRP Strengthening of Existing Concrete
Structures. Design Guidelines Division of Structural Engineering,
LuleA University of Technology, LuleA 2002, 228 pp, ISBN 91-8958003-6.
3. Carolin, A. and Taljsten, 3. (2003): Shear Behavior of Concrete
Beams Strengthened with CFW To be submitted.
4. Burgoyne, C. J. (1999): Advanced Composites in Civil Engineering in
Europe Structural Engineering International, Journal of the IABSE, V.
9 No. 4, November pp.267-273.
5. Carolin, A. (200 1): Strengthening of concrete structures with CFRP.
Shear strengthening and full-scale applications . Licentiate thesis.
Lule&University of Technology, Division of Structural Engineering. pp.
118
6 . Meier, U. (1999): Structural Tensile Elements made of Advanced
Composite Materials Structural Engineering International, Journal of
the IABSE, V. 9 No. 4, November pp.281-285.
7. Ritter, W. (1 899): Die Bauweise Hennebique, Schweiserische

Bauzeitung, V. 33 Switzerland
8. EC 2-1 (2001): Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures - Part I :
General rules and rules for buildings, prEN 1992-1, CEN (Comitd
Europeen de Normalisation), European Committee for Standardisation,
Central Secretariat, Brussels. October 200 1.230 pp
9. ACI 3 18-85 (1995): Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete , American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Oct 1995,
369 pp.
10. Taljsten, B. and Carolin, A. (2001): Strengthening of concrete beams
in shear - theory and tests Proceedings of FRP composites in civil
engineering, Hong Kong, pp 657-668.
11. Malek, A. M., Saadatmanesh, H (1998): Analytical Study of
Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with Web-Bonded Fiber
Reinforced Plastic Plates or Fabrics ACI Structural Journal, May-June
1998, pp. 343-352.
12. Norris, T., Saadatmanesh, H. and Ehsani, M. R. (1997) Shear and
flexural strengthening of R/C Beams with Carbon Fiber Sheets Journal
of structural engineering, V123, No. 7 pp. 903-91 1
13. Izumo, K., Saeki, N., Horiguchi, T. and Shimura, K. (1998): Study on
shear strengthening of RC beams by prestressed fiber sheets,
Transactions of the Japan concrete institute, V. 20, pp.279-286
14. Chaallal, O., Nollet, M.-J., and Perraton, D. (1998): Strengthening of
reinforced concrete beams with externally bonded fiber-reinforcedplastic plates: Design guidelines for shear and flexure, Canadian
Journal of Civil Engineering, pp. 692-704
15. Triantafillou, T. C. (1 998): Shear Strengthening of Reinforced
Concrete Beams Using Epoxy-Bonded FRP Composites ACI
Structural Journal, V. 95, No. 2, March-April, pp. 107-115
16. Khalifa, A., Gold, W., Nanni, A. and Abel-Aziz, M. (1998):
Contribution of externally Bonded FRP to the Shear Capacity of RC
Flexural Members, Journal of Composites for Construction, V. 2, No.
4 pp. 195-202.
17. ACI Committe 440 (2000): Guidefor the design and construction of
externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening concrete structures.
24 January 2000.
18. Sato, Y., Ueda, T., Kakuta, Y. and Tanaka, T. (1996) Shear
Reinforcing Effect of Carbon Fiber Sheet Attached to Side of
Reinforced Concrete Beams Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges
and Structures, El-Badry, M. M., Ed., pp 62 1-628

STRENGTHENING OF RC T BEAMS IN SHEAR WITH

CARBON SHEET LAMINATES (CFRP)
G. S. MEEO, A. S. ARAlhO AND Y. NAGATO
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Brasilia,
70910-900 Brasilia - DF, Brazil
The shear resistance of eight simply supported reinforced concrete Tbeams, subjected to two top point loads were investigated. Six of the beams
were strengthened in shear with CFRP unidirectional laminates after they
were loaded previously up to service load and then unloaded before being
strengthened. The remaining beams were used as references, without being
strengthened. The main variables investigated were the way in which the
CFRP sheets were anchored. The beams were divided in two groups, the
first with the CFRP sheets enveloping only the web of the beams and
anchored at the bottom of the slab with horizontal strips (Group l), and the
second with the CFRP sheets wrapping the web and the flange of the beams
through drilled holes at the flange of the slabs (Group 2). The beams
measured 4400 mm (overall length) x 400 mm (overall height) x 150 mm
(web width), and 550 mm in flange width. Wrapping the web and flange of
the beams with CFRP laminates strips through drilled holes (Group 2) were
much more efficient than enveloping only the web of the beams and
anchoring them at the bottom of the flange of the slab with horizontal strips
(Group l), despite being much more laborious and messy. Ultimate loads
of the strengthened beams of Groups 1 and 2 were on average 16.6% and
83.7% higher than the reference beams. The strengthened beams reached
ultimate loads that were on average 10% lower (Group 1) and 23% higher
(Group 2) than the estimated loads by the ACI-440, indicating that the
expressions of the this code could be revised, specially when enveloping
only the web of the beams and anchoring at the bottom of the slab (Group 1
beams).
INTRODUCTION
The use of fiber-reinforced plastics in strengthening reinforced concrete

structures has grown steadily. This paper reports the test results on two
series of eight T beams with different CFRP strengthening details2b4,
TEST PROGRAMME
Tests were made on eight simply supported reinforced concrete T-beams, ,
with an overall length of 4400 mm; clear span of 4000 mm; 150 mm; overall
height of 400 mm; flange width of 550 mm and flange thickness 100 mm.
The shear span was 1070 mm and the shear span / effective depth ratio of
3.01. Details of the beams are given in Table 1 and in Figures 1 and 2. The
flexural reinforcement of the beams of Group 1 was 3 bars of 20mm
diameter (f, = 765 MPa; f, = 820 MPa; E, = 5.32 %), at the first layer and 3
bars of 16mm diameter (f, = 656 MPa; f, = 820 MPa; E, = 4.73 "/,) at the
second. For the beams of Group 2, six 22 mm diameter bars (f, = 712 MPa;
f, = 841 MPa; E, = 5.16 o/oo) in two layers were used as main flexural
reinforcement. Shear reinforcement for all beams was 26 rectangular 120 x
370mm (Figure 2) stirrups (f, = 77 1 MPa; f,= 8 10 MPa; E, = 4.34 o/oo). of 4.2
mm diameter positioned at 170 mm spacing. The anchorage of the
longitudinal bars were assured by 12.5 mm thick welded steel plates,
positioned outside the beam.
Table 1 Test Programme
Beam
Group
Laminates
Anchorage
Strengthening
Web enveloped
plus horizontal
strips
---
5
6
7
8
Five vertical CFRP (one layer) strips plus a

50 mm (width) horizontal strip
Five vertical CFRP (one layer) strips plus a
100 mm (width) horizontal strip
Five vertical CFRP (two layers) strips plus
a 100 mm horizontal (two layers) strips
--- ---
Five vertical CFRP (one layer) strips

Web and flange
wrapped through
Five vertical CFRP (two layers) strips
holes at the
flange
Four 45' CFRP (one layer) strips
Beams (2 to 4 and 6 to 8) were loaded and unloaded before being strengthened
Strengthening of RC T Beams in Shear 479
p
I
(a/d=3.01)
I
4400
Figure 1. Experimental setup (dimensions in mm)
Beams 2 to 4 (Group 1) and 6 to 8 (Group 2) were strengthened in shear

with CFRP unidirectional laminates (Table 2) after the beams were loaded
up to service load and then unloaded. Figure 3 shows the strengthening
details: (a) for Group 1 beams (2, 3 and 4), the CFRP sheets enveloped
only the web of the beams and were anchored at the bottom of the slab with
additional horizontal strips 1500 mm long and 50 mm wide for beam 2 (1
layer) or 100 mm wide for beams 3 (1 layer) and 4 (2 layers); (b) for Group
2 beams (5, 6 and 7), the CFRP sheets wrapped the web and the flange of
the beams, through rectangular holes drilled at the flange, close to the web
of the beam. The drilled holes at the flanges were 50 mm x 150 mm in
beams 6 and 7 and 50 mm x 230 mm in beam 8. The holes were carefully
rounded over the edges, providing an average curvature radius of 10 mm.
The investigation was basically done in four steps:
Group 1 - Beam 1 (reference) was tested until rupture (1" step). About
58% of the ultimate load, or 150 kN, was as defined the service load. At this
stage, the strain in the stressed stirrup of beam 1 was 1.73"/,, ; the strain at
the main flexural bars was 0.79"/,, ; the compressive strain of the concrete
at the top of the beam was 0.35"/,, and the central deflection was 7.44 mm.
Beams 2 to 4 were loaded up to this service load, or 150kN, and then
unloaded (2ndstep). They were subsequently strengthened (3rd step). The
beams were then tested up to failure (4" step). Loading was applied in steps,
at the end of which readings were taken. The behavior of the beams was
analyzed through the strains of the shear and flexural reinforcement and of
the concrete, the vertical and horizontal deflections, the development and
widths of the cracks, and by the ultimate load and mechanism of rupture.
Figure 4 shows beam 3 after strengthening and ready for testing.
4 05.0- 1'lawr
SECTION A-A
ESC 1 25
5 F 7 0
26 N605 0-1280
*A
*A
370
120
26 N104.2-1080
Figure 2 Detailing of Group 1 beams (dimensions in mm)
Group 2 - The same procedure was adopted. Beam 5 (reference) was

tested until rupture (1St step). The service load was taken as 220 kN (about
59% of the ultimate load), to which beams 6 to 8 would be loaded and then
unloaded before being strengthened. At this stage, the strain in the stressed
stirrup of beam ~5 was 1.20/o,, the strain in the main flexural bars was
0.92"/,,, the cofnpressive strain in the concrete was 0.30/00and the central
deflection was 8.7 mm. Beams 6 to 8 were then tested up to 220 kN, and
then unloaded (2"d step). They were then strengthened (31d step). These
beams were subsequently tested up to failure (4" step).
These tests followed two series of eight T-beams, each of the same
dimensions with different CFRP strengthening detailing tested p r e v i o ~ s l y ~ , ~
at the laboratory.
Table 2 - Strengtheningarrangements
Beam
Strengthening arrangements
213
I4
200
200
W,=~~OIII~;S%=~~OIIIIII;
Beam 2 - Vertical (1 layer); 50 m m (width) horizontal strip (Fh);
Beam 3 - Vertical (1 layer); 100 mm (width) horizontal strip (Fh);
Beam 4 - Vertical (2 layers); 100 mm (width) horizontal strip (2 layers)
W, = 150 mm ;S, = 230 m m ;Wrapped (web + flange)

Beam 6 - Vertical (1 layer) ; Beam 7 - Vertical (2 layers)
WB= 150 m m ;SB= 230 mm ; Vertical (2 layers);

Wrapped (web + flange)
horizontal
strip
Group 1
Group 2
Figure 3 . Beams strengthening details - Group 1 (left) and Group 2 (right)
TEST RESULTS
Table 3 presents, for each beam, the strength of the concrete, the estimated
flexural ultimate load (Pnex), the ultimate shear ultimate capacity (Pshear)
according to Z ~ u t t yfor
~ , beams
~
1 and 5, the ultimate shear capacity (Pshear)
according to the ACI 440' design method for the strengthened beams
(beams 2 to 4 and 6 to S), the experimental ultimate load (PJ, and the
rupture type obtained. Beams 1 and 5 (without strengthening) failed in
shear at loads of respectively 11% and 28% higher than those estimated by
ZSUtty5X6.
All strengthened beams failed in shear. Beams of Group 1 (2 to 4) failed
in shear by debonding of the vertical strengthening strips and rupture of the
horizontal additional strips, for loads respectively 9%, 3% and 18% below
what was expected according to ACI 4401. It should be noted that beam 3
with one layer of laminate reached an ultimate load (3 15.0 kN) higher than
beam 4 (300.0 kN) with two layers of laminates, probably due to a more
likely debonding of the strips at beam 4 because of the more rigid patch
(two layers).
The results of Group 1 beams have shown that the expressions of ACI
440' estimate higher loads (about 10% more) for beams with CFRP strips
anchored at the web of the beams, even with the additional horizontal strips
adopted in the tests reported herein.
Figure 5 shows debonding of the vertical strengthened strips and
rupture of the horizontal strip for beam 4 after being tested. A shear crack
can also be seen at the back under the strips.
The beams of Group 2 (6 to 8) failed in shear by rupture of the
strengthened strips after an initial debonding of these strips, for loads which
were respectively 30%, 17% and 22% higher than those according to ACI
440'.
Beam
A'
(MPa)
(MPa)
Pflex Pshear
(estim) (estim)
(kN)
(kN)
pu,
Pu
(test)
(kN)
pflex
p u , Rupture
Pshear
Type
Group I
~
~~
23.3
2.2
623
235.0*
260.0
0.42
1.10
Shear
22.5
2.0
610
324.0
295.0
0.48
0.91
22.5
2.0
610
324.0
315.0
0.52
0.97
Debond
vertical
strips**
22.5
2.0
610
368.0
300.0
0.49
0.82
(Shear)
Group 2
5
46.1
3.1
946
290.6
372.0
0.39
1.28
Shear
45.7
4.0
945
502.0
650.0
0.69
1.30
45.8
3.1
945
672.0
788.0
0.83
1.17
Rupture
of
Strips
46.6
3.6
947
502.4
612.0
0.65
1.22
(Shear)
* According to Zsutty estimations
** Debonding of vertical strips and rupture of horizontal strips

The results of Group 2 beams showed that the expressions of ACI 440'
estimates lower loads (about 23% lower) for beams with CFRP strips
wrapped around the web of the beam and the flange of the slab through
holes drilled at the slab flanges. There is no apparent reason for beam 8 (45"
CFRP strips) having reached an ultimate load (6 12.0 kN) lower than beam 6
(650.0 kN) with 90" CFRP strips. The rupture of the inclined strips at the
ultimate load of beam 8 is shown in figure 6.
Wrapping of the web and flange with the CFRP laminates strips
resulted in stiffer beams and allowed bigger ultimate displacements for the
beams of Group 2 (6 to 8) in comparison of beams of Group 1 (2 to 4).
Strains at the main flexural reinforcement for the beams of Group 2 (6 to 8)
were higher than those for the beams of Group 1 (2 to 4) but quite far from
yielding. Stirrups of Group 2 beams (6 to 8) yielded and broken at ultimate
load. The observed ultimate concrete strains showed that concrete crushing
was quite far from happening for all beams. The biggest strain recorded at
the CFRP strips was 7.5%0for beam V6 (650 kN).
Figure 4. Beam 3 (strengthened) before being tested
Figure 5. Dcbonding and rupturc o i hori7ontal strips in Beam 4
Strength.eningof RC T Beams in Shear 485
Figure 6. Rupture of inclined strips in Beam 8

CONCLUSIONS
The ultimate loads of the reference beams (without strengthening) were

better estimated by Z s ~ t t yformulations.
~,~
Beams 1 (23.3 MPa) and 5 (46.1
MPa) reached ultimate loads that were respectively 10% and 28% higher
than estimated.
The two solutions for strengthening T beams in shear using CFRP
strips investigated in this research worked: enveloping only the web of the
beams and anchoring the laminates at the bottom of the slab with additional
horizontal strips (Group 1 - beams 2 to 4); or wrapping the web and the
flange of the beams through drilled holes at the flange of the slabs (Group 2
- beams 6 to 8). The two solutions improved the behavior allowing the
beams to reach higher ultimate loads that were respectively, on average,
17% and 84% higher than the reference beams. Wrapping the web and
flange through drilled holes was much more effective but quite laborious
and messy (Group 2 beams). A less efficient anchorage is expected anyway
by enveloping only the web (Group 1 beams) as the roughening / cleaning
of the substrate and gluing the laminates is much more difficult at the web
close to the flange.
The results of Group 1 beams (2 to 4) with the CFW strips enveloping
only the web of the beams and anchored at the bottom of the slab with
additional horizontal strips have showed that the expressions of ACI 440
estimates higher ultimate loads (about 10%) in such cases. Beams 2 to 4
failed in shear by debonding of the vertical strengthening strips and rupture

of the horizontal additional strips, for loads respectively 9%, 3% and 18%
below what was expected according to ACI 4401. The utilization of more
than one layer of strips anchoring at the web should be further studied as
beam 4 with two layers reached an ultimate load lower than beam 3 with a
single layer, probably associated to the debonding easiness due to the higher
stiffness of the double strengthening strips.
Results of Group 2 beams (6 to 8) with the CFRP strips wrapping the
web and the flange of the beams through rectangular holes drilled at the
flange of the slab have showed that the expressions of ACI 440' estimate
lower loads (about 23%) in this case. Beams 6 to 8 failed in shear by
rupture of the strengthening strips after initial debonding, for loads that
were respectively 30%, 17% and 22% above what were expected according
to ACI 440'.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors are grateful to CAPES & CNPq, to WRJ, SECOEN and Paula
Machado Engineering, and to Masters Builders Technology for the support.
REFERENCES
Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars, American Concrete Institute,
200 1.
2 . ARAUJO, A. S., "T" beams strengthened in shear with CFRP
laminates", M.Sc. Thesis, Dept Civil & Environ. Eng., University of
Brasilia, 2002.
3. Salles Neto, M., "Behaviour of "T" beams strengthened in shear with
carbon sheet laminates (CFRP)", M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Civil
Environmental Engineering, University of Brasilia, 2000 (in Portuguese)
4. Silva Filho J. N., "Additional tests in "T" beams strengthened in shear
with CFRP laminates", M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Brasilia, 200 1 (in Portuguese)
5. Zsutty, T. C., "Beam shear strength prediction by analysis of existing
data". ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 65 No 8, November 1968.
6. Zsutty, T. C., "Shear strength prediction for separate categories of
simple beam tests". ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 68 No 2, Feb., 1971.

STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF SHEARED BEAMS

RETROFITTED WITH STRENGTHENING MATERJALS
Z. H. XIONG AND M. N. S. HAD1
Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong,
NSW 2522, Australia
This paper considers the strength and load carrying capacity enhancement
of reinforced concrete beams that have been tested and failed in shear. A
total of sixteen sheared beam specimens with a length of 1.2 m and crosssectional area of 100 mm by 150 mm were retrofitted by using various
types of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) and then retested. The retrofitted
beam specimens wrapped with different amounts and types of F W were
subjected to four-point static loading. Load, deflection and strain data were
collected during testing the beam specimens to failure. Results of the
experimental program indicate that there are several parameters that affect
the strength of the beams. The results also show that the use of Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites for shear strengthening provides
significant static capacity increase.
INTRODUCTION
Various retrofitting materials and techniques were carried out around the
world in the last two decades, which are based on a great need of repair and
retrofitting of existing structures that has become a major part of the
construction activity in many countries, such as the United States, China
and Australia.
It is no doubt that the Steel Plates and Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
are the two most commonly used external reinforcement materials.
Traditional retrofitting techniques that use steel and cementitious materials
do not always offer the most appropriate solutions. Whereas, retrofitting
with fibre reinforced polymers (FRE') may provide a more economical and
technically superior alternative to the traditional techniques in many
situations. FRPs are lighter, more durable and have higher strength-toweight ratios than traditional reinforcing materials such as steel, and can
result in less labour-intensive and less equipment-intensive retrofitting
work.
Tremendous amount of studies have been undertaken in the area of
structural flexural strengthening. Such strengthening of concrete members is
usually accomplished by construction of external reinforced concrete or

shotcrete jackets, by epoxy bonding of steel plates to the tension faces of
the members, or by external post-tensioning. However, studies of the shear
strengthening of reinforced concrete beams by the use of composite
materials have been limited, and to a certain degree controversial'. Both
Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) and Carbon Fibre Reinforced
Polymer (CFRP) have been used in previous studies. Therefore, this study
basically contributes to the data in the area of shear strengthening.
The inclusion of confining reinforcement within the compressive region
is to evaluate the hypothesis as to whether confinement reinforcement
increases the bending capacity of a beam subjected to four-point loading.
Helical confinement reinforcement is commonly used in column axial
strength enhancement, therefore, a relatively large amount of studies have
been undertaken in this area. However, the incorporation of the confinement
reinforcement into the compressive zone in beams is a relatively new
research field, which has not been significantly studied2.
This research has two objectives: the first is to study the effectiveness
of two types of wrapping materials in enhancing the shear capacity of
reinforced concrete beams, and the second objective is to investigate the
increase in strength and ductility of reinforced concrete beams, where the
compressive zone is confined by helical reinforcement. An experimental
program has been undertaken to fulfil these two objectives.
A total of sixteen reinforced concrete beam specimens were initially
constructed in a previous study3. All the test beams were designed in
accordance with AS 36004. The specimens were designed into four distinct
groups, depending on the reinforcement arrangement. Group 1 consisted of
beams reinforced with 2N16 longitudinal bars. Group 2 consisted of beams
reinforced with 2N16 bars and helices within the compressive zone, while
Groups 3 and 4 consisted of 2N20 and 2N24 longitudinal bars each with
helical reinforcement within the compressive region, respectively. The
helical reinforcement were provided in the test beams with a fixed pitch of
30 mm and an internal diameter of 50 mm, and the overall length of each
helix was 400 mm to allow the helix to encase the compressive region of
each beam. A summary of test beam details3 together with the loading is
shown in Table 1, and Figure 1 shows details of the helical reinforcement
which are of 250 MPa tensile strength, diameter of 50 mm and a pitch of 30
mm.
Strength Analysis of Sheared Beams 489
Each test beam was incorporated with four strain gauges. The four
gauges were divided into two groups that were applied on the longitudinal
tensile reinforcing bars, two in the beam centre and two at one-third of its
span. The gauges at each location were set at either side of the bar allowing
for the strains on both sides to be well monitored during the course of test.
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Group
No.
Ta
One
Ta
Two
Three
Ta
Four
Ta
16
Over-reinforced
Over-reinforced
I
I
2N24
2N24
Yes
Cyclic
Cyclic
Strengthening Configurations
In the tests which were conducted by Murray3, the test beams were deficient
in shear strength and did not achieve their ultimate flexural strength under
loading. To fulfil one of the objectives of the study, which is to retrofit the
beams in shear strength, the strengthening materials were only applied on
the pure shear span, which is shown in Figure 2.
In the FRP material wrapping practices, each of the shear retrofitting
zone is extended 50 mm from each side of the shear span, which is shown in
Figure 3.
R6 Shear sdrmps @ 115mm
Tensile Reinforcemnt
Conpressive Reinforcemnt
Longitudinalcompressive
,
,
,
- reinforcement
Helix
Longitudinal tensile
reinforcement
Figure 1. Reinforcement details of tested beam specimens3
Shear Retrofitting Zone
Shear Retrofitting Zone
A,,
,,A
AL
Shear Span
Shear Span
4
fi
--
1000
1200
Figure 2 . Shear strengthening configuration
P/2
Coacr
Figure 3 . FRP material wrapping configurations
FRP Material Application Procedure

The following materials were used in applying the FRP: (a) Carbon Fibre
(320g/m2)50mm wide; (b) E-glass (120g/m2)50mm wide; (c) Epoxy Resin;
and (d) a slow Hardener. The first step is beam surface grinding, which is
to remove the outer weak surface of the concrete. Flap disks are used in this
grinding procedures. Furthermore, this step also includes rounding the
lower edges of the beams. The purpose of this action is to make the fibres
bend smoothly around the corners so that they do not break due to stress
concentration under loading5 . The second step is washing the beam with
acetone to clean the beam surface before a layer of resin primer is applied
on the surface. The quantity of the primer used was recorded as 0.22kg/m2.
Once the coated beams are put in position and the epoxy is ready, the
external material application could start. First, a beam is wiped over with
acetone just before application. The reason for this is to remove the
carbonation layer of the hardened primer. Then one layer of epoxy is
painted on the beam surface followed by a layer of FRP material applied
with a 10 mm overlap for every revolution around the beam cross section.
Second, before the application of the second layer of FW, another layer of
resin coating is painted on the face of the previous layer. These processes
are repeated for all layers until the last layer of material is applied; then the
fibre is cut with a pair of scissors and a layer of resin is applied on the face
of the last bandage layer. Table 2 summarises the testing beams wrapping
with FRP materials.
Table.2 Summary of Testing Beams with Wrapping Materials

Wrapping
Wrapping
Reinforcement
Helix
Material
Layers
ble 1 Properties
ble
1
Properties
ble 1 Properties
Group
Beam No.
(2 /batch)
Ta
Ta
Three
Ta
Experimental Procedure
All test specimens were subjected to four-point loading. The loading rate
for this series of tests was 0.05 m d s e c . Figure 4 shows a testing beam set
up under four-point loading arrangement.
Figure 4. Testing machine and specimen set up prior to test
Test variables included the helix confinement reinforcement, and the
retrofitting materials both in different types and different wrapping layers.
The beam crack pattern and failure modes were compared between various
specimens.
Ultimate Load and Flexural Strength Enhancement

Table 3 presents the ultimate load carrying capacity achieved by each beam
specimen tested. These ultimate loads are from reference 3. Table 3 also
presents the ultimate loads of the retrofitted beams. For the purpose of
comparison, relative load values herein are computed and presented in a
separate column.
Table 3. Ultimate load of each beam specimen, originally and after retrofitting
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Table 4 presents the flexural strength of each test beam specimen, in

which the expected design failure load in bending for each specimen is also
included. Thus the comparison of the expected failure moment and the
actual failure moment would clearly represent the structural strengthening
qualities.
From Table 4, it should be noted that almost all the strengthened beams
with CFRP failed in bending as opposed to the beams strengthened with EGlass which failed in shear. This might be explained by the strengthening
ability of CFRP materials outperforming the E-Glass materials.
Table 5 presents the flexural strength increment due to the effect of
applying different strengthening materials.
Results of Shear Capacity Enhancement

The evaluation of shear capacity enhancement was focused on the E-Glass
strengthened beams, for which all failed in shear. Table 6 presents the shear
capacity achieved by each beam specimen wrapped with E-Glass compared
to the results of the previous study3.
Beam No.
Helix
Table 4. Flexural strength of each specimen

Actual
Expected Design
Failure
Failure Moment
Failure Modes
Moment
(kNm)
&Nm)
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
Table 5. Flexural strength enhancement by applying different retrofitting

materials
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
ble
1
Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
ble 1 Properties
Ta
Ta
Ta
Ta
CONCLUSIONS
The results of testing the sixteen beam specimens proved that all the
examined test parameters contribute to the strength of the beams, and the
results confirmed that the strengtheningtechniques using FRP sheets can be
used to increase the shear capacity considerably, with efficiency that
depends on the test variables.
Conclusions that emerged from this study may be summarised as:
(a) The inclusion of the helical reinforcement was shown to increase the
performance of the beam in both load carrying capacity and flexural
strength; a 3 percent increase in strength was observed for beams that
failed in bending. Obviously, helical reinforcement did not have any
effect on beams that failed in shear.
(b) In consideration of the FRP materials contributing to the load carrying
capacity and flexural strength, it is indicated that retrofitting with FRP
provides a feasible rehabilitation technique for repair as well as
strengthening. The more layers of FRP materials applied, the higher
flexural strength would be achieved. Furthermore, the beams
strengthened with CFRP display an increase in the ultimate flexural
strength of up to 31 percent higher compared to that of beams
strengthened with E-Glass.
(c) The evaluation of the shear capacity enhancement focuses on beams
retrofitted with E-Glass. Effect of varied wrapping layers on beam shear
capacity achievement indicates that the increase in the external
wrapping layers leads to a proportional increment in the shear capacity.
Comparison between the results of E-Glass wrapped beams and that of
the original beams from reference 3, indicates that the retrofitted beams
achieve a shear capacity enhancement up to 17 percent compared to the
original ones.
(d) For the beams strengthened with CFRP, which is balanced or overreinforced, and failed in bending generally, it is shown that the CFRP
material out performs the E-Glass material in terms of external shear
reinforcing.
(e) The beams wrapped with E-Glass failed in shear with the angle of a
critical inclined crack with respect to the horizontal axis of about 45
degree. The failure was with the rupture of the E-Glass sheets. In
comparison, the beams wrapped with CFRP failed in bending with a
much more ductile failure mode, and the flexural cracks propagated
from the bottom at mid-span towards the compressive zone. The failure
was not with the rupture on debonding of the CFRP sheets. The results
confirmed that, under the same amount and configuration, the CFRP
material out performs the E-Glass material in structural externally
strengthening.
REFERENCES
1. Triantafillou, T. C., (1998). Composite: a new possibility for the shear

strengthening of concrete, masonry and wood, Composites Science and
Technology, Vo1.58, No.8, Aug., 1998, pp.1285-1295.
2. Hadi, M. N. S., and Schmidt, L. C., (2002). Use of Helixes in

Reinforced Concrete Beams, ACI Structural Journal, Vo1.99, No.2,
pp. 191-198.
3. Murray, J., (200 1). Cyclic Loading of High Strength Reinforced

Concrete Beams, Bachelor of Engineering, University of Wollongong,
Department of Civil and Mining Engineering, 200 1.
4. AS3600 - (1994). Australian Standard, Concrete Structures. Australia.

5. Taljsten, B. and Elfgren, L., (1999). Strengthening Concrete Beams for
Shear Using CFRP Materials: evaluation of different application
methods, Composites Part B: engineering, V3 1, No.2000, p 87-96.

SHEAR PERFORMANCE 7. !ITH E (TERNALLY BONDED

CARBON FIBRE FABRICS
A.LI, C. DIAGANA AND Y. DELMAS
Laboratoly of Mechanics, Materials and Structure, Univ. of Reims Champagne
Ardenne, Rue des Crayeres, BPI 035, 5 I 1 OOReims, France
B. GEDALIA
Freyssinet lnternational & Cie, Ibis, rue du Petit Clamart, BPI3.5, 78148 Vdizy
Cedex, France
The present work deals with shear performance of reinforced concrete

(RC) beams with rectangular section. The RC beams are designed with
shear deficiencies and strengthened by externally bonded carbon fibre
fabrics. The carbon fibre fabrics is a dry bi-directional impregnated
(epoxy resin) on site. The experimental programme consists of two
control beams and eight strengthened RC beams. The reinforced concrete
beams are strengthened with carbon fibre fabric vertical strips and 45"
inclined strips in U-shape or wrapped. The objectives of this study are to
investigate the influence of parameters like carbon fibre fabric span and
strengthened type on the shear capacity of strengthened RC beams. A
mechanical formula is used to predict the contribution of carbon fibre
fabric to shear capacity of strengthened RC beams. The results obtained
by using the formula are compared with these obtained by test.
INTRODUCTION
The studies carried out by researchers on the repair and strengthening of
structural reinforced concrete members show that the more strength increase
in flexure, the more likely shear failure occurs. The strengthening
techniques have been widely used in recent years in civil infrastructures
such as columns, beams or slabs since their first application in 1960s'. Many
studies2" have been conducted to investigate the flexural behaviour of
strengthening reinforced concrete structures by bonded externally steel
plates or fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets. However, it is more
difficult to study the behaviour of shear strengthened reinforced concrete
(RC) beams, because the behaviour and ultimate strength of shear upgraded
reinforced concrete structures depends on many factors such as: concrete
compressive strength, composite material strength, steel yield stress,
longitudinal steel bar cross-section in flexural region, internal vertical steel
cross-section, stirrup spacing, strengthening area, shear span to effective
depth ratio, thickness of the composite material and strengthening

techniq~e~-~.
The objectives of this work are to study the shear strengthening
effectiveness with CFF strips and shear behaviour of rectangular section,
reinforced concrete beams with shear deficiencies after strengthening. This
work deals with also the influence of the longitudinal spacing of carbon
fibre fabric strips, the CFF strip orientation (90" or 45") in comparison with
the longitudinal direction and the wrapping manners (U-shape or closed
rings). The analytical investigation is made in order to estimate the
contribution of CFF reinforcement to the shear capacity of strengthening RC
beams.
MATERIALS
In this experimental program, a concrete mix consisting of Portland cement
and maximum aggregate size of 15 mm in diameter is used. The average
compressive strength for all beams tested is 3 8 +2 MPa. The elastic modulus
obtained by the test was 35 GPa. The yield strengths of the steel bars and
internal steel stirrups are 550 MPa and 240 MPa, respectively. The elastic
modulus of steel is 210 GPa. The epoxy resin used consists of two
components : an epoxy resin and a hardener. The mechanical properties of
the epoxy resin are an ultimate tensile strength 29.3 MPa and an elastic
modulus 2.3 GPa.
Carbon fibre fabric used consists of carbon fibres set at 90" in the warp
and in the weft so as to obtain a flexible weave that can match various
shapes of backings.
CONFIGURATION OF TEST BEAMS

In this experimental program, ten reinforced concrete beams with or without
shear strengthening are tested. The beams were designed with a total span of
2200 mm and a rectangular cross-section of 130 mm width and 450 mm
depth, as shown in Fig. 1. All specimens are tested as simple span beams
subjected to a three point loading as illustrated in Fig.1. The load is
monotonically increased. The RC beams are designed to have a much higher
flexure capacity; thus, shear failure is the dominant mode of failure.
Shear Pe$ormance with Carbon Fibre Fabrics 499

P
Figure. 1. Configuration and detail of RC beam

The details and dimensions of the ten RC beams are illustrated in Fig. 2.
Two RC beams are not strengthened and acted as control specimens,
whereas eight beam are strengthened with externally bonded CFF strips in
various manners. The specimens are grouped into two series designated PU
and PC depending on the strengthening schemes. Group PU consists of four
reinforced concrete beams that are Strengthened with externally bonded CFF
fabrics in the form of U-shape. Group PC consists of four reinforced
concrete beams that are strengthened with externally bonded CFF fabrics in
the form of a closed ring.
The use of 40mm strips and large spacing was imposed by the
maximum load capacity of test equipment and to avoid a flexure failure
mode of strengthened beams.
Beam PU1 and PC1.
Beam PU2 and PC2
IIW
Beam PU3 and PC3
48-
Beams PU4 and PC4
Figure 2 Configuration and details of the RC beams strengthened by bonding WF

strips
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ultimate Load Capacity

Table 1 shows the values of ultimate load on the beams and the contribution
of the carbon fibre fabrics to the ultimate load. Beams Po and PO-bis
are the
control RC beams. Beams PU,, PUz, PU3 and PU4 are the RC beams
strengthened by the composite fabrics in the form of U-wrap. Beams PC,,
PC2,PC3and PC4 are the RC beams strengthened by the composite fabrics in
the form of ring.
Table 1 Test results
Spacing of
Angle of
Applied load Contribution
of
ble 1 Properties
Ta
PU,
pu2
P U?
pu4
PCI
pc2
pc3
200
250
300
350
200
250
300
90
90
45
45
90
90
45
285
260
309
300
355
310
29 1
65
40
89
80
135
90
71
ble 1 Properties
Ta
It can be seen from Table 1 that the ultimate loads for the two control
specimens are 220 kN. It is interesting to show that they are identical. This
result allows analysing the strengthening effectiveness correctly.
The obtained experimental results show that:
a) The contribution of the carbon fibre fabrics to the ultimate load
capacity of beam varies with the spacing of CFF strips and the plating
pattern.
b) The gain in ultimate load in strengthening RC beam is considerable in
comparison with the control specimen. The ultimate capacity gain
increases with the reduction of the strips spacing; in the case of vertical
strips, the ultimate load increases by more than 50% for a spacing of
200 mm (PU,) compared with a spacing of 250 mm (PU,).
Shear Pegonnance with Carbon Fibre Fabrics 501
c)
d)
e)
For the RC beams strengthened by vertical CFF strips, the plating

pattern in the form of ring is more interesting than these in the form of
U-wrap. The contribution of the carbon fibre fabrics in the form of ring
(PCl and PC2) to the ultimate force of beam is two times more than that
in the form of U-wrap (PU1 and PU2).
In the case of RC beams strengthened with CFF strips at 45", the
contribution of the carbon fibre fabrics in the form of closed ring (PC3
and PC4) to the ultimate load is less important than that in the form of
U-shape (PU3 and PU4), which is at first sight surprising, For the beam
specimen PC4, the contribution of the CFF fabrics to the ultimate load
of beam is two times less than the beam PU4. In this case, the
advantage of high tensile strength of CFF is not used, it his thought that
the CFF strips of the beams PC3 and PC4 are subjected to a twisting
force in the compressive region of the beams. This twisting force
weakens the strengthening effect.
However, for the RC beams strengthened with the CFF strips in form
of U-shape, the contribution of the carbon fibre fabric strip inclined at
45" to the ultimate load of beam is more important than that placed
vertically, even if the spacing of CFF strips is greater, 350 mm in the
case of the beam PU4 against 200 mm in the case of the beam PUl.
These results show that for the beams strengthened with CFF strips
inclined at 4 5 O in form of U-wrap, the strips are not subjected to a
twisting force in the compressive region of the beams.
Cracking and Failure Mode

At the time of test, all beam specimens failed in shear but in different
manners. For the RC beams strengthened in shear by carbon fibre fabric
strips in the form of U-wrap, failure does not occur in CFF strips.
Debonding of two or three CFF strips (with a layer of concrete adherent to
them) over the main shear crack is observed. The debonding is initiated at
the main shear crack and progress to the extremity. This kind of debonding
does not allow the carbon fibre fabrics to be solicited at its ultimate tensile
strength. It must be noted that at the moment of debonding of CFF strips, the
strengthed RC beam fails immediately by widening of the main shear crack.
Reinforcement in the form of U-wrap

Observed
failure
7
R e i n f o r c e m e n t in t h e form o f ring
Figure. 3: Mode of failure

For the RC beams strengthened by externally bonded CFF strips in the
form of closed ring, it can be observed that the CFF strips over the main
shear crack are broken off in the compressive region. Before the strip fails in
tension, the strip debonds progressing from the crack to the extremities; the
debonded area cannot progress through the section corners. The break
occurred at the passage of main shear crack.
If one considers strengthening RC beams only by externally bonded
CFF strip in the form of U-wrap, whatever the orientation and the spacing of
CFF strips, one observes that the CFF strips inclined at 45" have more
contribution on ultimate shear strength of the strengthened RC beam. The
failure modes of tested beams are illustrated as Figure 3.
Fig.4 shows the development of cracks following the applied load in the
control RC beam. Up to an applied load of 90 kN, only flexural cracks start
at the centre of the beam. As the load increases, these cracks start to
develop, widen and propagate. After the load of 90 kN, shear cracks begin
to occur. As the load increases, between 130 kN and 200 kN, the shear
cracks develop and propagate quickly. Then the failure occurs after the load
of 200 kN with a wide opening of shear cracks.
Shear Performance with Carbon Fibre Fabrics 503
Figure 4.Propagation of the cracks
In view of symmetry, Fig. 5 shows only the development of cracks of

half of the strengthened beam PC2 and PU, following the load. It can be
observed from this figure that the flexural cracks start to occur at an applied
load of 100 kN in beam PC2 and 120 kN in beam PU,. As the load increases,
shear cracks begin to occur, propagate and widen leading to the shear failure
of the beams.
Figure 5. Development of the cracks
These results show that the shear strengthening of the RC beam by

externally bonded CFF strips do not close the cracks, but helps to delay
occurrence and propagation of cracks.
ESTIMATION OF CONTRIBUTION OF CFF REINFORCEMENT

TO SHEAR CAPACITY
To predict shear performance on an empirical basis, various theories have
been developed and many design codes and guidelines have been
established7-". These design guidelines based mainly on the existing codes
of practice for steel. According to these design codes, for the RC beam
strengthened with externally bonded composite material, the normal shear
strength of a strengthened RC section (V,) is expressed as follows:
where V, is the shear strength of the concrete, V, the shear strength of the
steel reinforcement, and V, is the shear contribution of the composite
reinforcement.
The expression used to estimate shear contribution of CFF
reinforcement is similar to that for shear contribution of steel stirrups. The
shear contribution of carbon fibre fabric strips is calculated by equation (2)
as following:
Vf = Af of(sin a+cos a tan
p) (d&)
(2)
In Eq. (2), the cross-sectional area of CFF shear reinforcement, AJ is the

thickness of strip usually tf times the width of the CFF strips br; of is the
nominal CFF strip strength; a is strengthening CFF strip inclination with
respect to beam axis; p is shear crack inclination corresponding to V, ;sf is
the spacing of horizontal CFF strips and dfis the effective depth of the CFF
reinforcement. For the CFF strip, the anchorage value is given by df = hf 120 (mm) to reinforcement in the form of U-shape and df = hf to
reinforcement in the form of ring, where hf is the lateral length of CFF strip.
The results obtained by using Eq. (2) and the comparison between test
values and calculated values are shown in Table 2. The measured CFF shear
contribution to the shear capacity is obtained by subtracting the ultimate
shear strength of reference beam from the non-strengthened one. Table 3
shows that in comparison with test values, the calculated values for the five
beams PUI, PU3, PU4, PCI and PC2 are acceptable. The difference between
calculated value and tested value is less than 14%. However, for the other
three beams, in particular for beams PC3 and PC4, the calculated values and
tested values are distant. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that
the internal bending of the inclined CFF strips in the compressive region of
the RC beam reduces the contribution of carbon fibre fabric strip to the
shear capacity.
Specimen
v,
vfr
(Vfi-Vd
/v,*I00
*
QC:
Table 2: Contribution of CFF strip to the shear capacity

PU,
PU2
PU3
PU4
PCI
PC2
PC3
PC4
66
53
85
69
123
98
105
85
65
40
89
80
135
90
71
44
1.5% 32.5% -4.5% -13.5% -8.9% 8.9% 47.9% 93.2%
calculated value; V,: test value.
Shear Performance with Carbon Fibre Fabrics 505
CONCLUSIONS
The test results indicate that the effectiveness of shear strengthening with
carbon fibre fabric strips on the shear capacity of RC beams varies with the
spacing of CFF strips, CFF plating pattern and CFF strip orientation. The
test results confirm that the strengthening technique using external bonding
CFF strips can be used to increase significantly the shear capacity of the RC
beams with shear deficiencies. Among the eight RC beams with different
strengthening manners, the best effectiveness is in the case of the RC beam
strengthened by vertical CFF strips in the form of U-wrap (PC,).
For the RC beams strengthened with vertical CFF strips, the shear
reinforcement in the form of closed ring is more interesting than that in the
form of U-shape. The contribution of CFF strips in the form of ring to the
shear ultimate capacity of RC beam is two times greater than that in form of
U-wrap. The importance of anchorage length of the reinforcing material is
obvious.
However, in the case of reinforcement with CFF strips inclined at 45",
the strengthening effectiveness in form of ring is less important than that in
form of U-wrap. This result can be explained by the fact that in the case of
the reinforcement with inclined CFF strips in the form of ring, there is a
local parasite flexure. This parasite flexure provokes a local overload of
border fibres of the CFF strips situated at the compressive region of the
beam.
The comparison between the experimental results and calculated values
indicates that the used expression to estimate the contribution of CFF strip
to the shear capacity of RC beam is acceptable. It must be noted that the
expression used in this work is only valuable in the case of the RC beam
strengthened by the CFF strips in form of U-wrap or in form of ring. The
results indicate that the difference between calculated value and tested value
is less than 14%. However, the used expression should be further developed
in order to satisfy the other case of the RC beam strengthened by composite
material.
REFERENCES
LHermite R, Bresson J. Concrete reinforced with glued plates. RILEM
International Symposium, Synthetic Resins in Building Construction,
Paris, 1967; p. 175-203.
2. Meier U. Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers: modern materials in bridge
engineering. Structural Engineering International 1992.2: p.7- 12.
3. Ziraba YN, Baluch MH, Basunbul IA, Sharif AM, Azad AK, and AlSuleimani GJ. Guidelines toward the design of RC beams with external
plates. ACI Structural Journal 1994. 91 (6): p. 639-646.
4. Triantafillou, T.C. Shear strengthening of reinforced concrete beams
using epoxy-bonded FRP composites. ACI Structural Journal, 1998.
95(2), March-April, p.107-115.
5. LI A, ASSIH J, DELMAS Y, Shear strengthening of RC beam with
externally bonded CFRP sheets. ASCE Journal of Structural
Engineering 2001. Vo1.127 (4), p. 374-380.
6. LI A., DIAGANA C, BUYLE-BODIN F, DELMAS Y , Shear
strengthening of reinforced concrete beams. Concrete Science and
Engineering 2001. Vo1.3 ;NO12 ; pp.250-256.
7. Nanni A, Guides and specifications for the use of composites in
concrete and masonry construction in north America. Composites in
construction, proceedings of the international workshop; July 200 1.
p.36-45. Capri, Italy. Edited by E. Cosenza, C. Manfredi and A. Nanni
8. Khalifa A, qnd Nanni A., Rehabilitation of rectangular simply
supported RC beams with shear deficiencies using CFRP composites.
Construction and building materials 2002. 16, p.135-146.
9. Chen J.F. and Teng J.G., A shear strength model for FRP-strengthened
RC beams. Edited by C.J. Burgoyne, Proceeding of FRPRCS-5,
Combridge, UK, July 200 1, p205-2 14.
10. Gendron G., Picard A., GuQin M.C., A theorical study on shear
strengthening of reinforced concrete beams using composite plates.
Composite Structures 1999.45, p.303-309.
1.

EVALUATION OF SHEAR CAPACITY OF RC COLUMNS

STRENGTHENEDBY CONTINUOUS FIBER
T. FURUTA
Civil Engineering and Construction Products Div., Bando Chemical Industries Ltd.
Tsuchiyama, Hiraoka-cho, Kakogawa-city, 675-0104, Japan
T. KANAKUBO
Institute of Engineering Mechanics and Systems, University of Tsukuba
Tennohdai, Tsukuba-city, 305-8573, Japan
H. FUKUYAMA
Dept. of StructuralEngineering, Building Research Institute
Tatehara, Tsukuba-city, 305-0802, Japan
To propose the evaluation method for shear capacity of RC columns

strengthened with continuous fiber, stresses of fibers were calculated using
previous test data by reverse calculation using the arch-truss method. The
total number of test data is 65, including 43 carbon fiber specimens and 22
aramid fiber specimens. It has been reported that these specimens failed
without yielding of main bars. The calculated stresses and strains in
continuous fibers are related to the reinforcement ratio of the fibers. In this
paper, the relationship between reinforcement ratio of fibers and strain
energy of fibers is proposed to predict the shear capacity of column
specimens. By the proposed method, failure mode of tested specimens,
consisting of 5 2 carbon specimens and 21 aramid specimens with yielding
of main bars, is confirmed. The predicted failure types agree with test
results in 70% of specimens.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the strengthening methods using continuous fibers (sheets,

tapes, strands, and others) for reinforced concrete structures are flourishing.
Research and development of the strengthening methods to improve the
shear capacity and ductility of reinforced concrete members in earthquake
resistance has been carried out, and the strengthening effect has been
clarified. Till now, experiments on continuous fiber reinforced RC columns
had been done by many organizations, and many experiment data are
available.
The strength and deformation capacities of continuous fiber reinforced

RC columns are often evaluated using expressions meant for ordinary
reinforced concrete members. The effects of continuous fiber
reinforcements are expressed by substituting fiber stress for steel
reinforcements (shear reinforcements) currently. Evaluation of shear
capacity based on yield strength is possible for steel reinforcement as steel
reinforcements yield with an increasing deformation of a member.
However, in the case of continuous fiber reinforced members, because
of the perfectly elastic characteristics of continuous fiber, evaluation of
shear capacity on the basis of the failure mechanism, in which member
deformation (fiber strain) is considered, is necessary. In this paper, based on
previous experimental results, a statistical approach is suggested to evaluate
the shear capacity and failure mode of RC members reinforced with
continuous fibers.
ANALYSIS METHOD
Data for Analysis

In order to carry out the analysis, a total of 65 column specimens are
selected from References 1 to 1 1. All specimens have a rectangular section
without any attaching walls, and were strengthened by continuous fibers. It
is reported that all the specimens failed before main bar yielding was
observed.
Outline of selected specimens
The specimens included 43 carbon fiber strengthened specimens and 22

aramid fiber strengthened specimens. Structural factors of specimens and
the ranges are described below. Figure 1 indicates the distributions of
concrete strength, shear span ratio, elastic modulus of fiber and fiber
reinforcement ratio, summarized as follows :
(a) Concrete compressive strength oB= 16 - 38MPa
(b) Shear span ratio M/QD = 1.O - 2.5
(c) Axial force N = 0 - 588kN
(d) Axial force ratio 17 = 0 - 0.22
(e) Elastic modulus of continuous fiber Erm,= 80 - 280GPa
( f ) Hoop ratio (steel reinforcement) pw2= 0 - 0.30%
(g) Fiber reinforcement ratiop,uj = 0.01 - 0.26%
(h) Yield strength of hoop owu= 320 - 430MPa
(i) Tensile strength of fiber of,, = 2200 - 4600MPa
Evaluation of Shear Capaciv of RC Columns 509
15
ly
10
21
k
OAram rl
C arbon
Concrete Compressive stsength
@Pa)
&
Shear span xatb M / Q D

20
15
OAram kl
10
W C ahon
Ehstis rnoduLs o f f b e r E h .
GPa)
1
BAram kl
4-l
10
HC arbon
F h e r r e n f o r c e m e n t r a t b pwr &)
Figure 1. Distributions of structural parameters of selectee. specimens
Strengthening method of selected specimens
Fiber reinforcements such as sheet, tape or strand type were used for
wrapping the column specimens uniformly over the surfaces as shown in
Figure 2. The number of layers of fiber ranged from 1 to 4. There were

splice regions of continuous fibers on 0, 1 or 2 surfaces in the perpendicular
directions to loading as shown in Figure 2. Epoxy is used for primer, putty
and resin for all the specimens.
Fiber reinforcement
Column
section
Loading
direction
2 splices
Sheet type
1 splice
Sheet or tape
No splice
Tape or strand
Figure 2. Strengthening method of fiber reinforcement
Loading method of selected specimens
Specimens were loaded under the anti-symmetrical moment (BRI type or

Ohno type) or cantilever type, either cyclically or monotonically as shown
in Figure 3. The axial force was kept constant for all specimens.
BRI type
Ohno type Cantilever type
Figure 3. Loading method
Evaluation of Shear Capacity of RC Columns 511
CaIculation Method for Analysis

The evaluation formula of shear capacity proposed for ordinary steel
reinforced concrete members by Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)I2 is
used for analysis. This formula is based on the summation of arch - truss
mechanism. Using this formula, the stress in the continuous fibers is
calculated backwards from the observed maximum strength of tested
specimens. The formula is :
in which QSu= shear capacity, b = column width, j , = distance between

tensile and compression main bars, 4 = angle of concrete strut of truss
mechanism, d = effective depth, v, = effective coeficient of concrete
strength,
= concrete compressive strength, H = length of column, pw2=
hoop ratio (steel reinforcement), owy= yield strength of hoop, pw, = fiber
reinforcement ratio, and o,f= stress of fiber.
In calculating the fiber stress, the following assumptions are made :
(a) The fiber reinforcements contribute to the truss mechanism in the same
manner as shear reinforcements of ordinary steel reinforced concrete
members. However, only fiber reinforcements placed in the
perpendicular direction are effective.
(b) The tensile force of truss mechanism is the summation of forces in the
fiber reinforcements and steel reinforcements. It is assumed that steel
reinforcements yield at a maximum strength in the case of shear failure.
Therefore, the tensile stress of both reinforcements is represented as
Eq.(6). In addition, a limit of oWy
I 2508, which is proposed in the
original formula, is ignored.
(c) It is considered that the concrete confinement effect formed by fiber
reinforcements changes the angle of concrete compression strut of truss
mechanism, and influences the effective concrete compressive strength
of the arch mechanism. However, collection of useful data to consider
these matters is difficult. In this study, the angle change in concrete

compression strut due to fiber reinforcements, and the influence on the
effective of concrete compressive strength are ignored.
ANALYTICAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Relationships between calculated fiber stress and structural
parameters
Figure 4 shows the relation of calculated fiber stress owy,
with the concrete
compressive strength oB,shear span ratio M/QD, axial force ratio q, elastic
modulus of fiber Efme,
steel reinforcement yield stress ratio pw20wy,
and fiber
reinforce-ment ratio pwf The points are distinguished by fiber type (CF or
AF) and failure mode of specimen, which is fiber rupture (FR), concrete
com-pression without fiber rupture (CC), or not reported (NR).
There are no clear relationships except for fiber reinforcement ratio. In
addition, the fiber stress in the case of carbon fibers is larger than for
aramid fibers, given the fiber reinforcement ratio.
Figure 4. Calculated fiber stress and other factors
Relationships between fiber stress andpwj

From the results given in the former section, calculated fiber stress has an
inverse proportional correlation with fiber reinforcement ratio. In addition,
the stress in carbon fibers is higher than that in aramid fiber, as fibers with
high elastic modulus carry higher stress. Also, fiber strain at the maximum
strength of member is inversely proportional to the fiber reinforcement ratio.
Furthermore, the product of fiber stress and strain, which has an equal
dimension as strain energy, could be correlated with the fiber reinforcement
ratio.
fiber strain G~(= ow/I Elme)
The assumptions that the fiber stress ow/,
and fiber strain energy U,,f (= 0.5 owfG~)
has an inverse proportional
relation with the fiber reinforcement ratio pwr are made, and regression
analysis by the least square method is carried out. Figure 5 shows these
relationships and the results. The data for which failure mode is not
reported were excluded in the analysis. The following formulas for 4oy, are
obtained, with Eq. (10) as a lower bound value to include 90% of the data
considered in Eq.(9).
3
6
h
s2
3
-2 4
Lu
z 2
01
0.2
P,/(/)
0.3
02
PIV/(/.)
0.1
0.3
PW/W)
Figure 5. Relationships between ow3&,+ U,,andp,,,
onVf
= ,/I 1.8x I 0-3 .Efm,1pwf
Using the fiber stress calculated by Eqs. (7), (8) and (lo), the relations of
the shear strength calculated by Eq.( 1) with observed maximum loads are
shown in Figure 6. Eq. (7) tends to overestimate the calculated value for
aramid fibers. For Eqs. (8) and (lo), there is no significant difference in
accuracy of prediction between the types of fibers. These formulas consider
the elastic modulus of fibers. The average ratio of experimental to
calculated values is 0.92 and 1.16 in the case of Eqs. (8) and (lo),
respectively. A smaller dispersion is found in using Eqs. (lo), as the
coefficient of variation is 11%.
z
c500
z
c500
400
400
Q 300
2 200
aJ
Q 300
2 200
,$ 100
g 100
p.
p.
0 100 200 300 400 500

Calculated strength (kN)
400
E
3 300
j 200
.g
100
p.
rr,
I.,
2
c 500
0 100 200 300 400 500

t3
0 100 200 300 400 500

Figure 6. Comparison of calculated strength and experiment
Adaptation for specimensfailing afterflexural yielding

In this section, the possibility of evaluation using the proposed shear
capacity evaluation Eqs. (1) and (10) for specimens which failed after
flexural yielding (failed after yielding specimens : FAYS) is discussed. A
total of 73 specimens of experimental studies on fiber reinforced column
specimens are chosen as evaluation targets from References 1, 3, 4, 5 , 7, 8,
13 - 27. Of these, 52 specimens were strengthened by carbon fibers and 21
specimens by aramid fibers. Structural parameters of these specimens are
listed as follows :
(a) Concrete compressive strength 0,= 17 - 38MPa
(b) Shear span ratio MIQD = 1.3 - 2.8
(c) Axial force N = 0 - 2500kN
(d) Axial force ratio 17 = 0 - 0.59
(e) Elastic modulus of continuous fiber Efme= 80 - 520GPa
(f) Hoop ratio (steel reinforcement)pw2= 0 - 0.30%
(g) Fiber reinforcement ratiopwf= 0.01 - 0.44%
= 300 - 620MPa
(h) Yield strength of hoop ow,
= 2400 - 4700MPa
(i) Tensile strength of fiber qme
Figure 7 shows the relationships between the observed maximum strength

(Imaxand calculated shear strength Qsu.Both values are normalized by the
calculated bending strength
This means that FAYS should be plotted
on the region where the value of QsJQmuis larger than 1. In Figure 7, more
than 70% of specimens are plotted in this region, indicating good adaptation
of the formulas for FAYS.
Figure 8 shows the Qmm/Qmu
- Qsu/Qmu
correlation for all specimens
treated in this study. Specimens failed by concrete compression due to
bending (C) and those failed by bond of main reinforcements (B) are added.
Most of the specimens are evaluated on the safe side. It is recognized that
the shear capacity evaluation using Eq. (10) shows good adaptability for
fiber reinforced specimens.
emu.
1.5
G 1
0.5
0.5
Q,.
1.5
1 Qn,.
Figure 7. Adaptation for FAYS
0.5
Qsu
1.5
1 Qmu
Figure 8. Evaluation for all target specimens
CONCLUSIONS
To propose the evaluation method for shear capacity of RC columns

strengthened with continuous fiber, stresses of fibers are calculated
backwards using the arch-truss method. The followings are concluded from
the results.
(a) The fiber stress, strain and strain energy have an inverse proportional
correlation with fiber reinforcement ratio. Prediction formulas for these
values are proposed.
(b) Shear capacity of fiber reinforced specimens can be evaluated with a
smaller dispersion in case of strain energy.
(c) The proposed formula also shows a good adaptability for specimens
failing after flexural yielding.
REFERENCES
1. T. Kataoka et al., Experimental Study on Ductility of RC Pier Models Winded by Aramid Tape,
JCI, 18-2, pp.1463-1468, 1996.6 2. N. Araki et al., Experimental Study on Ductility of Reinforced
Concrete Beams using Sheet Type Fiber, JCI, 19-2, pp.207-212, 1997.6 3. K. Suzuki et al., An
Experimental Study on Shear Capacity of Existing R/C Columns Strengthened with Continuous
Fiber Tape, AIJ, C-2, pp.287-288, 1996.9 4. R. Figuero et al., An Experimental Study on Shear
Capacity of Existing Reinforced Concrete Columns strengthened with Continuous Fiber Tapes, AIJ,
C-2, pp.673-674, 1997.9 5. A. Asakura et al., Shear Strengthening of Existing Reinforced
Concrete Column by Winding with High Strength Fiber, JCI, 16-1, pp.1061-1066, 1994.6 6. N.
Hayashida et al., A Study on Seismic Retrofitting Existing RC Columns with Carbon Fiber Sheets,
AIJ, C-2, pp. 159-160, 1996.9 7. K. Imai et al., Structural Performance of RC Columns Reinforced
with Carbon Fiber Sheet, AIJ, C-2, pp.681-682, 1997.9 8. H. Katsumata et al., Study on Seismic
Retrofitting of Existing RC Columns with New Materials, Obayashi Co., 33, pp.67-71, 1986 9. H.
Katsumata et al., Seismic Retrofitting Method of Existing RC Columns with Wrapping of Carbon
Fiber, Cement and Concrete, 497, pp.20-29, 1988.7 10. F. Katahira et al., Retrofit Method of
Existing Reinforced Concrete Members by Carbon Fiber Spiral Hoops, JCI, 11-1, pp.861-866,
1989.6 11. K. Mori et al., Experiment about Shear Strength of RC Columns Reinforced with
Carbon Fiber Sheet of Steel Jacketing, AIJ, C-2, pp.661-664, 1997.9 12. Architectural Institute of
Japan, Design Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Reinforced Concrete Buildings Based on
Ultimate Strength Concept, pp.104-120, 1990.11 13. T. Kataoka et al., Experimental Study on
Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Column using Sheet Type Fiber, JCI, 19-2, pp213-218, 1997.6
14. T. Yanase et al., An Experimental Study on Damaged RC Column with Sheet Type Carbon
Fiber Reinforcement, AIJ, C-2, pp297-298, 1996.9 15. T. Yanase et al., An Experimental Study
on Existing Reinforced Concrete Columns Jacketing with Carbon Fiber Sheets, Proceedings of
FWRCS-3, Vol.1, pp.427-434, 1997.10 16. S. Watanabe et al., An Experimental Study on Shear
and Flexural Resistance of RC Columns with Continuous Fiber Sheets, AIJ, C-2, pp.223-224,
1998.9 17. K. Suzuki et al., An Experimental Study on Ductility Capacity Improvement of
Existing RC Columns Wrapped with Continuous Fiber Tape, AIJ, C-2, pp.675-676, 1997.9 18. Y.
Jinno et a]., Shear Strengthening of Existing RC Columns, Shimizu Co., 65, pp.23-30, 1997.4 19.
H. Asai et al., Structural Properties of RC Columns Strengthened by Means of Acrylic Resin /
Carbon Fiber Sheets, AIJ, C-2, pp.693-694, 1997.9 20. M. Is0 et al., Experimental Study on
Seismic Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns with Wing Walls Retrofitted by Carbon Fiber
Sheets, JCI, 19-2, pp.225-230, 1997.6 21. Y. Katsukura et al., Atrucural Performance of RC
Columns Reinforced with Carbon Fiber Sheet, AIJ, C-2, pp.295-296, 1996.9 22. K. Masuo et al.,
Experimental Study on Shear Strengthening of RC Rectangular Columns with Wing Walls
Retrofitted by Carbon Fiber Sheets, GBRC, 84, pp.30-51, 1996.10 23. K. Masuo et al., Structural
Performance of RC Columns strengthened with Carbon Fiber Sheets, GBRC, 88, 1997.9 24. H.
Katsumata et al., A Study on Seismic Retrofitting of Existing RC Columns with Carbon Fiber,
Obayashi Co., 34, pp.114-118, 1987 25. H. Katsumata et al., Seismic Retrofitting of Existing
Reinforced Concrete Columns with Carbon Fibers, AIJ, C-2, pp243-244, 1995.8 26. K. Yagishita
et al., Experimental Study on Aseismic Strengthening of Existing Reinforced Concrete Columns,
AIJ, (2-2, pp657-660, 1997.9 27. M. Oda et al., Shear Strengthening of Existing Concrete
Columns by Wrapping Aramid Fibers, JCI, 15-2, pp755-760, 1993.6
References are written in Japanese expect for 4 and 15.

(JCI : Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute, AIJ : Summaries of Technical Papers of
Annual Meeting of Architectural Institute of Japan)

SHEAR DESIGN EQUATIONS FOR FRP RC BEAMS

M. GUADAGNINI, K. PILAKOUTAS AND P. WALDRON
Centre for Cement and Concrete, The University of Shefjeld
Sir Frederick Mappin Building, Muppin Street, SheffieId SI 3JD, UK
This paper reports on an experimental programme investigating the shear
behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with FRP reinforcement. The main
aim of this study was to identify the shear resisting mechanisms for FRP
RC so as to assist in the development of design recommendations. The
results of the tests confirm the very conservative nature of existing design
recommendations which seem to underestimate the contribution made by
the concrete and shear reinforcement to the total shear capacity. Less
conservative recommendations, validated by the findings of the
experimental work, are proposed for the shear design of FRP RC beams.
INTRODUCTION
The way that shear is carried by a RC beam is still not well understood and
the exact contribution of the various mechanisms (truss, strut-and-tie or arch
mechanism) cannot be determined in an appropriate manner. To compensate
for this lack of knowledge, empirical equations are generally used to
determine the shear resistance offered by the concrete whilst the
contribution of the shear reinforcement is calculated according to the truss
analogy theory. The underlying philosophy for RC shear design relies on
plasticity theory, which allows redistribution of stresses once the capacity of
a mechanism is exhausted.
The use of FRP reinforcement with its distinctive mechanical properties
may affect significantly the way in which the various contributing
mechanisms act together.
To facilitate the use of FRP reinforcement in the construction industry,
design recommendations, which are based on modifications of equations
that were originally derived for steel reinforced concrete, have been
are based
proposed by various c ~ m m i t t e e s ' All
~ ~ of
~ ~these
~ ~ ~modifications
~.
on the implementation of a strain approach and introduce the cmcepts of an
equivalent area of flexural reinforcement and the maximum allowable strain
that can be developed in the shear reinforcement6. The limiting values of
strain that are imposed by the strain approach are equivalent to the yielding
strain of steel.
The adoption of this approach for FRP, however, implies that the load
carrying mechanisms are the same as for steel RC and that the plasticity
theory assumptions remain valid. No evidence of this, however, has been
presented as of yet.
The work presented here investigated the shear behaviour of FRP RC
beams and addressed the above issue. Findings of the experimental
programme are presented and discussed along with design recommendations
on all aspects of shear design.
Twelve tests were conducted in two successive phases on six beams. Half of
the beams were reinforced in flexure with four 12mm steel bars, while the
flexural reinforcement of the other three beams comprised three GFRP bars
with a nominal diameter of 13.5 mm. Young's modulus ( E ) and ultimate
strength CfJ of the GFRP bars were 45 GPa and 750 MPa, respectively.
Each of the beams was subjected to a four-point-bending load with the shear
span to total depth ratio ranging from 1.1 to 3.3. The different shear span to
depth ratios were tested in order to study differences in the development of
shear transfer mechanisms. No shear reinforcement was provided in the first
phase of testing, while in the second phase, just enough glass (E=65GPa;
fu=1700MPa) and carbon (E=234GPa; f,=4500MPa) fibre shear
reinforcement was applied externally to the undamaged ends of the same
beams to enable failure to occur due to shear.
The findings of the two phases of testing are discussed e l s e ~ h e r e ' ~ ~ , ~ , ' ~
and only the behaviour of the beams with a shear span to depth ratio of 3.3
is reported and commented herein. Details of the test arrangement and
external instrumentation used for the first and second phase tests are shown
in Figure 1 and Figure 2, respectively. The properties of the test specimens
are summarized in Table 1.
m t u l strupping provided
to uvoidJailure on lhk side \
T
SB40
'150.
750
800
750-
-~ 2300
Figure 1. 1" phase - Test set up and arrangement of the external instrumentation
Shear Design Equations for FRP RC Beams 519
/1507
L=L
'I
'I
7
'I 'I 1'

0
I'
I'
~
1800
Figure 2. 2"d phase - Test set up and arrangement of the external instrumentation
Table 1: Properties of test specimens

Flexural reinforcement
Beam
fcu
(MPa)
Shear reinforcement
(Ydphase)
Area
Spacing
(mm2)
(mm)
Type
Area
d
Type
(mm')
(mm)
SB4O(R)
54.3
452.4
224
S
2.81
100
G
GB43(R)
50.4
429.4
223
G
3.99
100/200+
c
spacing was increased by unloading the specimen and cutting alternate links before reloading.
d-ffective depth, S = steel, G = GFRP, C = CFRP
'
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
A summary of the results of the two phases of the experiment is reported in
Table 2. Due to the lower stiffness of the reinforcement, the beams
reinforced with longitudinal FRP reinforcement exhibited much greater
deflections than those with steel reinforcement. Furthermore, shear crack
widths, measured at the same load levels, were generally larger for the FRP
RC beams than those observed in the equivalent steel RC beams.
Table 2 : Experimental results
Wma
flex.
?ma
shear
&\mar
T Y P ~of
Beam
Fmax
PN)
(mm)
(mm) rlment (p) r/ment
(,)
failure
SB40
90.1
8.8
0.3
S
yield
N/A
Shear
54.3
17.4
GB43
0.3
G
>5,000
N/A
Shear
SB4OR
116.5
7.8
2.4
S
yield
G
>19,000
Shear
GB43R 114.2'
29.7+
1.8+
G
N/A
C
>10,000
Shear
F,, = failure/max load; 6,, = failure/max deflection; w, = max. crack width; ~rn,
=
max. measured strain in flexural reinforcement; E~~~ = max. measured strain in shear
reinforcement; S = steel; G = glass FRP; C = carbon FRF'
values shown correspond to failure obtained with the large spacing of shear links
as specified in Table 1
smcm
Strain values recorded both in the GFRP flexural reinforcement and in

the externally applied shear reinforcement always exceeded the limit of
2,000/2,500 p~ assumed by most current recommendations for shear design
with FRP reinforcement, thereby confirming the conservative nature of
Maximum strain values, ranging from
these existing
10,000 ps to around 20,000 ps for GFRP and from 9,000 ps to 10,000 p~
for CFRP, were recorded in the shear reinforcement.
Decomposition of the shear resisting components was also performed
on the test beams (Figures 3 and 4) in an attempt to identify the
contributions of the basic shear carrying mechanisms. The component of
shear resisted by the shear links was determined by considering the number
of effective shear links crossing the crack that induced the ultimate failure
and assuming a uniform distribution of strain within each link, equal to the
maximum strain recorded in that link at each stage of loading. The concrete
contribution was then determined by subtracting the contribution of the
shear links from the total shear capacity.
3 50
c
v)
40
00 pstrain (shear rlment)
30
00 pstrain (shear rlrnent)
20
10
0
0
8
10
Displacement (mm)
Figure 3 . Estimate of the shear resisting components for SB40R
After initial loading of beam GB43R (see Figure 4) it became clear from
strain readings that the desired shear failure might not develop. The beam
was therefore unloaded and alternate shear links were cut to halve the
amount of shear reinforcement, as reported in Table 1. The c.ontribution of
concrete and shear reinforcement to the total shear resistance of GB43R in
this latter stage of loading is represented by the shaded (dark) and un-shaded
area below the dashed curves, respectively.
Shear Design Equations f o r FRP RC Beams 521
The shear load-deflection curves for the beams un-reinforced in shear

(SB40 and GB43) are shown alongside those for the reinforced beams to
facilitate comparison in terms of concrete shear resistance. In Figures 3 and
4, the critical values of strain recorded in both the flexural reinforcement
and shear reinforcement are represented with vertical and horizontal dotted
lines respectively.
60
9 50
.c
c/)
40
30
(shear rlrnent - 1"+2"dcycles)

(shear rlment
- 1"'+2"* cycle
20
10
Figure 4.
Estimate of the shear resisting components for GB43R during the lstand
2"d cycles (solid lines) and the 3rd cycle (dashed lines)
From the analysis of the results, it appears that the shear carrying
mechanisms are mobilised in a comparable manner in GFRP and steel RC
beams, and that the failure modes develop in a similar way (Figures 5 and
6). Therefore it can be concluded that the additive nature of shear resisting
mechanisms can be assumed to be valid.
I-igure 5 . Shear tailure in SR40 (leti) and GR43 (right)
Based on the results of this research project and on previous work by

various other
the authors have proposed a modified
approach for the design of FRP RC beams in which the strain limits are
increased to the higher value of 4,500 p~ for both the shear and flexural
reinforcement. This new approach, referred to as the Sheffield approach,
has been successfully applied to various code equation^^^^^^^^^'^.
Figure 6. Shear failure in SB40R (left) and GB43R (right)
Table 3 reports the predicted shear capacity of the tested beams

according to design code equations modified by using both the current
recommendations and the Sheffield approach. It is evident that by using the
Sheffield approach the total shear capacity can be predicted with much less
scatter and a considerably improved level of accuracy.
Table 3: Comparison of predicted shear capacities for FRP RC beams
implementing the Strain approach and Sheffield approach
Sheffield approach
(allowable strain of 4,500 ,ud
A
Exp
Exu
Exp
Exu
Exu
BS8110
EC2-2001
ACI-440
BS8110
EC2-2001
ACI318
1.40
1.78
1.31
1.42
1.11
1.47
SB4OR
1.98
2.49
4.64
1.50
GB43RI
1.85
1.62
1.69
2.14
3.06
1.41
1.64
1.37
Mean.
0.50
2.24
0.13
StdDev.
0.41
0.30
0.36
values shown correspond to predictions obtained with the large spacing of shear links as
specified in Table 1
Beam
Current recommendations
(allowable strain of 2,000-2,500 p)
Although the presence of cracks in FRP RC members does not represent

a cause for concern from the point of view of durability, unlike for steel
reinforced structures, a crack width limit wsL of 0.5 mm has been proposed
in various design recommendations dealing with FRP RC structures for
aesthetic reasons2.
Shear Design Equationsfor FRP RC Beams 523
With these considerations in mind, the predicted design loads obtained

by modifying the BS 811013 shear design equations according to the
Sheffield approach were compared to the results of the present study and,
subsequently, the corresponding service loads were checked against the
maximum shear crack widths that were observed at those load levels.
The service load, SLYwas computed by dividing the previously derived
predicted ultimate load, SA, by a load factor of 1.5. wmrepresents the crack
width measured at a load level equivalent to the service load.
140
140
120
100
"1
80
60
40
20
SA - Sdcycle
Y
6C
07
0.0
-0-
w.
Shear crack - lstphase

Shear crack - Zd phase
SL - 3" cycle
40
Zd phase - l"+Zd cycle
WSL
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0 2.5 3.0

Crack width (mm)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Crack width (mm)
Figure 7. Shear crack width growth for beams SB40 and SB40R
(left) andbeams GB43 and GB43R (right)
Figure 7 illustrates the shear crack width growth for beams SB40(R)
and GB43(R). Based on the results presented in this figure and Figures 3
and 4, it can be observed that for levels of strain up to 4,500 p~ (developed
both in the shear and flexural FRP reinforcement) as proposed in the
Sheffield approach, shear cracks were effectively controlled and the individual
shear resistance of concrete and shear reinforcementwere effectivelymobilised.
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the above results, the following recommendations are made for the
shear design of FRP RC beams.
Concrete shear resistance
Based on the Sheffield approach, modifications to code equations BS

8 11013, ACI 3 18-9914,EC-2 (EN 1992-1:2001)'' are given e l ~ e w h e r e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Contribution of shear reinforcement

It was seen from the experimental results (Table 2), that the strain developed
in the shear reinforcement was much larger than the yield strain of steel.
The design approach for steel RC not only excludes the possibility that
higher strains can be developed, but relies on it, since by adding the
contributions from steel and concrete, plasticity is implicitly expected from
both mechanisms.
The adoption of the same strain limit for FRP reinforcement as for steel
by the current design recommendations is therefore primarily there to
control the development of crack widths. The results of this study, however,
confirm that a relaxation of the strain limit for shear reinforcement to 4,500
pc, as proposed by the Sheffield approach, will not lead to undesirably large
crack widths.
ECONOMY ACHIEVED BY THE PROPOSALS

Figure 8 compares the ratio of shear reinforcement required for a given FRP
RC beam according to the BS 81 10 equation modified by using both the
strain approach and the Sheffield approach. Geometrical characteristics and
concrete strength are kept constant, whilst the relative stiffness of the
flexural reinforcement and the design applied shear stress, vd, vary. It can be
observed that the reinforcement ratio required by the strain approach is
always higher than that required by the Sheffield approach, and increases
overall with increasing applied shear stress. A reduction in the required
shear reinforcement of up to 3 times is possible when the Sheffield
approach is adopted, thereby reducing reinforcement costs by up to 30%.
c
0
2 1
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.o
.2
Normalized flexural stiffness ( P E/SGPa)
Figure 8. Ratio of shear reinforcement calculated according to the strain approach and the
Sheffield approach plotted against normalised stifmess of the flexural reinforcement
Shear Design Equationsfor FRP RC Beams 525
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from the reported study:

(a) The strain in both the flexural and shear FRP reinforcement can reach
values that are much higher than those assumed by the current
recommendations for the design of FRP RC.
(b) Shear resisting mechanisms are mobilised in a similar way in both GFRP
and steel RC beams and failure modes are characterised by similar
behaviour. Hence, summing the contributions of the concrete and
reinforcement shear resistance mechanisms remains valid.
(c) For concrete shear resistance, the principle of strain control is accepted,
but a new limit of 4,500 p is proposed for determining the amount of
flexural reinforcement to be used in concrete shear design. For the
design of shear links, the new proposed limit of 4,500 p~ also seems to
lead to more appropriate and cost effective solutions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the European Commission for funding the
TMR Network "ConFibreCrete".
REFERENCES
1. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Recommendation for Design and

Construction of Concrete Structures using Continuous Fiber
Reinforcing Materials, JSCE, Tokyo, Japan, 1996.
2. Canadian Standard Association, Canadian Highway Bridge Design
Code Section 16: Fibre Reinforced Structures, Final Draft, CHBDC,
1996.
3. Institution of Structural Engineers, Interim guidance on the design of
reinforced concrete structures using j b r e composite reinforcement,
IStructE, SET0 Ltd, London, 1999.
4. American Concrete Institute, Guide for the Design and Construction of
Concrete Reinforced with FRP Bars, ACI 440.1R-0 1, ACI Committee
440, Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 2001.
5 . ISIS Canada - Intelligent Sensing for Innovative Structures, Reinforced
Concrete Structures with Fibre Reinforced Polymers, Design manual
No. 3, ISIS Canada Corporation, Manitoba, Canada, 2001.
6. Pilakoutas, K. and Guadagnini M., "Shear of FRP RC: a review of the
State-of-the-Art", Proc. of the International Workshop Composites in
Construction: a Reality, Capri, Italy, ASCE, 200 1, pp. 173-182.
7. Guadagnini, M., Shear Behaviour and Design of FRP RC Beams, PhD

Thesis, Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The University
of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK, 2002.
8. Guadagnini, M., Pilakoutas, K. and Waldron, P., Investigation on
Shear Carrying Mechanisms in FRP RC Beams, Fifth International
Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Polymer for Reinforced Concrete
Structures (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, July 16-18,200 1, V01.2, pp.
949-958.
9. Guadagnini, M., Pilakoutas, K. and Waldron, P., Shear performance of
GFRP RC beams. International Conference on FRP Composites in
Civil Engineering, Hong Kong, 200 1, pp. 1 169-1 176.
10. Guadagnini, M., Pilakoutas, K. and Waldron, P., Shear Performance of
FRP Reinforced Concrete Beams, Accepted for publication to the
Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 2002.
11. Tottori, S., and Wakui, H. (1993), Shear Capacity of RC and PC Beams
Using FRP Reinforcement. International Symposium on Fiber
Reinforced Plastic Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Nanni and
Dolan ed., ACI, pp. 6 15-632.
12. Duranovic, N., Pilakoutas, K., and Waldron, P. (1997) Tests on
Concrete Beams Reinforced with Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Bars,
Third International Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement
for Concrete Structures, Sapporo, Japan, pp. 479-486.
13. British Standard Institution, BS 8110 - Code of Practice for Design and
Construction, Part 1, BSI, London, 1999.
14. American Concrete Institute, Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete and Commentary ACI 318-99/R-99, ACI
Committee 3 18, Farmington Hills, MI, USA, 1999.
15. European Committee for Standardization, Eurocode 2: Design of
Concrete Structures - Part 1: General Rules and Rules for Buildings,
prEN 1992-1 (1st draft), CEN, 1999.

STRENGTHENING OF CORROSION-DAMAGED RC
COLUMNS WITH FRP
S. N. BOUSIAS, T. C. TRIANTAFILLOU, M. N. FARDIS, L. A. SPATHIS AND
B. OREGAN
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Patras
GR-26500, Greece
Premature deterioration of RC structures due to corrosion of the

reinforcement represents a significant problem, as it contributes
considerably to the reduction of member strength and deformation
capacity. Moreover, structures old enough to develop significant
corrosion of the reinforcement normally belong also to the class of
structures that have not been designed for earthquake resistance. In
that respect, retrofitting against corrosion triggers seismic
retrofitting of the structure as well. In this paper the use of fibrereinforced polymer (FFW) wraps in retrofitting RC columns with
corroded reinforcement was experimentally investigated. Test
results show that deformation- and, to a lesser extent, force-capacity
of members with severe reinforcement corrosion can be
considerably enhanced, through appropriate use of FRP.
INTRODUCTION
Structures in seismic regions often suffer both from deficiencies in member
strength and deformation capacity and from the effects of reinforcement
corrosion due to aggressive environmental conditions. Past experience has
shown that reinforcement corrosion not only reduces member strength due
to steel area loss, but it also affects adversely bond and anchorage, and
makes bars more susceptible to buckling and reduces steel ductility.
Moreover, transverse reinforcement (for shear and confinement), being of
smaller diameter and closer to the concrete surface, is more vulnerable to
corrosion. Thus its contribution to the effective confinement and the
resulting deformation capacity of the member decreases. For these reasons
the seismic behaviour of RC members, especially of columns, is affected by
steel corrosion, the problem being aggravated by the use of the more
corrosion-prone tempcore S500 steel.
The efficiency of electrochemical remedy measures is not

commensurate to their cost. As structures old enough to develop significant
reinforcement corrosion normally lack sufficient earthquake resistance, the
need for measures against the on-going corrosion, often paves the way for
seismic retrofitting as well. When retrofitting is realized through external
(passive) confinement, fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) wraps offer a
particularly attractive solution. Corrosion is an expansive process and thus
FRP jackets can act as a (passive) confining mechanism, activated by lateral
expansion of member cross-section. In the past, wrapping of members with
FRP jackets has been applied successfully to members without corrosion
damage'.2.3z4.The performance of this scheme in retrofitting RC columns
with corrosion-provoked damage is experimentally investigated in this
paper.
The experimental programme focuses on the study of the contribution of
FRP wraps in the hoop direction as a means of enhancing the deformation
capacity of RC columns with corroded reinforcement, by upgrading member
effective confinement. Twelve cantilever-type specimens were constructed
representing full scale RC columns of a length approximately equal to half a
storey (1.6 m) net height and with cross-sectional dimensions 250x500 mm
(Figure 1). To represent non-seismically designed and detailed members,
specimens emulated old construction, as far as materials used and lack of
earthquake resistant detailing. The longitudinal reinforcement comprised
four 18-mm bars; transverse reinforcement was provided by 8-mm diameter
smooth bars at 200-mm centres with 135O-hook at one end and a 90" hook at
the other. Ready-mix C12/15 concrete was used, in which salt of 3% per
weight of water was added at mixing. Table 1 summarises the
characteristics of the materials used for the specimens. In all specimens
longitudinal bars had a yield stress of 559.5 MPa, a tensile strength of 682
MPa and uniform elongation at failure of 13% (average of 3 coupons). The
corresponding values for the transverse bars are 286 MPa and 350 MPa and
13%. The lower l-m of all specimens, except two (used as reference for
comparison), was subjected to accelerated corrosion5, employing an
electrochemical circuit in which each longitudinal reinforcement bar was
the anode and an external galvanized steel mesh was the cathode. Stirrups
were supplied by current through their contact to the main reinforcement. A
6V fixed potential was applied between anode and cathode and the
Strengthening of Corrosion-Damaged RC Columns 529
evolution of corrosion was monitored by recording the current passing and

applying Faradays law to the integrated current. Alternating wet-dry cycles
of 60 and 12 hours, respectively, were applied to the specimens using a 3%
sodium chloride solution, as this has been shown in the past6 to produce
corrosion products with high volumetric expansion. The accelerated
corrosion conditions were maintained for about 3.5 months, at the end of
which approximately 1 kg of steel mass in each specimen had been
converted to oxides.
The basic parameters of the retrofitting scheme studied in this research
were: (a) the number of layers of the wrap material and the fibre material
(carbon vs. glass), as a measure of different stiffness and strain capacity of
the jacket material, (b) the effect of previous, unrepaired seismic damage,
(c) the level of FRP-induced confinement in columns with cross-sectional
aspect ratio other than 1.0, and (d) the effect of FRP wrapping in columns
dominated by flexure or shear. As shown in Table 1, specimens were
denoted after the following rules: the first letter denotes whether
reinforcement was corroded (C) or not (U), the second and third signify the
fibre material (C for carbon, G for glass) and the number of layers
employed, while the last two define the axis of testing (W for weak and S
for strong) and whether the specimen was initially damaged before
retrofitting (denoted by in).
Of all twelve specimens presented here, six were retrofitted with either
2 or 5 layers of FRP wraps, without any previous damage from cyclic
loading. The number of FRP layers was determined as follows: the
effectiveness of the FRP jacket with respect to the confinement achieved is
conditioned by the deformability of the fibres and the extensional stiffness
of the jacket, which is proportional to nxtfibxEf(n is the number of FRP
layers, tfib is the thickness of a single layer (Le. the thickness of the fibre
sheet), and Ef is the modulus of elasticity). In the tests performed the same
axial stiffness was achieved with CFRP ( E ~ 2 3 0GPa, tfib=0.13 mm) and
GFRP (Ef70 GPa, tfib=0.17 mm) using 2 layers for the former and 5 for the
latter (axial stiffness EA 0 60 kN in both cases). Half of these first six
specimens were tested along the weak and the other half along the strong
column axis. Two of the other six specimens (C-C2Sin and C-C2Win)
were first subjected to a number of displacement cycles beyond member
yielding; then they were retrofitted with FRP wraps without restoring
previous damage (e.g. cracking), except for any damage of the surface due
to concrete cover spalling, which was repaired with non-shrinking mortar.
Finally, the remaining four specimens (two with corroded reinforcement and
two without corrosion) were tested without any retrofit measures as control
specimens.
Table 1 . Specimen geometry and material properties
Concrete FRP for retrofitting
Normalised Peak
Drift at
axial load
force failure (%)
strength, f,
Material
Layers
v=N/A,f,
(m)
Specimen
u-0s
18.3
18.3
18.1
18.1
20.4
18.7
17.9
18.6
18.7
18.3
18.6
20.4
c-0s
C-C2 Sin
c-c2s
c-c5s
C G5S
u-ow
c-ow
C-C2Win
c-c2w
c-c5w
C-G5 W
___
_-_
-__
___
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Glass
2
2
5
5
-__
___
Carbon
Carbon
Carbon
Glass
____2
2
5
5
0.38
0.38
0.37
0.38
0.34
0.37
0.38
0.35
0.35
0.37
0.37
0.34
190
182
167
190
182
182
72
65
67
70
67
69
2.5
2.8
4.1
5.1
3.7
4.1
4.1
4.4
7.2
7.2
7.5
7.5
0
10
Figure 1. Specimen cross-section and test set-up
Horizontal loading was applied at a distance of 1.6 m from the base by a

servo-hydraulic actuator attached to the column head. Testing was
performed by cycling horizontal displacements at increasing amplitudes
along the weak or strong section axis. The tests were carried to column
failure, determined either by fracture of reinforcing bars or FRP wraps, or
when resistance dropped by at least 20% of its maximum previous value. An
axial load of approximately 850 kN (see Table 1 for normalized axial load
values) was applied through a jack placed at the top of the column. A
special setup was developed to ensure that the axial load is always applied
along the member longitudinal axis. The rotation and axial displacement of
two sections 250-mm and 500-mm above the base, was also measured
through displacement transducers.
Tests along Strong Axis of Column

The shear span ratio of the column, when subjected to uniaxial flexure
along its strong axis, was 1.60/0.50=3.2. Although (in monotonic loading)
the column shear strength exceeds the ratio of the flexural capacity to shear
span, for such a shear span ratio and the present low transverse
reinforcement ratio column cyclic behaviour may be controlled by shear.
The uncorroded control specimen, U-OS, yielded in flexure but then
exhibited a mixed flexure-shear failure mode, with bar buckling, some
inclined cracking and ultimate disintegration of the concrete core above the
base. The corroded control specimen (C-0s) exhibits slightly lower
flexural capacity than the uncorroded one - possibly due to loss of steel area
due to corrosion - but higher ultimate deflection: 45 mm vs. 40 mm (drift
ratio 2.8% vs. 2.5%) of the uncorroded specimen, both determined through
the conventional rule of 20%-drop in resistance (Figure 2). Although the
difference in the so-defined deformation capacity is small, the post-ultimatedeformation behaviour of the two specimens is very different: the
uncorroded specimen suffered a sudden drop in resistance at a peak
deflection of 45 mm, whereas the corroded one exhibits gradual strength
degradation with increasing deflection amplitudes (up to 55 mm) and a more
flexural failure mode (Figure 2b). A possible explanation is that the shear
resistance - determined mainly by the contribution of concrete and of the
axial load and less by the transverse reinforcement - decreases less due to
corrosion than the flexural capacity, and hence the ultimate failure mode
and deformation capacity of the corroded specimen is controlled less by
shear than in the uncorroded control column.
After retrofitting the column with two layers of CFRP (C-C2S, Figure
3b), the response changed radically: after yielding at a deflection of about
15 mm, peak resistance was maintained constant with increasing
displacement amplitude (while it had dropped after 25 mm in C-0s). Peak
resistance was still controlled by flexure at the base section and was about
the same as in the unretrofitted specimen C-0s. After a displacement of 75
mm the cumulative lateral expansion of the compressed concrete inside the
CFRP jacket caused jacket rupture when reaching the displacement of 80
mm (drift ratio 5%, see sudden drop in member resistance at 80 mm). Then
rupture of a longitudinal bar took place before reaching a deflection of -80
mm (Figure 4b). Thus, the gain in deformation capacity amounts to about
80%. A similar force-deformation response was exhibited by a companion

specimen with uncorroded reinforcement (not presented here) subjected to
the same loading history, except that the uncorroded specimen maintained
its lateral load carrying capacity to a higher displacement of 90 mm. No
gradually softening branch was noted in either specimen. This modification
of response over that of the unretrofitted specimens (corroded or not) is
attributed partly to the significant increase of flexural deformation capacity
due to the confinement of concrete and also to the increase in shear strength
due to the contribution of the FRP jacket (approximately proportional to the
total jacket thickness and the FRP modulus of elasticity).
Figure 2. Force-deflection loops for control specimens: (a) U-0s (uncorroded), (b)
C-0s (corroded)
250
250
200
200
150
151)
1w
2
e o
9 -so
100
50
8 ,
50
-100
-100
-150
-150
-200
-260
-100
-200
-50
Displacement (mml
50
Iw
-250-lw
50
Dlrplacernsnl (mm) 5o
Figure 3. Force-deflection loops for specimens retrofitted with 2 CFRP layers:

C-C2Sin (with initial damage), (b) C-C2S (without initial damage)
Figure 4. Failure of (a) unretrofitted specimen C-OS, and (b) retrofitted specimen
c-c2s
In specimen C-C2Sin the two layers of FRP were applied to the column
after it had gone through cycles of increasing amplitude of up to 25 mm.
The initially damaged specimen exhibits faster strength degradation with
cycling (Figure 3a) and lower ultimate deformation capacity than the
companion initially damaged column (65 mm, i.e. 4.1%, vs. 80 mm or 5%).
Failure was again by CFRP rupture followed by buckling and failure of a
longitudinal bar. The difference in ultimate deformation, which has been
consistently found in four pairs of undamaged or initially damaged
specimens, may be explained by the fact that in the initially damaged
specimen activation of the CFRP starts after the concrete has undergone
some damage and lateral expansion; so it reaches earlier its (confined)
crushing strain, triggering uncontrolled expansion and CFRP fracture.
Increasing the number of layers of CFRP to 5 (specimen C-C5S)
contributes marginally to member strength (Figure 5a), although it enhanced
concrete confinement. Despite the increased jacket stiffness over that of
specimen C-C2S, member deformability did not improve: the specimen
sustained cyclic displacements of 55 mm, but at a displacement of 60 mm
(drift ratio 3.75%) suffered fracture of one bar and a drop in resistance of
25% of the previous maximum value. The test was continued for two more
cycles, in which neither the (reduced) lateral load capacity in the positive
direction changed, nor the (unaltered after-peak) corresponding capacity in
the negative direction, until another bar fractured on the positive. Fracture
of the corroded steel bar preceded fracture of the CFRP and became the
limiting factor.
2%,
-2%
-100
-50
Displasomant(mml
50
a
100
Figure 5. Force- deflection loops of: (a) C-CSS (5 CFRP layers), (b) C-GSS (5
GFRP layers)
With glass FRP for the retrofitting (specimen C-GSS), the 5-layer
jacket applied has a stiffness equal to that of the 2-layer carbon FRP jacket.
The increased energy dissipation over the unretrofitted specimen
demonstrated when retrofitting with CFRP, was also exhibited by this
specimen (Figure 5b). Again, the behaviour was purely flexural due to the
contribution of the GFRP to the shear capacity of the member. Failure
occurred at a displacement of 65 mm (drift ratio 4.1%) by fracture of one
longitudinal bar, as compared to 100 mm (drift ratio 6.25%) in the
companion uncorroded specimen (not included here). Compared to
specimen C-C2S, which had the same jacket stiffness, this specimen had a
slightly inferior performance. What is most interesting is that specimen
C-CSS, with 5 layers of CFRP, did not perform better than either of these
two specimens. It seems that there is no benefit in increasing the number of
CFRP layers beyond a certain limit, which, for this particular specimen, is
quite low.
Tests along Weak Axis of Column

The specimens subjected to uniaxial flexure along their weak cross-section
axis (shear span ratio 1.60/0.25=6.4) are expected to have a clearly flexural
behaviour. Nonetheless, again the uncorroded control specimen, U-OW,
exhibits lower deformation capacity (65 mm or drift ratio of 4.1%, vs. 70
mm or 4.4%) and a more rapid post-ultimate strength degradation (Figure
6a) than its corroded counterpart, C O W (Figure 6b). This feature of U-OW
and its failure mode, which involved extensive inclined cracking, are
reminiscent of shear-controlled behaviour, despite the high shear span ratio
(Figure 6b).
The application of two layers of carbon FRP increased member
deformation capacity drastically (Figure 7b, compared to Figure 6b), while
strength was not much affected (as expected, due to the marginal
contribution of increased concrete confinement to member strength).
Strength degradation of the retrofitted column evolved much slower than in
the unretrofitted specimen (Figure 7b), permitting the column to retain large
proportion of its resistance for many cycles after the peak. The
conventionally defined (through the 20%-drop in resistance rule)
deformation capacity increases from about 70 mm (drift ratio 4.4%) to about
115 mm (7.2%). Failure was by CFRP fracture (Figure 8b). The initially
damaged specimen (Figure 7a) has in this case similar behaviour and about
the same deformation capacity as the undamaged one (Figure 7b). It is
noted here that for this small number of CFRP layers (i.e. for small
volumetric ratio of FRP material), jacket failure by tensile fracture of fibres
was observed in both specimens C C 2 W and CC2Win, as expected.
Figure 6. Force- deflection loops for specimens (a) U-OW (uncorroded), (b) C O W
(corroded)
, ~ "
Deflection (mm)
Figure 7 . Force- deflection loops for specimens retrofitted with 2 CFRP layers:
(a) C-C2Win, (b) C-C2W
Figure 8. Failure of (a) unretrofitted specimen C-OW, and (b) retrofitted specimen
c-c2w
For the present specimen the application of 5 layers of carbon FRP, as

compared to 2 layers of the same material, does not considerably affect
strength (as expected) or the conventionally defined member deformation
capacity. Referring to Figures 7b, 9a and 9b, the 2-layer CFRP jacketed
specimen has a conventionally defined (at 20% drop in resistance) ultimate
drift of 7.2% and as compared to drift of 7.5% in the specimens with 5
CFRP or GFRP layers. In that respect, the addition of 3 more FRP layers
did not prove to be very beneficial. Nonetheless, at a drift ratio of 8.45%
specimen C-C2W suffered CFRP fracture, whereas the test of specimens
C-CSW and C-GSW stopped at post-conventional ultimate drift ratios of
8.75% and 8.1%, respectively, without fracture of the FRP or the
reinforcement.
XI
5 .
XI
XI
150
Deflort,on imm,
100
XI
I0
1w
150
o.nestlOn imm)
Figure 9. Force- deflection loops for specimens: (a) C-C5W (5 CFRP layers),
(b) C-G5W (5 GFRP layers)
CONCLUSIONS
The present test results have shown that:

(a) FRP wrapping of columns without earthquake resistant detailing and
with corroded reinforcement does not improve strength - which is
controlled by the flexural capacity at the base and affected by the loss
in steel area - but increases dramatically deformation (drift) capacity to
levels not easily achievable through confinement by conventional
jacketing. This improvement is due to the increase in strain capacity of
the compressed concrete and the restraint of bar buckling by the F W
jacket, as well as to the suppression of the effects of shear on
deformation capacity.
(b) In the strong direction of the column, where the lower drift capacity is
due to larger depth and lower shear span ratio, failure of the retrofitted
element was associated with fracture of longitudinal reinforcement.
This had not been observed on companion columns with non-corroded
reinforcement, which exhibited larger deformation capacity. It seems
that corrosion reduces the ductility of the rebars, setting therefore a
limit to the improvement in deformation capacity that can be effected
through FRP wraps.
(c) Application of the FRP jacket to a column which had been carried to
yielding of the reinforcement and to moderate damage by previous
cycling, gives lower deformation capacity in comparison to an initially
undamaged column. The difference may be due to the fact that

concrete has undergone some lateral expansion in the absence of the
FRP jacket and its activation.
(d) In the strong direction of the specimen, in which bar fracture is the
limiting factor for deformation capacity, increasing the number of the
FRP layers from a low value of two to five does not offer any
advantage. Some advantage is offered by such an increase in the weak
direction, in which concrete confinement and FRP action control
deformation capacity. Nonetheless, this advantage is disproportionately
small in comparison to the additional material cost.
(e) At first sight FRP wraps are expected to be more effective in the strong
direction of the column, as the more narrow width of the compressed
zone lends itself better to confinement by the FRP jacket and
improvement in the strain capacity of the compression zone, while the
confinement effect of the FRP over the wide compression zone of the
weak direction is certainly smaller. Nonetheless, in the present case
premature fracture of the corroded reinforcement has prevented full
utilization of the larger confining effect of the FRP in the strong
direction of the column.
(f) Contrary to the unretrofitted specimens, which retain their axial load
capacity after attaining ultimate deformation and losing their lateral
load capacity, columns retrofitted with FRP wraps lose practically all
their axial load capacity when they fail explosively by fracture of the
FRP wrap. Failure by bar rupture does not have such severe
consequences on axial load capacity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The General Secretariat for Research and Technology (GSRT) of the Greek
Ministry of Development provided partial financial support to this research.
SIKA provided the FRP materials.
REFERENCES
1. Federation International du Beton, Externally bonded FRP
reinforcement for RC structures,fib Bulletin 14, Lausanne, 2001.
2. Matthys, S., Taerwe, L. and Audenaert, K., Tests on axially loaded
concrete columns confined by FRP sheet wrapping, 4th International
3.
4.
5.
6.
Symposium on FRP for Reinforced Concrete Structures, Baltimore,

USA, 1999, pp. 2 17-228.
Nanni, A. and Bradford, N. M., FRP jacketed concrete under uniaxial
compression, Construction and Building Materials, 9(2), 1995, pp.
115-124.
Seible, F., Priestley, M. J. N. and Innamorato, D., Earthquake retrofit
of bridge columns with continuous fiber jackets, In Design guidelines,
Advanced composite technology transfer consortium, 2, Report No.
ACTT-95/08, Univ. of California, San Diego, 1995.
Bousias, S., Triantafillou, T., Fardis, M., Spathis, L., and ORegan, B.,
Use of fibre reinforced polymers in repairhetrofit of reinforced
concrete elements, Research Report to the General Secretariat for
Research and Technology, Greece, 200 1.
Sheikh, S., Pantazopoulou,S., Bonacci, J., Thomas, M. and Hearn, N.,
Repair of delaminated circular pier columns by ACM, Ontario Joint
Transportation Research Report, MTO Reference No. 3 1902, 1997.

SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE BRIDGE

DECKS USING FRF' BAR
P. VALERIO
Te.i. co, via Giangiacomo Porro 18, 00197, Rome, Italy
T. J. IBELL
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath.
Bath, BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
The shear capacity of existing concrete bridge beams is often inadequate
and unable to meet current code requirements. This paper deals with a new
type of shear strengthening for existing concrete bridges. It is proposed that
vertical FRP bars be inserted into pre-drilled holes and fastened in place
using epoxy resin. This method has the advantage that only the soffit of the
concrete bridge beam (or slab) is required for access, allowing the top
surface to remain undamaged during strengthening. This could allow the
bridge to be used during strengthening works, with traffic relatively
unhindered by work being carried out below. Ten laboratory tests are
presented here to demonstrate the system, and comparisons are made
against current code predictions for the strength of such concrete beams
with and without transverse reinforcement. The results of this work show
that the proposed strengthening scheme is effective and provides significant
improvement in the shear-carrying load capacity.
INTRODUCTION
Many concrete bridge elements are deteriorating, leading to a reduction in
their flexural and shear strength. This deterioration may be due to poor
initial design or construction (including poor material selection or poor
workmanship), increased traffic loads and aggressive environments.
If a concrete bridge is found to have inadequate shear strength and
individual webs are inaccessible (for example in the case of many parallel
closely-laid beams), one option to strengthen the bridge in shear is to insert
threaded vertical steel bars through the deck and bolt on end-plates.
However, this method requires access to both the soffit and top surface of
the bridge. This is problematic in terms of disruption in the use of the bridge
and maintenance might also be a problem, so stainless steel is often used.
This adds expense and means that the stainless steel bars must be isolated
from the reinforcing bars in some way, in order to prevent accelerated

corrosion of these reinforcing bars.
The work described in this paper attempts to circumvent these
problems. It is proposed that vertical holes are drilled into the bridge deck
from the soffit level. FRP reinforcing bars are then inserted and embedded
in place using resin. In this way, shear strength enhancement is possible.
Due to its ongoing popularity, the equivalent steel-bar solution is also
considered. This shear-strengthening technique implies that some pressure
would need to be applied to inject high-viscosity adhesive into the drilled
holes. This research project was concerned with the feasibility of the
structural strengthening capabilities, rather than with the on-site
practicalities.
TEST PROGRAMME
In order to verify the practicality and feasibility of the proposed verticallyembedded-bar shear strengthening scheme, the following test programme
was conducted. The FRF' reinforcement used was Arapree' bar whose main
properties, in accordance with manufacturer's data, are a tensile strength of
1.5 GPa, Young's Modulus of 60GPa, ultimate strain of 2.4% and density of
12.5 kN/m3.
Ten beams were tested under four-point loading to provide constant
shear within the shear spans. Each beam had a similar cross-section and
contained the same quantity of bottom steel reinforcement (2 T12 high yield
bars). Figure 1 shows the typical dimensions and longitudinal reinforcement
in the specimens. The first specimen contained no transverse reinforcement.
The second specimen contained five manually-drilled, unfilled 12mmdiameter vertical holes in each shear span (see Figure 2). The third and
fourth specimens contained respectively five similar manually-drilled
vertical holes in each shear span, but this time each filled with epoxyresined Arapree (10mm diameter) or steel bars (T10 deformed bar). The
fifth specimen contained three Arapree bars angled at 60" to the horizontal.
The sixth and seventh specimens contained respectively three vertical
Arapree or steel bars spread out over the shear span. The eighth specimen
contained two vertical Arapree bars in each shear span, each of diameter
lOmm as before. The ninth specimen was similar to the eighth, but
contained 7.5mm diameter Arapree bars this time. The tenth specimen
contained just a single l0mm-diameter Arapree bar inserted in the centre of
each shear span. Table 1 summarises the reinforcement in each specimen.
Shear Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Decks 541
& PJ2
Il-
PJ2
1
1
(a) Elevation of beams
(b) Typical cross section

Figure 1. Details of the test specimens
Table 1 . Shear strengthening details for each specimen

Spec. No. Long. reinforcement
Trans. reinforcement
2 T12 steel
none
2 T12 steel
5+5 holes only
2 T12 steel
5+5 lOmm Arapree bars vertical
2 T12 steel
5+5 T 10 steel bars vertical
2 TI2 steel
3+3 lOmm Arapree bars angled 60"
2 T12 steel
2 T12 steel
3+3 T10 steel bars vertical
2 TI2 steel
2 T12 steel
2+2 7.5mm Arapree bars vertical
10
2 T12 steel
1+1 lOmm Arapree bar vertical
500
Figure 2. Positioning of vertical hole
The required concrete cube compressive strength was about 50 MPa and
Figure 3 shows the typical test set-up for each of the specimens.
Figure 3. Overall test set-up
Table 2 shows a summary of the results of all tests. All beams cracked in
flexure around 15kN.Those beams strengthened in shear with three or five
FRP bars in each shear span (Beams 3 to 7) attained full ductile flexural
response. The beams which were either not strengthened or strengthened
with only one or two bars in each shear span (beams 1, 2, 8, 9 and 10) all
failed in brittle shear. Figure 4 shows the shear failure for specimen 10,
containing just one bar in each shear span. Note how the shear discontinuity
was constrained to occur between the single bar and the load point. This
increased the shear capacity considerably compared with Beam 1, as seen in
Table 2.
Beam
No.
Average f,,
W a )
Failure
mode
Peak failure
Maximuim midspan defieccic

' "m
load (kN)
(mm\
51
Shear
45
12
53
Shear
42
60
Flexural
83
> 40
51
Flexural
80
> 40
55
Flexural
83
> 40
50
Flexural
83
> 40
60
Flexural
76
> 40
59
Shear
64
13
59
Shear
64
13
10
59
Shear
60
12
Figure 4. Shear failure of Beam 10
Figure 5 shows the midspan load-deflection plots for all specimens, clearly
demonstrating the flexural ductility that was exhibited by those specimens
containing sufficient shear strengthening.
Applied load against midspan displacement

-Beam1
---
Beam 2
Beam 3
Beam 4
- _ _ _ _Beam 5
Beam 6
- - .-Beam
Beam 8
Beam 9
Beam 10
10
20
30
40
50
Displacement (mm)
Figure 5. Load-deflection plots for all specimens
FLEXURAL ANALYSIS
In the uncracked phase, it may easily be shown that the depth to the neutral
axis is x = 120 mm and the effective second moment of area I = 116x lo6
mm4. The theoretical first cracking moment M,, is given by M, = f c , (I/h-x),
wheref,, = 3.9 MPa is the average measured concrete tensile strength and h
is the overall depth of the beam (220 mm), so that M,, = 4.5 kNm.
Therefore, it may easily be shown that the theoretical total applied load at
first flexural cracking is P,, = 15.1 kN. This value matches well with that
observed in all tests.
At the ultimate limit state, assuming the concrete compressive cube
strengthsf,, for each test and the steel yield strength&, = 635 MPa, we find
that the ultimate moment of resistance of each beam turns out to be in the
range of Mu, = 24.1 to 24.6 kNm (forfc, = 5OMPa to 60MPa). Therefore, the
theoretical total applied ultimate load ranges from P, = 80 to 82 kN. This
range too is very close to that observed in the specimens which failed in
flexure (tests 3 to 7).
SHEAR PREDICTIONS FROM CODES-OF-PRACTICE
Comparisons between the ultimate load observed and code predictions are
now made for all beams. The predicted ultimate load capacity for beams 1
and 2, each of which contains no transverse reinforcement, is P,,= 2V,,
where V, is the concrete contribution term with all the safety factors put
equal to unity. For beams 3 to 10, with transverse reinforcement, P,, = 2 V,,,
where V,, = V, + 5.The assumptions made in determining p a r e explained
below. Codes-of-practice BS8 1 102, Bridge Assessment Guide BD44/953,
ACI-3 184 and Eurocode EC25 are used here for comparison purposes.
For the V, term from ACI-3 18, it is assumed that the equivalent cylinder
compressive strengthf', = 0.80f,,. For the V , term, it is assumed that the
vertically-embedded FRP bars will strain to 0.004 at the ultimate shear
capacity of the beams617.As the bars contain no hooked corners, no further
strain checks are made which would relate to bent portions of FRP stirrups.
With a Young's Modulus of the F W bars of 60GPa, the stress in the FRP
bars at shear collapse is 240MPa.
Thus, the term for V, based on a 45" truss analogy, becomes, for steel
and FRP transversally reinforced beams respectively:
V f=
635 .Ar.z
sv
v/= 240.Af.z
sv
where Af is the cross-sectional area of each bar, z is the effective lever arm
of the truss and sv is the spacing between vertical bars. Note that although
the codes-of-practice adopted here limit the spacing between stirrups to
various fractions of the effective depth, d, the calculations conducted here
ignore this limitation. Naturally, the design of an adequate shearstrengthening scheme would require closely-spaced vertical bars in reality.
The value of z is taken to be the fully-anchored length of each embedded
bar, which is the overall length of each bar minus the anchorage length at
each end. For purposes of analysis here, it is assumed that the average bond
strength between epoxy-resined bar and concrete is of the order of 12MPa'.
This translates to an anchorage length, Zb, of 50mm for the lOmm diameter
bars, so that in all cases, it is assumed that
z = h-2.1, = 220-2x
50 = 120mm
(3 1
Table 4 shows details of comparisons between the various code

predictions and the actual results. Where the shear capacity prediction is
higher than the relevant flexural capacity prediction, the flexural capacity is
used for comparison purposes. It is clear that all codes-of-practice predict
the shear and flexural strengths (as relevant) reasonably accurately. This is
important, as it implies that this Strengthening scheme could be used with
confidence by practising engineers.
However, for specimens 8 and 10, in particular, the codes-of-practice
over-estimate the effectiveness of the vertical bars. This is almost certainly
due to the wide spacing of the bars, which is close to one effective depth for
specimen 8 and substantially more than one effective depth for specimen 10.
Therefore, clearly it is essential that in order for this strengthening scheme
to be used in reality, the vertically-embedded bars should be spaced
sufficiently closely in order for shear predictions to be valid. It seems
sensible that this minimum spacing should be in the region of 0.5 to 0.75
times the effective depth, just as recommended by present codes-of-practice
for shear design.
If the presence of the vertical bars is ignored entirely in specimens 8, 9
and 10 (due to the wide spacing), all codes-of-practice substantially
underestimate the shear capacity, which is then based solely on the value of
V,. So, in these three specimens, it seems that although the bars are spaced
too widely to be fully effective, they do indeed enhance shear capacity by
altering the shear discontinuity geometry.
CONCLUSIONS
From the test results and comparisons with code and plasticity-based
predictions, the following remarks may be made.
The proposed shear-strengthening approach has been shown to be
feasible and successful. Such a shear-strengthening technique for concrete
bridges offers many advantages over the traditional threaded-bar-and-plate
approach, such as only access to the soffit being required, easier and quicker
installation, and lower maintenance.
Table 4. Correlation between code-of-practice predictions and test results

Beam
No.
Actual
Capacity
(kN)
45
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(Shear)
42
(Shear)
83
(Flexure)
80
(FI exure)
83
BS8110
Pred.
(kN)
48
(Shear)
49
BD44/95
Pred.
(kN)
47
(Shear)
47
ACI-318
Pred.
(kN)
41
(Shear)
42
EC2
Pred.
(kN)
41
(Shear)
42
(shear) (Shear) (Shear) (Shear) (Shear)

82
82
82
82
(Flexure)
(Flexure)
(Flexure) (Flexure)
80
80
80
80
(shear)
(Shear)
(Shear)
(Shear)
(Flexure)(Shear)
(Flexure
(Flexure)
(FI exure)
81
81
81
81
(shear) (shear)
(Shear) (Shear)
(Shear) (Shear)
(Shear) (Shear)
(Shear) (Shear)
83
80
80
77
77
76
(F1exure)
64
(Shear)
64
(Shear)
60
(Shear)
82
(FI exure)
78
(Shear)
66
(Shear)
69
(Shear)
82
(F1exure)
76
(Shear)
64
(Shear)
67
(Shear)
82
(Flexure)
72
(Shear)
60
(Shear)
63
(Shear)
82
(F1exure)
73
(Shear)
61
(Shear)
64
(Shear)
(shear)(Shear)
(Shear)(Shear)
(Shear)(Shear)
(Shear) (Shear)
(shear) (Shear)
No particular differences were noticed between the beams reinforced

with steel bars and the ones reinforced with FRP, so that the use of F W is
suggested for such strengthening due to its lightness and corrosion
resistance.
The spacing between embedded bars should be close enough so that the
shear discontinuity cannot form between bars. It is suggested that existing
requirements for maximum spacing of vertical reinforcement, which vary
between 0.5 and 0.75 times the effective depth, should be adequate for such
strengthening. Existing codes-of-practice adequately predict behaviour of
this strengthening scheme when closely-spaced vertical bars are used.
It is therefore concluded that it is possible to design a shearstrengthening scheme using embedded FRP bars by assuming that the
provided a value of 0.4% for the
reinforcement contribution is Afifi&'~/ssy,
ultimate design strain &fwd is chosen.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help of the laboratory staff and the
financial support from the Department of Architecture and Civil engineering
at the University of Bath, and Sireg, who supplied generous discounts on the
Arapree materials.
REFERENCES
1. Sireg S.p.A., Arapree-Carbopree bars, Sireg Geotechnical Division

Catalogue, Arcore, Italy, 200 1.
2. BS 8 1 10, Structural use of concrete. Part 1: Code of Practice for design
and construction, British Standards Institution, London, 1985.
3. BD 44/95, The assessment of concrete highway bridges and
structures, Department of transport, London, 1995.
4. ACI Committee 3 18, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete (ACI 3 18-02) and Commentary (ACI 3 18R-02), American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 2002.
5. EC2, Design of concrete structures, Part 1: General rules and rules for
buildings, 1992.
6. Arduini, M., Nanni, A., Di Tommaso, A. and Focacci, F., Shear
response of continuous RC beams strengthened with carbon FRP
sheets, Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on NonMetallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-3),
Sapporo, Japan, October 1997, pp. 459-466.
7. Umezu, K., Fujita, M., Nakai, H. and Tamaki, K., Shear behaviour of
RC beams with aramid fiber sheet, Proceedings of the 3rdInternational
Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures (FRPRCS-3), Sapporo, Japan, October 1997, pp. 491-498.
8. Ibell, T.J. and Burgoyne, C.J., The use of FRPs compared with steel
for shear reinforcement of concrete, ACI Structural Journal, 96(6),
1999, pp. 997-1003.


Edited by S a n g Hwee Tan
BWorld Scientific Publishing Company
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR FRP-CONFINED

CONCRETE CYLINDERS
G. WU',2, Z. LU' AND Z. WU2
I
College of Civil Engineering, Southeast lJniversi& China
Department of Urban & Civil Engineering, Ibaraki Universi& Japan
Based on the analysis of more than two hundred specimens of concrete

cylinders confined with FRP, a method for predicting the ultimate strength
of FRP-confined concrete is presented. First, the calculation of the
Poisson's ratio of concrete confined with a sufficient amount of FRP is
suggested. Then, according to strain compatibility, the ultimate strain of
FRP-confined concrete is predicted. Finally, a tri-linear model is suggested
to predict the stress-strain response of FRP-confined concrete cylinders.
Through comparison with existing experimental data of other researchers,
the effectiveness of the proposed model is verified.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, external confinement of concrete with fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) has emerged as a popular method for the retrofitting of
existing concrete columns for enhanced strength and ductility. Numerous
tests on FRP-confined concrete cylinders have thus been conducted'-''. '*, ",
and a number of theoretical stress-strain models have been proposed for
FRP-confined concrete'"' '-16 . It is hard to accurately predict the stress-strain
response of FRP-confined concrete, because parameters affecting the
performance of FRP-confined are numerous, in particular, the types of FRP
are diversified and the property of FRP is scattered. Based on the analysis of
a large number of test databases, this paper puts forward a new method to
predict the ultimate strength and strain of FRP-confined concrete cylinders
and suggests a stress-strain model.
AVAILABLE EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

For the assessment of previous models and for the development and
calibration of a new model, existing experimental results of more than two
hundred specimens given in the references are used in this paper. The
available experimental results cover a wide range of values for several
parameters that affect the mechanism of confinement:
552 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Confinement
(1) Concrete strength between 23.0 N/mm2 and 75.4 N/mm2 were tested.
(2) The majority of results were obtained from tests on the cylinders
with a dimension of 0100 mmx200mm or 0 150 mmx305mm.
(3) CFRP, GFRP, AFRP were used to confine the concrete, the CFRP
includes common CFRP (with a modulus less than 250 GPa) and high
modulus CFRP (with a modulus greater than 250 GPa). The FRP was
applied in the form of a tube or sheet.
(4) The tensile strength of FRP varied between 330 N/mm2 and 4433
N/mm2 , the modulus of FRP between 19100 N/mm2 and 640000 N/mm2 ,
and the thickness of FRP varied between 0.1 lmm and 3.Omm.
( 5 ) In order to eliminate the influence of steel, all the specimens were
without internal longitudinal or transverse reinforcement.
(6) This paper focuses on the test specimens without a descending
stress-strain response, that is, where a sufficient confinement from FRP has
been provided.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF CONFINED CONCRETE
Many researchers 1, 6, 8-10, 15-16 have suggested some methods to predict the
strength of FRP-confined concrete cylinders with reference to the
well-known equation proposed by Richart et al. Other researchers", 13* l4 also
presented some equations to predict the strength of FRP-confined concrete.
There are two significant parameters, confinement modulus (El) and
confinement strength (f;>, that will significantly influence the performance of
According to previous studies, the effectiveness coefficient is related
not only to the ratio of confinement strength to the strength of unconfined
concrete, namely fdco,
but also to the type of FRP, and it depends on the
method used to determine the strength of FRP. The ultimate strength of
FRP-confined cylinders can be predicted by following equations.
(1) For FRP sheet-confined concrete cylinders, where the strength of
FRP is determined by tensile coupon tests (Fig. 1a), the expression is:
Lc
-- 1+2.0- .A
Lo
L o
(2) For FRP sheet-confined concrete cylinders, where the strength of

FRP is obtained by the value provided by manufacturers (Fig.lb), the
expression is:
Stress-Strain Relationsfor FRP-Confined Cylinders 553
--- 1+ 3.0- J;
A
(3) For FRP tube-confined concrete cylinders, where the strength of

FRP is determined by tensile coupon tests (Fig.lc), the expression is:
LC-- 1+ 2.5- J;
L
(3 1
L O
where f c o , and f c c are the strength of unconfined concrete cylinders and

FRP-confined concrete cylinders respectively.
4
r ................................................................................
4 r
e 3 2 -
1 0 '
0
0 '
0
0. 5
1. 5
0. 5
fdco
fdco
(a) FRP sheet, strength determined

by tests
(b) FRP sheet, strength obtained

from manufacturers
0 '
0
0. 5
fdco
(c) FRP tube, strength determined by tests

Figure 1. Regression equations for the ultimate strength of confined concrete
554 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement f o r Confinement
ULTIMATE STRAIN OF CONFINED CONCRETE

The ultimate strain of FRP-confined concrete is related not only to the value
E d c , orfJfco, but also to the ultimate strain of FRP, the form of FRP, and the
property of FRP (normal modulus FRP or high modulus FRP); these
parameters were not all considered in existing models6, *-", 13-" . This
resulted in a poor comparison between the experimental and the predicted
results.
Based on the analysis of the existing experimental results, some
conclusions can be drawn:
(1) FRP is a linearly elastic material, so the Possion's ratio of
FRP-confined concrete at ultimate will tend to an asymptotic value if the
confinement of FRP is significant, and the value is mainly related to the
form and property of FRP, and the value offJfco.
(2) The ultimate Possion's ratio of FRP-confined concrete is related to
the form of FRP. For FRP tube-confined concrete columns, the FRP tube is
often used as the formwork, with the concrete cast in the tube; hence the
tube and concrete are in close contact. For FRP sheet confined concrete, FRP
is wrapped around the cylinders, and there are voids between the FRP sheet
and the concrete surface ineluctably; so the ultimate Possion's ratio of FRP
sheet-confined concrete is larger than that of FRP tube-confined concrete.
The ultimate Possion's ratio of concrete confined with normal modulus
CFRP sheet, GFRP sheet and AFRP sheet can be approximated by [Fig
2(a)l:
For concrete confined with GFRP or CFRP tubes, the ultimate Possion's
ratio can be approximated by [Fig 2(b)]:
The confinement is more effective for high modulus FRP, but as the
number of test databases of cylinders confined with high modulus FRP is
small, the ultimate Possion's ratio of high modulus FRP-confined concrete is
approximately suggested as:
Stress-Struin Relationsfor FRP-Confined Cylinders 555
r::)"""
v,, =0.56kf -
where kf is the influence coefficient of high modulus FRP, which is taken by

1.0 when Ef is less than or equal to 250 GPu, and d w ( u n i t GPu)
when Ef is greater than 250 GPa.
After obtaining the ultimate Possion's ratio of FRP-confined concrete,
according to strain compatibility, the ultimate strain of FRP-confined
concrete can be easily calculated by the following equation:
&
=-E f i
(7)
CC
vu
where E,, is the ultimate axial strain of FRP-confined concrete, and cfiis
the ultimate strain of FRP.
3 r
0 '
0
1 1
0. 5
1. 5
-0
0
fdco
(a) Common FRP sheet confined concrete
0. 5
fdco
(b) FRP tube confined concrete
Figure 2. Regression equations for ultimate Possion's ratio
COMPARISON OF AVAILABLE MODELS

Comparison of existing models and the model proposed in this paper is
showed in Table 1, some conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Many existing models seem to accurately predict the ultimate strength of
FRP-confined concrete; on the contrary, there is a large scatter
associated with strain predictions.
(2) The models proposed by Lam and Teng (2001), and Xiao and Wu (2001)
can favorably estimate the ultimate stress and strain of FRP
sheet-confined concrete, but it is not favorable for FRP tube-confined
concrete.
(3) The models proposed by Samaan and Mirmiran (1997), and Spoelstra
and Monti (1999) can favorably estimate the ultimate stress and strain
of FRP tube-confined concrete, but it is not favorable for FRP
sheet-confined concrete.
(4) It seems that all the existing models cannot favorably predict the
ultimate stress and strain of concrete confined by high modulus FRP.
( 5 ) The model proposed by this paper can favorably predict the ultimate
stress and strain of concrete confined by any type of FRP.
Researchers
Table 1. Comparison of available models

Confined with high
Confined with common
FRP sheet
Stress
modulus FRP sheet
Strain
Stress
Strain
Confined with FRP tube

Stress
Strain
~~~
Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev.
[I1
1.35 0.41
0.88
0.38
1.20
0.27
3.83 3.78 1.31 0.36 0.61 0.51
[21
1.32 0.38
1.11
0.37
1.23
0.28
1.88 1.09 1.17 0.20 0.57 0.46
[61
1.11 0.20
2.03
1.30
1.09
0.15 2.08 1.57 0.99 0.08 0.93 0.27
181
1.15 0.22
1.17
0.40
1.06
0.13 2.21 1.51 1.07 0.14 0.63 0.42
191
1.35 0.39
1.53
0.71
1.22
0.27
1.56 0.76 1.26 0.29 0.16 0.86
[lo]
1.08 0.17
1.58
0.76
1.03
0.11
1.55 0.76 0.96 0.09 0.79 0.29
[I11
1.06 0.16
1.87
1.05
0.94
0.17
1.85 1.34 0.98 0.09 0.86 0.20
[I41
1.09 0.39
0.94
0.33
1.17
0.27
1.48 0.68 1.26 0.33 0.55 0.50
0.97 0.14
1.02
0.32
0.93
0.12
1.72 0.88 0.86 0.16 1.10 0.34
Thispaper 1.02 0.13
1.00
0.31
0.96
0.10
0.94 0.39 0.98 0.10 0.97 0.15
[I51
Best
This paper
Third
[I11
7his paper
This paper
~ 4 1
~ 3 1
This paper
[6]
2% paper
Thispaper
[I11
Stress-Strain Relations for FRP-Confined Cylinders 557
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
Tri-linear Stress-strain Model
This paper suggests a tri-linear model can be used to predict the stress-strain
response of cylinders confined with a sufficient amount of FRP (Fig.3), each
point in Fig.3 can be determined respectively as following:
Point 1( E , ~ ocl
, ):
where E, is the modulus of concrete, and can be approximated by
Point 2( E , ~ oc2
,
):
oc2
=(1+0.0002E,)~,
E , ~= (I
(10)
+ 0.0004E,) E,,
(1 1)
where E,, is the peak strain of unconfined concrete, and can be approximated
by 0.002.
point 3
fco
A,
( E,,
E,,
can be obtained from Eqs. (1)-(3) and Eqs. (4)-(7) respectively.
):
--c
EC
Figure 3. Tri-linear stress-strain model
Comparison with Experimental Results

Figure 4 shows the comparison between the experimental data and the
proposed model. A satisfactory agreement is observed for the proposed
model.
100
h
Q.
v
100
80
2 80
60
92 60
v1
E40
,$ 40
v)
20
20
0.02
0.01
0.03
Strain
0.04
0.05
0.005
(a) Mirmiran et al?

120
120 r
100
100
0.015
0.02
80
80
v
60
;60
5 40
f: 40
v)
20
20
O.O!
Strain
(b) Hosotani et a1.4
0.005
0.01 0.015
Strain
0.02
0.025
(c) Miyauchi et a1.8
O.O1 Strain
0. 02
0. 03
(d) Toutanji
120
100
80
100
h
LC3
80
v
;60
al
2 40
v)
20
0
n
"
0.01 Strain 0.02
(e) Saafi et a1.l'
0.03
0.01 Strain 0.02
(QXiao et aI.
Figure 4. Comparison between the proposed model to test results
0.03
Stress-Strain Relationsfor FRP-Confined Cylinders 559
CONCLUSIONS
(1) The effectiveness coefficient of FRP is related to the value of f#Lo, the
form of FRP, and the method determining the strength of FRP. The
ultimate strength of FRP-confined concrete can be approximated by
Eqs.( 1) to (3).
(2) Methods to predict the ultimate Possions ratio of FRP-confined
concrete are proposed, from which the ultimate strain of FRP-confined
concrete can be easily calculated. The method is simply and suitable for
concrete confined by normal or high modulus CFRP sheet, GFRP sheet,
AFRP sheet and FRP tube.
(3) The stress-strain response of FRP confined-concrete can be predicted by
a tri-linear stress-strain model. The model is simply, and compares
favorably with many existing test results by other researches.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support of partial work of this paper from the National High
Technology Research and Development Program of China (863 Program)
under grant 200 1AA336010 is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Michael, N.F., Khalili, H., Concrete Encased in Fiberglass-Reinforced
Plastic, ACI Structural Journal, November-December, 1981,
pp.440-446.
2. Ahmad, H., Khaloo, A.R. and Irshaid, A., Behavior of Concrete Spirally
Confined by Fiberglass Filaments, Magazine of Concrete Research,
N0.156, 1991, ~ ~ 1 4 3 - 1 4 8 .
3. Mirmiran, A. and Shahawy, M., Behavior of Concrete Columns
Confined by Fiber Composite, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
V01.123, No5, 1997, ~ ~ 5 8 3 - 5 9 0 .
4. Hosotani, M., Kawashima, K. and Hoshikuma, J. A Stress-Strain Model
for Concrete Cylinders Concrete by Carbon Fiber Sheets, Concrete
Structures and Pavements, JSCE, No.592, V-39, 1998-5, pp37-pp52.
5 . Nakatsuka, T., Komure , K. and Tagaki, K., Stress-strain Characteristics
of Confined Concrete with Carbon Fiber Sheet, Concrete Research
and Technology, Vo1.9, July 1998, pp65-78.
6. Samaan, M., and Mirmiran, A. and Shahawy, M., Model of Concrete
Confined Fiber Composite, Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE,
560 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfor Confinement
V01.124, No9, 1998, ~ ~ 1 0 2 5 - 1 0 3 1 .

7. Harries, K.A., Kestner, J. and Pessiki, S., Axial Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Columns Retrofit with FRPC Jackets, Proceeding of Second
International Conference on Composite in Infiastructure (ICCI98),
USA, pp4 11-425.
8. Miyauchi, K., Inoue, S. and Kuroda, T., Strengthening Effects with
Carbon Fiber Sheet for Concrete Column, Proceedings of the Japan
Concrete Institute, Vol. 21, No.3, 1999, pp1453-1458.
9. Toutanji, H.A. Stress-Strain Characteristics of Concrete Columns
Externally Confined with Advanced Fiber Composite Sheets, ACI
Materials Journal, V.96, No.3, 1999, pp397-404.
lO.Saafi, M., Toutanji, H.A. and Li, Z., Behavior of Concrete Columns
Confined with Fiber Reinforced Polymer Tubes, ACI Materials Journal,
V01.96, NO.4, 1999, ~ ~ 5 0 0 - 5 0 9 .
1 1. Spoelstra, M.R. and Monti, G., FRP-Confined Concrete Model,
Journal of Compositefor Construction,August, 1999, pp. 143-150.
12.Xia0, Y. and Wu, H., Compressive Behavior of Concrete Confined by
Carbon Fiber Composite Jackets, Journal of Material in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 12, N02,2000, pp139-146.
13.Vintzileou, E., An Empirical Model for Predicting the Properties for
Concrete Confined by Means of Composite Materails, FRPRCS-5,200
1,
Cambridge, UK, pp845-853.
14.Xia0, Y. and Wu, H., Concrete Stub Columns Confined by Various
Types of FRP Jackets, Proceeding of the International Conference on
FRP Composite in Civil Engineering(CICE2001), 200 1, Hong Kong,
China, pp293-300.
15.Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., A New Stress-Strain Model for FRP-Confined
Concrete, CICE 2001,Hong Kong, China, pp283-292.
16.Karabinis, A.I., and Rousakis, T.C. A Model for the Mechanical
Behavior of the FRP Confined Columns, CICE2001, Hong Kong,
China, pp3 17-325.
17.And0, T. and Wu, Z.S., Study on Strengthening effect of Compressive
Concrete with Hybrid FRP Sheets, Proceedings of the 55* Annual
Conference of the Japan Society of Civil Engineering, September, 2000.

STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP FOR FRP-CONFINED

CONCRETE PRISMS
G. WU',2, Z. WU2 AND Z. LU'
'College of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, China
'Department of Urban & Civil Engineering, Ibaraki University, Japan
Based on the analysis of more than one hundred concrete prisms confined
with FRP, an analytical method for predicting the initial peak stress and
strain values of FRP-confined concrete prisms is presented. The ultimate
stress and strain of FRP-confined concrete prisms can be calculatedthrough
modifying the corresponding ultimate stress and strain of equivalent
cylinder concrete confined with equivalent FRP. Two models which can be
applied under different conditions are suggested to predict the stress-strain
relation of FRP-confined concrete prisms.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, several studies of concrete square or rectangular columns
confined by FRP were reported in literature,2273 83 12, l 3 but the stress-strain
models of FRP-confined concrete prisms are still not conducted well.
Existing ones were mostly proposed based on the models of steel-confined
concrete. It is realized that directly applying the models of steel-confined
concrete to the case of FRP-confined concrete may result in overestimating
the strength because the steel-confined concrete behaves very differently
from FRP-confined concrete. This paper puts forward a new method to
predict the initial peak stress, initial peak strain, ultimate stress and ultimate
strain of FRP-confined concrete based on the analysis of results of more than
one hundred specimens. In addition, two stress-strain models are also
suggested to predict the stress-strain relation of FRP-confined concrete
prisms.
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
More than one hundred experimental results from existing investigations are
used in this paper. The available experimental data covers a wide range of
values for several parameters including concrete strength and type of FRP.
A typical stress-strain curve of FRP-confined concrete prisms is shown
in Fig. 1. After point A, the curve of stress-strain relationship may be either
descending or ascending due to the reinforcement level. In this paper, the
FJ
Point A is defined as an initial peak point, and the ultimate Point B or Point C
corresponds to the fracture of FRP reinforcement.
Ultimate point
0
&
Figure 1. Typical stress-strain curve of FRP-confined concrete prism
In order to propose different stress-strain models, the calculations of the

stress and strain values corresponding to the initial peak point and the
ultimate point are first investigated based on regression analysis. During the
regression analysis, some unreasonable data such as ones due to premature
failure and some very scattered ones are removed, but all the data are
considered in the comparison between the proposed models and experimental
results.
INITIAL PEAK STRESS AND STRAIN OF CONFINED CONCRETE
Based on the analysis of existing experimental results, it can be found that the
volumetric ratio of FRP to concrete, the modulus of FRP and the modulus of
concrete will significantly affect the initial peak stress and strain. There is a
direct proportion between the modulus of concrete and the square root of
compressive strength of concrete; therefore, the ratio of elastic modulus
between FRP reinforcement and concrete can be expressed as
/&
Ef
and a factor A can be introduced to predict the initial peak stress and strain of
FRP-confined concrete prisms, as
where pf is the volumetric ratio of FRP to concrete,

and
Ef the modulus of FRP,
Lothe uniaxial compressive strength of concrete cylinder.
Stress-Strain Relationsfor FRP-Confined Prisms 563
Initial Peak Stress

Through a regression analysis, the peak stress of confined concrete is
approximated as follows (Fig.2):
2= 1+ 0.0008a1k1A
L
where
(2)
is the compressive strength of unconfined concrete prism, crcp the
initial peak stress of FRP-confined concrete prisms, and a, the influence

coefficient of concrete strength which can be expressed as:
L3tl
"1
30
=--L o
L o
Moreover, k, is the influence coefficient of high modulus FRP, which is taken

the value of 1.O when Efis less than or equal to 250 GPa, or
d
w (unit
GPa) when Efis larger than 250 GPa.
2r
0 '
0
2 0 0 a , ~ 400
800
600
Figure 2. Regression equation or initial peak stress
Fig.3 shows the comparison between different test data from existing
studies3-5, 7-10, 13, 14 . A good agreement is observed.
100 P
5 6 0
= Rochette
Mirmiran
Nakade
0 HoE(ltm1(96)
*Hasotm1(98) .Wakatarka
I. +
2 8 0
thao
svter
+I5%
-15%
-15%
e40
3W 20
P
t;o
20
40
60
80
100
Predicted peak stress (MPa)

Figure 3. Comparison of proposed model with different test results
Initial Peak Brain
The peak strain of FRP-confined concrete can be approximated by (Fig.4 ):
5 = 1+ 0.0034a,k2/Z
(4)
where E,, ,.cCp

are the peak strain of unconfined concrete and FRP-confined
concrete respectively, and E,, can be taken as 0.002, k2 is the influence
coefficient of high modulus FRP, which is taken by 1.O when Elis less than or
equal to 250GPa, or taken by 250/E, (unit GPa) when Ef is greater than
25 OGPa.
A good agreement is also observed from the comparison between
experimental data and the proposed model (Fig.5).
4 j
0 '
0
400
200
600
a?
Figure 4. Regression equation for initial peak stress
0.012
0.008
0.004
0
0
0.004
0.008
0.012
Predicted peak strain

Figure 5. Comparison of proposed model with test results
ULTIMATE STRESS AND STRAIN OF CONFINED CONCRETE
In order to consider the influence of FRP lateral confinement, an equivalent

cylinder is defined to calculate the ultimate stress and strain of FRP-confined
Stress-Strain Relations for FRP-Confined Prisms 565
concrete prisms. The diameter of equivalent cylinder D is considered to be the

length of longer side of the rectangular section (Fig. 6 ) .
Ultimate Stress
The ultimate stress of FRP-confined prisms can be approximated through

reducing the ultimate stress of equivalent cylinders confined with equivalent
FRP by a factork, .
fc,
=k3Lc
(5)
Lc
where f,, is the ultimate stress of FRP-confined concrete prisms,

is the
ultimate stress of equivalent cylinders confined with the same FRP
reinforcement around the prisms, which can be easily predicted by the
model proposed by the author^'^.
Through the data analysis, the regression equation of k3 can be
expressed as:
where r is the ratio of the radius comer and h is the length of the longer side of a
section (Fig. 6).
Equi val ent cyl i nder
7
Figure 6 . Concept of equivalent cylinder

Fig.7 shows the comparison between experimental data and the
proposed analytical model, a favorable agreement is observed for the

proposed model.
+15%
20
40
60
80
100
Predicted ultimate stress ( m a )

Figure 7. Comparison of proposed model with test data
Ultimate Strain
The ultimate strain of FRP-confined concrete prisms can also be

approximated by reducing the ultimate strain of equivalent cylinder concrete
confined with equivalent FRP using a different factor k 4 ,that is,
Em
(7)
= k4Ecc
where E, is the ultimate strain of FRP-confined concrete prisms, E,, the

ultimate strain of equivalent cylinders confined with equivalent FRP
reinforcement and can be easily predicted by the models suggested by the
authors15.The regression equation of k4 can be expressed as:
Er I 2 5 0
(unit GPa) (8)
250
Er >250
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIP
Two models for predicting the stress-strain response of FRP-confined

concrete prisms are suggested herein.
Model I
A parabolic equation is used to define the stress-strain curve of FRP-confined
concrete in the first region before the initial peak point, a curvilinear equation
is used to predict the stress-strain relationship in the second region, the
curvilinear equation being first proposed for steel-confined concrete by other
researcher^'^, but some coefficients are simplified here. The following
expressions are obtained for Model I (Fig. 8).
"1
Inital peak p3nt
0'
CP
Figure 8. Stress-strain curve of Model I
oc= o c p ( 2 x - x 2 )
xll
A l-xA
x>l
o,=x
(9)
wherex=Ec/EcP, A=-5130B2+44B-0.778, B = o , / ( 1 0 6 ~ c p ) .
The ultimate stress can be calculated by Eq. (5). It will result in determination
of the whole stress-strain curve of the confined concrete.
Model I is valid only when the confinement effectiveness is relatively low
and the post peak behavior shows a descending response. The applicable
range of
< 0.14 is suggested, in which J; is the lateral confinement
J/Ao
modulus of equivalent cylinder due to FRP, and f,b is the uniaxial

compressive cylinder strength of unconfined concrete. Fig. 9 shows the
comparison between the proposed model and some experimental results from
existing investigations3,5, 9, 13.

70
50
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
Strain
(a) Hosotani3 and Nakatsuka'
0.01
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
Strain
(b) Nakadeg and ZhaoI3
Figure 9. Comparison of Model I with experimental results
Model II
The first portion of stress-strain curve is considered to be parabolic, while the

second one is idealized to be linear based on the experimental observations.
The initial peak stress, initial peak strain, ultimate stress and ultimate strain
can be calculated by Eqs. (2), (4),(5) and (7), respectively. Model I1 can be
expressed as:
The predicted equations for the ultimate strain of equivalent cylinder

suggested in different papersI5 is valid only when the concrete is confined
with a sufficient amount of FRP reinforcement. Model I1 is considered to be

2 0.14 , and used to evaluate some experimental
applicable for
results4,
~ , I I 14
, , Good agreement could be seen in Fig. 11.
J;/xo
50 I
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
Strain
(a) Rochette and Pavin
0.025
0.002
0,004
0,006
0,008
Strain
(b) Hosotani ( 199q4and LiI4
Figure 11. Comparison of Model I1 with experimental results
CONCLUSIONS
(1) A factor A is introduced to predict the initial peak stress and strain of
FRP-confined concrete prisms. The model shows a satisfactory
agreement with the experimental results.
(2) The ultimate stress and strain of FRP-confined concrete prisms can be
predicted by reducing the ultimate stress and strain of equivalent
cylinders confined with equivalent FRP reinforcement using two
different factors k3 and k4.
(3) Two different models are suggested for the stress-strain response of
FRP-confined prisms with both post strain hardening and strain softening
behavior. Both models were found to agree with existing test results..
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support for partial work of this paper from the National High
Technology Research and Development Program of China (863 Program) under
grant 2001AA336010 is gratefully acknowledge.
REFERENCE
1. Xing, Q.S., Weng, Y.J. and Shen, J.M, Experimental Study on the Complete
Stress-strain Curve of Confined Concrete, Proceeding of National
Conference on Application and Theory of Common and Con$ned Concrete,

YinTai, China, October, 1987.
2. Saadatmanesh, H., Ehasni, M.R. and Li, M.W., Strength and Ductility of
Concrete Columns Externally Reinforced with Fiber Composite Straps,ACI
Structural Journal, Vo1.91, No.4, 1994, pp.434-447.
3. Hosotani, M., Kawashima, K. and Hoshikuma, J., A Stress-Strain Relation
of Confined Concrete Cylinders Concrete by Carbon Fiber Sheets,
Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 18, No.2, 1996, pp95-100.
4. Hosotani, M., Kawashima, K. and Hoshikuma, J., A Stress-Strain Model for
Concrete Cylinders Concrete by Carbon Fiber Sheets, Concrete Structures
and Pavements, JSCE, V-39, N0.592, 1998-5, pp37-pp52.
5 . Nakatsuka, T., Komure, K. and Tagaki, K., Stress-strain Characteristics of
Confined Concrete with Carbon Fiber Sheet, Concrete Research and
Technology,Vo1.9, No.2, July 1998.
6. Harries, K.A., Kestner, J. and Pessiki, S., Axial Behavior of Reinforced
Concrete Columns Retrofit with FRPC Jackets, Proceeding of Second
International Conference on Composite in Infrastructure (ICCI98), USA.
7. Mirmrian, A., Shahawy, M. and et al., Effect of Column Parameters on
FRP-Confined Concrete, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE,
V01.2, No.4, November, 1998, pp175-185.
8. Rochette, P. and Labossiere, P., Axial Testing of Rectangular Column
Models Confined with Composites, Journal of Compositesfor Construction,
ASCE, v04, No.3,2000, ~ ~ 1 2 9 - 1 3 6 .
9. Nakade, A., Yoneoku, H. and Fuchikawa, M., Experimental Study on the
Confinement Effect of Concrete Columns Confined by Carbon Fiber Sheets,
Proceedings of the Japan Concrete Institute, Vol. 23,ko.l, 2001.
10. Suter, R. and Pinzelli, R., Confinement of Concrete Columns with FRP
Sheets, FRPRCS-5,2001, Cambridge, UK, pp793-802.
11. Parvin, A. and Wang, W., Behavior of FRP Jacketed Concrete Columns
under Eccentric Loading, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE,
Vo1.5, No.3,2001, pp146-152.
12. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., Compressive Strength of FRP-Confined in
Rectangular Columns, Proceeding of the International Conference on FRP
Composite in Civil Engineering (CICE 2001), December 200 1, Hong Kong.
13. Zhao, T., Xie, J., Experimental Study on Complete Stress-strian Relation
Curve of CFRP Confined Concrete, Building structure, July, 2000.
14. Li, J., Qian, J.R. and Jiang, J.B., Study on Complete Stress-strian Relation
Curve of CFRP Confined Concrete, Proceeding of Second National
Conference on Fiber-reinforced plastics for reinforced concrete
structures,KunMing, China, 2002, pp157-162.

CONCRETE CYLINDERS CONFINED BY CFRP SHEETS

SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC AXIAL COMPRESSIVE LOAD
T. ROUSAKIS I , c. s. YOU 2, L. DE LORENZIS 3, v. T A M U ~ S', R. TEPFERS
Dept. of Civil Eng., Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece
Dept. of Mechanical Eng., Pohang Univ. of Sci. and Tech., Pohang, South Korea
3
Dept. of Innovation Eng., University of Lecce, I-73100 Lecce, Italy
'Institute of Polymer Mechanics, Univ. of Latvia, Aizkraukles 23, Riga, Latvia
5
Dept. of Building Materials, Chalmers University of Tech., Goteborg, Sweden
'
The mechanical behavior of concrete confined by carbon fiber-reinforced

polymer (CFRP) material is investigated. Two series of concrete cylinders
are presented in this study, with compressive strength of 20.5 MPa and 49.2
MPa, and confined by CFRP sheet with 234 GPa elastic modulus. The
carbon volumetric ratio ranged between 0.45% and 1.36%. Split-disk tests
were performed to estimate hoop properties of CFRP sheet. The concrete
cylinders were subjected to monotonic and cyclic axial compressive
loading with teflon sheets inserted between concrete and steel bearing
platens to reduce friction. The performance of CFRP-confined concrete in
terms of strength, ductility and expansion is remarkable.
INTRODUCTION
Rehabilitation and strengthening of structures with inadequate bearing

capacity has reached a level of extended design alternatives. Use of fiberreinforced polymer (FRP) materials is growing, as they tend to replace
conventional steel as external reinforcement in upgrading of existing
structures. Considering the mechanism of confinement in enhancement of
strength and ductility of structural members, FRP materials turn to be more
advantageous than steel. The linear elastic behavior of FRP reinforcement
(tube or sheet) up to failure provides an ever-increasing pressure on the
confined concrete core. Many experimental efforts have recently been
concentrated in the investigation of the confining effect of FRP materials
with a variety of mechanical and physical properties', *.
The modeling of the behavior of FRP confined concrete is mostly based
on semi-empirical equations3,4, while there are models based on constitutive
relationships. The stress-strain response suggested by the various models is
strongly dependent on the experimental data they are based on. The theory
of plasticity can incorporate the unique dilation characteristics of FRP
confined concrete. Recently, modified plasticity models have been

developed for the reproduction of the stress-strain behavior of FRP sheet
confined concrete.
In FRP-confinement, the failure criterion is the fracture of the confining
reinforcement. Usually, in modeling, the ultimate strain of the jacket is
taken equal to the ultimate tensile strain of the fibers. Experimental
evidence testifies that the measured ultimate tensile strain ( E ~ , ) taken from
FRP coupon tests is slightly lower than the ultimate strain of the fibers
(given by the manufacturer). For FRP-confined specimens this strain is
lower than both values6. In a recent study the reduced, effective ultimate
lateral strain of FRP has been imported in modeling, improving the accuracy
of semi-empirical models
A two-phase experimental investigation has been performed to
investigate the behavior of five concrete qualities confined by three carbon
FRP (CFRP) materials (sheets and filaments) and subjected to axial
compressive load*. In this paper only a part of this investigation is
presented concerning two qualities of concrete cylinders, confined by CFRP
sheet, in a range of volumetric ratios (pj) and subjected to monotonic and
cyclic load. Split-disk tests have been performed to estimate hoop
properties of FRP sheet. The enhanced mechanical behavior of CFRP sheet
confined concrete is studied in terms of strength, ductility and expansion.
EXPERIMENTS
Two concrete mixtures were used, with low and high concrete target
strengths respectively for the construction of cylinders with 150 mm
diameter and 300 mm height. The concrete composition, strength and
modulus of elasticity of the plain cylindrical specimens are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1. Concrete mixtures.
Average
proportion ofthe concrete mixture ( /m3)
(w+w,)/
Strength
c
silica
k0
w Air d i t i v e s (c+silica)
W a
fid powder scmd
GraVel
(liters) % (liters))*
(kd dO-8m d:8-12 ~m d : l l - l 6 ~ n
(cylidical)
20.5
201.4 1205.3
364.4
364.4
189.5 2.4
0.94
500 16.5
934.5
382.3
382.3
178 2.4 9.45
0.35
49.2
*Superplasticizer 1,33% and retarder 0,5% of binder weight (C+silica).
Cylinders Subjected to Cyclic Compressive Load 573
The FRP wrapping material was BPE Composite 300S, made of Grafil
carbon fibers and epoxy resin. Data provided by the supplier are cited in
table 2. Moreover split-disk tests according to ASTM D 2290 were
performed to estimate the hoop properties (effective ultimate lateral strain)
of the FRP sheet. Results are presented in Figure 1.
Table 2. Carbon fiber properties.
GraJil Inc. unidirectional 340-700 carbon
BPE Composite 300s carbon sheet
Tensile
Tensile
Tensile
Thickness, Mdth, Weight,
Strength2 Modulus, Elongation, Density,
(dcm')
~ype
mm
(@a)
mm (dm')
%
(Ma)
300
300
1.9
1.8 Unidkctional
0.17
4500
234
C F R P - S h e e t R i n g Test
--C 2 Layers (b)
-1
0000
0004
0008
Layerr (n)
0 012
Strain
Figure 1 . Specimens of CFRP-ring tensile test and tensile behavior of CFRP-rings.
From the comparison in Figure 2, it can be noted that the effective

ultimate lateral strain ranges from 0.5 to 0.64 times the ultimate tensile
strain depending on the number of sheet layers. Hoop strength of carbon
sheet ranges from 0.41 to 0.61 respectively, while modulus exhibits
practically no clear variation. Overlap length of the carbon sheet was taken
as 150 mm based on the preliminary tests performed on carbon sheet with
the same ultimate axial strength and higher elastic modulus
A total of 18 specimens of the low and high strength concrete batches
(labeled L and H correspondingly) were tested under axial compressive
load. Four teflon 0.2 mm sheets were used between the concrete surfaces
and the bearing platens to eliminate base friction. The six plain specimens
were subjected to monotonic compressive load up to failure. The twelve
wrapped specimens were tested under axial monotonic or cyclic load up to
failure. Two identical cylinders were wrapped with one, two and t h e e
layers of CFRP with fiber orientation perpendicular to their axis. One
'.
specimen was tested under monotonic load and the other under repeated
load with the same loading-unloading rate.
The load, axial displacement, axial strain and lateral strain were
measured as shown in Figure 3.
1 layer (a)
1 layer (b)
2 layer (a)
2 layer (b)
3 layer (a)
3 layer (b)
Normalized values are divided by tensile properties of carbon fibers.
Figure 2. Comparison between tensile and hoop properties of carbon sheet.
LVDT #3
Figure 3. Instrumentation of specimens.
All specimens were conditioned at 20C and 50% relative humidity and
tested after twelve and a half months. The loading machine capacity was
5000 I&.
The rate was 10 MPa I minute at monotonic and cyclic loading,
similar to that of ASTM C 39/C 39M - 99 standards. The repeated loadunload cycles were related to the unconfined concrete strengthf, and the
ultimate strength of confined concrete fco The load of each cycle was
Cylinders Subjected to Cyclic Compressive Load 57.5
successively increased up to 0.5&, 0.8&,f,, cfc+ 0.33cfcc-f,)),cfc+ 0.66(~&-
fc)} and finally up to failure.
Plain concrete exhibited a brittle behavior with rather columnar type of
concrete fracture due to elimination of base friction (use of teflon caps),
Figure 4a. The curves of plain concrete stress-strain response are presented
in Figures 5 and 6.
L batch
H batch
Figure 4.a Unconfined

specimens with teflon caps after
failure. Vertical cracks.
Figure 4b. Specimen

of H batch with 1
layer of FRP sheet,
after failure.
Figure 4c. Specimen of

H batch with 2 layers of
sheet under cyclic load
after failure.
2
I
D
bl
i
-0.0015
-0.W
Lateral smn I1
0 . W
0.0015
0.W25
0.0035
0.W45
Ilx,Lstra,nra
Figure 5. Axial stress - axial and lateral

strain behavior of plain specimens from
L and H concrete batches.
-0.001 -0.wO5
0 . W 0.W1 0.W15 0,002 0.WZ
0,003 0.w35
Figure 6. Stress - volumetric strain

behavior of plain specimens from L and
H concrete batches.
Confined specimens under monotonic or cyclic load displayed a sudden

and explosive failure, after the rupture of the carbon sheet. Carbon sheet
fracture occurred in some specimens along their height or it was focused in

the upper, center or bottom part (Figures 4b and 4c).
The mechanical behavior of CFRP-confined concrete for low and high
strength concrete batches is illustrated through their stress-strain diagrams
(Figures 7 to 10). All specimens show an ever-increasing response of
expanding concrete up to failure for monotonic or cyclic mode of loading.
-0.02
-0.01
Lateral S t m n E l
0.02
0,01
&la
0.03
Stmn La
Figure 8. Stress-volumetric strain

response of specimens from L concrete
batch confined with 0, 1 , 2 and 3 layers
of CFRP sheet.
Figure 7. Stress-strain behavior of

specimens from L concrete batch
confined with 0, 1 , 2 and 3 layers of
CFRP sheet.
- -,-.I
.-
--........-
0.0'
lateral strsn L I
Axm St,a,n ra
Figure 9. Stress-strain behavior of

specimens from H concrete batch confined
with 0, 1, 2 and 3 layers of CFRP sheet.
-0,015
-0.01
-0.W5
Volumetric Stla," 6"
Figure 10. Stress-volumetric strain

response of specimens from H concrete
batch confined with 0, 1, 2 and 3 layers
of CFRF' sheet.
Up to about 0.9 of ultimate unconfined concrete load, the stress - strain

response (axial, lateral and volumetric) of the composite system is
dominated by the response of plain concrete. After that characteristic load,
serious cracks are formed in the concrete core. The jacket interacts with
expanding concrete to stabilize its disintegration and a linear stress-strain
relation is obtained up to jacket failure. An envelope-like behavior is

obtained for cyclic loading-unloading mode, with gradual reduction of the
concrete axial rigidity from cycle to cycle (Figures 7 and 9). However, the
FRP jacket tends to prevent further concrete disintegration resulting in
higher strength and ductility of confined concrete, regardless of the number
of cycles (the tests included loading up to 6 cycles).
Table 3. Experimental results.
wdm
UltitmIe
Lnbels
stress
L-2
L-3t
L
W-lt
LIC-H
Lz-lt
L2C-H
17.1
23.0
20.5
41.3
48.7
57.2
63.8
63.1
73.9
50.0
50.5
47.1
49.2
79.0
75.2
83.9
79.2
100.6
108.6
w-lf
wc-2
H - It
H-2
H-3t
H
HI-If
HlC-H
H2-lf
HZC-2
H3-lf
H3C-2t
Ultime
(ntime
W u s
h i d s t r a n Lateralstran 4Ehtieiity
0.0014
0.0033
0.0026
0.00%
0.0170
0.0142
0.0191
0.0142
0.0210
0.0017
0.0019
0.0016
0.0017
0.0039
0.0050
0.0035
0.0033
0.0062
0.0076
-0.cco2
-0.ooo4
-0.0003
-0.0080
-0,0102
25.4
23.9
24.4
-0.0064
-0.M)90
-0.0058
-0.0082
-0.0003
-0.0007
-0.0012
-0.ooo7
-0.0044
-0.0074
-0.0026
-0,0022
-0.0048
-0.0062
N d i z t d Nonmliztd Nonmliztd
Laad
hid&ain Lateralstmin
2.02
2.38
2.80
3.12
3.08
3.62
3.69
6.54
5.46
1.35
5.46
8.08
2667
34.00
21.33
30.00
19.33
27.33
1.61
1.53
2.29
2.94
2.06
1.94
3.65
4.47
6.29
10.57
3.71
3.14
6.86
8.86
40.4
35.5
34.0
36.7
1.70
1.61
2.04
2.21
The test results of confined specimens are presented in Table 3. The

labels given are decoded as follows: target low (L) or high (H) concrete
strength, number of sheet layers (1 or 20r 3), mode of loading (blank for
monotonic or Cyclic), number of identical specimen and finally use of
teflon or not (t or blank). The normalized values of ultimate stress and
strain are presented (divided by the corresponding values of unconfined
concrete). For 20.5 MPa concrete strength and 3 layers of jacket the
normalized ultimate load at failure varied from 3.08 - 3.62 while for 49.2
MPa the corresponding values ranged from 2.04 - 2.21 times the load of
plain concrete. The normalized axial strains were between 5.46 and 8.08,
and between 3.65 and 4.47 for the two concrete strengths respectively. The
578 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Confinemeni
normalized lateral strain had similar reducing tendency for higher strength
concrete.
In cyclic loading of confined specimens, the variation of strength and
ductility was similar to that of the monotonic mode of load. In fact the
failure values were higher. From the stress - volumetric response diagrams
it could be noted that the carbon jacket tends to control concrete expansion.
(Figures 8 and 10). For the same confinement volumetric ratio, the lower
concrete strength results in better control of concrete expansion. The lateral
strain is better restricted in lower strength concrete. For specimens
subjected to cyclic loading, the same remarks are valid.
Increasing the volumetric ratio of carbon jacket (more sheet layers), led
to increase in the rigidity in fiber direction of the jacket. For plain concrete
strength (20.5 MPa), the normalized values of ultimate load in Table 3
revealed an increase from 2.02 for one layer ofjacket, to 3.62 times the load
of plain concrete for three layers. The increase in ductility varied from 3.69
to 8.08 correspondingly. From the normalized values in Table 3, it could be
noted that the increase in both strength and ductility of the confined
concrete (for every additional layer of jacket) was lower when the plain
concrete strength was higher. However, high strength concrete specimens
wrapped with only three layers of carbon sheet reached the strength of 108.6
MPa. No difference was noted for specimens under cyclic mode of loading.
During loading, the jacket was under a tri-axial state of stress. The
ultimate strain at failure of the carbon FRP jacket for the 20.5 MPa concrete
strength ranged from 0.008 for one layer to 0.0058 for three layers. For the
49.2 concrete strength specimen with three layers of CFRP the strain at
failure reached 0.0048. It is obvious that the strain at failure of the jacket
was lower than the half of the tensile elongation at failure of the carbon
fibers, (Table 2). Specimens subjected to cyclic load showed a relatively
higher ultimate lateral strain.
CONCLUSIONS
The response of the composite system, concrete-FRP jacket, depends on the

material mechanical properties of the concrete and the carbon FRP sheet,
the performance of the wrapping application performance, the overlap
length, the volumetric confinement ratio as well as the mode of loading.
Also, the friction between the steel bearing platens and the concrete affects
the mode of failure of confined concrete. With the use of teflon, the mode
of failure changes from shear cone to columnar, while in high strength
concrete, a decrease in ultimate stress is observed.
The results obtained from cylindrical concrete specimens confined by

BPE Composite 300s carbon FRP sheet, with 150 mm overlap length, use
of four-layer teflon caps and tested under monotonic and cyclic axial
compressive load, give a bilinear stress-strain relation and an ever
increasing strength response for increasing imposed axial deformation of the
concrete up to failure. Under cyclic loading the highest strength, 108.6 MPa
at a strain of 0.0076 is obtained for 49.2 MPa concrete wrapped with 3
layers (structural thickness 0.35 1 mm) of CFRP.
The CFRP-confined concrete fails when the carbon sheet is fractured.
The lateral measured strain at failure of the confined concrete on the FRP
surface is lower than half of the tensile elongation at failure of the carbon
fibers. The ultimate strain of the jacket for the 20.5 MPa concrete shows a
slight decrease with the number of carbon sheet layers, from 0.008 for one
layer to 0.0058 for three layers. For high concrete strength, there is a
similar tendency but it is not so clear. In general the strain at failure of the
jacket fibers is lower than the nominal tensile elongation at failure of the
carbon fibers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation was sponsored by European Commission - TMR Network, ConFibreCrete Research leading to the Development of Design
Guidelines for the use of FRP in Concrete Structures and Ake and Greta
Lissheds Foundation, SEB Bank, SE-106 40 Stockholm.
REFERENCES
1. Samaan M., Mirmiram A., Shahawy M.: Model of Concrete Confined

by Fiber Composites. ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, I? 124,
No 9, September 1998. pp. 1025-1031.
2. Matthys S., Taerwe L., Audenaert K.: Tests on Axially Loaded
Concrete Columns Confined by Fiber Reinforced Polymer Sheet
Wrapping. 41h International Symposium on Fiber Reinforced Polymer
Reinforcement for Reinforced Concrete Structures, 1999. pp. 2 17-228.
3. Saafi M., Toutanji H.A., Li Z.: Behavior of Concrete Columns
Confined with Fiber Reinforced Polymer Tubes. ACI Materials Journal,
V: 96, NO. 4, July - August 1999. pp. 500-509.
4. Spoelstra M. R., Monti G.: FRP-Confined Concrete Model. ASCE

Journal of Composites for Construction, V. 3, No. 3, August 1999. pp.
143-150.
5. Karabinis A. I, Rousakis T.C.: Concrete Confined by FRP Material: A
Plasticity Approach. Engineering Structures, Elsevier, 24 (2002). pp.
923-932.
6. Rousakis T.: Experimental investigation of concrete cylinders confined
by carbon FRP sheets, under monotonic and cyclic axial compressive
load, Research Report, Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg,
Sweden. p. 87.
7. De Lorenzis L.: A Comparative Study of Models on Confinement of
Concrete Cylinders with FRP Composites. Chalmers University of
Technology, Division of Building Technology, Work No 46.
Publication 01 :4. Goteborg, 2001-06-30. p.73.
8. Tamuis V., Chi-Sang You, Tepfers R. (2001), Experimental
Investigation of CFRP-confined Concretes under Compressive Load.
Institute of Polymer Mechanics, University of Latvia, Aizkraukles 23,
LV- 1006 Riga, Latvia and Division of Building Technology, Chalmers
University of Technology, S-412 96 Goteborg, Sweden, December 2001.
p. 68.

CONCRETE CYLINDERS CONFINED BY PRESTRESSED

CFRP FILAMENT WINDING UNDER AXIAL LOAD
T. ROUSAKIS I ,
c. s. YOU 2 , L. DE LORENZIS 3 , v. TAM& ', R. TEPFERS
Dept. of Civil Eng., Demokritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece

Dept. ofMechanica1 Eng., Pohang Univ. ofSci. and Tech., Pohang, South Korea
3
Dept. of Innovation Eng., University of Lecce, 1-73100 Lecce, Italy
Institute of Polymer Mechanics, Univ. of Latvia, Aizkraukles 23, Riga, Latvia
Dept. of Building Materials, Chalmers University of Tech., Goteborg, Sweden
I
Concrete cylinders confined by CFRP and loaded axially in compression

,display a distinct bilinear stress-strain response with a transition zone
around the ultimate strength of unconfined concrete where the decrease in
modulus occurs. Prestressed confinement would be favorable in raising the
load level of the transition zone and hence improved performance of
strengthened columns. A consequent investigation was executed on
concrete cylinders of 5 different strengths and confinements with 3 different
prestress levels. Theoretical prediction and experiments showed that
prestress of the confining device elevates the transition zone, which has
importance for the stability of confined concrete columns. The ultimate
load is not affected by the degree of prestress. The normalized increase in
ultimate load by prestressed confinement decrease with higher concrete
strength.
INTORODUCTION
Most R&D and field application projects were concentrated on concrete
column repair and strengthening using fiber composite materials. FRPmaterials can be used to upgrade civil engineering structures and this could
be the most effective way of introducing fiber composites into widespread
civil engineering use
'. Experimental studies have shown that concrete
cylinders confined by CFRP sheets, when loaded in uniaxial compression,
display a distinct bilinear stress-strain response with a transition zone
around the ultimate strength of unconfined concrete. The slope of the
branch after the transition zone depends on the volumetric ratio and the
mechanical properties of the confining device and is always lower than that
of the initial branch 2, 5, . The use of wrapped concrete columns above the
transition zone is questionable because of internal damage of concrete and
23
42
582 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfo r Confinement
low tangential slope of load-displacement curve. The lower E-modulus

above the transition zone may create problems for columns to take
advantage of increased strength by confinement due to reduced Euler
stability load '. Therefore it would be favorable to raise the load level of the
transition zone to achieve better stability at least up to this load level. This
function could be achieved by prestressing the confining device. The
objective of this paper is to study the behavior of concrete confined by
prestressed CFRP filament winding under axial compressive load. The
investigation was executed with standard concrete cylinders of diameter
150mm and height 300mm with 5 different concrete strengths that cover
nearly the whole range in practice. The parameters taken under
consideration for the confinement were 3 levels of prestress.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A total of 30 confined standard cylinder specimens were prepared from five

concrete batches with different strengths, C20; C40; C60; C80 and C100.
Additionally 15 plain concrete cylinders (three specimens from each batch)
were prepared and subjected to monotonic compressive load up to failure as
control specimens. In each batch of confined concrete, three different
specimens having different prestress levels were prepared and tested under
increased repeated load-unload cycles up to failure.
Characteristics of Confinement
The concrete cylinders were confined by winding around the cylinders

prestressed carbon fiber filament impregnated with epoxy resin. The yarn
of carbon fiber Zoltek Panex33 was used for confinement. The producer's
data of fiber and resin are given in Table 1. Split-disk tensile test was
carried out, following the ASTM standard D-2290, to estimate the
properties of uni-directional composite confinement. The diameter of the
split disk was 150 mm (the same as for concrete specimen) and the intensity
of winding was 5 yams per cm (the same as for real confinement). The
volume fraction of fibers was not determined and the strength and modulus
of fiber was calculated neglecting the matrix. Results are presented on the
third line of Table 1, and it is seen that strength and elongation of FRP
jacket is only about half of the values of the filament.
Cylinders Confined by Prestressed Filament Winding 583
Table 1. Mechanical properties of materials for confinement

Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
Material
Carbon yarn
(Zoltek PANEX33)
(Producer k data)
Epoxy resin
(NMBPE 41 7)
Fiber properties in
composite (Tensile
test on split disk)
Tensile
Modulus
(GPO)
Elongation
?A)
3800
228
1.6
50
1807
218
0.85
Cross-sectional Area
1.86 nunz
(Fiber Diameter: 7.2 pm)
Specimen Preparation
Five different concrete mixtures were designed to cover compressive
strength (measured on cubes with 150-mm side length) ranging from 20
MPa to 100 MPa. For the fabrication of C80 and ClOO batches
(corresponding to concrete with 80-MPa and 100-MPa compressive
strength, respectively), silica fume and additives were used. The additives
were Sikament-56 super-plasticizer and Sika retarder and both were added
as a percent of binder (cement and silica fume). Table 2 shows the
mechanical properties of concrete.
Table 2. Mechanical properties of concrete from experiments
Ultimate Stress (MPa)
Batch
Cylinder
c20
C 40
C 60
C 80
c 100
20.5
40.0
44.
49.2
61.6
Cube
(I50mm)
34.2
60.5
76.2
81.4
104.1
Elastic Modulus
Eb
Poisson's Ratio
(GPO)
24.40
34.03
37.83
36.65
39.09
0.14
0.17
0.19
0.18
0.19
After taking the concrete specimens out of their molds and curing them,
a primer resin was applied on the concrete surface so that the proper
underlay for high performance of confinement could be provided. Another
type of epoxy resin was applied to fill some cavities and pores on the
concrete surfaces. After finishing the treatment of the concrete surface, the
confining process with prestressed carbon filaments was performed. The
filament fed from the creel was received by the forcing device, where the
584 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Confinemen1
weight of designed prestress level was suspended from the yarn. The
applied forces were 300, 600 and 800 N, resulting in prestress levels of 80,
160 and 210 MPa (indicated in the following as prestress levels 1, 2 and 3,
respectively) and then the winding process was conducted around the
rotating concrete cylinder. The main resin was applied on the concrete
cylinder surface and filament before winding. Figure 1 shows the schematic
diagram of the filament winding process and a concrete cylinder confined
by filament winding. The carbon fiber ratio for specimen sections was
2.48%.
Winding
Tension
Specimen
Figure 1 . Winding process and fabricated specimen (dimension: mm)
Two strain gauges were arranged perpendicularly to each other on each

cylinder in order to measure the axial and lateral strain at the mid-height and
other two were arranged on the opposite side. The specimens were centered
on the platen of the loading machine to ensure that there was no load
eccentricity and four teflon sheets (0.2-mm thick) were used to reduce the
friction between concrete surfaces and loading platens. All specimens were
tested in load-controlled mode at a loading rate of 10 MPdminute in axial
compression until failure using a hydraulic 5000-kN column-testing
machine. For the confined specimens, the maximum load levels in the
cyclic loading were designed to be 0.5 o i p ,0.8 oip,oip,2 nip,3 oip and so
forth up to failure, oipbeing the strength of plain concrete. Minimum load
level at each cycle was 0 kN.
The test results, compressive strength, ultimate axial and lateral strains are
presented in Table 3 and the normalized values of ultimate strength are
presented in Figure 2. The normalized effect of confinement on
compressive strength decrease when concrete strength increases. The same
tendency is observed for normalized ultimate axial strain but it is not so
clear. The normalized lateral strain decreases and then seems to increase
with concrete strength.
Batch
Figure 2. Normalized compressive strengths, ultimate compressive axial strains and

ultimate lateral strains of filament wound concretes.
Table 3. Filament wound concrete under cyclic compressive load
Specimen
Label
Compressive
Strength, (r Tc
(MW
*
20PIC
40PlC
60PlC
8OPIC
l0OPlC
20P2C
40P2C
60P2C
80P2C
lOOP2C
20P3C
40P3C
60P3C
80P3C
100P3C
(r I c
/ (r zp
Jltimate Axial
Ultimate Lateral
Strain,
.zZcc/E,e
Strain,
&I c&l
&I cc
61 cc
105.08
5.14
0.0293
11.28
-0.0080
26.53
147.12
163.91
187.78
160.77
3.67
3.70
3.82
2.61
0.0212
0.0184
0.0215
0.0112
12.47
10.81
12.63
6.24
-0.0085
-0.0079
-0.0 103
-0.0080
12.15
13.23
14.66
19.93
109.10
5.33
0.0272
10.44
-0.0074
24.72
162.73
159.30
168.12
171.91
4.06
3.59
3.42
2.79
0.0270
0.0140
0.0184
0.0131
15.85
8.25
10.85
7.28
-0.0106
-0.0064
-0.0076
-0.0082
15.18
10.71
10.88
20.61
100.15
4.90
0.0300
11.53
-0.0068
22.68
139.14
155.90
180.94
154.53
3.48
3.52
3.68
2.51
0.0196
0.0133
0.0192
0.0086
11.53
7.80
11.27
4.76
-0.0067
-0.0076
-0.0090
-0.0065
9.58
12.66
12.89
16.15
In Figure 3, the stress-strain curves are presented for specimens with

C20 and ClOO concrete and all 3 prestress levels, under to cyclic loading.
For concretes of higher strength, is C100, a longer initial range is observed
than that of the plain concrete. The load-unload behavior is stiff with
modulus about that of initial range. Prestressing by automated filament
winding technique contributed to equal stretching of all fibers thereby
making them effective. The confining action of prestressed carbon filament
on concrete cylinders was much more effective than confinement without
prestress4, The confining action was engaged from early loading stage by
'.
the prestressed confining device, which delayed the formation of internal

cracks. As the load was increased above the transition zone, internal
concrete damages were formed and developed so that the axial rigidity of
concrete decreased. The monotonic behavior corresponded to the envelope
curve of cyclic loading. A notable enhancement in strength and ductility of
the concrete was observed as a result of confinement.
Strain
iZ,I
SpPcimm Label : ZOPZC
Strain
Specimen Label : ZODC
Strain
Strain
Speeimrn Label : IOOPlC
Shin
SpeCimen Label : lOOP3C
Strain
Figure 3 . Compressive behaviors of filament wound concretes.
CONFINING EFFECT IN ELASTIC REGION AND TRANSITION

ZONE
Comparative investigations were carried out by varying the prestress level
of carbon filament confinement and the concrete strength. The prestress
level did not influence the critical parameters of specimen fracture. The
specimens from the same concrete batch with different prestress level
showed similar ultimate compressive behavior.
Another comparison was done according to the stress of transition zone
0; or the knee point (Figure 3). It is difficult in the transition zone to
exactly determine where the knee point really is. The knee point was
estimated as the point in the transition zone where an elastic performance
ends. The normalized measured stresses are presented in Table 4. It can be
noted that the high strength concretes of C80 and ClOO batches showed a
more prolonged transition zone in a way improving the elastic behavior of
concrete by the prestressed confinement.
Table 4. Experimental effect of confinement to the transition zone
Concrete Batch Values
c20
C40
C60
C80
CIOO
prestress level 1 (80 MPa)

Measured 0: 1
1.41
1.32
1.40
1.38
1.30
prestress level 2 (1 60 MPa)

Measured 0; I
1.61
1.37
1.44
1.48
1.43
prestress level 3 (210 MPa)

* I oZp
*
Measured u2
1.41
1.32
1.13
1.42
1.45
0iP
0iP
Some elementary expressions to estimate the confinement effect on

behavior of concrete are given below. Concrete confined by prestressed
filament is expected to have a bilinear stress-strain response. This curve is
characterized by initial modulus Econf,stress strain values of elastic limit (a
knee point) 0: ,E: , tangent modulus of inclined part of stress-strain curve,
and ultimate strain of composite confinement. Considering only elastic
behavior of concrete and confinement, the elementary formulas can be
derived for the first part of load-displacement curve (regarded as initial
elastic region) and transition zone.
From the deformation compatibility between the confinement and
concrete surface, the lateral tensile fiber stress uI(a confining pressure
arising against the concrete lateral expansion) increases continuously as the
lateral strain E/ increases with the following relation:
where E, is the elastic modulus of the confining device and h and R are the
thickness of confining device and radius of concrete cylinder, respectively.
From Hookes Law and elementary transformations, the stress-strain
relation of confined concrete specimen in axial direction in the initial elastic
region can be expressed as follows:
E,.,,/ = Eb(1 - v + l / k ) / ( l - v - 2v2 + 1/ k )
( 31
k = (E,h)/(E,R)
(4)
and
where Eb is the modulus and v the Poissons ratio of concrete.

Assuming that the knee point (elastic limit) on stress-strain curve of
confined concrete is caused by micro cracking of concrete, and assuming
that lateral strain of confined concrete at knee point equals the ultimate
lateral strain of plain concrete, find the axial stress o:on knee point if found
to be:
(5)
o:/o;p= l + ( l - v ) k ,
where oiPis ultimate compressive stress of plain concrete.

Addition of prestress oc0of confinement results in following relation
after some transformations:
02 = {1+ (1- v)k} +-T{

h
oco
DZP
ozp
(:1
(1 - v)k + 1} ---1
(6)
The first term on right hand side reflects the influence of confinement
without prestress and the second term corresponds to prestress. The
efficiency of confinement is characterized by parameter k, [Eq. (4)] ( k + 00
for completely stiff confinement, and k +- 0 in the absence of
confinement).
In Table 5, the main characteristics of confined concretes in the elastic
region are calculated using the above equations. For a given value of k ,the
initial modulus of confined concrete E,,,/ [Eq. ( 3 ) ] is negligibly larger than
the unconfined value, and the axial stress at the elastic limit for the confined
concrete without prestress [Eq. ( 5 ) ] exceeds the ultimate strength of plain

concretes by only 5 to 10 percent. Conversely, the prestressed confinement
[Eq. (6)] increases substantially the elastic limit load of confined concrete
samples. The relatively higher increase of nonlinearity limit is predicted for
low strength concrete. However this latest prediction is not confirmed by
the measurements (Table 4). There could be two reasons. The assumption
of maximum limit strain criterion being independent on hydrostatic
pressure, which was used in derivation of above formulas, is evidently
oversimplified and should be specified for concrete. Second, the fuzzy
nature of transition zone makes it difficult to estimate the real knee point
position.
Table 5. Estimated effect of confinement to the elastic region and knee point
Concrete Batch Values
Em,
Eb
Calculated 0: / oip
c20
C40
C60
C80
ClOO
0.112
0.080
0.072
0.075
0.070
1.004
1.004
1.005
1.005
1.005
1.100
1.067
1.059
1.061
1.057
1.409
1.190
1.155
1.154
1.126
1.721
1.313
1.251
1.247
1.195
1.930
1.396
1.316
1.310
1.242
without prestress
Calculated a: / o:,
prestress level 1 (80
MPa)
.
Calculated 0: / ozp
MPa)
Calculated 0: / o:,
MPa)
CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, it is shown that the confining action of carbon filaments with
prestress is more effective than confinement without prestress. Prestressing
rises and prolongs the transition zone significantly with factor up to 1.4.
This fact has importance for the stability of confined concrete columns,
because for stresses above the transition zone, the modulus is considerably
reduced. The confined cylinder ultimate compressive failure stress is not
influenced by the prestress.
For accurate theoretical prediction of
nonlinearity or elastic limit stress of confined concrete samples, the yield or

damage condition of concrete under hydrostatic pressure should be
specified.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The investigation is supported by European Commission - TMR - Network,
ConFibreCrete Research leading to the Development of Design Guidelines
for the Use of FRP in Concrete Structures and Ake and Greta Lissheds
Foundation, SEB Bank, SE- 106 40 Stockholm.
REFERENCES
1. Jib, Cfederation internationale du bkton). (2001), Bulletin 14, Externally
bonded FRP reinforcement for RC structures. Technical report, Case Postale
88, CH-1015 Lausanne July, 2001. p. 130.
2. De Lorenzis L., Tepfers R. (2002a and b), Performance assessment of FRPconfinement models, part I and 11. ACIC 2002, Thomas Teyord, London, 2002.
pp. 251-260 and pp.261-169.
3. Lim S. G., Hahn T. (1996), Composite Materials in Repairing and
Strengthening of Civil Engineering. Korean Society of Composite Materials,
Vol. 9, No. 4, Dec.1996, pp.1-12.
4. Rousakis T. and Tepfers R. (2001), Experimental Investigation of Concrete
Cylinders Confined by Carbon FRP Sheets, under Monotonic and Cyclic Axial
Compressive Load. Chalmers University of Technology, Division of Building
Technology, Work No 44. Goteborg, 2001-03-08. p. 87.
5. Tamuis V., C. S. You, Tepfers R. (2001), Experimental Investigation of CFRPconfined Concretes under Compressive Load. Institute of Polymer Mechanics,
University of Latvia, Aizkraukles 23, LV-1006 Riga, Latvia and Division of
Building Technology, Chalmers University of Technology, S-412 96 Goteborg,
Sweden, December 2001. p. 68.
6. Karabinis A. I, Rousakis T.C. (2002), Concrete Confined by FRP Material: A
Plasticity Approach, Engineering Structures , Elsevier, 24 (2002). pp. 923932.
7. De Lorenzis, L., and Tepfers, R. (2002c), Applicability of FRP confinement to
strengthen concrete columns, Proceedings of MCM2002, Riga, June 2002.

CONCRETE CONFINED WITH FIBER REINFORCED

CEMENT BASED THIN SHEET COMPOSITES
H.C. WU AND J. TENG
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Wayne State University

5050 Anthony Wayne Drive, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
In this paper, a new type of fiber reinforced cement-based thin sheet
composite will be presented. This innovative technology can be applied to
retrofit deficient concrete structures with a superior performance to current
Fiber Reinforced Polymer resin (FRP) thin sheets. It is well known that
significant improvements in compressive, shear, and flexural behavior of
concrete can be achieved with externally bonded FRP sheets. In an
effective retrofit with external FRP sheets, a layer of dry fiber sheet
(usually unidirectional tape) is placed on the top of a coat of polymer resin
that will harden to bond the fiber sheet to the concrete structure. However,
composite action suggests that the individual parts of a composite must
work together as one. Stresses must be transferred from the FRP sheet to
concrete substrate through the interface. Such good bonding requires
extensive concrete surface preparation before installation of FRP sheet.
Concrete surface preparation is expensive and sometimes prohibited due to
dust or noise concerns. Instead of using polymeric resins, the authors have
been developing innovative cement-based matrix materials for making thin
composite sheets. Cement-based materials have many advantages in
comparison to polymeric resins. For instance, much less or no surface
preparation is needed for good bonding. Additional benefits include much
higher fire and vandalism resistance, and user friendly to the construction
industry. Preliminary test data suggest that the effect of using the newly
developed cement sheets on concrete confinement is similar to that of using
conventional FRP sheets.
INTRODUCTION
The U S . has an estimated $20 trillion investment in civil infrastructure

systems. Because of aging, overuse, exposure, misuse, and neglect, many of
these systems are deteriorating and becoming more vulnerable to
catastrophic failure when earthquake or other natural hazards strike. It
would be prohibitively costly and disruptive to replace these vast networks.
They must instead be renewed in an intelligent manner. It is generally
recognized that fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) sheets are one of the most
vital materials for repair, strengthening, and rehabilitation of existing

structures. Applications involve such as externally bonded composite
fabrics or jackets on beams, columns, and bridge decks.
FRPs (or advanced fiber composites) have long been successfully used
by the aerospace and defense industries. These materials are rapidly
gaining momentum in civil engineering structural applications. The thrust
is twofold: (1) an urgent call for new material to fix our nation's fast
deteriorating facilities where the challenge is too great using conventional
materials, and (2) properties (high strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion
resistance) and easy construction (fast curing process and lightweight) that
are superior to conventional concrete and steel.
The greatest potential of FRPs in the near future will be in the areas of
repair, strengthening, and rehabilitation of existing structures, such as
externally bonded composite fabrics or jackets on beams, columns, and
bridge decks. Significant improvements in compressive, shear, and flexural
behavior of bonded concrete elements are obtained. Typically, increases in
strength and failure strain of several times are obtained with external FRP
reinforcement'-6.
RETROFIT WITH FRP SHEETS
Several important considerations regarding reinforcing or retrofitting

existing structures including buildings and bridges are (1) cost efficiency,
(2) convenience to the occupants with minimum interference to their
operations, and (3) environmentally sound for fabrication and disposal.
FRPs are found to be a favored solution due to their superior properties,
light weight, and easy handling. In contrast, the use of conventional
materials typically requires complete shutdown of the structure for repair,
or is difficult if not impossible for internal strengthening due to weight and
dimensional limitation (e.g. steel truss). These constraints are particularly
significant for building repair.
Hence, construction costs using
conventional materials are substantially increased, although the materials
could be relatively inexpensive. It is typically estimated that material costs
are less than 20% of the total cost of a repair project. Therefore, even from
a cost viewpoint, FRPs are very competitive. In many of the repair projects,
the total cost when using FRP were reported to be less than that of using
conventional materials for the same project.
In an effective retrofit with external FRP sheets, a layer of dry fiber
sheet (usually unidirectional tape) is placed on the top of a coat of polymer
resin that will harden to bond the fiber sheet to the concrete structure. Prior
Concrete Confined with Thin Sheet Composites 593
to applying resin coating, the concrete surface must be thoroughly cleaned

and smoothed, including grinding and patching that are labor intensive and
sometimes require complete shutdown of the operation of the structure.
When needed, multiple layers of fiber sheets can be sequentially added by
repeating the same procedure.
Functions of Fiber and Matrix in Composites
A typical fiber composite is primarily made of continuous fibers and matrix.

The advantages of fiber reinforced polymer composites (FRP) as compared
to more conventional materials are often related to the high ratios of
stiffness and strength to weight. A typical FW is about 4 times lighter than
steel with an equal strength. The strengthktiffness of FRPs is almost
entirely attributed to the fibers7,*,since the polymeric matrix has negligible
strengthktiffness in comparison to the fiber. The matrix serves three
important functions: (1) it holds the fiber in place, (2) it transfers loads to
the high-stiffness fiber, and (3) it protects the fiber. Typical density of
common engineering fiber is 1.7 - 2.0 g/cm3 for carbon, 2.5 - 2.7 g/cm for
glass, whereas on the matrices side, epoxy and polyester have a density
between 1.2 and 1.4 g/cm3, giving a lightweight composite density between
1.5 and 2.2 g / ~ m . ~It is clear from the above discussion that polymer
matrix provides a negligible contribution to composite strengthktiffness
that is needed for effective retrofit of concrete structures, yet polymers have
many other problems such as lack of fire resistance and degradation under
UV light.
The authors proposed to replace polymer matrix by cement. Typical
density of cementitious materials may range from 0.8 to 2.2 g/cm3
depending on their compositions, hence maintaining a lightweight of the
cement composites. The in-situ applicability of cement matrix is only
possible when we can control the rheological properties of cement materials
that can range from water-like to dough-like.
Fiber Reinforced Cement Composite
In this case, the same kind of fiber reinforcement (unidirectional tapes or

woven) as in a regular FRP sheet, and we use cement materials to replace
polymer resin is used. The preparation procedure is analogous to regular
FRP. A fiber tape or fabric is impregnated with cement slurry to form a thin
composite sheet. The current process involves the following steps (1)
precut a fabric to designated dimensions, (2) submerge in cement slurry for
rapid and full penetration into the fabric, and (3) remove the impregnated
fabric from the slurry tank and place in molds.
Some preliminary work has been carried out to make thin plates. Plate
as thin as 2 mm can be made with two layers of unidirectional fiber tapes.
Both carbon and glass fibers have been used in the investigation although
we are aware of potential durability problem of glass fibers in cement
alkaline environment.
Selected plates have been tested according to ASTM C78-75, Standard
Test Method of Flexural Strength of Concrete (using simple beam with
third-point loading). A picture of a 4-mm thick plate sample is shown in
Figure 1 during a 3-point bending test. Figure 2 depicts the flexural load vs
displacement curve showing very high flexural strength (1 00 MPa) and
excellent ductility (also see Fig.1). Such high strength and high ductility
are not the norm of cement materials, but it should not be too surprising
since the high strength comes from the carbon fibers and the high ductility
is attributed to multiple cracking phenomenon of brittle cement matrix'o"'.
The current work has demonstrated that thin cement sheets having excellent
strengtldductility can be produced within minutes. This fast process is a
must for in-situ processibility on job sites and for achieving low cost.
COMPRESSIVE BEHAVIOR OF CONFINED CONCRETE

After successful production of thin cement composites, such thin sheets
have been employed to retrofit concrete cylinder samples in a preliminary
study at Wayne State University'*. The purpose of these tests is to evaluate
retrofit effectiveness of the innovative thin Fiber Reinforced Cement (FRC)
composite. Ideal FRC composites under development are expected to
provide similar or improved retrofit efficiencies with lower cost and easy
construction in comparison to Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites.
Unidirectional carbon fiber tapes were used in this study. Cement
based matrix developed at Wayne State University and epoxy resin were
used separately to make thin CFRC sheets and CFRP sheets. Both CFRC
and CFRP composites contain two layers of unidirectional carbon fiber
tapes. The average thickness of the CFRC jackets is 3.0 mm, whereas the
CFRP between 2-3 mm. These thin composite sheets were then employed to
wrap 4 inch by 8 inch concrete cylinders. The bond length of the CFRC
samples is 3 inches and 2 inches for the CFRP. A 1.5 inches gap exists
between the top of the cylinder and the top of the composite sheets at both
ends (see Figure 3 and 4).
Figure 1: A thin cement infiltrated fiber plate (thickness

loading
=4
mm) during flexural
120 r
-m.
100
E
d
0)
80
p!
60
40
G
-
a,
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Deflection (mrn)
Figure 2: Flexural stress vs. mid-point deflection curve of a carbon fiber reinforced
cement plate
These concrete cylinders, unconfined and confined with CFRC or

CFRP composites are tested using a high-stiffness, high-capacity MTS
testing machine following ASTM C39-96, Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. This equipment
has sufficient capacity and stiffness, which is required for conducting such
tests. The machine is also equipped with a sophisticated computer control
and data acquisition system. The acquired data including the applied axial
load and axial deformation of concrete are recorded automatically. Per
ASTM Practice (2123 1-93, steel retaining rings and rubber pads were used
without other capping during the tests.
Figure 3: Concrete confined with CFRP composite jacket
Figure 4: Concrete confined with CFRC composite jacket
Test Results
The axial stress versus axial strain relationships of the unconfined and
confined concrete are shown in Figure 5. As shown in Figure 5, the initial
portions of the stress-strain responses of the confined specimens essentially
followed the curves of the unconfined concrete. The average compressive
strength of the unconfined concrete is 54 MPa. The CFRC group shows a
compressive strength two times higher than that of the control from 54 MPa
to 100 MPa. In addition, the ductility is increased by 3 times from 2 mm to
6 mm. The CFRP sample has the highest compressive strength (105 MPa)
and ductility. Nevertheless, the differences between CFRC and CFRP are
insignificant. The CFRP jacketed samples showed explosive failure that
was triggered by the complete rupture of the CFRP jacket. The remnants of
the CFRP sample after failure are shown in Figure 6. The CFRC samples
also show fiber rupture failure similar to the CFRP sample. The CFRC
samples have a much less violent global failure than the CFRP (see Figure
7). Concrete inside the CFRC jacket was crushed completely (Figure 8).
120
10
Deflection (mm)
Figure 5 Compressive behavior o f unconfined and confined concrete
Figure 6: Remnants of CFRP sample after violent failure
Figure 7: Global failure of the CFRC sample due to rupture of the CFRC jacket.
Figure 8: Concrete inside the CFRC jacket was crashed completely
CONCLUSIONS
It is confirmed that the compressive strength of concrete can be
significantly improved using external CFRP wraps. In addition, the
ductility of the confined concrete is significantly increased. The final
failure of the confined concrete is provoked by the onset of the composite
rupture. The CFRC confined concrete show similar improvements in both
ultimate compressive strength and ductility with the CFRP concrete.
Because of the use of high strength concrete in this study, the final failure
of the plain concrete is explosive. The final failure of the CFRP confined
concrete shows even more violent. The CFRC concrete has a much less
violent global failure than the CFRP.
REFERENCES
1. McConnell, V.P. Bridge Column Retrofit, Hybrid Woven Unifabric.
High Performance Composites, September/October, 1993,62-64 pp.
2. Seible, F. and Priestley, M.J.N. Strengthening of Rectangular Bridge
Columns for Increased Ductility. Practical Solutions for Bridge
Strengthening and Rehabilitation, Des Moines, Iowa, 1993.
3. Karbhari, V.M., Eckel, D.A., and Tunis, G.C. Strengthening of
Concrete Column Stubs Through Resin Infused Composite Wraps. J
of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, V.6, 1993,92-107 pp.
4. Labossiere, P., Neale, K.W., Demers, M., and Picher, F. Repair of

Reinforced Concrete Columns with Advanced Composite Materials
Confinement. in Repair and Rehabilitation of the Infrastructure of the
Americas, H.T. Toutanji (ed.), University of Puerto Rico, 1995, 153165 pp.
5. Nanni, A., Norris, M.S., and Bradford, N.M. Lateral Confinement of
Concrete Using FRP Reinforcement, ACI SP 138, Fiber Reinforced
Plastic Reinforcementfor Concrete Structures, 1992, 193-209 pp.
6. Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M.R. and Li, M.W. Strength and Ductility
of Concrete Columns Externally Reinforced with Fiber Composite
Straps, ACI Structural Journal, 91[4], 1994, 434-447 pp.
7. Swanson, S.R., Advanced Composite Materials, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey, 1997.
8. Bogner, B.R., Isopolyester Pultrusion Resin Study. Proc. SPI
Composite Institute 45IhAnnu. Con$, New York, 1990.
9. Ashby, M.F. and Jones, D.R.H., Engineering Materials, Pergamon
Press, Oxford, 1986.
10 Li, V.C., and Wu, H.C. Conditions for Pseudo Strain-Hardening in
Fiber Reinforced Brittle Matrix Composites, Appl. Mech. Rev., Vol.
45, NO. 8, 1992, 390-398 pp.
11. Li, V.C. and Leung, C.K.Y., Theory of Steady State and Multiple
Cracking of Random Discontinuous Fiber Reinforced Brittle Matrix
Composites, ASCE J. of Engng. Mechanics, 118, 1 1, 1992, 2246-64
PP.
12. Wu, H.C. and Teng, J., Innovative Cement Based Thin Sheet
Composites for Retrofit, in Proc. 3rd Inter. Composite Conf for
Infrastructure, San Francisco, CA, 2002.

HOOP RUPTURE STRAINS OF FRP JACKETS IN FRP

CONFINED CONCRETE
L.LAM AND J.G.TENG
The Hong Kong Polytechnic Universiv, China
One important application of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites is

as a confining material for concrete in the retrofit of existing concrete
columns by the provision of FRP jackets. Such jackets are commonly
formed in a wet lay-up process, with the fibres being only or predominantly
in the hoop direction. It has been well established in recent studies that the
rupture strainshtrengths of FRP measured in tests on such FRP-confined
concrete cylinders fall substantially below those from flat coupon tensile
tests, but the causes are unclear. This paper presents the results of a study
which is aimed at clarifying these causes. To this end, the paper reports and
compares the ultimate tensile strains of two types of FRP (CFRP and GFRP)
obtained from three types of tests: flat coupon tensile tests, ring splitting
tests and FRP-confined concrete cylinder tests. Based on comparisons of
these test results, it can be concluded that the FRP hoop rupture strains in
FRP-confined concrete cylinders are reduced below the ultimate tensile
strains from flat coupon tests by three factors: (a) the curvature of the FRP
jacket; (b) the non-uniform deformation of the concrete; and (c) the effect
of the overlapping zone which has an increased thickness.
INTRODUCTION
One important application of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites is
as a confining material for concrete in the retrofit of existing concrete
columns by the provision of FRP jackets. Such jackets are commonly
formed in a wet lay-up process, with the fibres being only or predominantly
in the hoop direction. Concrete-filled FRP tubes are another important
application, in which the FRP tubes have a substantial axial stiffness. This
paper is explicitly concerned with the behaviour of unidirectional FRP
jackets interacting with concrete only, although the conclusions are believed
to be relevant to concrete-filled FRP tubes as well. The issue examined in
this paper is the ultimate tensile straidstrength of FRP jackets in the hoop
direction in FRP-confined concrete, versus that obtained from a material
tensile test. This issue, though apparently simple, is fundamental to the

proper interpretation of test results of FRP-confined concrete and the
development of accurate and rationally based confinement models.
In existing theoretical models for FRP-confined concrete as reviewed
el~ewherel-~,
it is commonly assumed that tensile rupture of the FRP occurs
when the hoop stress in the FRP reaches its tensile strength from material
tensile tests, either flat coupon tests' or ring splitting tests6. Test results
were interpreted accordingly in the development of these models. The only
exception is the model of Xiao and Wu' for which it was suggested that
50% of the FRP flat coupon tensile strength be taken as the hoop rupture
strength, based on test observations. Experimental evidence from other
also suggested that the material tensile strength of FRP may not
be reached at hoop rupture of FRP jackets in FRP-confined concrete.
The substantial difference between the FRP tensile strength or ultimate
strain from material tests and that reached in FRP-confined concrete
specimens has been discussed by a number of researchers*,*-". Lam and
Teng" concluded that confinement models must be based on the actual
tensile rupture strength of FRP achieved in FRP-confined concrete rather
than that from tensile tests, and established a design-oriented stress-strain
model on the basis of this conclusion.
While the strength difference between FRP tensile specimens and FRP
jackets confining concrete is well established", a number of uncertainties
exist. In particular, the causes for this difference are unclear at the present,
but must be clarified before complete confidence can be achieved in
modelling such FRP-confined concrete. Several causes have been
suggestedzx8-'
', including (a) deformation localization in cracked concrete
leading to a non-uniform stress distribution in the FRP jacket, and (b) the
effect of curvature of an FRP jacket on the tensile strength of FRP and (c)
Local misalignment or waviness of fibres in the wet lay-up process leading
to unequal stretching of the fibres. No specific study has been found
attempting to confirm or reject these suggestions. This paper therefore
presents the results from the first carefully planned study12 involving
comparative experiments in an attempt to clarify these uncertainties.
FLAT COUPON AND RING SPLITTING TESTS
In the present study, two types of FRP were employed: carbon FRP (CFRP)
and glass FRP (GFRP). The CFRP was formed from unidirectional carbon
fibre tow sheets and epoxy resin. The carbon fibre sheets had a nominal
thickness of 0.165 mm. The GFRP was formed from a woven fabric
consisting of E-glass fibres in the longitudinal direction as the main fibres
Hoop Rupture Strains in FRP-Confined Concrete 603
and sparsely distributed aramid fibres in the transverse direction. The woven
fabric had a nominal thickness of 1.27 mm. The nominal thicknesses were
used for the calculation of material proprieties as is commonly done for wet
lay-up FRP. The two FRP systems were proprietary products supplied by
separate companies.
Two types of material tensile tests were conducted to determine the
material properties: flat coupon tensile tests and ring splitting tests6. The
purpose of these tests was mainly to determine the material ultimate tensile
straidstrength and elastic modulus, and to examine the effect of curvature
on tensile properties.
Flat Coupon Tensile Tests
The flat coupon tests were conducted following the ASTM standard5.
Dimensions of the test specimens are shown in Figure 1. The strains were
average values from two strain gauges at mid-length on the two sides of the
test coupon. The results of the tensile tests calculated using the normal
thicknesses and the actual widths12 (about 25 mm) are shown in Table 1,
where each result is the average of at least five specimens. Typical stressstrain curves of the FRPs from flat coupon tests are shown in Figure 2.
Strain gauge
w
4
One-layer FRP
Figure 1. Dimensions of flat coupons for tensile tests
(shear) (Shear)
(Shear)
(Shear)
Table 1 . Results
of material
tensile(Shear)
tests
Type of test
604 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement f o r Confinemenl

.. . . . .
1.2
..... .............
I...........
. ....................
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
Normalized tensile strain
Figure 2. Typical normalized stress-strain curves of CFRP and GFRP

Overlapping zone
Strain gauge
Figure 3. Dimensions of ring specimens for tensile tests
Ring splitting tests
The ring splitting tests were also conducted following an ASTM standard6.
Dimensions of the test specimens are shown in Figure 3. The GFRP rings
had a nominal width of 23 mm to correspond to 10 yarns of the woven
fabric instead of 25 mm which was used for the CFRP ring. For the CFRP
rings, the nominal thickness and the actual widths were used in determining
the tensile properties. For the GFRP, the nominal thickness and the nominal
width were used as the actual widths were more difficult to measure due to
the size of yarns and the presence of transverse fibres. The tensile test
coupons were formed in a different way so there was no such problem'*.
The tensile properties so obtained are shown in Table 1, where each

result is again the average of at least five specimens. A comparison of the
flat coupon test results and the ring splitting test results shows that the ring
splitting tests lead to a much-reduced tensile strength. This may be
interpreted to mean that the curvature of the ring specimens had a
substantial detrimental effect on the tensile strength. However, it should be
noted that the ring splitting test, due to its own limitations, may deliver a
lower tensile strength due to other reasons. For example, the relative
movement between the two half disks effected by an external force in a ring
splitting test does not produce an axisymmetric radial expansion required to
produce a uniform hoop tension in the FRP ring.
COMPRESSION TESTS OF FRP-CONFINED CONCRETE
CYLINDERS
Test Specimens
A total of 27 concrete cylinders of 152 mm in diameter and 305 mm in

height were prepared and tested in three series. Details of the test specimens
are shown in Table 2. Each series consisted of six confined cylinders and
three unconfined cylinders, all prepared from the same batch of concrete.
The FRP jackets were formed in a wet lay-up process by impregnating a
continuous fibre/fabric sheet with matching epoxy resin. In the case of the
CFRP, a primer was applied first to the surface of concrete before the
wrapping of FRP. Regardless of the number of FRP layers (each layer
contains a single lap of sheet), a single continuous sheet with the main
fibres oriented in the hoop direction was wrapped around the cylinder with
the finishing end of the sheet overlapping the starting end by a prescribed
length (the overlap length). The three series of tests cover CFRP and GFRP,
different numbers of FRP layers and different overlap lengths. In particular,
the effect of overlap length was studied using three confined cylinders
which had overlap lengths of 100 mm, 250 mm and 400 mm respectively,
while for all other specimens this overlap length was always 150 mm. The
measured thicknesses were on average 1.03 mm for single-layer CFRP and
1.4 1 mm for two-layer CFRP respectively, while the measured thicknesses
of GFRP were 1.33 mm and 2.32 mm for single- and two-layer jackets
respectively.
Layout of Strain Gauges

For each control cylinder, four unidirectional strain gauges were bonded on
the surface of concrete at the mid-height. Two with a gauge length of 60
mm, at 180" apart, were used to measure hoop strains. The other two had a
gauge length of 120 mm and were used to measure axial strains. For each
FRP-wrapped cylinder, 8 unidirectional strain gauges (SGl -SG8) with a
gauge length of 20 mm were evenly distributed at mid-height to measure the
hoop strains of the FRP jacket as shown in Figure 4, with SGl being located
at 22.5" from the finishing end of the fibre sheet. For specimens with an
overlap length of 150 mm, both SGI and SG2 were located within the
overlapping zone, while SG3 covers the starting end of the fibre sheet
(Figure 4). In addition, axial strains were determined using 4 evenly
distributed strain gauges as well as two linear variable displacement
transducers (LVDTs) at 180" apart covering the mid-height region of 120
mm.
Overlamina zone
FW jacket
Figure 4. Location of strain gauges for hoop strains in an FRP jacket
Results of Compression Tests

The results of compression tests are summarized in Table 2. In this table,
the compressive strength of unconfined concrete fc: for each series of tests
is averaged from the three control cylinders. The ultimate axial strains E,,
are average values obtained using the two LVDTs. The hoop strains of FRP
at rupture E ~ are, given
~ as~ average values, first of the eight strain gauges
over the whole circumference and then of the strain gauges outside the
overlapping zone. All 18 FRP-wrapped cylinders showed eventual failure by
the rupture of FRP outside the overlapping zone and bilinear stress-strain
behaviour ending at a point defined by the compressive strength fc:and the
ultimate strain E,, .
COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The average hoop rupture strains of FRP obtained in the compression tests
(Table 2) are seen to be much smaller than the material ultimate tensile
strains obtained from flat coupon tests as given in Table 1. The ratio of the
FRP hoop rupture strain to the material ultimate tensile strain obtained from
flat coupon tensile tests has been termed the efficiency
Type of test
Type of test
Type of test
Type of test
Type of test
a The overlap length was varied from 100 mm to 400 mm

bNot available due to experimental errors
For the FRP-confined cylinders with an overlap length of 150 mm, this
efficiency factor is only 0.583 for the nine CFRP-wrapped cylinders and
0.669 for the six GFRP-wrapped cylinders if the FRP hoop rupture strain is
taken as the average value from the eight strain gauges. These two values
are very close to those found by Lam and Teng" from test results reported
in the open literature, which are 0.586 for 52 CFRP-wrapped concrete
cylinders and 0.624 for nine GFRP-wrapped specimens.
Figures 5a and 5b show the distributions of the FRP hoop strains around
the wrapped cylinder at rupture. These figures show clearly that the strains
are non-uniform around the circumference, with substantially lower values
within the overlapping zone. Indeed, the smallest hoop strain is always
found within the overlapping zone and on average is only about 38% and
45% of the ultimate tensile strain from flat coupon tests for CFRP-wrapped
cylinders and GFRP-wrapped cylinders, respectively. It is easy to
understand that these lower FRP hoop strains arose because the FRP jacket
was thicker in this zone. For the same confinement pressure, the strain in
jacket is inversely proportional to the thickness of the jacket. Figure 6
further illustrates the effect of overlap length, where the strain distributions
in confined cylinders with three different overlap lengths are compared. For
the two cylinders with longer overlap lengths, the average hoop rupture
strains are thus reduced (Table 2). In this connection, it is worth noting that
a longer overlap length has the same effect as a reduced strain capacity of
the FRP.
Figures 5 and 6 also show that the strain distributions outside the
overlapping zone are also non-uniform, although the variation is smaller.
This non-uniformity can be attributed to the non-uniform deformation of
cracked concrete which is an inhomogeneous material. The maximum hoop
strain on the FRP jacket was generally observed outside the overlapping
zone, except three cases in which this maximum strain was found at (Cl-3
and C2-1) or near (Cl-400) the starting end of the fibre sheet. For these
three cases, the high strains measured may be partly attributable to jacket
bending as a shell as a result of a thickness change. Indeed, the strains
measured elsewhere on the jacket may also contain a significant bending
component in the final stage as a result of non-uniform deformation of
concrete.

1.6
(a)
E2
1.4
1.2
!I
ICFRP
I
._ 0.8
0.6
(0
0.4
.s
0.2
E o0
60
120
180
240
300
360
60
120
180
240
300
360
Angle from the finishing end of wrapping

(degree)
a
0
0.5
o
0
Angle from finishing end of wrapping (degree)
Figure 5 . Distributions of FRP hoop strain on cylinders with an overlap length

of 150 mm (a) CFRP-wrapped cylinders and (b) GFRP-wrapped cylinders
.-K
*Q
0.5
0
L
E o
0
60
120
180
240
300
360
Angle from finishing end of wrapping (degree)
Figure 6. Distributions of FRP hoop strain on CFRP-wrapped cylinders with

varying overlap lengths
The maximum strain measured on the FRP in a confined concrete

cylinder is found to be 1.06% on average for CFRP-wrapped specimens, and
1.91% on average for GFRP-wrapped specimens. Although these are much
lower than the material ultimate strains from flat coupon tests, they are
strikingly close to the ultimate strains obtained from ring tests which are
1.009% for CFRP and 1.987% for GFRP. This indicates that the effect of
curvature of the FRP jacket in a ring splitting test and in a confined cylinder
test is similar, although this is not yet completely certain due to the
limitation of the ring splitting test as mentioned earlier.
CONCLUSIONS
In an attempt to explain why FRP hoop rupture strains measured in FRPconfined concrete cylinder tests fall substantially below those from flat
coupon tensile tests, this paper has presented and compared tensile strengths
for two types of FRP (CFRP and GFRP) obtained from three types of tests:
flat coupon tensile tests, ring splitting tests and FRP-confined concrete
cylinder tests. Based on comparisons of these test results, it can be
concluded that the hoop rupture strains measured in FRP-confined concrete
cylinders are affected by three factors: (a) the curvature of the FRP jacket;
(b) the non-uniform deformation of concrete leading to a non-uniform
distribution of the strains in the FRP jacket; and (c) the effect of the
overlapping zone in which the measured strains are much lower than strains
measured elsewhere.
These three factors combine to produce an average FRP hoop rupture
strain which is much lower than that from flat coupon tests. The present
study has therefore confirmed two of the causes suggested in the
and listed in the introductory section of the paper. The third
one mentioned there, namely the effect of misalignment and waviness of
fibres, is not believed to be an important factor as these defects, if present,
affect results from both material tensile tests and confined concrete cylinder
tests. The third factor identified here means that a significant scatter in test
results can arise as a result of strain gauge locations. It is important to note
that all three factors are size related: the effect of curvature and overlap
zone may be reduced, while the effect of non-uniform concrete deformation
may become more important in large columns. Large concrete columns
should be tested in the future to examine how these factors affect the hoop
rupture strength of FRP jackets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The work presented in this paper forms part of a research project (Project
No: PolyU 5059/02E) funded by the Research Grants Council of the Hong
Kong SAR with additional support from The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University provided through its Area of Strategic Development (ASD)
Scheme. The authors are grateful to both organizations for their financial
support. The authors also wish to thank Mr. Y.N. Tse and Miss P.Y. Fung
for their valuable contributions to the experimental work.
REFERENCES
1. De Lorenzis, L. and Tepfers, R., Performance assessment of FRPconfinement models - Part I: Review of experiments and models,
Advanced Polymer Composites for Structural Applications in
Construction, Proceedings of the First International Conference, Edited
by R.A. Shenoi, S.S.J. Moy, and L.C. Hollaway, Thomas Telford,
London, UK, 2002, pp. 25 1-260.
2. De Lorenzis, L. and Tepfers, R., Performance assessment of FRPconfinement models - Part 11: Comparison of experiments and
predictions, Advanced Polymer Compositesfor Structural Applications
in Construction; Proceedings of the First International Conference,
Edited by R.A.Shenoi, S.S.J. Moy, and L.C. Hollaway, Thomas Telford,
London, UK, 2002, pp. 261-269.
3. Monti, G., Confining reinforced concrete with FRP: behavior and
modeling, Composites in Construction: A Realip, Proceedings of the
International Workshop, Edited by E. Cosenza, G. Manfredi, and A.
Nanni, ASCE, Virginia, U.S.A.,2002, pp. 213-222.
4. Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T. and Lam, L., FRP-Strengthened RC
sfructures, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., UK, 2 0 0 2 , 2 4 5 ~ ~ .
5. ASTM D3039/D3039M-95, Standard test method for tensile
properties of polymer matrix composite materials, Annual Book of
ASTMStandards, Vol. 14.02, 1995.
6. ASTM D 2290 - 92, Standard test method for apparent tensile strength
of ring or tubular plastics and reinforced plastics by split disk method ,
Annual Book OfASTMStandards, Vol. 15.03, 1992.
7. Xiao, Y . and Wu, H., Compressive behavior of concrete confined by
carbon fiber composite jackets, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, ASCE, 12(2), 2000, pp. 139-146.
8. Shahawy, M., Mirmiran, A. and Beitelman, A., Test and modeling of

carbon-wrapped concrete columns, Composites: Part B, 3 1, 2000,
pp.47 1-480.
9. Pessiki, S., Harries, K.A., Kestner, J.T., Sause, R., and Ricles, J.M.,
Axial behavior of reinforced concrete columns confined with FRP
jackets, Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 5(4), 2001,
pp.237-245.
10. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., Design-oriented stress-strain model for FRPconfined concrete, to be published.
1 1. Spoelstra, M.R. and Monti, G., FRP-confined concrete model,
Journal of Compositesfor Construction, ASCE, 3(3), 1999, pp. 143-150.
12. Lam, L. and Teng, J.G., Ultimate condition of FRP-confined concrete,
to be published.

EXTERNALLY CONFINED HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE

COLUMNS UNDER ECCENTRIC LOADING
J. LI, M. MOULSDALE AND M. N. S. HAD1
Faculty of Engineering, University of Wollongong
Wollongong, MSW 2522, Australia
Previous studies proved that the application of FRP can eliminate some
unwanted properties of high strength concrete, such as the brittle behavior
of high strength concrete. However, research studies conducted so far on
external confinement of concrete columns have mainly concentrated on
concentric loading. This paper investigates the performance of externally
confined high strength concrete columns subjected to eccentric loading and
evaluates the effectiveness of two confinement materials-Carbon fibre and
E-glass. The contribution of external confinement with FRP to the increase
of the strength of concrete columns depends on few factors, for example,
the number of layers; the type of confining materials and the bond between
the fibres and the concrete. The layout of fibres is another variable, which
contributes much to the behaviour of confinement effectiveness when
bending action is introduced. The enhancement of the strength of the plain
column specimens under eccentric loading is not so pronounced as for the
reinforced concrete specimens under concentric loading.
INTRODUCTION
With the development of technology, the use of high-strength concrete

members has proved most popular in terms of economy; superior strength;
stiffness and durability. With the increase of concrete strength, the ultimate
strength of the columns increases, but a relatively more brittle failure
occurs. The lack of ductility of high strength concrete results in sudden
failure without warning, which is a serious drawback of high strength
concrete. Previous studies have shown that addition of compressive
reinforcement and confinement will increase the ductility as well as the
strength of materials effectively. Concrete, confined by transverse ties,
develops higher strength and to a lesser degree ductility. Studies conducted
by some investigators on the improvement of the ductility of high strength
concrete members have proven that the use of the spiral confinement is
more effective and beneficial in the improvement of performance of
concrete members'.
In recent years, FRP wrapping in lieu of steel jacket has become an

increasingly popular method for external reinforcement in which FRP offers
improved corrosion and fatigue resistance compared to the steel
reinforcement. The high tensile strength and low weight make FRP ideal for
use in the construction industry. Another attractive advantage of FRP over
steel straps as external reinforcement is its easy handling, thus minimal time
and labour are required to implement them2. However, research studies
conducted so far on external confinement of concrete columns have mainly
concentrated on concentric loading. In practice, axially compressed (ie.,
concentrically) structural concrete columns rarely occur. Even in a column
nominally carrying only axial compression, bending action is almost always
present due to unintentional load eccentricities and possible construction
error. Also, there are many columns where an eccentric load is deliberately
applied. Therefore, the studies for concrete columns under eccentric loading
are essential for practical use.
This study experimentally investigates the benefits of external
confinement using FRP on high strength concrete columns under eccentric
loading and compares the effectiveness of two types of external
reinforcement.
EXTERNAL CONFINEMENT WITH FRP
The application of FRP in the construction industry can eliminate some

unwanted properties of high strength concrete, such as the brittle behaviour
of high strength concrete, FRP is particularly useful for strengthening
columns and other unusual shapes.
Parameters that affect the strength and ductility of FRP confined
concrete include concrete strength, type of fibres and resin and thickness of
FRP (different layers). The experimental program conducted by Houssam
and Balauru3 showed that the compressive strength improved by
approximately 200 percent due to confinement, with Carbon fibre and by
approximately 100 percent due to Glass fibre. Also, the shape of cross
section and the spacing of FRP straps can directly affect the confinement
effectiveness of FRP wrapping in the confinement and these were well
known. The orientation of fibres is another factor contributing to the
mechanical performance of a composite. Fibres oriented in one direction
give very high stiffness and strength in that direction. If the fibres are
oriented in more than one direction, such as in a mat, there will be high
stiffness and strength in the direction of the fibre orientation4.
Externally Confined High Strength Concrete Clournns 615
The objective of the experimental program in this study is to investigate the

behaviour of external reinforced high strength concrete columns (no internal
reinforcement) subjected to eccentric loading and to evaluate the
effectiveness of external confinement with FRP composites. Proven by
previous studies, the major parameters affecting the behaviour of concrete
columns confined with external FRP are the type of fibers; the number of
layers and the shape of cross-section. As the influence of cross-section is
already well known, this study is limited to circular columns under eccentric
loading. The test variables selected for this study are: (1) the type of
reinforcement: internal and external, (2) the number of layers of FRP, (3)
the type of wrapping materials: unidirectional Carbon and plain weave Eglass.
Columns Details
Seven high strength concrete columns were designed for testing. Each
column was designed to have a diameter, D, of 235 mm for both the
haunched ends and 150 mm in the test region, and an overall length, H, of
1400 mm. The clear distance between the ends was 620 mm. The
dimensions were selected to be compatible with the capacity of the testing
machine. There are two major amounts of reinforcement designed for the
two internally reinforced specimens. Six RWlO bars were equally spaced
around the inside circumference of 41 10 helix with a pitch of 60 mm
through the entire length of specimens and three RW8 bars confined by
circular ties are spaced in equal distances at both ends. The geometry and
dimension and internal reinforcement details of column are shown in
Figure 1.
Five specimens wrapped continually with FRP had the following
configurations: one-layered and three-layered Carbon fibres and onelayered, three-layered and five-layered E-glass. The other two specimens
were internally reinforced. The only difference between these two columns
was that one specimen was continually wrapped with three-layer E-glass
fibres. The testing matrix is summarized in Table 1 .
haunched end
EF-
R W 8 Circular Tie
A-A
test region
A-A
-
0
6-8
-
_81
6RW10
8-B
-
haunched end
AJ
(a) Column geometry
(b) Internal reinforcement details

Figure 1. Column details
Table 1. Testing matrix on column specimens

Column
C1-1
C1-2
C1-3
C1-4
Cl-5
C2-6
C2-7
Diameter (mm)
Ends Middle
235
150
235
150
235
150
235
150
235
150
235
150
150
235
Length
Internal
(mm) Reinforcement
1400
1400
1400
1400
1400
1400
1400
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
Configurations
3-layered Carbon (ends only)
3-layered E-glass
3-lavered E-glass
5-lavered E-glass
3-lavered Carbon
1-layered E-glass
I -layered Carbon
Eccentric Loading
In this study, all the seven columns were tested under eccentric loading,
which was achieved by the introduction of haunched ends to each column.
This can be seen clearly in Figure 1. When the concentric loading was
applied to the top haunched ends of the column specimen, an eccentricity, e,
of 42.5 mm, was achieved in the test region of each column. The large
haunched ends were introduced in the configuration of the column
Externally Confined High Strength Concrete Cloumns 617
specimens in order to prevent premature failure and to allow for eccentric

loading.
A steel plate and a knife edge were used on the top surface of the
column in order to provide an accurate concentric loading to the haunched
end and to facilitate the adjustment on the direction of loading.
A11 the seven column specimens were cast in the Engineering Laboratory of
University of Wollongong. The target strength for both batches of concrete
was 100MPa. 103.lMPa and 95.9MPa determined by compressive tests
were achieved for the two batches of concrete respectively.
After removal of the moulds, two internally reinforced columns were
found with significant defects as shown in Figure 2, which were probably
caused due to insufficient vibration. Then, column C1-1 was decided to be
wrapped with three-layer of Carbon fibre at both haunched ends to prevent
premature failure outside the test region.
(a) Column 1 (Cl-1)
(b) Column 2 (Cl-2)
Figure 2. Columns with significant defects
The resin was prepared by mixing with slow hardener according to 5: 1

ratio and firstly applied to the concrete surface. Then, the first layer of FRP
was applied to the column with an overlap of 25 mm in each revolution.
After wrapping the first layer, the second coating of epoxy was applied on
the surface of the first layer to allow the second layer of FRP to be applied.
618 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfor Conjinement
This process was repeated until the desired layers of FRP were wrapped.
Finally, the final layer of epoxy resin was applied on the surface of the
wrapped specimens. The wrapped column specimens were left at room
temperature for about 2 weeks for epoxy system to harden adequately
before the testing.
Test Specimens
Seven columns were tested to failure using 900 kN Strong Floor testing
machine of the Engineering Laboratory at the University of Wollongong.
The load eccentricity is 42.5 mm, which resulted in a large e/r
(eccentricity/column radius) ratio of 0.57.
OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR AND TEST RESULTS

All the columns showed similar behaviour under the eccentric loading.
Although sounds of snapping of the fibres could be heard near the failure
load, the failure of the column specimens in all cases was characterised by a
very loud and explosive failure. The results from experiment conducted on
the seven column specimens are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Column test results
Column
C1-1
(21-2
C1-3
C1-4
(21-5
C2-6
C2-7
Ultimate Axial Stress Axial Defection Max. Compressive Max. Tensile

Load (kV (MPa)
(mm)
Stress (MPa)
Stress (MPa)
836.4
525.5
601
736.8
791.5
669
644.6
47.33
29.74
34.01
41.69
44.79
37.86
36.48
0.753
1.983
2.4
1.45
1.405
1.771
--
-154.67
-97.14
-111.10
-136.20
-146.31
-123.67
-119.16
60.00
37.66
43.08
52.82
56.73
47.95
46.20
~~
Figure 3 shows how the eccentric loading was achieved and produced
an axial load combined with the bending moment. From the bending
moment diagram shown in Figure 3, it can be seen the maximum moment
occurred right at the joint between the haunched ends and the test region,
which was exactly the same as occurred in the experiment as shown in
Figure 41; all columns failed at the upper part of the test region except C1-2
due to the significant defects in it.
m
= PP
Figure 3. Bending moment produced by the eccentric loading
Figure 4. Columns after failure
Internally Reinforced Columns

The loading on the internally reinforced specimen wrapped with Carbon
fibres at both ends resulted in the spalling of the concrete cover. The final
sudden failure of this column was due to the yielding of steel reinforcement.
Although defects existed in the haunched ends of this column, the failure of
this column did occur in the test region as designed, which proved the
effectiveness of wrapping using Carbon fibres at the ends.
For the internally reinforced column with E-glass wrapping, ultimate
failure occurred in the patched location. This confirmed that the final failure
was marked by the fracture of the E-glass fibres as a result of lateral
expansion under axial eccentric loading, preceded by the crushing of

concrete of the patching part. The results shown in Table 2 confirm that the
influence of defects on the load carrying capacity, which is much lower than
that of another internally reinforced column having similar configurations.
E-glass Wrapped Columns

The failure of all E-glass specimens was marked by the rupture of E-glass
fibres. However the externally wrapped E-glass was ruptured in the hoop
direction only for 3-layered E-glass column. While for 1-layered and 5layered specimens, the fibres were torn in multi-direction and longitudinal
direction besides the hoop direction, respectively. Approaching failure load,
the appearance of white patches can be discerned, which indicated the
imminent failure of E-glass and resin. The snapping sounds were heard
before the ultimate failure, revealing the fracture of FRP composites and
debonding between the layers of wrapping.
Regarding the one-layered E-glass column, the inner side of wrapping
was bonded with concrete even after failure, indicated that this column has
achieved the best bond effect between the concrete and FRP. This is a
possible explanation for this column having higher ultimate load carrying
capacity than the single layered Carbon column.
Carbon Wrapped columns

With a slight delamination of fibres between layers and accompanied by a
simultaneous fracture of Carbon fibres and the concrete core, the final
failure of both Carbon wrapped columns was more explosive and sudden
when compared to the E-glass wrapped specimens.
It is important to note that the ultimate load of column with a single
layered carbon fibre is slightly lower than that of the single layered E-glass
specimen. This can be attributed by the best bond effect achieved by the
single layered E-glass specimen. Another reason is contributed the layout of
fibres: the tensile strengthening by the unidirectional fibres is not as
effective as that provided by plain weave fibres.
COMPARISON AND ANALYSIS
The experimental results from the six wrapped columns shows that the
Carbon wrapped columns out-performed the E-glass wrapped columns. The
three-layered Carbon specimen exhibited 7% and 23% increase over the
five-layered and three-layered E-glass specimens, respectively. The three-
layered and single layered Carbon columns exhibited 7.4% and 7.2%
increase in ultimate load over the five-layered and three-layered E-glass
columns, respectively. This proves that Carbon fibres are more effective
than E-glass for external confinement. However, the single layered E-glass
column achieved higher ultimate load than the single layered Carbon
column due to the better bond effect and possibly smaller eccentricity.
A comparison in terms of the maximum compressive stress and
maximum tensile stress among columns C1-3, C1-4 and C2-6 show that
increasing the number of layers leads to higher load carrying capacity of
wrapped column generally. The five-layered E-glass column achieved 22%
increase compared to the three-layered E-glass column. However, this is not
the case for the single layered E-glass specimen due to the possible better
bond effect and smaller eccentricity. As the steel plate and knife edge on the
top surface of column could not easily be centred accurately, which could
introduce smaller eccentricity, a higher ultimate load could be reached.
The comparison between the two Carbon wrapped columns shows that
increasing the number of layers from 1 to 3 increased the ultimate load by
23%. This again indicates that higher ultimate load could be achieved by
increasing the number of layers.
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of external confinement under
eccentric loading as opposed to the internal reinforcement, comparison
among Cl-1, C1-3, C1-4, C1-5 and C2-7 was made as well. Although C1-2
is one of the internally reinforced columns, it was not used here for
comparison due to the significant defects that existed in this column. The
three-layer Carbon wrapped column achieved the ultimate load of 79 1.5kN,
which is just 5% lower than the high strength concrete column internally
reinforced with high strength steel. This confirms that the external
confinement with three-layer Carbon is as effective as the internal
reinforcement with high strength steel. While for the E-glass wrapped
columns under eccentric loading, the compressive stress and tensile stress of
three-layered and five-layered columns were decreased by approximately
28% and 12% respectively. The ultimate load achieved by the column with
a single layered Carbon fibre was decreased by 23% compared to the
internally reinforced column.
CONCLUSION
The experimental work involved in this study is mainly to evaluate the

effectiveness of external and internal reinforcement as well as the
contribution of two types of external reinforcement -- Carbon and E-glass to
high strength concrete columns under eccentric loading. Based on the test
results of seven column specimens, it can be concluded that:
(a) The experimental results clearly demonstrate that composite wrapping
can enhance the structural performance of concrete columns under
eccentric loading to some extent. However, the enhancement is not as
significant as that of columns under concentric loading as suggested by
previous studies. This was attributed to the fact that an eccentric
loading once engaged, induced in the columns not only axial
compression, but bending action too;
(b) For the circular specimens under concentric or eccentric loading, the
number of layers of FRF materials is one of the major parameters
having a significant influence on the behaviour of specimens. However,
the influence of the number of layers of FRP on the specimens under
eccentric loading is not so pronounced as that of the specimens under
concentric loading;
(c) The fibre layout is one of major factors that affect the effectiveness of
confinement especially when eccentricity is introduced. Plain weave
fibres are effective both for flexural and compressive reinforcements.
The behaviour of structural members can be markedly improved by
using unidirectional fibres applied in right direction, which means the
fibres are orientated in the direction where the higher tensile strength of
FRP can be utilised;
(d) Taking the expensive costs involved into consideration, external
confinement with Carbon fibres is not suggested for strengthening of
columns under eccentric loading at a larger eccentricity ratio.
REFERENCES
1. Razvi, S. R. and Saatcioglu, M., Strength and Deformability of
Confined High-Strength Concrete Columns, ACI Structural Journal,
Vol. 9 1, November-December, 1994, pp. 678-687.
2. Demer, M. and Neale, K. W., Confinement of Reinforced Concrete
Columns with Fibre-reinforced Composite Sheets - an Experimental
Study, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 26, iss.2, 1999, pp.
226-24 1.
3. Houssam, A. T. and Balauru, P., Effects of Freeze-Thaw Exposure on
Performance of Concrete Columns Strengthened with Advanced
Composites,ACI Materials Journal, Vo1.96, 1999, pp. 605-6 10.
4. Autar, K. K., Mechanics of Composite Materials, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, New York, 1997

CREEP PERFORMANCE OF CFRP CONFINED

CONCRETE CYLINDERS
M. THERIAULT, M.-A. PELLETIER, K. KHAYAT AND G. AL CHAMI
Department of Civil Engineering, Universite' de Sherbrooke
2500 b o d Universitk, Sherbrooke QC J I K 2R1,Canada
Multiple rehabilitation techniques were implemented in order to increase
the life cycle of deficient structures. One of the most promising techniques
is the addition of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthening systems,
which have proven to be quite effective in the confinement of reinforced
concrete columns. However, important concerns regarding the durability of
FRP-rehabilitated structures remain to be investigated. One of these
concerns is the long-term creep behavior of FRP strengthening systems. In
this study, 15 CFRP confined and unconfined concrete cylinders were
submitted to sustained loading. Three short-term creep tests and four longterm creep tests, each performed over three replicates, were carried out.
The parameters of the study include the level of confinement and the level
of sustained stress. According to the results, confinement can effectively
increase the creep resistance of concrete. This increase depends primarily
on the level of sustained loading according to the confined concrete
strength. For the same percentage of loading in term of ultimate strength,
specimens with the highest confinement level exhibited the greatest short
term creep resistance.
INTRODUCTION
Creep is defined as a strain increase in time of a material submitted to a
constant stress. Creep in concrete is a time-dependent phenomenon which
can be influenced by numerous factors, such as the type of cement, the
waterkement ratio, the use of admixture and the changes in humidity and/or
temperature. Hence, the use of FRP-wrapped concrete columns exhibits a
complex creep phenomenon, since other parameters must also be considered
including the type and degree of confinement and the thickness of the resin
between the FRP layers.
According to the ISIS Canada Design Guidelines and with the proper
FRP confinement upgrading, the ultimate load that can be applied on a
column may be doubled'. This increase in capacity, while theoretically
acceptable, brings forth new considerations as to the mechanical durability
of the system. In fact, for creep failure protection, the dead load applied on
an unconfined concrete column should not exceed 80% of the concrete
compressive strength. This value, once subjected to modification factors, is
finally limited to 0.35 f,. In the CSA reinforced concrete design manual,
the actual maximum applied load on a concrete column should not exceed
35% of its ultimate strength if all the design requirements are met; the risk
of a creep failure at such stress level is therefore overlooked. However, the
same cannot be said for FRP-confined columns, where the total factorized
load can be as high as the unconfined concrete compressive strength3. At
such high stress IeveI, the load-carrying capacity of the confined concrete
columns depends on the effectiveness of the FRP wrap to restrain crack
propagation, and thus prevent fragile failure.
Further investigation on the durability aspects of this new technique is
essential to investigate the long and safe use of this strengthening scheme.
This study aims at the identification of the maximum dead load that can be
sustained by an FKP-confined concrete column as a function of the applied
confinement pressure.
The concrete was prepared with coarse aggregates with 14 mm nominal
size. Ready-mix concrete with a 65 mm slump and a 3.8% air content was
used. Test cylinders were removed from mold one day after casting, cured
in water for 7 days and then stored at room temperature until the time of
testing.
The mean compressive strength values at 28 days and 7 months were
24.5 and 29.1 MPa, respectively. The sample ends were ground with a
diamond blade to perfectly smooth surfaces perpendicular to the cylinder
axis for the secure creep testing.
Unidirectional carbon fibers sheets were used for the confinement. The
fiber properties are presented in Table 1. The design thickness provided by
the manufacturer for a single ply is 0.165 mm. After 28 days of curing, the
composite was wrapped around the cylinders in one, two or three layers
corresponding to a confinement pressure of 7.4 to 22.2 MPa. A problem of
insufficient anchorage length was observed during the preliminary static
testing. This problem was solved by applying at the lapped joint an
additional fiber sheet that had a length that did not exceed 65% of the
Creep Performance of CFRP Confined Cylinders 625
cylinder circumference. Unconfined concrete cylinders were also tested and

used as reference samples.
Table 1. Properties of carbon fiber polymers
Source
Tensile strength
(N/m&plY)
Manufacturer
Lab oratory
575
533
Tensile modulus of
elasticity
oV/mdplv)
37.5
42.5
Poissons
Coefficient
0.22
Test Setup and Procedure

Static tests
Before any creep test took place, a number of confined and unconfined
concrete cylinders of 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in height were
subjected to axial compressive tests in order to obtain their ultimate strength
and their stress-strain behavior. Testing procedures followed Standard CSA
A23.2-9C.
Short-term creep tests
Short-term creep tests were performed on 150 x 300 mm cylinders. Standard

CSA A23.2-9C loading rate was applied until the desired load was obtained.
The load was then maintained until failure of the specimen. Cylinders were
instrumented with an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transducer)
and/or extensometer to monitor axial and radial strains. The short-term
creep testing program started at high sustained load which was then
progressively reduced for each new specimen until no failure was obtained
after three days of sustained loading. This latest dead load level was then
used as an upper loading level for the long-term creep testing.
Long-term creep tests
The long-term creep testing was carried out according to ASTM Standard
C512 using 80-ton frames (see Figure 1). Lab-built frames were mounted
using upper and lower triangular trays, three huge steel bars threaded at
both ends, ball-and-socket joint fixed under the upper tray and a flat jack
connected to a pressurized air tank accumulator, and a manometer. Because
of the ongoing danger of a fragile failure, the frames were built with two
security units: Plexiglas windows installed in front of each of the triangular
faces and, three large bolts and sockets systems attached at the bottom to
626 FRPRCS-6: Extenally Bonded Reinforcement for Confinemeni
the lower tray and at the top to a plate above the jack. This last security
device can block the jack expansion in the case of unexpected large
deformations or of a cylinder failure.
BALL AND SOCKET
.;
cr-
HUGE STEEL BARS
ALUMINIUM CYLINDER
0150nn x 89nn
068nn
:i
3 CONCRETE CYLINDERS OF
0150nn x 300nn
OAD GENERATOR
ALUMlNIUM CYLINDER
0150"" x lOOnn
FLAT JACK
LOWER TRAY
Figure 1. Frame used for the long-term creep testing
In each testing frame, three superimposed concrete cylinders measuring

150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in height were tested. Special attention
was given to the superposition of the cylinders so as to secure an alternated
position of the overlapping of the fiber sheets. Prior to loading, the upper
and lower trays were checked for parallelism. The load was applied slowly
by steps of 700 kPa (500 psi) to avoid eccentric loading. Once the desired
pressure attained, it was maintained constant with a +70 @a (50 psi) margin
of error.
Cylinders were instrumented with two deformation acquisition systems.
The first system is equipped with three displacement dials attached to the
aluminum cylinders and spaced at 120 degrees around the frames. The dials
(with -+0.01mm or 0.00001 m d m m precision) measure the displacement of
the three cylinders all at once. The elastic deformation of the aluminum
cylinders was carefully subtracted from the readings of the dials. The
second measuring system consisted of four strain gauges all set on the
middle cylinders of each frame. Three gauges were spaced at 120 degrees to
measure axial strain; only one strain gauge was installed to measure radial
strain. Temperature and relative humidity were also monitored. The axial
Creep Pe$omnce of CFRP Confined Cylinders 627
and radial strains of confined and unconfined cylinders were recorded at

each loading step and at a rate corresponding to the strain increase once the
target pressure level attained.
Testing Parameters
Three short-term, and four long-term creep tests were carried out. The
parameters of this study, which include the degree of confinement and
loading level, are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Load level in function of
fi & fiC
Sustained load level

Confinement
scheme
Target
Short-term
Long-term
1.2fi;0.9fic
Long-term
0.65
fi
1.2fi; 0.9fdc
0.8 fi ;0.4 fiC
fi ;0.4 f i C
c2
0.8
c2
1.2fi;0.6fic
c3
Short-term
0.8 $
U
CI
Measured
1.7 fi ;OX5 fiC
fi ;0.5 fiC
1.7 f i ; 0.85 fiC
The specimen and sustained load level designations are as follows: U,

unconfined concrete cylinder; C, confined concrete cylinder; 1, 2 and 3,
number of CFRP layers; f i , compressive strength of unconfined concrete
and; fiC, compressive strength of confined concrete.

Compression Tests
Compression test results are presented in Table 3. Ultimate axial strains
varied significantly from one specimen to another. Theoretical values were
calculated according to the ISIS Canada Design Manual. Significant
differences between the experimental and expected theoretical values were
found for the 3-ply specimens. The possibility of a maximum limit to
6 2 8 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Confinement
confinement is not rejected. Further microscopic analysis also revealed the

possibility of an insufficient resin thickness which might have led to the
abrasion of the carbon fibers for the 1 and 3-ply specimens. Since these
experimental results were obtained over a wide range of specimens with a
standard deviation of less then 1 MPa, they were kept as reference values.
Table 3. Compression test results
Confinement
Ultimate Axial Strains
Experimental
Theoretical
scheme
(mm/mm)
Minimum
Maximum
(MPa)
(MPa)
0.00225
0.00420
29
CI
0.01438
0.01605
38
43
c2
0.02076
0.02598
57
59
c3
0.02396
0.03048
58
73
Creep Tests
When studying creep, several strain readings must be accounted for and
subtracted from the recorded values. These readings include the elastic
strain coming from the loading of the specimens, the dilatation or
contraction of concrete due to changes in temperature or humidity and the
volume variation due to the shrinkage of the concrete. In the present study,
the temperature was kept in a relatively constant laboratory environment
(1 S-23C). As for humidity changes within the specimen, they were also of
no concern since all specimens, including the unconfined cylinders, were
covered with waterproof polymers. Shrinkage was not a relevant issue,
since the testing did not start until at least one year of air drying. Therefore,
only the elastic strain was subtracted from the total deformation readings.
According to ASTM C512, elastic strains are obtained right after the
loading for short-term creep testing and between 2 to 3 hours after loading
for the long-term creep testing.
Short-term creep curves
Short-term creep test results are presented in Figure 2. According to this

figure, the strain rate of concrete seems relatively constant on a log scale
after about 2 minutes. Unfortunately for the C3 specimen tested at a
sustained load of 170%&;85%&c, a power cut occurred after
Creep Pegormance of CFRP Confined Cylinders 629
approximately 8 hours and 14 minutes of testing. The specimen was

reloaded 10 hours later, and the strain readings were adjusted consequently.
After 70 hours of sustained reloading, the specimen did not failed, and the
loading was stopped. To give a better idea of the proper strain readings and
time adjustment, the additional time and axial strain registered from the
second loading was not added to the first loading until the strain rate
registered before the power cut was approximately obtained. This explains
the kink point in the C3 170% fi ;85% ficcurve.
-$
0,0001
8.64 sec
0
-200
-400
S -600
0
*
-800
-1000
% -1200
.!
-1400
l
d
5; -1600
-1800
0,001
Testing duration (days)

0,Ol
071
1.44 min
14.4 min
2.4 h
10
1 day
120% f ,-90% f cc
170% f,-85% f,,
C3 (failure at 77h)
Figure 2 . Deformations from the short-term creep tests
Given the above results, the major factor effecting creep seems to
correspond to the level of sustained loading, expressed as % of fit. The
lower is this level, the higher is the creep resistance (85% fit, as compared
to 90%/Oc). The loading level characterized by fi does not yield any
apparent relation. However, for the same loading level in terms of fiC, the
specimen with the greatest load level in terms of fi ,which corresponds to a
higher confinement, showed the highest creep resistance (1 80% fi ;
90%, fiC, as compared to 170% f i ; 90% fiC).
Long-term creep curves
Figure 3 shows the on-going results of the evolution of the axial strain with
time obtained for the four experiments. The axial strain readings are
deducted from the mean of three dial gauges positioned around the loading
frame, which is also the average reading of three specimens (three
specimens/frame). The strain gauge readings on concrete and FRP became
inaccurate after a few days for all the loading levels above 80% 5 . This
could be due to creep and/or relaxation of gauge and of the gauge bonding
polymer under high strain. Creep deformation obtained from the strain
gauges also had higher standard deviations than the readings obtained from
the dials. A possible explanation would be the highly localized measure
obtained from the strain gauges. Locally, a concrete may present defects
and different creep behavior depending on the material immediately beneath
the gauge. For comparison purposes, a creep curve obtained by Neville4 for
a normal concrete at a load level equal to 70% fc' is presented in Figure 3.
Time (days)
0
50
100
150
200
0
n
33.
W
-500
-1000
Neville 70% f,
0
c,
gu
ru
0
.-5
-1500
-2000
-2500
-3000
-3500
1J
C3 100% f,-50%fcc
C2 100% fC-50%f,
Figure 3. Long-term creep test curves
When comparing the different curves, it can be seen that the 65%&
loading curve of the unconfined concrete was quite similar to the 7 0 % 5
loading curve given by Neville, with corresponding lower strains given by a
lower relative loading. As expected, higher loading resulted in higher creep
strain, while similar loading led to similar creep behavior.
Creep Pegormance of CFRP Conjined Cylinders 631
Creep strains
According to Neville4, the creep failure of concrete occurs at a total strain

corresponding to the ultimate concrete strain obtained from a static
compression test. This statement was not confirmed for the short-term creep
tests, as shown in Table 4.Short-term creep tests showed higher strains at
failure than the static compression tests. Therefore, it is expected that the
long-term creep tests will also show higher strains. This phenomenon can be
compared to the loading rate: the slower the loading rate is, the greater the
strain at failure can be.
Table 4. Projected creep resistance
Expected
Failure
Failure
(days)
(Range in days)
Actual Strain
@ age
W / m @ days)
Strain Rate
(pm/m/day)
1330@100
2.049
449-1400
CI-1.2J;?;0.95c
15840@0.1208
29260
0.0859-0.1280
C2- .8fd;0.4fic
25980100
5.530
3 160-4228
6 3 0 3 0 149
5.883
2457-3345
C3- J? ;0.5 fir
4331050
14.55
1349-1797
C3-1.7fC;0.85 fir
36693@2.95
0.4240
0.0023-0.1 15
3479003.22
393.5
0.0027-0.34
Test
Designation
U-0.65
C2-
C3-I 8
;0.5 J?c
5 ;0.9 fir
0.1208
3.22
Readings interrupted by a power cut
Using the ultimate static strain as a failure criterion, combined with the
hypothesis of a regular strain rate, the time of failure of the long-term creep
tests were roughly estimated in Table 4. Considering that higher strains
were obtained for the short-term creep tests, and considering that strain rate
decreases with time and that the U- 0 . 6 5 5 specimens should not fail, a
longer lifetime can be expected for all the long-term creep tests.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS
At a sustained load equal to the ultimate strength of concrete, the FRP
confinement was found effective to limit crack propagation for several
months without showing any signs of upcoming failure. With regards to the
632 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfor Conjinemeni
limited results of this study, two hypotheses can be drawn: (1) In FRP
confined concrete cylinders, creep resistance is inversely proportional to the
loading level as a fraction of fd.; and (2) for the same type of concrete and
identical loading level as a function of fit, the system with the highest
confinement might show the greatest creep resistance. Further
investigations are however needed to confirm the results of this study and to
clearly identify the creep limit of confined reinforced concrete columns.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the
Network of Centres of Excellence on Intelligent Sensing for Innovative
Structures (ISIS Canada), le Centre de Recherche Interuniversitaire sur le
Beton (CRIB), and le Fonds pour la Formation de Chercheurs et 1Aide Ci la
Recherche (FCAR). We also gratefully acknowledged the support of Master
Builders Inc. for the donation of the FRP materials.
REFERENCES
1. Neale, K., Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures with
Externally-Bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymers - Design Manual No. 4,
ISIS Canada Corporation, Winnipeg, Canada, 2001,210 p.
2. CSA, Standard 23.3-94, Design of Concrete Structures, Canadian
Standards Association, Rexdale, Canada.
3. ThCriault, M. and Neale, K.W., Design Equations for Axially-Loaded
Reinforced Concrete Columns Strengthened with Fibre Reinforced
Polymer Wraps, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(5), 2000,
pp. 1011-1020.
4. Neville, A.M., Propriitis des bktons, Eyrolles, Paris, France, 2000,
806 p.

DEVELOPMENT/SPLICE STRENGTH OF STEEL BARS IN

CONCRETE CONFINED WITH CFRP SHEETS
M. H. HARAJLI AND B. S. HAMAD
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
American Universiv of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
The aspect of bond between reinforcing steel bars in tension and concrete
confined with flexible carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets is
analytically investigated. The bond analysis incorporates an experimentally
derived local bond stress-slip model, applicable for both plain unconfined
concrete and concrete confined with CFRP flexible sheets. It is found that
confining the concrete with CFRP reinforcement increases considerably the
bond strength and leads to significant improvement in the ductility of bond
failure. Based on the analysis results, supported with experimental data, a
design expression is proposed to evaluate the development length of
reinforcing bars embedded in concrete confined with CFRP flexible sheets.
INTRODUCTION
Bond strength between reinforcing bars and concrete is one of the most
important aspects' that influence the structural performance and
serviceability of reinforced concrete members under both static and dynamic
earthquake loading. Bond strength can be improved by providing adequate
bar developmentlsplice length, increasing the concrete covers, and confining
the concrete at the critical locations where plastic hinges are most likely to
develop.
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are used to repair and
strengthen reinforced concrete structural members, especially beams and
columns. Many reinforced concrete beams have been tested, demonstrating
the feasibility and efficiency of this technology to improve flexural stiffness
and strength as well as seismic response.'. On the other hand, studies of the
effectiveness of FRP in increasing the bond strength capacity of reinforcing
bars in tension are very limited.
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this investigation are to evaluate the bond
performance of reinforcing bars embedded in concrete confined with carbon
fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) flexible sheets, and to propose based on

the analytical results and available experimental data, design expressions for
evaluating the bond resistance and development/splice length of reinforcing
bars, taking into account the effect of confinement provided by CFRP
sheets.
ANALYTICAL BOND MODEL
The analytical approach adopted in this study is based on a numerical
solution scheme of the bond problem. In the analysis, the developed/spliced
bar is subdivided into small elements and the stresslstrain at the loaded end
is increased in increments. At any straidstress level during the response, the
bar stress, bar slip and bond stress distribution along the development/splice
length are determined using constitutive local bond stress-slip response and
stress-strain model of the constituent materials to satisfy known or assumed
stredstrain boundary conditions. More details of the analytical approach are
described elsewhere3.
The local bond law is shown schematically in Fig. 1. It is composed of
an envelope curve applicable for pull-out bond failure in well-confined
concrete and reduced bond stress-slip response corresponding to splitting
bond failure for plain unconfined concrete or for concrete confined with
CFRP flexible sheets. The splitting bond curve for CFRP confined concrete
was developed recently by Harajli and Hamad4 based on experimental
testing of beam specimens with short spliced bars at midspan having bar
sizes db between 16 mm and 32 mm, and ratios of minimum concrete cover
to bar diameter c / db between 0.56 and 2. I . The splice zone was confined
by wrapping the beam with one or two layers of CFRP flexible sheets
applied along the full splice length. The manufacturer's data of the sheets are
as follows: design thickness of the fabric is equal to 0.13 mm, modulus of
elasticity is equal to 230,000 MPa, tensile strength equals 3500 MPa and
strain at break of the fibers is 1.5%.
Referring to Fig. I, the envelope curve is expressed as follows5:
where u is the bond stress and s is the slip;
u1 (MPa) = 2 . 5 7 f i
; and sI =
0.15c0, s2 = 0.35 co and s3 = co, where co is the clear distance between the
Development/Splice Strength of Steel Bars 635
ribs of the reinforcing bar; or equal to 1.5, 3.5, and 10 mm, respectively, if
no information is available about the bar rib geometry; u f = 0 . 3 5 ~ ~ .
(c/dh)2/3I ul
urnox
=
in which c is the minimum concrete cover and dh is the diameter of the steel
bar, K = 0.78 for plain concrete and 0.92 for concrete confined with either
one or two layers of CFRP flexible sheets. The terms a = 0.7; p = 0.65; and
ufi = 0 . 3 0 ~ The
~ ~ .slip s,,, at which urn,, is mobilized, is calculated as
follows:
(1/ Q.3)Ln(+)
Smax
= '1'
+ s,Ln(-) UI
(3)
Umax
where so = 0.15 mm for plain concrete and 0.20 mrn for concrete confined
with CFRP sheets.
For plain concrete, the descent in the bond stress u with increase in slip
s follows the following expression:
u=@
,,
(s / s,,)-0.5
(4)
For concrete confined with CFRP sheets along the full splice length:
r
In which k/-and k2 are equal to 0.8 and 0.13 for the beams confined with one
CFRP layer, and 0.9 and 0.13, for beams confined with two layers,
respectively.
Analytical evaluation of the bond strength of plain unconfined concrete
using the bond law for plain concrete in Fig. 1 was already undertaken in
Ref. 3, where the results showed excellent agreement with experimental
data.
Variation of predicted average bond strength at failure U, normalized to

f c 1 4 , versus ratio of developmenthplice length to bar diameter, L, / d, ,
corresponding to two different ratios of concrete cover to bar diameter,
c / d, , and for different level of CFRP confinement are shown in Fig. 2.
Typical results showing normalized steel stress versus slip response for
CFRP confined concrete in comparison with plain unconfined concrete are
shown in Fig. 3. The results were obtained assuming the reinforcing bar
does not yield (i.e.,f, = infinite), db = 25 mm, and normal-strength concrete
( f , 5 SOMPa).As shown, provided the concrete strength is within the
range of NSC, the results are not sensitive to bar diameter or concrete
compressive strength. Also, it should be pointed out that the choice of A
power instead of the conventional 54 power of f,for normalization of the
bond results is based on a recent study by Zuo and Darwin6 in which it was
found that the use of /4 power of concrete compressive strength leads to
better representation of the effect of f,on bond strength.
Figures 2 and 3 clearly show that confining the concrete with CFRP
sheets leads to significant improvement in the bond strength at failure at all
levels of L,/ d, investigated. The increase in bond strength for CFRP
confined concrete increases as L,/d,or as c / d b increases (Fig. 2).
Comparing the mode of failures in Fig. 3, it is clear that confining the
concrete with CFRP sheets leads to a much gradual degradation in strength
with increase in bar slip, and consequently much more ductile behavior in
comparison with plain unconfined concrete. While using two layers, or
doubling the area, of CFRP sheets may increase only slightly the ductility of
bond failure in the post splitting range (Fig. 3), it does not lead to significant
increase in bond strength as compared to concrete confined with one layer.
PROPOSED EQUATION FOR DEVELOPMENT LENGTH

The predicted bond strength at failure of concrete confined with CFRP
flexible sheets applied along the full developmenthplice length,
corresponding to a wide range of c / d , and L,/d, parameters, were
sorted in many different ways. The way that produces the least scatter is to
plot the results as ratio of bond strength with CFRP to that of plain
unconfined concrete, in function of A , = w f t , / d , ,where Af is the area, wfis
the width ( w f / L, I 1.0 ), and t/- is the design thickness of one layer of the
Development/Splice Strength of Steel Bars 637
Bond Stress (u)
NIax
S3
Slip (s)
Figure 1 . Local bond stress-slip model used in the analysis
4.0
3.5
3.0
z
4
2.5
2.0
bU
1.5
1.o
0.5
0.0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Ld/db
Figure 2. Predicted variation of normalized bond strength U at failure with

LJdh and C/dh for different levels of CFRP confinement
CFRP fabric. Since for the thickness of the CFRP fabric used in deriving the
experimentally based local bond law (tJ = 0.13 mm), the number of CFRP
layers, or total thickness, did not influence much the results, the parameter
w ft f /d, can be reduced to wf /d,. Typical variation of analytical
predictions with w f / d bis shown in Fig. 4. Shown also in Fig. 4 is the
trend of experimental data obtained in Ref. 4 for L, / db = 5.0,upon which
Eq. (2) is based, and the experimental results reported recently728for NSC
and HSC corresponding to L, /d, = 15.0, in which CFRP sheets, similar
to the one used in this analytical study, were applied in one or two layers
with ratios w f / L, of 1/3,2/3 and 1.O, respectively.
It is clear from the results depicted in Fig. 4 that expressing the bond
results as proposed (bond ratio) leads a consistent trend in both the
experimental and analytical results. Note that for concrete confined with
ordinary transverse steel, the effect of the transverse reinforcement on bond
strength is expressed as bond increment (above that for plain unconfined
concrete) that increases linearly with parameter A,r /nsd, (Ref. 6), where
A,r is the area per one stirrup that crosses the potential plain of splitting, s is
the spacing of stirrups, and n is the number of splices or bars being
developed. If an analogy were to be used with ordinary transverse
reinforcement, a more appropriate parameter to reflect the influence of
CFRP sheets on bond strength (assumed to be applied along the full
splice/development length) would be to use 2NAf / w,nd, = 2Nt, / nd, ,
where N is the number of CFRP applications (or layers). However, because
the presence of CFRP sheets altered the mode of splitting failure from sidesplitting to predominantly bottom-splitting4.7, s and also since doubling the
number of layers did not lead to a noticeable increase in bond strength (see
Figs. 2-4), it is believed that the mechanism by which CFRP sheets
influence the bond strength is different from that when ordinary transverse
reinforcement is used. This difference in the mechanism of bond resistance
may justify the use of bond ratio instead of bond increment and,
accordingly, a CFRP parameter w f /d, instead of 2Ntf /nd,that would
have been used if analogy with ordinary transverse reinforcement were
made.
Based on the results of this study, the following equation is proposed to
calculate the bond strength of concrete confined with CFRP flexible sheets,
regardless of the number of layers used (see Fig. 4), provided the thickness
of the layers is not less than 0.13 mm:
.d
120000
E
E-
zn
-3
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
-a- Confined conc (1 CFRP layer)
100000
1.3
1.2
XExperiment (NSC)
1.1
1
80000
60000
10
20
30
40
50
60
$
5
$
t
w/db
40000
20000
1.9
1.8
1.7
$P
;;i 1.6
& 1.5
s$
1.4
.CI
1 0 1 2 1 4
Slip at Loaded End, mm
5
%
1.3
1.2
1.1
Figure 3. Typical predicted variation of normalized

bond force A& versus slip response
10
20
30
40
50
60
wddb
Figure 4. Comparison of predicted and experimental results
s2
ta
2
\o
where, in the absence of experimental data to justify larger increases, the

term (1 + 0 . 0 1 7 /~d~, ) shall not be taken more than 1.5; p is a concrete
strength power (p = !4 or %). For plain unconfined concrete, the bond
strength can be calculated using the design equation proposed by Orangun,
Jirsa and Breen', upon which the ACI Building code" philosophy for bond
design is based, or the more recent expression proposed by Zuo and
Darwin6. For instance, using the expression by Zuo and Darwin, the bond
force A, f , ( A, f,= Uzd,L, ) at bond failure for plain unconfined concrete
is calculated as follows:
-=
Abfs
f y4
[59.8L,(cm+0.5db)+2350A,]
in whichh is the steel stress and f Ic is the concrete strength in psi, 4,

is the
bar area (in2), c, is the minimum and cMis the maximum value (cdc, < 3.5)
of c, or cb (in inches) where cs is the smaller of % clear distance between
bars + 0.25 in. or side cover, and cb is the bottom cover of the reinforcing
bar. Combining Eqs. (6) and (7) leads to:
)cFRp = (1
fY4
+ 0.017 -)[59.8L,
w/
(cm+ 0 . 5 4 ) + 2 3 5 0 A , ]
db
/
, (8)
0 . 1 2+ 0.9
[ e m
When Eq. ( 8 ) is solved for the development length L, and by

considering the conservative simplifications made by Zuo and Darwin
(2000), the following expression is obtained:
DevelopmentLYplice Strength of Steel Bars 641
_fy_ -
fY4
Ld =
db
2100
(9)
68 1+0.017--
:)(b)
wheref, is the yield stress of the steel bar in psi. In analogy with the effect
of confinement using ordinary transverse reinforcement, and in order to safe
guard against pull-out bond failure as currently the philosophy of the ACI
Building code, it is recommended to limit the maximum value of
(1+ 0 . 0 1 7 /~d~b ) ( c / d b )to 4.0 as suggested by Zuo and Darwin6
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions are drawn:
(a) Confining the concrete with CFRP flexible sheets leads to significant
improvement in bond strength and ductility of bond failure.
(b) While using two CFRP layers may increase the ductility of bond
failure, it does not lead to significant increases in bond strength.
(c) Based on the analytical results, supported with experimental data,
general design expressions were proposed to evaluate the
development/splice strength and developmentlsplice length of
reinforcing bars embedded in concrete confined with CFRP flexible
sheets.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the Lebanese National Council for Scientific
Research (NCSR). The authors are grateful for that support, and to the
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture at the American University of
Beirut (AUB) for providing the computer facilities.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 440, State-of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced
Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Structural Applications, ACI 440R-96,
1996, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
642 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcementfor Confinemen1

ACI 440.1 R-0 1, 200 1, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
3. Harajli, M. H., and Mabsout, M., E., Evaluation of Bond Strength of
Reinforcing Bars in Plain and Fiber Reinforced Concrete, ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 99, No. 4, July-Aug., 2002, pp. 509-5 17.
4. Harajli, M., and Hamad, B., Bond-Slip Behavior of Reinforcing Bars in
Concrete Confined with CFRP sheets, Submitted for possible
Publication in the ACI Structural Journal, 2002.
5 . Harajli, M., Hout, M, and Jalkh, W., Local Bond Stress-Slip
Relationship of Reinforcing Bars Embedded in FRC, ACI Materials
Journal, 92(4), July-Aug., 1995, pp. 343-354.
6. Zuo, J. and Darwin, D., Splice Strength of Conventional and High
Relative Rib Area Bars and High-Strength Concrete, ACI Structural
Journal, V. 97, NO. 4, July-August, 2000, pp. 630-641.
7. Hamad, B., Soudki, K, Harajli, M., and Rteil, A., Experimental and
Analytical Evaluation of the Bond Strength of Reinforcement in FFW
Wrapped HSC Beams, Submitted or review and possible publication in
the ACI Structural Journal, 2002.
8. Hamad, B., Rteil, A., Selwan, B., and Soudki, K., Behavior of Bond
Critical Regions Wrapped with FRP Sheets in Normal and High Strength
Concrete, Submitted to ASCE Journal of Composites for Construction,
2002.
9. Orangun, C. O., Jirsa, J. O., and Breen, J. E., Strength of Anchored
Bars: A Reevaluation of Test Data on Development on Development
Length and Splices, Research Report No. 154-3F, Center for Highway
Research, University of Texas at Austin, 1975,78 pp.
10.ACI Committee 3 18, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete, ACI 3 18-99, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
Mich, 391 pp.

LATERAL PRESTRESSIP G OF RC CO
FRP JACKETS
JMNS WITH
A. A. MORTAZAVI, K. PILAKOUTAS AND M. A. CIUPALA

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The University of ShefJield
Mappin Street, Shefield SI 350, UK
This paper presents the results e o m experiments on a new strengthening

technique for concrete columns that uses expansive materials to apply lateral pretensioning. The level of pre-tensioning is controlled by using different amounts
of expansive agent. The technique aims to enhance the capacity and ductility of
columns as well as achieve better utilisation of the confining FRP material. It is
shown that jacketing columns by pre-tensioned FRP materials can increase the
load bearing capacity up to 30% compared with conventional wrapping and up
to more than 2 times compared with unconfined concrete. However, the most
important effect of pre-tensioning is a delay in the initiation of the hcturing
process of the concrete through cracking. The paper presents details of
experimental work undertaken with different confining materials (CFRP and
GFRP) but having the same ultimate jacket strength.
INTRODUCTION
RC columns can be very vulnerable to seismic actions, especially when they
are deficient in lateral reinforcement. This can lead to shear failure, lap
splice failure, buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement and premature
concrete compressive failure at low displacements. All these failure modes
reduce the ductility and energy dissipation potential of columns.
Since the 1995 Kobe earthquake, composites have been used for the
repair and strengthening of columns against seismic actions and seismic codes
need to be updated to account for these new materials and techniques.
One of the problems with FRP confinement of concrete is that the
strength of the FRP jacket is not mobilised until the lateral strain in the
confined concrete is very high. In some cases, the concrete will crush before
the FRP jacket is fully ~ t i l i s e d ' ~The
* ~ ~existing
.
designs equations for steel
confined concrete, such as for Eurocode S4, assume that the confining steel
is fully utilised. These equations should not be used for FRP confined concrete,
since the predicted properties of the confined concrete are not necessarily
achieved. Hence, several researchers have adopted concrete constitutive models
developed for steel reinforced concrete for use with FRP jackets.
It is possible to overcome this problem of strength utilisation by
reducing the lateral strain at failure of the concrete through pre-tensioning.

This approach is particularly useful for low modulus materials (such as
glass) or when relatively low amounts of confinement are used,223.
However, it is not easy to apply large pre-tensioning stresses in composites,
especially when using the popular method of wrapping of sheet material.
Some researcher~~~
tried to develop lateral pre-tensioning through grout or
resin injections, but had limited success in changing the concrete behaviour.
The pre-stressing of the composites in this work is achieved by using an
expansive agent (EA), normally used for concrete demolition, mixed with a
cement grout in different proportions. This can ensure that the concrete is
actively confined by the composite even at service loads. The advantage of
this method is that, by applying additional lateral pressure in the early stages
of loading, concrete dilation is delayed (as will be seen from volumetric
expansion graphs). This results not only in higher confined concrete
strengths, but also in higher energy dissipation.
This paper will present details of a part of this experimental work with
two different types of confining material (glass and carbon) and two levels
of initial pre-stressing. This research is conducted at the Centre for Cement
and Concrete of the University of Sheffield, UK. This research forms part of
work undertaken under the EU TMR Network ConFibreCrete.
PRETENSIONING METHOD
In practice, the expansion of the jacket can take place through the injection of
the expansion grout (EG) in preformed cavities at specific locations, such as
the corners of rectangular columns. The method as applied in the laboratory
differs and depends on gap size or the other parameters.
In this method, a pre-formed confining tube (jacket) is placed around an
existing czncrete cylinder and then the EG, comprising cement, sand and EA,
is inserted between the concrete cylinder and the jacket. The jacket confines
the expansion of the grout during the hardening period (3-4 days) and pressure
builds-up due to the reaction of the EG against the concrete core.
Once the EG sets, the jacket and grout become an integral part of the
column. The expansive pressure of the grout has been shown to be a
function of the allowable lateral displacement. If a large displacement can
take place, such as when confining with very low stiffness materials, then
the pressure can reduce to zero. Hence, special experiments were
undertaken, to develop the understanding of the mechanical properties of
the EG so as to enable accurate prediction of the lateral pre-tensioning
pressure. Figure 1 shows the maximum expansive pressure (MEP)
Lateral Prestressing of RC Columns with FRP Jackets 645
calculated by E ,
.tcprel r where EFw is the Youngs modulus of

elasticity of the jacket, t is the thickness of the FRP jacket, E~~~ is the
maximum lateral expansion measured by the lateral strain gauges, and r is
the radius of the jacket. MEP expected to be developed in EG having two
different ratios of EA. The horizontal axis shows the confinement stiffness
(CS) calculated by EFRp. t / r . It can be seen that the relation between MEP
and CS is more or less linear, as shown by the trend lines. These relations
are currently being developed by the authors into design equations for use
with this method of pre-tensioning.
35 1
30
25
20
10
15
0
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
CS (MPa)
Figure 1. MEP versus CS for two values of EA
EXPENMENTAL PROGRAMME
The experimental programme comprised of testing concrete cylinders with
different confinement configurations. This section gives details of material
properties, specimen preparation, instrumentation and test procedure.
The properties of the materials used in this study are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Fibre properties
Fibre type
CFRP
GFRP
t (mm)
0.1 17
0.135
(MPa)
240000
65000
EFRp
f,,,
(MPa)
3900
1700
EFM,
(%I
1.55
2.80
where f
,,, and cFRPu
are the ultimate tensile strength and ultimate
elongation in the FRP jacket.
The concrete used was made with Ordinary Portland Cement, maximum
aggregate size 10 mm and cylinder strength &) of 32 MPa.
Specimen Details
Since the chemical pre-tensioning pressure (expansive pressure) is caused
by the EG reacting against the confining jacket, this means that the
magnitude of this pre-tension depends on the degree of stiffness of the
jacket and percentage of EA. These two parameters were investigated in an
extensive series of experimental work.
A total of twenty seven lOOmm x 200mm concrete specimens were
prepared without any pre-tensioning, 54 specimens were prepared with
different levels of confinement pre-stressing and 18 unconfined specimens
were tested under compression to determine the plain concrete strength.
Four different confining materials were used (steel, glass, aramid and
carbon) with different number of layers and ratios of EA. In this paper, only
some results from Carbon and Glass FRF'jackets will be presented.
Instrumentation and Testing

For the measurement of lateral strains, three 15mm surface strain gauges
were attached horizontally at the mid-height of each specimen, 120" apart.
To measure longitudinal strain, two surface strain gauges of 15mm length
were mounted vertically in the middle height of the specimen. In addition to
strain gauges, two other devices (DV1 and DV2) were designed to measure
lateral and longitudinal strain by using displacement transducers. These
devices are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
The tests were undertaken in a servo-controlled hydraulic actuator under
displacement control. All samples tested by monotonically loading.
Figure 2. Plan view of DVl
Figure 3. Elevation view DV2
Due to the large amount of experimental data produced by each test, only a
limited amount can be presented in this paper. Two pairs of specimen
confined with Glass and Carbon FRP were selected. Each pair shows the
effect of direct wrapping and pre-tensioning of the jacket. The properties of
the fibres used as shown in Table 1.
The glass fibre sheet was bi-directional (90"), hence the effective
thickness of confinement is 0.0675 mm. For the selected specimens 4 layers
of glass fibre were applied with an overlap of 110 mm. In the first specimen
(WG4) the glass fibre sheet was applied directly onto the appropriately
prepared concrete core. The second specimen of this pair (PG4-30) had the
same amount of glass fibre, but the jacket was pre-tensioned with a 6 mm
thick EG having 30% EA.
The pair of CFRP confined specimens had only one layer of fibres with
the same overlap as for the GFRP specimens. However, the pre-tensioning
grout only had 20% EA (specimen PCI-20). The total confinement strength
was the same for all specimens (around 460 N/mm width), but the carbon
layer was 55% stiffer in the radial direction than the 4 layers of glass fibre.
Failure mode
Failure was always explosive due to the high strain energy stored by the
FRP material and it took place around the middle of the cylinder height.
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show the failure of PG4-30 and PC1-20 respectively.
Figure 4. (a) failure of PG4-30, (b) failure of PC1-20
As shown in these figures, the mode of failure of the glass fibre

confinement is completely different from that of the carbon. This is due to
the bi-directional nature of the glass fibre wrapping which at failure has the
effect of redistributing lateral strains over the full height of the specimen. In
the case of carbon, the failure of the fibres at one location lead to the rapid
debonding of the filaments near that location only.
Stress-strain results
Figures 5 and 6 show the stress-strain relationships for all specimens.
16
c.4
-25000
-20000
-15000
-10000
-5000
5000
10000
Microstrain
Figure 5 . Stress-strain curve for WG4 and PG4-30 specimens
-20000
-14000
-8000
-2000
4000
10000
16000
22000
Microstrain
Figure 6. Stress-strain curve for WCl and PC1-20 specimens
Positive strain indicates axial compression and negative strain indicates

lateral tension, as obtained from the averages of strain gauges on the surface
of the jacket. The vertical axis shows the stress normalised with respect to
the unconfined concrete strengthf,,.
GFRP confinement
The lateral pre-tensioning strain developed in PG4-30 is around 7300 p&
and this also led to a modest expansion in the axial direction. This
expansion was restrained by the glass fibres in the axial direction.
A strength of 2.23 Loand 1.88Lowas achieved by PG4-30 and WG4,
respectively. The failure of WG4 took place when the average lateral strain
was around 18000 pe whilst for PG4-30 the average lateral strain at failure
exceeded 25000 p, which means that the strength of the glass was fully
utilised. It is worth noting that in WG4 the lateral confinement was only
mobilised at around 80% of Lo,whilst for PG4-30 a different behaviour can
be noticed all together.
CFRP confinement
The CFRP confined specimens had a similar behaviour to the GFRP
confined specimens. The lateral pre-tensioning strain developed in PC 1-20
is around 5300 pe and this again led to a modest expansion in the axial
direction. A strength enhancement of 2.10L0 and 1.7Of,, was achieved by
PC1-20 and WC1, respectively. The failure of both specimens took place
when the average lateral strain in the carbon sheet was in excess of the
1.55% specified by the supplier. Again, there is a substantial difference in
the level at which the confinement is mobilised. Hence, it is worth
examining the volumetric strains of these specimens.
Volumetric strain
Figures 7 and 8 show the normalised axial stress against the volumetric
strain for all specimens.
In both pairs, the volume decreases at the initial stages of loading until a
critical level is reached just below Lo. At this stage, volumetric dilation
begins, which means that concrete cracking is developing rapidly. In the
pre-tensioned specimens, PG4-30 and PC 1-20, the volumetric dilation is
delayed by almost 50% offco.This has advantages in seismic loading, since
the damage in the concrete will be delayed and the reinforced concrete
element will have a chance to dissipate more energy. In addition, concrete is
actively confined even at service loads.

2
1- 1
PG4-30
-WG4
le
-0.0015
0.0035
0.0085
0.0135
0.0185
0.0235
0.0285
Volumetric strain (V-V0)NO
Figure 7. Normalised axial stress versus volumetric strain

for WG4 and PG4-30 specimens
r--
-0.0025
2.5
0.0005
0.0035
0.0065
0.0095
Volumetric strain (V-VO)NO
Figure 8. Normalised axial stress versus volumetric strain

for WCl and PC1-20 specimens
Discussion
Even though all specimens had the same strength in the confinement jacket,
they behaved differently and achieved different strengths at different lateral
and axial strains.
The pre-tensioning has led in both cases to higher strengths, and full
utilisation of the confinement material. Though it appears that the GFRP
confined specimens developed higher stresses, this may be partly due to the
fact that the GFRP jacket is carrying some of the axial load.
What is of interest in these two pairs is that the ultimate axial strain, E,,
appears to be significantly higher in the CFRP confined specimens. The
authors attribute this partly to the fact that the GFRP jackets slipped during
testing. As a result the true strain on the concrete core is higher than
recorded on the jacket. In this particular case, for PG4-30 at failure, the
axial concrete core strains recorded were 15000 ye.
CONCLUSIONS
The results from the four specimens confined with Glass and Carbon of
equal strength show different behaviour and strength enhancement. Pretensioning of the jacket led to higher strengths and a significant delay in the
initiation of the fracturing process of the concrete through cracking. This is
expected to lead to a better behaviour both at service loads and under cyclic
loading, such as experienced during earthquakes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Ministry of Energy of the
Islamic Republic of Iran, the financial support of the EU for TMR Network
ConFibreCrete and the Marie Curie Fellowship Grant HPMF-CT-2001-01279.
REFERENCES
1. Mortazavi, A.A. Pilakoutas, K. and Son, K.S. RC column

strengthening by lateral pre-tensioning of FRP, Journal of
Construction and Building Materials (approved for publication 2003).
2. Pilakoutas, K. and Mortazavi, A.A. Laterally Pre-stressed Concrete
with Composites, Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference
on Fibre-reinforced Plastics for Reinforced Concrete Structures,
Cambridge, UK, 200 1, Vol. 2, pp. 855-864.
3. Mortazavi, A.A. and Pilakoutas, K. Pre-tensioning of Composites by
Lateral Pressure, Proceedings of the International Conference on FRP
Composites in Civil Engineering, Hong Kong, December 12-15, 200 1,
Vol. 1, pp. 345-354.
4. EC8, Eurocode 8 - Design provisions for earthquake resistance of
structures (Drafl), ENV 1998-1- 1, 1996.
5. Saadatmanesh, H. Ehsani, M.R. and Jin, L. Seismic strengthening of
circular bridge pier models with fibre composite, ACI Structural
Journal, 93(6), 1996, pp. 639-647.
6. Priestley, M. J. N. and Seible, F. Design and seismic retrofit measures

for concrete and masonry structures, Construction and Building
Materials, 9(6), 1995, pp. 365-377.
7. Harries, K.A. and Kharel, G. Behaviour of modelling of concrete
subject to variable confining pressure, ACI Material Journal, 99(2),
2002, pp. 180-189.
8. Betonamit, The non-explosive cracking agent for universal application,
Kriscut Plant Hire & Sales co. Ltd, UK, 1998.
9. Pilakoutas, K and Mortazavi, A.A. Ductility through external lateral
confinement of RC members with FRP, Non metallic (FRP)
reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Proceeding of the Third
International Symposium, Sapporo, Japan, October 14-16, 1997, Vol. 1,
pp. 225-232.
10. Mortazavi, A.A. Behaviour of concrete confined with lateral pretensioned FRP PhD Thesis (expected Dec. 2002), The University of
Sheffield, UK.
I,

CONFINEMENT OF RC RECTANGULAR
COLUMNS USING GFRP
A. PROTA, G. MANFRED1 AND E. COSENZA
Department of Structural Analysis and Design, University of Naples Federico I/
via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Itah
The confinement of Reinforced Concrete (RC) columns represents one of
the most promising applications of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) to civil
structures. The reasons for such upgrade could be generally related to
durability issues, design or construction mistakes, increase of live loads or
need for seismic retrofit. In all these cases, FRP laminates provide an
effective and competitive strengthening technique and offers advantages
such as easy and fast application, high durability, low impact on the use of
the structure, negligible increase of structural mass as well as of member
dimensions. The majority of studies have been performed on the
confinement with FRP of circular columns, where the contribution of
composites is fully exploited. A loss of effectiveness occurs in the case of
square cross-sections where the presence of the corners reduces the
confining action of the FRP jacket. Such problem becomes particularly
critical for rectangular columns; despite that, very few studies have been
conducted on them. The present paper deals with rectangular columns with
high ratio between the sides of the cross-section. The experimental program
concerning members subjected to axial load is herein presented and the
upgrade technique using Glass FRP (GFRP) laminates is described. The
effectiveness of such confining system is investigated also with respect to
different fiber orientations (unidirectional, bidirectional and quadriaxial).
Some preliminary experimental results are discussed in terms of column
strength, failure mode and strains of the FRP jacket.
INTRODUCTION
Within the applications of composites in construction, the confinement of
RC columns is one of the most common. For both building columns and
bridge piers, strengthening using FRP ensures an easy and fast installation,
strength and/or ductility increase, high durability, low impact on the use of
the structure, and almost no increase of mass and geometrical dimensions of
the cross-sections.
The confining action of FRP jackets gives the best performance on
circular columns, whose geometrical configuration allows the fibers to be
effective on the entire cross-section. A different behavior characterizes

square and rectangular columns; in these cases, due to the presence of the
corners a part of the cross-section remains unconfined. Similar to the
confinement with steel hoops, that loss of effectiveness is modeled with
parabolic areas defined by the corners and eventually by longitudinal steel
rebard. This still represents an unresolved issue even in terms of code
provisions',2.
Experimental studies have been carried out on the confinement of
square or rectangular columns using FRP. In order to assess the
effectiveness of the system, columns subjected to axial load have been
examined. Square columns strengthened with Carbon FRP (CFRP) have
been tested and the effect of f45-degree laminates has been investigated3.
GFRP laminates have been adopted within other experiments and the square
members strengthened using both unidirectional and 0/45-degree laminates4.
An experimental program has been lately developed with respect to
rectangular columns strengthened by unidirectional GFRP composites6.
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The goal of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of FRP
confinement for rectangular cross-sections and assess the influence of
different fiber textures on both global behavior and failure mode of such
columns. GFRP laminates are used to strengthen the elements and the
influence of diffetent fiber textures is evaluated. This represents the
innovative aspect of the presented research program, since tests performed
using GFRP jackets to confine rectangular columns6 were based only on
unidirectional sheets. In addition to them, this research aims at evaluating
also the effectiveness of bidirectional and quadriaxial textures.
The experimental results are expected to provide important insights
about strength, deformability and failure mode of rectangular columns
confined using GFRP. Moreover, the analysis of monitored laminate strains
will allow assessing the effectiveness of its confining action on crosssections with high long/short side ratio. These outcomes will be used to
check the assumptions of the numerical model proposed for strength
prediction of FRP-confined cross-sections5 and to further improve that with
respect to rectangular columns.
Confinement of RC Rectangular Columns using GFRP 6.55
The specimens had rectangular cross-section with sides of 420 mm and 115
mm, respectively, and were 1.5 m high as shown in Figure 1. The forms
were shaped so that the rectangular cross-section had a rounded corner with
radius equal to 20 mm. This allowed reduction in time needed to prepare
each specimen prior to FRP installation. In order to ensure a proper
application of the axial load to such 1/3 scale columns, two bulbs with
dimensions 700 mm x 350 mm x 250 mm were placed at top and bottom of
each specimen.
The longitudinal steel reinforcement was realized by 8 bars, half having
diameter equal to 14 mm and the remaining with diameter of 12 mm (Figure
l), yielding a percentage equal to 2.2% of the gross cross-section. Two
stirrups having diameter of 6 mm were used and spaced at 100 mm on
center along the height. A specific reinforcement layout was selected for the
enlargements. The concrete cover was equal to 25 mm. Concerning material
properties, for all columns concrete had a compressive strength, fc, equal to
12 MPa and steel was characterized by a yield strength, fy,equal to 420
MPa.
Front view
Side view
I1
700
Section A-A
441175 I I J 1175
700
Figure 1 . Specimen geometry and steel reinforcement layout (dimensions in mm)
The first part of the experimental program (herein presented) concerned

the strengthening of columns using GFRP unidirectional laminates, which
was accomplished by following the steps indicated in Figure 2. First, two
plies with fibers parallel to column axis were installed on each short side
and extended for 75 mm on each long side (Step 1 in Figure 2). Then, the
other three steps followed: they aimed at obtaining a 3-ply jacket with fibers
perpendicular to the member axis and avoid overlapping of laminate at the
same column height. Each ply had a fiber density equal to 900 g/m and was
characterized by modulus of elasticity, Et equal to 73,000 MPa and ultimate
tensile strength, P,,,
equal to 3,400 MPa.
The second part of the experimental program, which is currently in
progress, deals with strengthening the specimens by using bidirectional and
quadriaxial laminates. Apart from the type of fiber, the upgrade has been
performed by the same steps described above and summarized in Figure 2.
In total, twelve columns will be tested. The repetition of experimental
results for each type of column will be checked on three equal specimens.
Four types of column will be analyzed: bare, strengthened with
unidirectional, bidirectional and quadriaxial GFRP laminates, respectively.
STEP 2
STEP 1
2 plies
STEP 3
STEP 4
- /
First ply
Second ply
Figure 2. Upgrade scheme
TEST SETUP AND INSTRUMENTATION
The adopted set-up can be observed in Figure 3. A universal machine with a

maximum capacity of 5000 kN was used and tests were load-controlled. The
axial load was recorded by a cell disposed between the plate of the machine
and a very stiff plate placed on the top bulb in order to distribute the axial
force equally on the entire cross-section.
During tests both displacements and strains were recorded. Three linear
variable displacement transducers (LVDT) were mounted on each
Confinement of RC Rectangular Columns using GFRP 657
specimen. Two of them measured the longitudinal relative displacement

between bottom and top cross sections of the column on each long side (1
and 2 in Figure 3); such values allowed the computation of the average
longitudinal deformation as well as checking the symmetry on the two sides.
The third LVDT recorded the horizontal displacement of the mid-height
cross-section in the direction parallel to its short side (Figure 3) in order to
assess whether bending due to buckling occurred.
Strain gages were installed on the GFRP jacket according to the layout
as depicted in Figure 4. Twelve of them were placed at mid-height: two on
the short sides (5 and 6 in Figure 4) and five on each long side (12 to 16 on
side 1 and 7 to 11 on side 2 in Figure 4). Out of the remaining eight, four
strain gages were installed at 375 mm (1 to 4 in Figure 4) and four at 1120
mm (17 to 20 in Figure 4) from the top of the column, respectively.
side 2
Figure 3 . Test setup and LVDT positions
side 1
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

As mentioned, the experimental program is still in progress. The results
herein presented concern two bare columns (i.e., B-1 and B-2) and three
specimens strengthened using unidirectional GFRP laminates (i.e., S- 1, S-2
and S-3). They are discussed in the following sections in terms of strength,
stiffness, axial deformation, failure mode, and jacket strains.
Strength, Stgfness and Axial Deformation
The failure of the virgin specimens occurred under a very similar ultimate
axial force, as reported in Table 1. The GFRP strengthening provided a
significant strength increase; a comparison with the average ultimate
capacity of the bare columns (i.e., 1068 kN) underlines that such gain
ranges between 26.2% (i.e., specimens S-3) and 30.9% (i.e., specimen S-1).
::
I
I
L
Side? -
Side 1
Side 2
Figure 4.Arrangement of strain gages on the FRP jacket
Such behavior is also depicted in Figure 5 where the axial load is

plotted versus the axial strain of the column (on the height of 1500 mm).
Due to data acquisition problems, the LVDT values were not fully recorded
for specimen B-1; this is the reason for not including its ultimate strain
value in Table 1 as well as its curve in Figure 5. Along with the discussed
strength increase, the curves of Figure 5 allow the stiffness of strengthened
members due to the presence of the GFRP jacket to be evaluated. Based on
the initial slope of the curves (up to 300 kN), the average stiffening has
increased by about 55%.
Table 1 . Ultimate performance of tested columns

Column
B- I
B-2
s-I
92
s-3
Ult. Axial Load

(W)
1070.33
1065.45
1398.1 I
1388.32
1348.03
Avg. Strength Incr.
Ult. Axial Strain
(%!
(mdmm)
----------------+ 30.9 Yo
+ 30.0 Yo
---------
+ 26.2 Yo
0.00417
0.00618
0.00517
0.00522
Even though they are stiffer as compared to virgin columns, the

strengthened members show an important improvement in terms of ultimate
axial deformation. Such parameter was calculated by dividing the axial
displacement corresponding to the ultimate axial load over the column
height (see Table 1 and Figure 5). Recorded values show increases of the
ultimate strain ranging between 24% (i.e. S-2) and 48% (i.e. S-1). These
percentages are important to underline the beneficial effect of the GFRP
jacket on the ultimate axial strain rather than to quantify the entity of such
effect. In fact, it is important to recognize that, being the tests forcecontrolled, it is not possible to exactly identify the point corresponding to
the ultimate axial strain (i.e., quasi-horizontal branch around the peak load).
Failure Modes
The failure mode of both virgin specimens (i.e., B-1 and B-2) was due to
concrete crushing occurring at mid-height of the columns (Figure 6-a). This
is also consistent with the ultimate axial strain which is slightly higher than
0.004. The GFRP upgrade moved the failure of strengthened specimens
from concrete to the composite jacket, as depicted in Figure 6-b. Since this
crisis involved fiber breakage, the failure of strengthened columns was
brittle.

IS00
0,WI
0.002
0.W3
0.WS
0.W
0.W7
Figure 5. Axial load vs. axial average strain for bare and strengthened columns
(a>
(b)
Figure 6. Failure mode of control (a) and strengthened (b) columns
Laminate strains
Interesting information were provided by strain gage measurements. While
data processing is still in progress, some preliminary results are herein
presented with respect to strain gages located at mid-height of strengthened
columns (Figure 4). Figure 7 shows strain profiles on the two sides of the
rectangular cross-section for load levels of 300 kN and 600 kN, representing
about 20% and 40% of the ultimate axial force.
For the lower load level, the strain diagrams of columns S- 1, S-2 and S3 are very similar; strain values are not very different and range between
0.005% and 0.01%. For load equal to 600 kN, the confining action of the
fibers becomes more significant with strain values up to 0.025%. The trends
depicted in Figure 7 appear to be consistent with the formation of parabolic
areas that are theoretically expected and are due to the presence of section
corners and longitudinal steel rebars. This aspect will be further investigated
in next steps of the research toward a comprehensive assessment of the
effectiveness of FRP jackets on rectangular cross-sections.
ier
: : 1I .
s-3
Figure 7. Laminate strains at mid-height at 20% and 40% of ultimate axial load
CONCLUSIONS
Preliminary results of an experimental program confirmed that the
confinement with GFRP laminates could represent an effective technique
for the strengthening of RC rectangular columns. Significant increase in
both strength and ultimate axial strain was achieved by using unidirectional
laminates. Tests now in progress will allow assessing the effectiveness of
GFRP also with respect to bidirectional and quadriaxial fiber textures.
The development of the experimental campaign will also provide
important information about the effectiveness of the confinement of
rectangular cross-sections with composites. A preliminary assessment of the
strain distribution along the sides underlined very similar strains of the
jacket for low load levels (i.e., about 20%). As the load increases, peaks in
the strain trends were observed; this could be due to the formation of
parabolic areas which is theoretically expected. Further analysis will be
performed on this aspect in the next steps of the research; the authors
believe that the outcomes will be a useful reference for the modeling of
rectangular cross-sections confined with FRP.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge MAPEI S.p.a., Milano, Italy, for
supporting both construction and strengthening of the specimens. Thanks is
extended to Messrs. Balsam0 and Zaffaroni for their contribution.
REFERENCES
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2001.
2. fib Task Group 9.3, Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC
Structures, International Federation for Structural Concrete, printed by
Sprint-Digital-Druck, Stuttgart, 200 1.
3. Parretti, R. and Nanni, A., Axial Testing of Concrete Columns
Confined with Carbon FRP: Effect of Fiber Orientation, Proceedings
CD-ROM of the Third International Conference on Composites in
Infrastructure, San Francisco, California, US, 10-12 June, 2002, Paper
N. 8.
4. Pessiki, S., Harries, K.A., Kestner, J.T., Sause, R. and Rides, J.M.,
Axial Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Columns Confined with FRP
Jackets, ASCE Journal of Composites for Construction, 5(4), 2001, pp.
237-245.
5 . Realfonzo, R., Prota, A., Manfredi, G. and Pecce, M., Flexural
Strength of FRP-Confined RC Columns, Proceedings CD-ROM of the
first j b Congress Concrete Structures in the 21st century, Osaka,
Japan, 13-19 October, 2002, Disk B, pp. 41-50.
6. Tan, K.H., Strength Enhancement of Rectangular Reinforced Concrete
Columns using Fiber-Reinforced Polymer, ASCE Journal of
Compositesfor Construction, 6(3), 2002, pp. 175- 183.

BEHAVIOUR OF RC COLUMNS RETROFITTED BY FIBRE

REINFORCED POLYMERS UNDER CYCLIC LOADS
H. SHAHEEN AND T. RAKIB
Housing and Buifding Research Center, 87 El-Tahrir st. Giza, Egypt

Y. HASHEM AND I. SHAABAN
Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig Univ., 108 Shobra St., Cairo, Egypt

A. ABDELRAHMAN
Structural Eng. Dept., Ain Shams Univ., Cairo, Egypt
Retrofitting of reinforced concrete (RC) elements with FRP wraps is one of
the techniques used successfully for the last few years. RC rectangular
columns are used extensively in both residential and commercial buildings.
Consequently, a comprehensive study of the different parameters affecting
the seismic behavior of RC columns strengthened with FRP is vitally
needed. The objectives of this research are to study the behavior of
rectangular RC columns wrapped with FRP sheets under cyclic lateral and
axial loading. The main parameters investigated in the research are:
different anchorage systems, volumetric ratio of FRP and spacing between
FRP layers. Five columns with dimensions 150x 450x2300 mm were tested
under both cyclic lateral and axial loading. Different recommendations are
provided for the use of FRP in strengthening rectangular columns.
INTRODUCTION
During the last three decades, considerable changes in seismic design codes
were introduced. In Egypt, many existing RC structures do not comply with
any of the recent seismic code provisions. Deficiencies, often found in
typical moment-resisting frames, are inadequate shear strength, flexural
strength and ductility of columns. During earthquake loading and at high
level of compressive or shear stresses, sudden collapse may occur and there
may not be enough warning signs. As a result, retrofitting of RC columns is
needed for buildings located in seismic regions.
Recently, attention has been focused on the use of FRP materials for
structural rehabilitation. If correctly used, FRP can result in significant
enhancement to both ductility and strength of RC members. Previous work
was undertaken on strengthening circular and square columns'. Rectangular
columns are commonly used for residential and commercial buildings.

Strengthening of rectangular columns subjected to axial loading was also
reported. This paper investigates the performance of rectangular RC
columns wrapped by FRP sheets and subjected to a combined axial
compression and cyclic flexural loading. Rectangular RC columns of aspect
ratios of 1 to 3 were tested under constant axial load and increasing cyclic
lateral load up to failure. Carbon FRP (CFRP) wraps were used in different
volumetric ratio, spacing and with or without anchors.
TEST PROGRAM
The test program includes eleven specimens of which five of them have
been tested. The columns have a rectangular cross section of 150x450 mm
and a height of 2300 mm. The columns were tested horizontally under
constant axial load combined with cyclic lateral load. It consisted of a right
part of 1300 mm long and a left part 700 mm long with a beam stub in the
middle as shown in Fig. 1. The right part of each specimen constituted the
test portion. It represents a column extending from the beam-column
connection to the point of inflection. The beam stub provided a point of
application for the lateral load. The dimensions of the beam stub were
chosen so that the failure occurs in the column rather than at the joint. The
left portion was heavily reinforced and provided with two 6 mm thickness
steel plates in order to force hinging into the right part. The longitudinal
reinforcement ratio of the columns was 1%. Stirrups were 6 mm diameter
bars spaced at 150 mm with a volumetric ratio of 0.3%. Extra stirrups were
placed at the ends of each specimen where the axial load was applied to
prevent crushing of concrete. CFRP laminates were applied to strengthen
the columns C2 through C5 with different schemes. The thickness of CFRP
laminates was 0.1 1 mm, while its tensile strength and modulus were 2400
MPa and 240 GPa, respectively. The characteristic compressive cube
strength of the concrete was 25 MPa while the yield stress of the steel was
420 MPa for the longitudinal reinforcement and 3 10 MPa for stirrups.
Test Specimens
The overall test program consists of eleven specimens. This paper
represents the results of only five columns. The properties of the tested
specimens are given in Fig. 1 and summarized as follows:
RC Columns Retrofitted by FRP under Cyclic Loads 665
a. Specimen C1 is the reference specimen. A constant axial compression

load of 0.15fc,Ac was applied on the specimen up to failure. This axial
compression load was kept constant for all specimens.
b. Specimen C2 was wrapped in the transverse direction with two layers of
lateral CFRP laminates of 100 mm width .The clear distance between
laminates was100 mm and the volumetric ratio of FRP was 0.2%.
C. Specimen C3 was wrapped with one CFRP layer with a ratio of 0.1%.
The width and spacing between the laminates were the same as C2.
d. Specimen C4 was wrapped with one layer of CFRP with no spacing
between the layers. The volumetric ratio of FRP was 0.2%.
e. Specimen C5 was wrapped with one layer of CFRP as for specimen C3.
Steel plates of 50mm width, 190mm length, 12mm thickness and 240
MPa yield stress, were used to anchor the lateral laminates. The plates
were discontinuous, this is to investigate the steel plates contribution to
concrete confinement and increasing the ductility of columns,
independently from their contribution to the flexural capacity of
columns.
Two linear variable differential transducers (LVDTs) were mounted on the
concrete surface at the critical section adjacent to the beam stub to measure
the concrete strain and average section curvature in the plastic hinge region.
The lateral displacement of the columns was also measured using LVDTs.
Electrical strain gages were attached on the longitudinal and transverse
reinforcement of each specimen. As well as on the CFRP sheets.
Test Setup and Procedure
Two independent reaction frames were used in the testing setup, as shown
in Fig.2. The first frame was a 2000 kN capacity, large-scale testing double
portal frame, while the second frame was a 3000 kN capacity, closed,
horizontal, reaction frame. The closed horizontal frame was located under
the cross girder of the double portal frame such that the centerline of the
closed frame was oriented parallel to the line of support of the cross girder.
The lateral reversed cyclic displacement was applied at the stub of the
beam-column joint using a double acting hydraulic cylinder of 600 kN
compression capacity and tension capacity of 400 kN. The cylinder was
equipped with a tensionlcompression load cell of +/- 680 kN capacity to
measure lateral load. The axial compression load was applied by a manual
hydraulic cylinder of 900 kN capacity. The specimens were supported on
two concrete blocks, spaced 2.10 m apart. Each block was equipped with a
hinged support at its top. The upward reaction was transmitted to the cross
girder of the frame through two 500 kN hydraulic cylinders, each cylinder
was equipped with a threaded adjustment and an end ball bearing. At the
beginning of each test, the required axial load was applied and kept constant
throughout the test. The lateral load was applied in stroke control as shown
in Fig. 3.
two layers of CFRP for C2
one layer of CFRP for C3
2 steel plates
200
450
1 5 0
200
700
1300
11x100
700
Steel plates
One layer of CFRP
700
11x100
one layer
of =Rp
11x100
700
Fig.1 Details of test Speciments
Fig. 2Test
Test set-up
Set-up
Fig.2
Fig. 3 Load
Load History
History
Fig.3
OBSERVED BEHAVIOR
The lateral load-displacement hysteresis loops of the control specimen are
shown in Fig.4. The ultimate lateral load was 237.1 kN. The loaddisplacement relationship was linear until the ultimate load was achieved.
Progressive drop in the strength occurred at a lateral displacement of 4 mm.
Failure load was reached at a lateral displacement of 6.75 mm. A major
diagonal tension crack appeared at a lateral load of 114.0 kN and extended
up to failure as shown in Fig. 5. The specimen failed in a brittle shear mode.
The lateral load-displacement hysteresis loops of specimens strengthed
by CFRP are shown in Figs. 6 to 9. For all the strengthed specimens, a
major flexural crack initially appeared at the critical section adjacent to the
beam stub and extended up to failure. Gradual decrease in the lateral load
occurred after the ultimate load was reached. No shear cracks were
observed as the CFRP wraps prevented diagonal tension cracks even at high
lateral displacement. At onset of flexure failure, crushing of concrete,
buckling of the longitudinal bars and rupture of CFRP sheets at the corners
of the specimens were observed. The ultimate lateral load of the wrapped
specimens ranged from 1.2 to 1.46 times the strength of the control column
C 1. It should be noted that crushing of concrete was observed for the entire
full depth of all specimens at the critical section adjacent to the beam stub,
however, for specimen C5, crushing of concrete was limited to 100 mm of
the top and bottom of the cross section. The concrete core of C5 did not
crush due to the confinement provided by the steel plates anchorage. Also,
it was noted that the concrete crushing for all wrapped specimens was
concentrated in the first lOOmm adjacent to the stub except for specimen
C2, the concrete crushing occurred at the second lOOmm adjacent to the
stub, i.e. at the clear spacing between CFRP laminates. Figs. 10 and 11
show typical failure of specimens retrofitted with CFRP.
Fig.4 Lateralload-displacement for ci
Fig.5 Brittle shear failure of ci
668 FRPRCS-6: Externally Bonded Reinforcement for Confinemenl
'
" I(.
,
I
.. .
"
"
"(.
.,
'
,,_
,
'
. .*.* .., ,,~
latered 63,s .mm
Fig.6 Lateral load-displacement of C2
Fig.10 Failure of specimen C2
Fig.7 Lateral load-displacement of C3
Fig. 11 Failure of specimen C4
ANALYSIS OF TEST RESULTS

The strength envelope, which is the relationship between the peak load at
each cycle and the corresponding displacement, is presented for the tested
columns in Fig. 12. The lateral strength increases considerably for all the
wrapped specimens. The highest strength was that of specimen C2 with two
CFRP wraps, 46% higher than the control column. Specimen C3, with one
layer of CFRP, produced the lowest increase, which was 20% higher than
the control column. This increase in the flexural strength is attributed to the
confinement provided by CFRP, which resulted in an increase in the
concrete strength and strain. It should also be noted that the longitudinal
reinforcement bars exhibited the strain hardening; consequently the stress in

the steel bars exceeded the yield stress leading to an increase in the overall
strength of the retrofitted columns. Specimen C2 also survived more cycles
than all the other specimens, as shown in Table 1. Column C5 with
anchored CFRP wraps had ultimate load close to C4 with zero spacing
between wraps, (34% and 39% higher than the control specimen Cl),
despite the CFRP ratio being 50% less than for the anchored column.
Displacement Ductility Analysis

Displacement ductility factors were evaluated and used to compare the
ductility of different columns. The yield displacement Ay of an equivalent
elasto-plastic system with reduced cracked stiffness was calculated from the
lateral load-displacement curve as the corresponding displacement at the
intersection of the secant stiffness at a load level of 75% of the ultimate
lateral load and the tangent at the ultimate load. The strength envelope is
used to determine the yield displacement3. The failure load was taken equal
to 75% of the ultimate load on the descending branch on the strength
envelope and the corresponding displacement Af was computed. The
displacement ductility factor is defined as the ratio between Af, and A, as
given by Equation (1).
Displacement Ductilityfactor
No.
CI
c2
c3
c4
c5
= Af/Ay
(1)
Table 1 . Lateral load-displacement test Results

Visible Cracking Level Ultimate Load Level P,/ P, of
P,, (kiv)
114.0
275.0
200
230
215
A,, (mm)
3.5
8.5
4.8
6.4
5.5
P,, (kiv)
23 7.I
348.5
284.8
329.8
319.1
A, (mm)
4.04
27.80
16.09
12.10
11.85
61)
I
1.46
1.20
1.39
1.34
Failure
cycle
4
I1
8
9
9
The control column failed in a brittle shear mode at a low ductility factor of
2.3 as shown in Table 2. All the strengthed columns failed in a ductile mode
with ductility factors more than 4.5. It should be noted that the satisfactory
level of ductility is achieved by a minimum of ductility factor of three4.
Specimen (C2) with double layer produced the highest value of ductility
factor (3 times that of Cl). This result highlights the role of increasing the
volumetric ratio of CFRP in enhancing both the ductility and lateral
strength of the columns. It was observed that the ductility of columns C4

and C5 were similar (2.72 and 2.25 times that of the control column) despite
the latter having 50% less CFRP wraps. This is attributed to the
contribution of the anchorage system used for Column C5.
Table 2. Ductility Analysis of Test Specimens
Yield
Failure
Displacement
specimenDisplacement
Ductility
Factor
Energy
Index
A, (mm)
A, (mm)
CI
2.85
6.75
2.36
8.9
c2
4.40
31.91
7.25
204.7
c3
3.94
18.91
4.78
66.5
c4
4.10
26.42
6.44
122.9
c5
4.85
25.80
5.31
114.7
-40
+C1
-30
-20
-10
0
10
Lateral displacement (mm)
Control
C5 one sheet with steel plates
c2 double wrraping
AfAY
-A-
20
30
40
C3 with one sheet

c4 continous wraping
Fig. 12 Hysteresis Loops Envelop of Lateral Load vs. Displacement
Energy Dissipation
The dissipated energy was computed for each cycle as the area enclosed by
the lateral load-displacement hysteresis loop for the given cycle. The
accumulated dissipated energy is plotted against the lateral displacement for

the tested specimens in Fig. 13. A non-dimensional energy index based on
Ehsani' was also used to evaluate the energy dissipated for the specimens.
The index accounts for the cracked stiffness, yield load and displacement,
as well as the dissipated energy of each cycle. This energy index is
expressed as follows:
I,
(24( W K J *(&'Ay) Z)4Py*AJ
(2)
where Ei is the dissipated energy at cycle (i); Ki, K, are the stiffness at
cycle (i) and at yield, respectively; Ai is the average of maximum
compression and tension displacements at cycle (i); and Ay, P, are the yield
displacement and load, respectively. Specimen C2 possessed significantly
larger energy dissipation than other columns as it had the largest index of
204. Column C3 had the lowest index of 66. The energy index of C4 and C5
were 123 and 1 14.
Stiffness Analysis
The cracked stiffness of each tested specimen, Kj, is calculated for every
loading cycle. The cracked cycle stiffness is computed as the ratio of the
sum of the peak tension and compression loads to the sum of the
corresponding tension and compression displacements. The cracked cycle
stiffness is plotted against the lateral displacement to represent the stiffness
degradation due to cyclic loading in Fig. 14.
10
20
Meral d i s p l m (m)
Fig. 13 Accumulated energy
30
10
20
30
Lateral d i s p l m (m)
Fig. 14 Stiffness degradation
It can be seen that the initial stiffness of all columns including the control
one was approximately the same. This suggests that the strengthened
columns will not attract more horizontal force due to seismic loading. At
high load levels, the retrofitted columns showed higher stiffness than that of
the control column. The rate of stiffness deterioration of the retrofitted
columns under large reversed cyclic loading was less than that of the
control column.
CONCLUSION
CFRP wraps showed an excellent enhancement to the overall behavior of
the strengthed columns. Conclusions are summarized as follows:
1. All the wrapped specimens failed in a ductile flexural mode instead of
the brittle shear mode of the original column.
2. Increasing the CFRP volumetric ratio improved the overall behavior of
the column. However, it is recommended to increase the number of
CFRP layers instead of reducing the spacing between the layers.
3. A proper choice of the anchorage system may be more feasible than
reducing the spacing between sheets. However, savings allowed by the
anchorages should be assessed considering that the installation
diminishes the ease and speed of application.
4. Unlike the conventional techniques for strengthening, the initial
stiffness of the retrofitted columns was similar to that of the original
one.
REFERENCES
1. ACI 440.2R-02, Emerging Technology Series, Guide for the Design
and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening
Concrete Structures, October 2002,45p.
2. Hosny A., Shaheen H., Abdelrahman A., and El-Afandy T.
Strengthening of Rectangular RC Columns Using CFRP, MESC-3,
Aswan, Egypt, December 2002.
3. Park R., and Paulay T. Reinforced Concrete Structures, John Wiely
and Sons, New York, N.Y., 1975.
4. Priestly M., and Park R. Strength and Ductility of Bridge Columns
under Seismic Loading, ACI Structural Journal, V84, No. 1, 1986.
5. Ehsani M., and Wieght J. Confinement Steel Requirements for
Connections in Frames, ASCE Structural Journal, V116, No.3, 1990.

PHOTOGRAMMETRICALLY MEASURED DEFORMATIONS

OF FRP WRAPPED LOW STRENGTH CONCRETE
A. ILKI, V. KOC, B. ERGUN, M.O. ALTAN AND N. KUMBASAR
Department of Civil Engineering, Istanbul Technical University
Maslak, 80626, Istanbul, Turkey
In this study, 8 specimens with square cross-section were tested under

compression. The specimen dimensions were 250x250~500mm. The test
program included unconfined specimens as well as specimens jacketed by
1, 3 and 5 plies of carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets. The
unconfined concrete compressive strength was less than 10 MPa for all
specimens. Photogrammetric measurements were carried out as well as
usual measurement techniques to determine the axial and lateral
deformations of the specimens. With the help of photogrammetric
techniques, more detailed information was collected about the deformation
pattern that led to better understanding of the behavior. The performance of
low strength concrete members jacketed by different thicknesses of CFRP
sheets are discussed with a special emphasis on the distribution of
deformations of the specimens. The effectiveness of the CFRP jackets
increased significantly due to deformation characteristics of unconfined
concrete with low compression strength. Very significant enhancement was
obtained for compressive strength and deformability of CFRP jacketed
specimens that resulted with tremendous increase in energy dissipation.
INTRODUCTION
FRP reinforcement has several advantages like its durability,

electromagnetic neutrality, high strength, light weight and ease in
application. Consequently, the use of FRP reinforcement in civil
engineering structures has been increasing rapidly in recent years.
According to Fukuyama and Sugano', the repair and seismic strengthening
by continuous fiber sheet wrapping method was first developed in Japan,
where research was first carried out in 1979. They presented an outline of
the continuous fiber wrapping technique by comparing experimental data
obtained for various rehabilitation techniques with a special emphasis on
performance based engineering and effective rehabilitation techniques
without hindrance of building operation. Guadagnini et a1.* reported an
overview on the European Research on FRPs and their applications.
Karbhari and Gao3, Toutanji4, Xiao and Wu5, and Ilki and Kumbasar6
developed experimental data for cylinder specimens, based on a variety of
fiber types, orientations and jacket thicknesses. Rochette and Labossiere7,
Wang and Restrepo8 , and Ilki and Kumbasarconducted axial loading tests
on FRP jacketed specimens with square and rectangular cross-section.
All of the experimental work was carried out on normal or high
strength FRP jacketed concrete specimens. However, there are many
existing structures, those were not built considering the up-to-date codes
and recommendations. Consequently, these structures may experience
severe damages due to insufficient ductility and low concrete compressive
strength during earthquakes. Therefore, there is a need of research on the
behavior of low strength concrete jacketed by FRP.
In this study, 8 specimens of low strength concrete with square crosssection were tested under concentric compression. The standard concrete
cylinder compressive strength was 6.2 MPa for all specimens. The
specimens were either unconfined or jacketed by 1, 3 or 5 plies of CFRP in
sets of two. Experimental results showed that the efficiency of the CFRP
jackets on strength and ductility enhancement of low strength concrete is
higher than that of normal or high strength concrete. Consequently,
equivalent ductility or strength enhancement can be obtained with relatively
smaller jacket thicknesses resulting with more economical solutions. The
experimental results on similar specimens that have higher concrete
compressive strength can be found elsewhere.
Photogrammetric deformation measurements were carried out as well
as conventional deformation and displacement measurements done by using
strain gages and displacement transducers. With the help of the
photogrammetric measurements, deformation characteristics of the
specimens could be analysed in more detail. When compared to deformation
measurements with strain gages, photogrammetric deformation
measurements have further advantages like;
(a) availability of all surface deformations in three dimensions,
(b) comparable precision,
(c) lower cost,
(d) convenience of test setup installation in a short time,
(e) practically no deformation limit.
The deformation patterns obtained by photogrammetric measurements are
generally in good agreement with the deformations determined by the
conventional techniques. Consequently, the photogrammetric measurement
technique seems to be promising as an alternative or additional way of
deformation measurements.
Deformations of FRP Wrapped Low Strength Concrete 675
TEST DETAILS
Specimen Characteristics,Mmaterials,Jacketing
Eight specimens were tested under compression. The cross-section of all of
the specimens were square (250x250 mm). The height of the specimens was
500 mm. General characteristics of the specimens are presented in Table 1.
Concrete compressive strength was aimed to be less than 10 MPa to
represent many existing structures with low strength concrete. Specially
produced ready mixed concrete is used to obtain homogenous distribution
of concrete in all of the specimens. The mix-proportion of ready mixed
concrete is given in Table 2. As seen in this table, waterkement ratio of the
mixture is 1.27.
Table 1. Specimen characteristics
Specimen
LS-S-0-1 and LS-S-0-2
fc (MPa)
6.2
6.2
6.2
6.2
Dimensions (mm)
250x250~500
250x250~500
250 x 250 x 500
250x250~500
CFRP plies
0
1
3
5
Table 2. Mix-proportion for low strength concrete (kg/m3)

Cement
150
Water
191
Sand
932
Gravel
1074
Total
2347
After waiting for about 28 days and rounding the corners of the specimens
to radius of 40 mm, the specimens were jacketed by 1, 3 and 5 plies of
CFRP in sets of two, except two specimens which were tested without
external confinement (Figure 1).
Figure 1 . CFRP jacketing procedure
The jacketing process included surface preparation, application of primer,

putty, epoxy adhesive and wrapping. For jackets of 3 and 5 plies, the CFRP
sheets were wrapped continuously and an overlap of 150 mm was formed at
the end of the outermost ply. The characteristics of the epoxy system and
CFRP sheets used for jacketing are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.
Table 3. Characteristics ofthe epoxy system
Compressive strength
(MPa)
80
Tensile strength
(MPa)
50
Tensile elasticity modulus

(MPa)
3000
Table 4. CFRP characteristics
Unit weight
@g/m?
1820
Effective area Tensile strength Elas. modulus Max. elongation

(mm2/mm)
(MPa)
(GPa)
(mm/mm)
0.165
3430
230
0.015
Photogrammetric Measurements
Digital photogrammetric systems have been used to solve various
measurement problems in industrial applications for many years, since highresolution Charge Couple Devices (CCD) cameras and powerful computer
technologies have been available. In this study, close range
photogrammetric applications were carried out, where deformation
measurement, analysis, and camera calibration are the most important steps.
Twin Industrial Basler A302fs cameras with IEEE 1394 standard were
calibrated with 16 mm fix focused Cosmicar Pentax lenses on the test setup.
Then, the experimental data capturing system was designed in order to
capture the images during tests in which about 20 stereo images were
captured periodically. The first image pairs were captured before loading
and the exterior orientation parameters were calculated. For deformation
analysis, camera stations were fixed all through the test duration in order to
use the same orientation parameters for other image pairs. The
configuration of the signal points on the specimens was designed so that
deformations could be determined by the coordinate differences recorded
during loading. The derived exterior orientation parameters were obtained
with 0.01 mm and the rotations were obtained with 0.001 radian accuracy.
Loading and conventional data acquisition system
A schematical representation of loading and conventional data acquisition
system are shown in Figure 2. For loading, a 5000 kN capacity Amsler
loading machine, for displacement measurements TML displacement

transducers and for deformation measurements TML strain gages were
used. The considered gage lengths for displacement transducers and strain
gages are 500 and 60 mm, respectively. The axial stresses were determined
by dividing applied axial load to the cross-sectional area of the specimen.
250
*------.,
Figure 2. Test setup and locations of strain gages

TESTRESULTS
Photogrammetrically determined deformations

The relative displacements of each point at the junctions of vertical and
horizontal lines given in Figure 3 were determined by the photogrammetric
method. Consequently, it was possible to calculate the deformations
between all of these points.
Figure 3. Points considered during photogrammetric measurements
The original distances between horizontal lines A and F, B and E, and C

and D were 450, 200 and 60 mm respectively. The axial deformations
measured between lines A and F on vertical lines 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are
presented in Figure 4 for the Specimen LS-S-0-2. This shows that, axial
deformations were almost identical on each vertical line until peak stress,
but then damage is concentrated around certain regions. The axial stressaxial strain relationships for the Specimen LS-$3-2 are given between A
and F, and B and E in Figure 5. These show that for jacketed specimens,
axial deformations are identical on all vertical lines, both between A and F,
and B and E.
10
0,0000 0.0005 0,0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030

Deformation
Figure 4. Axial strains determined by photogrammetric measurements, between A

and F, 450 mm, (LS-S-0-2)
0.00
0.04
0.08
Deformation
0.12
0.16
0.00
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
Deformation
Figure 5. Axial strains determined by photogrammetric measurements, between A F (450 mm) and B - E (200 mm), (LS-S-3-2)
The average axial stress-axial strain relationships for Specimen LS-S-3-2

considering the axial deformations between A-F, B-E and C-D are given in
different deformation scales in Figure 6. In this figure, it can be seen that,
the damage is more concentrated in mid 200 mm height. It should be noted
in Figure 6 that, since the signal points were lost due to excessive damage,
no photogrammetric data could be obtained behind point X1 in mid 60 mm
and behind point X2 in mid 200 rnm.
10
4
c
+Between
A - F, 450 mm
Between 6 - E, 200 mm
Between C - D,60 mm
t-
0.04
0.00
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.00
Deformation
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05

Deformation
0.06
Figure 6. Average axial strains determined by photogrammetric measurements

(LS-s-3-2)
The stress-strain relationships obtained for mid 450, 200 and 60 mm for
the Specimen LS-S-5-2 and the appearance of the damaged specimen are
presented in Figure 7. The stress-strain curves indicate that, the
photogrammetrically determined average axial deformations are highest in
mid 60 mm height and lowest in mid 450 mm height, which is also in
consensus with the damage pattern of the specimen. However, it should be
noted that all three curves are quite close to each other until failure.
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12
0.14
Deformation
Figure 7. Average axial strains determined by photogrammetric measurements

(LS-s-5-2)
The stress-strain relationships obtained photogrammetrically for the

Specimens LS-S-0-2, LS-S-1-2, LS-S-3-2 and LS-S-5-2 are presented in
Figure 8. As seen in this figure, for CFRP jacketed low strength concrete
significant strength and ductility enhancement can be obtained by
increasing the jacket thickness.
0.00
0.12
0.08
0.04
0.18
Dsfonnation
Figure 8. Stress-strain relationships determined by photogrammetric deformation

measurements (LS-S-5-2, LS-S-3-2, LS-S- 1-2, LS-S-0-2)
Comparison of photogrammetric and conventional measurements

To compare of photogrammetric and conventional deformation
measurement techniques, the stress-strain relationships determined for
Specimens LS-S-5-2 and LS-S-3-2 are presented in Figure 9.
I
,
-Conventional.
.,.
+-Photogrammetric. Eelween A - F. 450 mm
0.M
0.08
Deformation
0.12
0.18
I
I
GL-500 mm
-Photoprammetrk.
-Phopnmmalric.
Between B . E.200 mm
. . . : . . . : . . . : . . ,
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
Betwaan E .
0.08
E.200 mm
0.10
0.12
0.14
Deformstion
Figure 9. Comparison of photogrammetric and conventional measurements
In these figures, conventional deformation measurements were obtained

by utilizing the average measurements of four displacement transducers in
the gage length of 500 mm, which is the entire height of the specimen. As
expected, the highest deformations are obtained for conventional
measurement of gage length of 500 mm, which include the deformations of
capping mortar. However, it is clear that all three curves represent the
behavior realistically. For the comparison of the strain gage measurements
in the gage length of 60 mm at mid height of the specimens with the
photogrammetric measurements, Figure 10 is presented. As seen, theje
measurements are almost the same, with the exception that, strain gages lost
their reading capabilities after the axial deformation level of 0.009-0.01 1.
In Figure 1 1, comparison of transverse deformations is given for specimen

LS-S-5-2 between vertical lines 2 and 4 at mid-height and horizontal line A.
25
25
20
15
10
1
5
0
0000
0005
0010
0015
0020
0025
OOM)
0010
Deformation
0020
0030
Deformation
0040
0050
Figure 10. Comparison of axial deformations (LS-S-3-2 and LS-S-5-2)
. . . . . . . . . . . .~
~ .~
. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-Strain
gagcmid-height
Photogrammeldomid-height
+PhotcgrammBtriotoprection
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
Transverse Deformation
Figure 11. Comparison of transverse deformations (LS-S-3-2)
CONCLUSIONS
Photogrammetric methods can be used for deformation measurements. This

may help better understanding of the behavior of the specimens by
providing extensive data on all surface deformations. The photogrammetric
measurement technique is easy to apply and comparably precise with the
conventional measurement techniques. By using photogrammetric
measurements, deformations, which are much higher than readability limits
of strain gages can be obtained. Significant increase in compressive strength
and ductility is obtained when low strength concrete specimens with square
cross-section are jacketed by CFRP sheets. An increase in the jacket
thickness results with an increase in strength and ductility. The
enhancement in strength and ductility is more pronounced for jacketed low
strength concrete, with respect to normal or high strength concrete. It should
be noted that validity of the test results is limited in the ranges of variables
considered in this study.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The financial support of Turkish Earthquake Foundation (Project : 0 I-AP1 IS), Research Fund of Istanbul Technical University (Project : 1607), and
Yapkim Construction Chemicals Company, and the assistance of our
students Mr. C. Demir and A. Karadeniz are acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Fukuyama, H. and Sugano, S., Japanese Seismic Rehabilitation of
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Concrete Buildings after the Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake, Cement

and Concrete Composites, 22,2000, pp. 59-79.
Guadagnini, M., Pilakoutas, K. and Waldron, P., An Overview of the
European research on FRPs and their applications, Znt. Con$ on FRP
Cornp. in Civ. Eng., Hong Kong, Dec. 12-15, 2001, Vol. 2, pp. 16991706.
Karbhari, V.M. and Gao, Y., Composite jacketed concrete under
uniaxial compression-verification of simple design equations, ASCE
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 9(4), 1997, pp. 185-193.
Toutanji, H.A., Stress-strain characteristics of concrete columns
externally confined with advanced fiber composite sheets, ACI
Materials Journal, 96(3), 1999, pp. 397-404.
Xiao, Y., and Wu, H., Compressive behavior of concrete confined by
carbon fiber composite jackets, ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, 12(2), 2000, pp. 139-146.
Ilki, A. and Kumbasar, N., Behavior of damaged and undamaged
concrete strengthened by carbon fiber composite sheets , Structural
Engineering and Mechanics, 13(I), 2002, pp. 75-90.
Rochette, P. and Labossiere, P., Axial testing of rectangular column
models confined with composites, ASCE Journal of Composites for
Construction, 4(3), 2000, pp. 129-136.
Wang, Y .C. and Restrepo, J.I., Investigation of concentrically loaded
reinforced concrete columns confined with glass fiber-reinforced
polymer jackets, ACZStructural Journal, 98(3), 2001, pp. 377-385.
Ilki, A. and Kumbasar, N., Compressive behavior of carbon fiber
composite jacketed concrete with circular and non-circular crosssections, accepted to be published in Journal of Earthquake
Engineering.
FRP Structural Shapes

RECTANGULAR FRP TUBES FILLED WITH CONCRETE

FOR BEAM AND COLUMN APPLICATIONS
A. Z. FAM
Department of Civil Engineering, Queens Universiw, Kingston, Ontario,
k7L 3N6, Canada
D. A. SCHNERCH AND S. H. RIZKALLA
Civil Engineering Department, North Carolina State Universily, Raleigh,
NC, 27695-7533, U.S.A.
This paper introduces an innovative concept of FRPIconcrete hybrid

structural member. This concept includes rectangular filament-wound
glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) tubes, totally or partially filled
with concrete, and used as beams andlor columns. The paper presents
the experimental program and results of three beams and five short
columns tested with different eccentricities. Two of the beams were
completely filled with concrete, while the third beam was partially filled
to minimize the self-weight of the beam. This beam had a void within the
cross-section, eccentric towards the tension side of the beam such that
the remaining concrete was used to resist the internal compression and
shear forces. Two of the columns were subject to zero eccentricity and
the other three were subjected to various levels of eccentricity to study
the combined effect of axial and flexural loading.
INTRODUCTION
The application of fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) in new concrete
structures started with replacement of steel bars with FRP bars. Although
this direct replacement philosophy was suitable at early stages, it does
not necessarily utilize the full potential of FRP materials. It is, therefore,
believed that FRP could be combined with concrete through more
efficient structural concepts. The proposed system in this paper consists
of concrete-filled rectangular filament-wound glass-FRP tube with
several layers including fibers oriented at f 45 and 90 degrees for shear
resistance. The upper and lower flanges of the tube include additional
uniaxial roving for flexural rigidity. The tube, which could be totally or
partially filled with concrete, acts as lightweight permanent formwork
and reinforcement, simultaneously. The concrete provides stability for
686 FRPRCS-6: FRP Structural Shapes
the tube and compressive resistance. Research has been conducted on

concrete-filled circular FRP tubes', however, no research has been
reported on optimized concrete-filled rectangular filament wound tubes.
Triantafillou and Meier * have studied hybrid rectangular sections with
GFRP tubes supporting concrete flange above the section and a layer of
carbon-FRP attached to the lower GFRP flange, however, premature
failure occurred due to debonding of concrete.
The objective of the experimental program is to determine the interaction
of axial load and flexure behavior for rectangular GFRP concrete-filled
tubes as well as to optimize the section by providing a central hole to
reduce the self-weight of the beam. In this case, the concrete was cast
with a void offset towards the tension side of the shell such that the
concrete is optimally used for compression, shear and stability of the
webs.
Composite Tubes
The GFRP composite shells used in this study were fabricated using a
combined filament-winding and hand lay-up technique, where bidirectional glass fiber sheets were inserted into the top and bottom
flanges, resulting in two longitudinal (zero degree) layers in both the
tension and compression flanges of the rectangular shell. The remaining,
non-zero degree laminate, were produced through conventional filament
winding techniques. The final stacking sequences for the webs and
flanges were [90, 45, -45, 90,45, -45, 901 and [90,45, -45,0, 90, 0,45, 45, 901 respectively. E-glass fibers used for the filament winding process
have tensile strength between 1380 and 2070 MPa, and modulus of
elasticity of 72.5 GPa. The E-glass fiber sheets used in the hand lay up
process have a tensile strength of 798 N/mm in the warp direction and
183 N/mm in the weft direction.
Rectangular FRP Tubes Filled with Concrete 687
Hybrid Beam Specimens

The GFRP concrete-filled tubes used for the flexural tests were 2200 mm
in length. No reinforcement was provided other than the outer GFRP
shell was provided. Two different cross-section sizes were used. The
smaller tube, with a height of 271 mm and a larger tube with a height of
374 mm as shown in Figure l(a and b). The flange was thicker due to
the addition of two layers of glass fiber sheets oriented in the
longitudinal direction of the specimen. A second configuration was
produced using the larger sized GFRP tube. In this case a void, offset
towards the tension side of the member, was generated to minimize the
self-weight of the member and to optimize the use of the concrete as
shown in Figure l(c). Concrete was used to carry the compressive and
shear forces of the beam, in addition to providing stability for the thin
GFRP webs. The cross sectional area of the concrete for the optimized
beam was 40% of the totally filled tube. Considering the weight of the
tube, the optimized beam has 44% of the weight of the totally filled tube.
Short Column Specimens
The axial specimens tested were the same size as the small specimen
used in the flexural tests, as shown in Figure l(a). However, the length
of the axial specimens was reduced to 680 mm, such that the length of
the column was 2.5 times its width. In total, five compression specimens
were fabricated. Three of these specimens were in their original state
when tested and two were obtained from the shear spans of the flexural
test of the small GFRP beam, far from the failure region.
p 9 rnm
,89 rnm
Figure 1 Cross-section configurations of test specimens
Fabrication of Test Specimens

In order to enhance the bond between the GFRP tubes and the concrete
fill, the inner surface of the GFRP tubes was coated with a layer of
epoxy. A thin layer of coarse silica sand was then applied on the tacky
epoxy in order to provide a rough texture. For the partially filled tube,
which has a void inside the concrete core, a Styrofoam prism of the same
size as the inner void was fabricated and inserted inside the tube. Later,
after hardening of concrete, the Styrofoam core was removed. In order
to facilitate casting concrete, the tubes were braced in a vertical position
to a structural wall as shown in Figure 2(a), and were filled with 53 MPa
concrete from the top end. Vibration of concrete was applied during the
gradual filling of the tubes.
Once the specimens had cured, the Styrofoam core was removed,
leaving the void. The cross-section of the optimized GFRP beam is
shown in Figure 2(b). In order to prevent crippling of the thin web of the
optimized beam above the supports, Concrete end blocks were cast,
filling in the void over a length of 375 mm from each end.
(a) Setup used for casting the concrete into the tubes
(b) Optimized beam
Figure 2 Fabrication of test specimens
Test Setup and Instrumentation of Beam Specimens

The three beam specimens were tested using four-point bending as
shown in Figure 3. The span of the beams was 2100 mm and the
distance between the loads was 300 mm. The beams were loaded using
displacement control with a 500 kN capacity hydraulic actuator using
displacement rate of 0.50 mdmin. The specimens were instrumented to
record load, deflection and strain measurements. Longitudinal strains at
midspan were measured using strain gauge type displacement
transducers and electrical foil gauges attached directly to the GFRP
surface at different levels along the depth of the beam. Transverse

strains were also measured in the compression zone using foil strain
gauges. Two displacement potentiometers were used to measure the
midspan deflection and another was used to measure the support
settlement. Digital displacement gauges and potentiometers were also
used to measure the slip between the concrete core and the GFRP tube
on the tension side at both ends.
Test Setup and Instrumentation of Short Column Specimens
Figure 3 Test setup and instrumentation Figure 4 Test setup and instrumentation
of test beams
of short columns
Compression specimens were subjected to concentric and eccentric axial

loads applied at various eccentricities using a 9000 kN capacity testing
machine as shown in Figure 4. The eccentricities considered were 0,
25 mm, 50 mm and 64 mm using a setup with free rotation allowed at the
ends. Another concentric test was conducted on a specimen between
fixed platens, without allowing end rotation. All specimens tested were
680 mm in length. A thin layer of gypsum plaster was used to distribute
the load from the steel plates to the specimens. Specimens were loaded
under stroke control at a displacement rate of 0.165 mdmin. Load,
deflection and strain measurements were taken for the compression
specimens. Strain was measured in the axial direction at opposite faces
using electrical foil gauges and strain gauge type displacement
transducers with a gauge length of 200 mm. Foil strain gauges were also
used in the transverse direction to measure the transverse strains.
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM

Beam Specimens
The load-deflection behaviours of the totally-filled small and large
beams as well as the partially-filled beam are shown in Figure 5. The
figure shows that the totally-filled beam and the partially-filled beam had
similar flexural stiffness. This behaviour indicates that the size of the
concrete in the compression zone of the optimized beam was quite
efficient. The depth of concrete in the compression zone was determined
based on location of the neutral axis using strain compatibility analysis
of a totally-filled tube and the partially-filled beam was designed to
eliminate the concrete below the neutral axis. The flexural strength of
the optimized beam was however lower than that of the totally-filled
beam by about 22 %. This is attributed to the different failure modes as
will be discussed.
The load-axial strain behaviour at the extreme tension and
compression sides of the three beams is given in Figure 6. The behavior
of the totally-filled large beam is very similar to that of the partiallyfilled beam. The small GFRP beam had the largest value of compressive
strain, -0.0088. Both the totally-filled large beam and partially-filled
beam had lower maximum compressive strains of -0.0049 before strain
reversals occurred due to buckling of the GFRP, resulting in local
bending stresses in the compression flange. Buckling resulted in
debonding from the concrete and not only reduced the effectiveness of
the compression flange in carrying compression force, but also
eliminated any concrete confinement effect.
Maximum tensile strains of 0.0267 are similar for the small beam and
for the large beam where rupture of the GFRP tension flange was the
cause of failure. The partially-filled beam, which failed due to
compression failure, had a maximum tensile strain of only 0.0213.
Hoop strains measured at midspan in the constant moment region
indicate significant hoop stresses are developed during loading. Figure 7
shows the hoop strains for the totally-filled large beam and the partiallyfilled beam. It should be noted that the hoop strains are a result of the
Poissons ratio effect of the tube, the confinement effect of concrete and
the flange buckling. If all the strain were attributed to the buckling, it
would be expected that the hoop strains would be very low initially,
followed by a sudden increase when buckling occurred at the late stages
of loading. This is true for the partially-filled beam, where confinement
was expected to be insignificant due to the void. However, the

behaviour and magnitude of the strains is greater for the large totally
filled tube, indicating that a portion of the hoop strain may be attributed
to confinement. The maximum slip measured between the concrete core
and GFRP tube at the ends of the beams were 0.18,2.5 and 0.01 mm for
the small beam, the totally-filled large beam and the partially-filled beam
respectively.
Test results indicate that the partially-filled beam could provide an
optimized section considering the significant reduction of weight and
cost of the materials.
700
6500
(Totally-fio
400
200
p
9
Small
beam
a0
(Totally-filled)
400
Large
beam
300
~z
u
:Fl
200
x)
20 30 40
50
urge beam
(Optimized)
300
mall beam
(Totally-filled)
0.0
-x).O
60
a.0
20.0 30.0
Longitudinal Strain (6)
Deflection (mn)
Figure 6 Load-axial strain

behavior
Figure 5 Load-deflection
behavior
700
600
500
500
g 400
g400
g 3w
m 300
200
200
100
0
-3.0 0.0
3.0 6.0
9.0
P.0
Hoop Strain (6)
0
30
00
30
60
90
120
Hoop Strain (ms)
Figure 7 Load-lateral strain behavior at compression zone
Short Column Specimens

For the two tests with zero eccentricity the load versus axial and hoop
strains is shown in Figure 8. The hoop strains in each case were
measured at midheight on one of the shorter sides of the rectangular
tube. A higher ultimate load was achieved with the complete contact of
the cross-section with the loading plates, although with much less
ductility than the pin ended condition. This is attributed to a localized
premature failure in the pin-ended specimen. For the three compression
specimens that were loaded eccentrically, the longitudinal strains at the
extreme fibers were measured and shown in Figure 9. Towards the
loaded side, strains were compressive. On other side of the specimen,
strains were either compressive or tensile depending on the level of
loading and the amount of eccentricity.
Hoop strains were measured in more details for the pin-ended
concentrically loaded column. One quarter of the circumference of the
specimen was instrumented with strain gauges at mid-height as shown in
Figure 10. The behavior can be categorized into three phases. Very
little hoop strain, less than 0.0005, is recorded until about 1200 kN.
From 1250 kN to 1550 kN, the highest strains are near the middle of the
longer side and at the corner. Strains are highest near the middle of the
longer side due to the outward bulging of the initially straight side due to
expansion of the concrete core, resulting in bending in the plate. The
strain is also high at the corner due to stress concentration. In the third
1800
2000
1600
1600
1400
,-.
1200
g I000
1200
'0
800
800
-1
600
400
400
200
0
-12.0
4.0
a.o
Axial and Hoop Strain (mS)
-8.0
-4.0
0.0
12.0
-15.0
-12.0 -9.0
-6.0
-3.0
0.0
3.0
Axial Strain (ins)
Figure 9 Load-strain behavior of columns

Figure 8 Load-strain behavior of
loaded with different eccentricities
columns loaded with zero eccentricity
phase, from 1550 kN until failure the highest strains are at the center of
the long and short sides due to the flexural strains induced by the internal
expansion of the concrete and corresponding bulging of the sides of the
rectangular tube.
Based on the beam and column tests of the small concrete-filled
tubes, a number of points on the axial load - bending moment interaction
diagram have been established as shown in Figure 11.
Failure Modes
The totally-filled beams failed by rupture of the GFRP on the tension

side. Rupture immediately progressed up the web as shown in Figure
12(a). The partially-filled beam failed by inward buckling of the
concrete compression flange.
Figure 10 Variation of hoop strains on one quarter of the concentrically loaded specimer
2000
e = 0 (pinned)
800
*.i
Localized failure at one end
400
0
i
0
50
100
I50
e=m
-c-200
250
300
Moment (kNm)
Figure 11 Axial load-bending moment interaction diagram of small specimens
The short column with complete surface contact with the loading plates
and zero eccentricity as well as the one loaded with 64 mm eccentricity
failed by rupture of the fibers along the corner of the tube, initiated at
one end of the specimen and progressed towards the other end as shown
in Figure 12(b). The pin-ended specimen with zero eccentricity and the
one with 50 mm eccentricity failed by local shearing of one corner as
shown in Figure 12(c). The specimen with 25 mm eccentricity failed by
crushing of the tube at midheight, accompanied by fracture of the fibers
in the hoop direction as shown in Figure 12(d).
CONCLUSIONS
(a)
Large totally-filled
(b) e = 0 (Fixed)
(c) e = 0 (Pinned)
(d) e = 25 mm
Figure 12 Failure modes of beam and column specimens
A FRP/concrete hybrid concept has been introduced. A rectangular

GFRP thin tube can be totally-filled or partially-filled with concrete to
optimize the concrete within the cross-section. Beams and short columns
have been tested. The following conclusions are drawn:
(a) The partially-filled beam showed similar stiffness to the totallyfilled beam but lower flexural strength due to the different failure
mode.
(b) Totally-filled beam failed by fracture of GFRP tube in tension.
Partially-filled beam failed by inward local buckling of the concrete
flange.
(c) In short columns, higher hoop strains are developed in the middle of
the straight sides of the rectangular tube than at the rounded corners
due to local bending of the GFRP tube as a result of the bulging
concrete core.
REFERENCES
1. Fam, A. Z. and Rizkalla, S. H., Flexural Behavior of Concrete-Filled
Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Circular Tubes, ASCE Journal of
Compositesfor Construction, Vol. 6, May 2002, pp.123-132.
2. Triantafillou, T. C. and Meier, U. Innovative Design of FRP
Combined with Concrete, Proceeding of the Is International
Conference on Advanced Composite Materials for Bridges and
Structures (ACMBS), Sherbrooke, Quebec, 1992. pp. 49 1-499.

FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF GFRP-POLYMER CONCRETE

HYBRID STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
M. C. S. RIBEIRO, A. J. M. FERREIRA AND A. T. MARQUES
INEGI, Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Port0
Rua do Barroco, 174-214, 4465-591, Leqa do Balio, Portugal
In this paper, the development of a research work undertaken in hybrid
structural systems, where GFRP pultruded profiles are assembled, in an
innovative way, with a layer of polymer concrete is reported. Several
beams, with three different hybrid designs, were tested in four-point
bending and the flexural behaviour of such structures was analyzed. Model
designs produced a highly optimized flexural behaviour, with a pronounced
synergetic effect. A new finite element model for GFRP-polymer concrete
hybrid beams was also developed. Due to non-linearity of polymer concrete
and the need to account for interaction aspects, a geometric and material
nonlinear analysis was performed. A thick shell element was considered,
incorporating a layered approach for laminated composite modeling.
INTRODUCTION
FRP-Polymer Concrete Hybrid Systems

In the last years, an innovative structural concept was developed involving
the combination of FRP pultruded profiles with conventional cement
concrete, to produce lightweight, corrosion-free and yet inexpensive hybrid
systems
According to this new concept, a FRP profile beam is combined
with a concrete layer, cast onto the top flange, which replaces the thick FRP
compressive flange of traditional pultruded profiles. The method maximizes
system performance using materials by combination, and can be thought as
a better way of producing structural members based on pultrusion process.
In the last decade, FRP researchers have developed a number of hybrid
systems, either by simply replacing steel with FRP pultruded profiles in
conventional steel-concrete composite construction, or by developing new
structural systems
Following these studies, this paper presents the development of a
research work undertaken with hybrid structures composed by GFRP
profiles and polymer concrete. Polymer concrete is a mixture of mineral
aggregates and a polymer binder in which the polymeric resin replaces the
* .
Portland cement-water binder of hydraulic concrete. This type of concrete

has very high compressive strength, good chemical resistance, and relatively
low elasticity modulus 4, Since the ~ O S , when it was initially applied to
produce synthetic marble, its applications have increased tremendously,
mainly in the field of precast components for building industry 62
Exploiting the better performances of resin concretes, it is believed that the
potential of the hybrid systems can be improved:
(a) The higher compressive and flexural strength of polymer concrete
allow a cross-section reduction and, therefore, a lightweight beam;
(b) The better chemical resistance enlarges the application field of
these structural systems to highly corrosive environments;
(c) The faster curing time, early high strength and good workability of
resin concrete make it suitable, either for production of precast
components, or for an easier in site application.
In a previous investigation work small-scale models of four different
hybrid beams were designed, manufactured and tested in four-point
bending. Flexural behaviour of such composite structures, in terms of loaddeflection history, load capacity and failure mode was analyzed and
compared with the flexural behaviour of its material constituents. The four
hybrid beams models were designed considering a GFRP pultrusion profile
that works in tension, and an epoxy polymer concrete filling, that works
mainly in compression. Experimental results indicated the high potential of
these hybrid systems, revealing a pronounced synergetic effect associated to
the assembly of polymer concrete and GFRP profiles. However, some
technical problems were detected. Interface debonding promoted premature
failure, hindering the maximum of load bearing capacity to be reached.
Further studies were necessary in order to improve bond strength between
polymer concrete and GFRP profiles.
In this paper, some new experiments done on GFRP-polymer concrete
hybrid beams, with improved adherence between material components is
reported. Three new series of small-scale hybrid beam specimens were
manufactured and tested in bending. A special treatment was given to GFRP
profile internal surfaces to promote the adhesion to epoxy polymer concrete.
A significant improvement in the flexural performance of the hybrid beams
was reached.
Numerical Modelling
Past studies showed that cracking, deflection and ultimate load behaviour of
FRP-reinforced concrete beams could be predicted with the same degree of
accuracy as the behaviour of regular steel reinforced concrete beams, and
GFRP-Polymer Concrete Hybrid Structural Systems 697
that a theoretical correlation is therefore possible9. Theriault and

Benmoluane" proposed alternative formulas for the prediction of
deflection. They concluded that usual formulas for such predictions were
misleading. Most of these previous studies are related to concrete beams.
Very few studies of FRP reinforced plates or shells have been proposed, if
any.
The present work reports a numerical model for the analysis of concrete
arbitrary shell structures reinforced with composite materials, particularly
with FRP pultruded materials. The proposed model is capable of predicting
deflections and stresses in concrete and in FRP reinforcement, considering
geometrical and material non-linear behaviour. It includes constitutive laws
for concrete material, based on smeared crack concepts and is applicable for
high-strength composite materials. The model is implemented in a
degenerated shell element as proposed by Ahmad et al.'', Owen and
Figueiras12, and more recently by Ferreira and B a r b ~ s a ' ~In. order to check
the model capacities, it was applied to predict the flexural behaviour of
GFRP-polymer concrete hybrid beams. A good agreement between
experimental and numerical results was found. The tests were only
performed in beams, but the model is generally applicable to plates or shells
of arbitrary shape.
Component Materials
Low viscosity epoxy resin, and foundry sand with a very uniform and fine
grain (d5,, of 342 microns) were used for the polymer concrete mixture.
Resin content, without charge, was 20% in weight. This formulation
corresponds to an optimized result from previous research 14, and its
mechanical properties are already known. Compressive strength and
compressive elasticity modulus are 82 MPa and 1 1.5 GPa, respectively;
with ultimate strain defined to be equal to 0.01. Compression properties
were obtained from uniaxial testing according to RILEM TC-113 standards.
Three types of standard U-shaped GFRP pultruded profiles were used.
The pultrusion profiles consisted of continuous strand mat and roving of
glass fibers, impregnated with unsaturated polyester resin and having an
external veil pulled through a die. Volume content of glass fibers was
between 50% to d55%, and roving occupied the most part of it. The GFRP
profiles cross-section dimensions and mechanical properties, obtained from
52
uniaxial tension tests according ISO-527/4 standard, are summarized in

Table 1.
Table 1. Dimensions and mechanical properties of GFRP profiles
GFRP
Tensile Strength
(MP4
Profile A
395
Profile B
3 10
Profile C
350
Tensile Elasticity
Modulus (GPa)
25.1
25.3
25.6
Cross Section
(mm)
55 * 60 * 5
30 * 40 * 4
50 * 40 * 5
Hybrid Beams: Design and Manufacturing
Among the four models of hybrid beams initially designed, only three
models, - those that showed better flexural performance in first test series-,
were chosen for this experimental program. Cross-sections of the three
models, hereinafter referred as HB I, HI3 I1 and HB 111, are illustrated in
Figure 1, All the small-scale models were 600 mm in length.
Figure 1. Small scale models of GFRP-polymer concrete hybrid beams analyzed.
HB I and HB I11 beams have all the section full of concrete, with the
profiles behaving, simultaneously, as reinforcement and as permanent
formwork. HB I1 type beam is lighter, with only a thin layer of concrete
positioned in the upper part of the profile. Cross-section of concrete layer,
in this model, was designed in order to support only compressive stresses in
the elastic range. Neutral axis was determined through the homogenization
of the hybrid cross-section on GFRP material.
In order to prevent premature failure due to interface debonding,
adherence between GFRP profiles and polymer concrete was improved
through both mechanical and chemical processes. Internal surfaces of GFRP

profiles were previously sandpapered, and a layer of silane adhesion
promoter was applied before concrete casting. In addition, in HB I1
specimens, profile B was bonded to profile A with a special epoxy
adhesive. In the first specimen series, the resin of concrete that drained
during casting process assured junction between these two profiles.
For each hybrid model, three specimens were manufactured. All
specimens, before being tested, were allowed to cure for seven days at room
temperature, and post-cured at 80C during 3 hours.
Testing Procedure
Four-point bending tests on three specimens of each type of hybrid beams
were performed. The specimens were loaded over a span of 510 mm and
with constant moment zone of 100 mm. Load was gradually increased up to
failure at the rate of I d m i n u t e (displacement control mode). Test
procedures were identical to those applied to perform flexural tests of first
series of GFRP-polymer concrete hybrid beams. In order to evaluate the
synergetic effect of the assembly, four-point bending tests were also
performed on each constituent material of each type of hybrid beam.
NUMERIC MODEL: ASSUMPTIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION
The model is based on a dual criterion for polymer concrete. Crushing and
cracking of concrete is considered by modification of the material stiffness
and strength. Also, composite materials are modeled with a layered
approach. Each material layer is considered to be orthotropic. Elastoplasticity of the material can be used, if necessary.
The approach used for these hybrid beams relies on a homogenization
procedure of the distinct zones of their cross-sections, both for stiffness and
strength. In Figure 2, these zones are identified.
is
PC
Zone 3
1 GFRP
Figure 2. Layered system used for finite element approach.
In Zone 1, the equivalent material is considered to be a composite

laminate only. Therefore, a typical FRP material formulation is considered
13, 15
In Zone 2, FRP walls are taken in account. Due to the shell formulation,
an equivalent material in stiffness and strength is considered.
In Zone 3, a combination of FRP and polymer concrete occurs. In this
case, it is assumed that no contribution is given by FRP walls to support
compressive solicitations. Therefore, compressive strength of the assembly
layer is the compressive strength of the concrete, while tensile strength and
elasticity modulus follows a law of mixtures:
where A'', AFP = stength or stiffness, of polymer concrete and FRP

material, respectively; Aey = equivalent strength or stiffness of the layer;
fc,AFRp = thickness of polymer concrete and FRP material in the layer,
respectively; and /IToT = total thickness of the layer.
EXPERIMENTAL VERSUS NUMERICAL RESULTS
For each type of beam, the average maximum load capacity and the related
synergetic effects are summarized in Table 2. Synergetic effect was
calculated by dividing the capacity load of the assembly by the sum of
capacity load of each of its two elements. In order to evaluate the
improvement of flexural strength reached through profiles surface
treatment, experimental results obtained in first specimen series are also
presented.
Table 2. Summarized flexural tests results
Hybrid
Max. Capacity Load (kN)
Beam T Y P ~ I" Series
T dSeries
38.07
46.30
HBI
43.09
HB II
26.96
32.96
HB 111
32.06
Synergetic Effect (%)

I" Series
2ndSeries
233
284
203
3 19
258
266
Load deflection curves, obtained from both lst and 2"d test series of
composite beams and correspondent components, are illustrated in Figure 3.
Numerical results obtained by finite element modeling are also plotted.

60
50
E3
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
15
20
25
20
25
20
25
Deflection (mm)
10
15
Deflection (mm)
50
HB 111
10
15
Deflection (mm)
Figure 3. Numerical versus experimental load-deflections curves obtained from 1''

and 2"dtest series of hybrid beams, and correspondent components (GFRP and PC).
Except for HBIII type beams, a significant increase in load bearing

capacity occurred for the 2ndseries of hybrid beams tested. Failure modes
were also distinct. HBI and HBII type beams, which failed prematurely at
the first series due to interface debonding, collapsed in the second series due
to GFRP webs shear fracture, as shown in Figure 4. For HB I type beams, an
explosive rupture of concrete occurred as a result of shear crack propagation
and consequent gradual loss of cohesion between components. Collapse of
HB I1 beams was less brittle due to slower crack propagation, thus giving
some warning of eminent collapse.
Figure 4. Typical failure modes of GFRP-polymer concrete hybrid beams: lst and
Ydtest series.
Type I11 beams, in the same way that occurred for the first series, failed
due to tensile failure of lower surface of GFRP profile, followed by rupture
of concrete. Cross-section of profile C is slightly narrower at the top, which
made the slip of concrete more difficult. This fact explains why the
improvement of bond, between concrete and GFRP profile on 2ndspecimen
series, had no significant effect on its flexural performance.
Numerical results agree quite well with experimental results, according

to the modeling hypothesis. At this stage, the model can already predict the
load-displacement curves with reasonable accuracy. Although predicted
initial stiffness and failure loads are reasonably modeled, the model has still
to be improved to account for web shear failure and other failure
mechanisms.
CONCLUSIONS
Hybrid rectangular beams were designed, manufactured and tested. The
assembly allows for a critical combination of polymer concrete and
composite pultruded materials. A better flexural performance was reached
with improved interface bonding between material components. This
innovative design produces highly optimized behaviour with a pronounced
synergetic effect. The highest strength to weight ratio and the highest
synergetic effect associated to HI3 I1 beams, due to a more precise
placement of material in stress zones, make this design model very
promising for further investigations on large scale GFRP-polymer concrete
hybrid beams.
The numerical model used for flexural behaviour analysis of hybrid
systems was implemented in a finite element code. The model predicts with
very reasonable accuracy the load-displacement curves for all tested type
beams. This model is still in progress. The results so far allow for a very
interesting expectation in terms of a finite element code for the analysis of
this kind of hybrid systems.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The support of Fundagilo para a CiCncia e Tecnologia under
POCTVEME/42820/200 1, Desenvolvimento de estruturas hibridas betilo
polimerico/comp6sitos is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Deskovic, N.; Meier, U. and Triantafillou, T., Innovative design of
FRP combined with concrete: Short term behaviour, Journal of
Structural Engineering, July (1995), pp. 1069-1078.
2. Hall, J.E. and Mottram, J.T., Combined FRP reinforcement and

permanent formwork for concrete members, Journal of Composites for
Construction, ASCE, 2(2), (1 998), pp.78-86.
3. Mirmiran, A., Innovative combinations of FRP and traditional
materials, Int. Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering
(CICE-2001), Hong Kong, China, December 12-15, 2001, Vol. 11, pp.
1289-1298.
4. Chawalwala, A.J., Material characteristics of polymer concrete, M S .
Thesis, University of Delaware Center for Composite Materials, 1999.
5. Ribeiro, M.C.S.; Tavares, C.M.L. and Ferreira, A.J.M., Chemical
resistance of epoxy and polyester polymer concrete to acids and salts,
Journal of Polymer Engineering, 22( l), 2002, pp. 27-44.
6. Fowler, D.W., Polymer in concrete: a vision for the 2lSt century,
Cement & Concrete Composites, 2 I (1999), pp 449-452.
7. Dikeou, J., Precast polymer concrete in the United States, 5 Int.
Congress of Polymers in Concrete, Brighton, England, 1986.
8. Ribeiro, M.C.S., Ferreira, A.J.M. and Marques, A.T., Static flexural
performance of gfrp-polymer concrete hybrid beams, Int. Conference
on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering (CICE-ZOOl), Hong Kong,
China, December 12-15,2001, Vol.11, pp. 1355-1362.
9. Saadmatmanesh, H. and Ehsani, M.R., Fiber composite bar for
reinforced concrete construction, J. Compos. Mat., 25 (2), 1991,
pp. 188-203.
10. Theriault, M. and Benmokrane, B., Effects of FRP reinforcement ratio
and concrete strength on flexural behaviour of concrete beams, Journal
of Composites for Construction, 2 (l), 1988, pp.7-16.
11. Ahmad, S., Irons, B. and Zienkiewicz, O.C., Analysis of thick and thin
structures by curved finite elements, Int. J. Num. Meth.Engng., 2
(1970), pp. 419-451.
12. Owen, D.R.J. and Figueiras, J.A., Ultimate load analysis of reinforced
concrete plates and shells, in Finite Element Software for Plates and
Shells, E. Hinton and D.R.J. Owen (Eds.), Pineridge Press, 1984.
13. Ferreira, A.J.M. and Barbosa, J.T., Buckling behaviour of composite
shells, Composite Structures, 50 (2000), pp.93-98.
14. Tavares, C.M.L.; Ribeiro, M.C.S.; Ferreira, A.J.M. and Guedes, R.M.,
Creep behaviour of frp-reinforced polymer concrete, Composite
Structures, 57 (2002), pp. 47-5 1.
15. Ferreira, A.J.M.; Camanho, P.P.; Marques, A.T.M. and Fernandes,
A.A., Modelling of concrete beams reinforced with frp re-bars,
Composite structures, 53( l), 200 1, pp. 107-1 16.

A NEW CONCEPT FOR AN FRP PANELIZED RAPID

DEPLOYMENT SHELTER
N.M. BRADFORD AND R. SEN

University of South Florida,
Tampa, FL 33620
In the aftermath of a natural disaster, the aid worker is faced with three
immediate tasks (1) provide protection from the environment, (2) provide
food and resources for the facilitation of life and (3) provide health services
for the treatment and prevention of illness. Each of these tasks depends on
emergency shelters that can be rapidly deployed and assembled. This paper
describes a new panelized concept for a FRP shelter developed by the
University of South Florida as part of a research project sponsored by the
Office of Naval Research. The size of the panels, their weight and ease of
assembly were key constraints in the development of this concept. More
importantly, the assembIed structure had to withstand Category 4 hurricane
force winds. The lightweight, high strength and corrosion resistance of FRP
makes them ideally suited for emergency structures that have to be rapidly
deployed. A novel panelized concept was developed that integrated the
connectors in the panels themselves thereby minimizing the need for
additional connectors and greatly simplifying construction. This integration
made it possible for the assembled structure to resist very high wind uplift
forces. The individual panels are less than 0.914m (36) wide and each
section has four trapezoidal boxes that allow units to slide into each other
and interlock. The concept is versatile and could be readily adapted for
alternative applications such as bridge deck replacement.
INTRODUCTION
The goal of the project was to identify emergency shelters that utilize a
house in a box concept in which all unassembled components can be
packaged in a crate and conveyed to the site for erection by relief workers
with minimal skills. The emergency shelter was to be designed to withstand
hurricane force winds. Hurricane winds create pockets of wind pressure that
can cause individual components to failure or the building to fail at the
foundation connections, wall connections and roof connections. Further, the
design is subject not only to extreme load conditions, but also non-structural
parameters such as erection speed, construction simplicity and cost,
Structural Performance is not a simple question when it comes to

emergency shelters. One must design the components to withstand extreme
conditions without failure. Erection Simplicity is assessed by the speed of
erection and the skill requirements of the workers. Further complicating the
issue are the questions of connection and foundation requirements. The
optimal solution involves an integration of several functions into a single
component. Cost runs in an inversely proportional relationship to all other
issues addressed during the design optimization process. This question can
only be circumvented through innovation in either the areas of the materials
or construction techniques used during erection. DurabilitylAdaptability
addresses the possible long term usage of the final buildings as safe
houses where primary facilities can be maintained during future disasters.
Based on the design issues listed above, it was decided that the
optimum solution would address the problem as a material issue and a
building component issue. In order to answer both questions, our focus was
turned to the use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer materials, which offer design
customization for specific applications.
This paper presents a brief summary of the development work
completed to date. The conceptual basis of the building shelter is discussed
and a simple design procedure presented. A brief review of alternative
buildings the shelter industry currently offers is also included.
AVAILABLE SHELTER SYSTEM REVIEW
Subsequent to the detailed industry wide review conducted by the research

team, several types of emergency shelters systems were found to provide
viable alternatives. Specifically, as a result of our investigation3, it was
concluded that the viable emergency shelters fell into three types of
construction.
(a) Standard Construction - New Materials: These systems emphasize the
improved performance gained through the use of new materials. Such
materials offer the user improved mechanical properties (on a localized
basis), light weight, non-corrosive and non-metallic performance.
Further, these systems attempt to use the new materials as direct
substitutes for standard components in building systems. An example of
this type of construction would be substituting FRP studs in a wood
framed stud wall system or the use of styro foam molds in lieu of
masonry blocks in a filled masonry wall system. Information was
solicited from three manufacturers that fall into this category.
FRP Panelized Rapid Deployment Shelter 707
(b) New Construction - New Materials: These systems develop new

construction systems in an attempt to best utilize the performance
characteristics of the new materials. Typical examples of this
construction consist of the development of panelized wall and roof
systems which are fabricated using FRP systems. Information was
solicited from six manufacturers in this category.
(c) Alternate Systems: These systems within this category constitute a fully
alternate system of construction, based on geometry, materials and
construction. Typical examples of this construction include monolithic
domes and Yurts. Information was solicited from two manufacturers
that fall into this category.
The existing emergency shelter industry was reviewed for viable
candidates. Due to the stringent performance requirements, only eleven
existing building systems met project requirements
As a result of the existing emergency shelter review, it was concluded
that while some systems appear to have met the base criteria of the project,
all of the systems investigated exhibit similar weaknesses. Specifically, it
was noted that the currently available rapid deployment shelters exhibited
the following areas of weakness,
(a) Inadequate supporting structural information (limited test data, limited
detailed calculations).
(b) Inadequate structural capacity of connections.
(c) Reliance on supplemental steel systems for member stiffening.
(d) Reliance on supplemental steel systems for connections.
(e) No building system components currently being manufactured.
Further, it was concluded that all of the systems are designed as one
time usage buildings, since disassembly would constitute a significant
amount of work and possible member damage. It was also noted that all of
the systems emphasize localized member performance issues of bending
and shear, while failing to fully develop the global issues of member
connections and systemic performance under load.
SHELTER DESIGN - CONCEPTUAL OPTIMIZATION

A multitude of structures have been developed and fabricated by the
emergency shelter industry. Their geometry range from cubicle shaped
boxes to monolithic dome type structures. In order to develop an optimal
geometric shape for use in this project, special attention was paid to the
needs of the end user. These were classified as:
(a) Structural Performance: Of primary concern is the capability of the

structure to withstand hurricane force winds.
(b) Anchorage Performance: Due to the wide variety of usage proposed for
the emergency shelter, adequate foundation anchorage is required for a
multitude of ground soil conditions.
(c) Construction Simplicity: The emergency shelter should be simple to
construct, both in terms of the constituent construction components and
the technical skills of the laborers.
(d) Geometric Adaptability: The emergency shelter must fit into a pod-like
system of urban design. Specifically, the end user should be able to add
or subtract shelter units to "build" configurations to suit specific usage
needs.
Initial Geometry Analysis
An initial geometry based on previous shelters developed by the military
was selected as a starting point for the emergency shelter. This geometry
corresponded to a rectangular box shape, 7.32m x 10.97m x 2.44m (24'- 0"
x 36'- 0" x 8'- 0") in shape, with a single roof ridge line and gable ends in
the shorter 7.32m (24'- 0") dimension.
A preliminary structural analysis of the building exposed to the design
wind design pressures indicated that very large force concentrations
occurred at the corners of the building and at the transition between the roof
and wall members. Due to the magnitude of these forces, it was concluded
that the building geometry needed to be revised.
Development of Revised Geometry
In order to restrict the force concentrations to acceptable limits, the base
geometry of the building was reduced to a 3.66m x 7.32m x 2.44m (12'- 0"x
24'- 0"x 8'- 0") box shape. A preliminary structural analysis of the reduced
geometry showed that the force concentrations were reduced by a factor of
three.
Further, the reduced geometry provides for a usable area of 26.76m2
(288 ft'). This reduced footprint area allows for a greater variety of uses.
Specifically, this area is more acceptable for usage as sleeping area, office
space, storage area or medical facility.
Development of Roof Geometry

The initial roof geometry called for a gable end roof system. This system
was found to be unacceptable due to the inherent structural weakness that
occurs at the gable end wall connections. This weakness results in the
development of a hinge joint failure in the gable end wall during high wind
events.
A double hipped roof configuration was investigated as a first
alternative roof system. While this roof configuration provides for adequate
structural bracing at all wall roof transition points, it was concluded that the
complexity of this construction prohibits its selection for use in a rapidly
deployed emergency shelter where simplicity of the building construction is
crucial to success. The geometry of the roof system is crucial to structural
performance since it directly affects the magnitude and application of wind
load forces'. Further, the roof system geometry affects erection speed and
construction complexity.
Roof optimization led to the selection of a low rise mono sloped roof
configuration. This roof configuration has several positive aspects.
Specifically, a mono sloped roof system provides structural stability at all
roof wall transition points. A mono sloped roof is simple to constructed,
requiring one basic structural component (plank member). Additional
positive aspects of the mono sloped roof 'system include the ability to use
the same members as used in the wall system, and the ability to align
adjacent shelter units so as to create a variety of roof configurations (Fig. 1).
R m f CwnerZone
Wall Int. Zone

i
Figure 1 Resultant Wind Design Pressures on Emergency Shelte
Door and Window Locations

The initial design of the shelter utilized a variety of door and window sizes,
placed in all elevations of the building. For the purpose of adaptability and
simplicity, it was concluded that all door and window sizes should use the
same opening size.
It was concluded that openings should not be installed in either of the
short dimension 3.66m (12'- 0") elevation wall, due to the need for lateral
shear resisting members in these elevations. Subsequent design resulted in
the use of a 0.914m (36") wide nominal opening for all windows and doors.
Further, the placement of these openings in the long dimension elevation of
the shelter facilitates the placement of adjacent shelters to create "rooms"
which can be arranged into usable building complexes.
PANEL SYSTEM - LOCALIZED PANEL DESIGN

The panel shape was developed to enhance structural performance.
Specifically, the panel is comprised of a continuous truss system that helps
stiffen the section and facilitates stress transfer between the upper and
lower skins that also act to resist bending induced stresses in two directions.
The panels were developed to be used in an opposing, interlocking fashion,
as shown in Figure 2. The single panel configuration is detailed in Figure 3.
Figure 2 Interlocking FRP Panel System'
Trapezoid shaped ribs

method for connection
aaacent members. A1
panels are interlocked,
provide resistance agai
twisting along member length.
Trapezoid shape
reduces the stress
concentration that
would occur at this
point in a triangle
shaped rib
Members are slid

together during
construction
\
k
FRP skin provides the

flexural andin-plane
shear capacity
Panel lip locks into
adjacent member,
providing resistance to
moisture / air i n h s i m
h-
Figure 3 FRP Panel Member Cross Section
Aside from the structural performance characteristics inherent in the

continuous truss configuration of the panel, several positive attributes
develop as a result of the geometry. Specifically, the truss shape of the
panel ribs allow for their usage as interlocking connectors. When opposing
panels are connected in this fashion, the overall panel structure acts to
restrict moisture and air infiltration2.
Another attribute of the panel member design are the lip connectors that
run along the perimeter of each panel. These connectors, while not designed
to transfer structural stresses between members, are adequate to seal the
joint that occurs between adjacent panel members. Such a lip connection is
required to restrict moisture and air penetration through the system. This
attribute allows the user to transfer forces between adjacent panels while
ensuring that building envelop integrity is maintained.
PANEL SYSTEM - SYSTEMIC CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
The interlocking connections of the panel system greatly simplify the

erection process due to the lack of a need for additional connections and
members. This feature contrasts with one of the main observed weaknesses
in existing building systems. Specifically, it was noted that all of the
available systems required separate connector members, both for member to
member connection and member to support frame attachment3.
It may be argued that for each supplemental connector / attachment, an
increase occurs in both erection complexity and the time required to
construct the building. The application of a fully interlocking assembly
system greatly simplifies the construction while ensuring the quickest
erection process possible (Figure 4).
Figure 4 F W Panelized Shelter System3
A critical problem that arises with respect to the design of an

emergency shelter is the transfer of forces along the building's load
pathways from the roof to the foundation system. During the industry
review, this aspect was noted to be a significant weakness with respect to
each building's structural performance.
Through the development of the FRP interlocking panelized building
system, this issue was addressed through the use of sets of interlocking
anchor blocks, installed at the roof - wall transition, and shown in Figure 5.
To allow this connection to be adjustable during the construction / erection
process, each set of blocks is attached using adjustable cables.
During peak load applications, these blocks act both as tension
connectors (providing direct uplift resisting members to transfer roof load to
wall components) and rotational stiffeners (restraining the rotation of the
roof - wall transition as a result of laterally induced wind shear on the
shelter).
Connector fits into the

member's trapezoidal
Triangle shaped
connector - 6 length
Adjustable strap Allows the connector

to be pre-tensioned
Wall panels overlap

trapezoidal ribs interlock,
forming a structural connection
to adjacent members
Figure 5 FRP Roof Anchorage Detail3
CONCLUSIONS
The development of the panelized shelter building system started with a

conceptual design to address non-structural issues such as building system
simplicity and the ability to disassemble and rebuild the structure with
minimal work or member damage.
The new system reduced the number of member types required
during construction and facilitates systemic strength through interlocking of
component members. Moreover, the use of FRP materials provided the
greatest amount of design flexibility. We would recommend that a full size
proto-type be built and tested to further develop the useful applications for
this technology.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by the Center for Disaster Management and
Humanitarian Assistance, University of South Florida under contract from
the Office of Naval Research. Further, we wish to thank Dr. Ayman
Mosallam for his expertise in the areas of FRP composite materials and
structural performance.
REFERENCES
1. ASCE 7-98, (1998). Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, NY.
2. Bradford, N., Sen, R. and Mosallam, A. (2001). Development of New
Modular Composite Panel. Proceedings of the 46h International
SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition-Science of Advanced Materials
and Process Engineering Series, Vol. 46, Long Beach, CA, May 6-10.
Society for the Advancement of Material and Process Engineering, pp
93 1-942.
3. Bradford, N., Sen, R., Cooke, S. and Crespi, R. (2000). Rapid
Deployment Emergency Shelter, Final Report submitted to Center for
Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance/OfJice of Naval
Research, December, pp. 169.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF PULTRUDED FRP

SECTION COMBINED WITH CONCRETE SLAB
A. BIDDAH
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UAE University

Al-Ain, P. O.B. 17555, United Arab Emirates
The use of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites is one of the latest
significant developments in the field of bridge construction. FRP
composites have been the material of choice in the aerospace industry since
1960s. However, only recently glass FRP composites have been gaining
both popularity and acceptance as one of the structural materials of choice
because of their high strength and stiffness to weight ratio, and corrosion
resistance. This paper demonstrates the possibility of combining composite
materials with a low-cost construction material (i.e. concrete) resulting in a
new concept of designing lightweight, corrosion immune, yet inexpensive
beams having acceptable structural properties. Pultruded FRP beam
section-to-concrete slab is proposed to behave under bending as a
composite beam. The objectives of the proposed research are to investigate
the composite behaviour of FRP members with reinforced concrete slabs
and comparing the behaviour of fully encased FRP beams with that of FRP
beams mechanically anchored to the concrete. An experimental program
was conducted to demonstrate the behaviour of the pultruded FRP beam-toconcrete slab in composite action. Three large scale specimens of 2.25 m
length were tested under four-point loading. The first specimen is a
pultruded FRP beam used as a control beam. The second specimen consists
of pultruded FRP beam-to-concrete slab acting as a composite beam. The
third specimen is a fully concrete encased FRP beam. The test results
indicated the feasibility of using hybrid FRP-concrete beam to increase the
load carrying capacity in flexure as well as beam stiffness. The outcome of
this research provides substantial information for both designers and
researchers in the field of FRP composites.
INTRODUCTION
The use of FRP composites as structural materials to replace the more
traditional steel and concrete materials has gradually increased in the
construction industry. Properties such as high corrosion resistance, low
densities, high durability, high strength, good stiffness to weight ratios and
ease of handling and installation make composites far more desirable.
However, applications in current practice of this type of structural material

are still very rare. Deformability and cost are the main obstacles. To
overcome these disadvantages, many authors have proposed structural
elements in which GFRP is combined with other (less expensive and more
massive) structural materials. For instance, GFRP wires and rods have been
proposed as reinforcing bars for concrete and GFRP box and tubular
sections have been used as permanent forms (having a structural effect as
confinement and reinforcement) for concrete columns. GFRP plates
(bonded to an external surface of reinforced concrete beam or slab) have
been used as a repair or strengthening measure. However, the associated
structural deformation in these applications is comparatively high.
To overcome the disadvantage of high deformability of GFRP,
pultruded FRP-to-concrete slab is proposed in this research as a composite
beam. The composite action between the FRP structural shapes and
concrete is supposed to reduce the previously observed high deformation
when FRP rebars were used in concrete. The results of the proposed
research will provide an alternative, practical construction system. Shear
connectors are installed between the pultruded FRP beam and the concrete
slab. These connectors resist the horizontal shear at the pultruded FRP
beam-to-concrete slab interface caused by composite action.
BACKGROUND
Pultruded fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) shapes are either thin-walled or
moderately thick-walled open or closed sections consisting of assemblies of
flat panels. Due to the high strength-to-stiffness ratio and thin-walled
sectional geometry of FRP shapes, problems of global instability, global and
local buckling mode interaction, and excessive local deformations are
common in current structural shapes. Buckling prior to attainment of the
ultimate material strength as well as deflection limits generally control the
design of current FRP beams. For long-span FRP beams, Euler (overall)
buckling is more likely to occur than local buckling. As for short-span FRP
beams, local buckling or distortional buckling (a combination of local and
lateral buckling) may occur first and may finally lead to large deflections or
material degradations (crippling). The web element of FRP shapes may
buckle locally due to shear loading when the beams are under bending.
When the web is deep and thin, local buckling of the web under shear
loading may occur before the flange buckles.
The first application of FRP composites in the USA for road bridges was
the structural composite honeycomb sandwich panel deck in Russell,
Pultruded FRP Section with Concrete Slab 717
Kansas in 1996. Following this, several demonstration bridges were

installed throughout the USA. Currently over 40 FRP composite vehicle
bridges have been installed. Some FRP composite examples include2: (a)
Tom's Creek Bridge, Blacksburg, Virginia - Strongwell Product constructed
in 1997, and (b) Troutville Weigh Station, Troutville, Virginia- Strongwell
constructed in 1999. In most bridges, composite action with the deck was
not considered.
The design of GFRP beams is usually governed by the low stiffness,
resulting in a need for excessive use of composite material to satisfy certain
displacement requirements. In view of this, a novel and more efficient
design of composite pultruded GFRP beam is necessary. Since concrete
provides the highest compressive strength and stiffness to cost ratio, the
GFRP flange could be substituted by a layer of concrete. Such a layer will
prevent the local buckling of the compression flange of the GFRP. A good
bond between the concrete and the GFRP can be achieved by either using
epoxy adhesives or installing mechanical shear connectors to the top GFRP
surface.
The work proposed in this research focuses on the combination of FRP
members with concrete to provide a composite action. Two types of
composite construction will be investigated as shown in Figure 1. The first
type is a fully encased beam which rely on the natural bond between
concrete and FRP without additional anchorage. The second type is a FRP
beam with mechanical anchorage to concrete slabs in the form of double nut
bolts as shear connectors. Composite action reduces the flexural stresses
and increases the flexural stiffness. Consequently, the proposed composite
action eliminates the disadvantage of high deformation obtained in the case
when FRP rebars are used.
FRP beam mechanically

anchored to concrete slab
Fully encased FRP beam

without additional anchorage
Figure 1. Types of composite construction
Test Specimens
Three large scale specimens were tested. The overall length of the
specimens was 2.25 m. Specimen SPl, the control specimen, is a pultruded
FRP wide-flange I-beam with flange dimensions of 150 x 6 mm and web
dimensions of 150 x 6 mm. Specimen SP2 consists of a pultruded FRP
wide-flange I-beam similar to that of SP1 but with a top concrete slab of
thickness 60 mm and width of 600 mm. The slab reinforcement consists of
6 mm diameter steel bars at 200 mm in both directions. The slab was
connected to the FRP section using two rows of 16 mm diameter double nut
bolts at a uniform spacing of 150 mm throughout the span of the FRP beam.
The height of the bolts above the FRP flange is 40 mm. A total of four FRP
stiffeners (6 mm thick) were mounted on the FRP beam using polyester
resin; two stiffeners at each support point. The third specimen SP3 consists
of a pultruded FRP wide-flange I-beam similar to that of SPl fully encased
in a concrete T-beam of beam dimensions 210 x 210 mm and top slab of
dimensions 60 x 600 mm. The slab reinforcement consists of 6 mm
diameter steel bars at 200 mm in both directions. A concrete slab similar to
that used in specimen SP2 but without the FRP beam was tested to study the
effect of the composite action on it. Figures 2 and 3 show the dimensions,
loading and support system for Specimens SP2 and SP3, respectively.
Figure 4 shows the test setup for specimens SPl and SP2. The specimens
were tested in four-point bending over a 2.05 m simply supported span.
Load control was employed and the loading was applied in increments of
approximately 7% of the expected failure load. The loading was continued
up to failure of the specimen. In all specimens, electrical strain gauges were
mounted on the top and bottom surfaces of the FRP beam at mid-span
section while in specimens SP2 and SP3, extra strain gauges were mounted
on the concrete top surface. The deflection was measured by means of
LVDT placed at the mid-span section.
Section x-x
100
1
683mm
684
683
JQ
114
Figure 2. Specimen SP2 dimensions and loading and supporting system

PI2
I
,
195 c 210
195
1%'
Sectionx-x
683 mm
684
687
JW
4 4
Figure 3. Specimen SP3 : dimensions and loading and supporting system
Figure 4. Test set-up of specimens SPl and SP2
Material Properties
The reinforcing bars used as longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in
the slab are of yield strength of 275 MPa. The concrete cylinder
compressive strength is 28 MPa. The pultruded GFRP structural shape is a
wide-flange 150 x 6 mm beam. The mechanical properties of the FRP
structural shapes are given in Table I ,
Table 1. Mechanical and Physical properties of FRP structural shapes
Mechanical
properties
Physical
properties
Tensile and compressive strength (MPa)

Shear strength (MPa)
Flexural strength (MPa)
Tensile and compressive modulus (MPa)
Flexural modulus (MPa)
Full section Modulus of Elasticity (MPa)
Poisson's ratio (MPa)
Density ( p / m m ' )
Coeflcient of thermal expansion (mm/mmPC)
207
31
207
17200
11000
17200
0.33
0.002
8x
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The mid-span deflection, strains and crack propagation were recorded at

different stages of loading till the failure of the specimens.
Behaviour of Test Specimens
A summary of the experimental results is presented in Table 2. It includes
the loads and deflections at ultimate (failure) stage in addition to the modes
of failure and the weight of the specimens per unit length. Figure 5 shows
the local buckling of the compression flange of Specimen SPl and Figure 6
shows the failure of Specimen SP2.
Table 2 . Failure loads, deflections and mode of failure of test specimens
Ultimate Specimen
Specimen ultimate
deflection weight
designation load (IN)
(mm)
(kN/m)
SPl
42.1
36.8
0.06
SP2
98.3
33.6
0.92
SP3
111.3
63.4
1.68
Figure 5.
Local bucking of the
compression flange of specimen SPI
Modes of failure
local bucking of the
comuression flanpe
web-flangejunction
delamination and local web
buckling due to shear
concrete crushing
Figure 6. Failure of specimen SP2

showing delamination in flange and
buckling of web
From Table 2, Figures 5 and 6 as well as the observed behaviour of the

test specimens, the following remarks could be concluded:
(a) In the case of Specimen SP1, the FRP beam was loaded until the
(b)
(c)
(d)
(c)
compression flange developed wave like deformations along the length

due to local buckling. The flange deformations were large, often
greater than the thickness of the flanges. The local buckling load was
taken as the failure criterion.
In the case of specimen SP2, cracking in the concrete slab started at a
taken load of 45 kN. A slight noise was heard at a load of 58 kN.
Separation between the FRP top flange and the FRP web started at a
load of 70 kN.
Specimen SP2 failed due to delamination at the interface between the
top flange and web in the shear zone followed by buckling and
compression failure of the web due to shear. Shear connectors
eliminated the possibility of bond failure between concrete and FRP
beam.
In the case of Specimen SP3, primary flexural crack was first visible at
the mid-third region at about 10 % of the ultimate load. A slight noise
was heard at a load level of 52 kN. Specimen SP3 failed due to
crushing of concrete near the slab bottom surface.
Wide cracks appeared at a load of 70 kN in Specimen SP3. This is
attributed to the sliding between the concrete slab and the FRP beam
which prevented the development of monolithic flexural action in the
longitudinal direction. In order to achieve monolithic flexural action
between the concrete slab and the FRP beam, a mechanical bond needs
to be established. This proposed bond improvement is under current
investigation.
Load-Deflection Behaviour
The applied load versus central-deflection of the test specimens is presented
in Figure 7 from which the following remarks could be concluded:
(a) The total applied load in Specimen SP1 increased linearly with
deflection till a load level of 27 kN where the compression flange
started to buckle. A linear behaviour is observed even after local
compression flange buckling occurred.
(b) The stiffness of the composite beam Specimen SP2 is higher than that
of the control Specimen SP1 at all loading stages. This is attributed to
the composite action between the concrete slab and the FRP beam
which improved the strength and the stiffness of the beam. The
addition of shear connectors does not only serve to improve the
strength of the FRP beam but also leads to a stiffer specimen.
(c) Although the initial stiffness of Specimen SP3 before cracking is

higher than that of Specimen SP2, the latter shows higher stiffness
than Specimen SP3 after cracking until failure.
(d) At a load level of 53 kN, the stiffness of Specimen SP3 decreased due
to the slippage between the FRP beam and the concrete.
(e) At a load level of 70 kN, the stiffness of Specimen SP2 decreased due
to the start of separation between the FRP top flange and the FRP web
in the shear zone.
10
20
30
40
50
60
Central deflection (mm)
Figure 7. Load-central deflection relationship of the tested specimens
Concrete and FRP Strains

The longitudinal strain was recorded at various locations in the specimens
at different load levels. The total applied load versus strain curves, at midspan section, is displayed in Figures 8 and 9 of specimens SPl and SP2 and
SP3, respectively. The longitudinal strain profile at various load levels at
mid-span section is shown in Figures 10 and 11 for Specimens SP2 and
SP3, respectively. From these figures the following remarks could be
concluded:
(a) In Specimen SP1, the strains in the bottom flange and top flange were
approximately equal, indicating that the neutral axis is in the middle.
At a load level of approximately 27 kN, local buckling started in the
top flange causing larger strains which can accelerate the failure of the
compression flange.
(b) At all load levels, lower longitudinal FRP strains are noted in the
composite Specimen SP2 to those in the control specimen SP1. This
significant reduction in strain corresponds to a higher load capacity,
which arises due to the composite action of the slab with the FRF'
beam. The composite actions increased the effective depth of the

specimen and shifted the neutral axis towards the concrete slab.
c) Significant increase in strains in the FRP upper flange in Specimen
SP3 occurred after the slippage of the FRP beam at a load level of 53
kN.
(d) In Specimen SP2, the neutral axis remains roughly at the same location
near the concrete slab bottom surface until failure took place. An
approximate linear profile is observed at lower load levels. Non
linearity in the strain profile is noticed at higher load levels, which
indicates that the shear connectors could not provide full composite
action between the concrete slab and the FRP beam.
(e) In Specimen SP3, an approximately linear profile is observed, showing
a composite action between the FRP beam and the concrete slab before
slippage took place at a load level of 53 kN. After slippage, the strains
at the concrete surface slightly increased, shifting the neutral axis of
the specimen away from the concrete slab.
-8
v
-a
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
so
40
30
20
10
0
4.006
4.004
4.002
0.002
O.OM
0.006
4.006
Strains of specimens SP1 B SPZ(mm/mm)
4.004
4.002
0.002
0.004
0.006
Strains of specimen SP3 (mmlmm)
Figure 8. Load-strain relationship of the

specimens SPl and SP2
Figure 9. Load-strain relationship of the

specimen SP3
210
210
180
180
g I50
E
;
120
E
;
120
154
290
>
60
60
30
30
0
-4000
90
-2000
2000
4000
6000
Longitudinal strain (microstrain)
Figure 10. Longitudinal strain profile at

mid-span section of specimen SP2
0
4000
-2000
2000
4000
6000
8000
Longitudinalstrain (microstrain)
Figure 11. Longitudinal strain profile at midspan section of specimen SP3
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, FRP-to-slab hybrid system is considered as an outstanding
alternative to conventional slab systems. The system exhibited many
advantages such as lightweight, easy and fast assembly without heavy
lifting equipment, corrosion resistance and significant over-strength in the
assembled system. However, the performance characteristics of the system
need further investigation and development. The following conclusions can
be deduced:
(a) The tests revealed noticeable difference in flexural stiffness between
the FRP beam and the FRP-to-slab hybrid systems. The difference is
attributed to the composite action between the FRP beam and the
concrete slab.
(b) The overall response of the FRP-to-slab hybrid specimen was
essentially elastic all way till reaching failure. The local web buckling
failure mode indicated the possibility of further capacity increases
when adding more web stiffeners to the FRP beam.
(c) Despite the longitudinal debonding between the FRP beam and
concrete in the FRP encased beam, the system capacity increased, thus,
demonstrating the effectiveness of FRP encasement in concrete. The
concrete surrounding the FRP beam prevents local buckling of its
compression flange and web.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the scientific research council (grant No. 7-711/02), United Arab Emirates University and was conducted in the
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering laboratories. The
efficient cooperation of Eng. Tarek Shaikhoun, Laboratory Engineer, in
conducting the tests, is acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Qiao P., Davalos J.F. and Wang J., "Local buckling of composite FRP
shapes by discrete plate analysis," Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, Vol. 127, No. 3, March 2001, pp. 245-255.
2. C. Waldron, M. Hayes, E. Restrepo, T. Cousins and J. Lesko,
"Determining the design parameters for an FRP girder bridge in
Virginia," Proceedings of the 6* International Conference on short and
medium span bridges, Vancouver, Canada, August 2002, pp. 1361-1368.
Author Index
Abdelrahman, A. 663
Adhikary, B.B. 457
Agyei, B.B. 935
fit-Mokhtar, A. 833
AlChami,G. 623
Alhozaimy, A.M. 823
Al-Mahaidi, R. 247
Almusallam, T.H. 823
Al-Saidy, A.H. 1269
Al-Salloum, Y .A. 823
Alsayed, S.H. 823
Altan,M.O. 673
Alwis, K.G.N.C. 111
An,L. 995
Anderson, A.H. 1301
Araujo, A.F. 1003
Ara~jo,A.S. 477
Arora,D. 1067
Asakura, T. 1157
Ashraf,M. 457
Bakht, B. 923,945
Balafas, I. 1391
Balaguru, P. 367
Balendra, T. 1127
Balendran, R.V. 1047
Bank, L.C. 1067,1301
Banthia,V. 945
Barbato, M. 387
Benlloch, J. 337
Benmokrane, B. 737, 1291,1311,
1341
Biddah,A. 715
Bittencourt, T.N. 173
Blaschko, M. 205
Boulay, C. 913
Bousias, S.N. 527
Bradford, N.M. 705
Brikre, F. 1341
Burgoyne, C.J. 111,1013, 1391
Camata, G. 267,307
Carolin, A. 467, 1371
Carter, J.W. 1301
Casadei, P. 1097
Choi, M.C. 955
Chu,W. 759
Ciupala, M.A. 643, 1117
Clement, J.L. 913
Codato, D. 1239
Cosenza, E. 653,1361
Crawford, J.E. 1199
Dai, J.G. 143
Davies, J.M. 217
Davies, P. 347
De Lorenzis, L. 57 1,581,795,
975, 1351,1455
Dejke,V. 833
Delmas, Y. 497
Delpak,R. 347
Deng,Y. 875
Denton, S.R. 1147
DesgagnC, G. 1311, 1341
Desiderio, P. 843
Diagana, C.497
Dieter, D.A. 1301
Dietsche, J.S. 1301
Dos Santos, A.C. 173
Volume One: 1-724; Volume Two: 725-1464
Ebead, U.A. 427,437

Ehrlacher, A. 407
El Maaddawy, T. 855
El-Hacha, R. 895
Elremaily, A.F. 79
El-Salakawy, E.F. 737, 1291,
1311, 1341
Ergun, B. 673
Erki,M.A. 895
Fakhri,P. 913
Fam,A.Z. 685
Fardis, M.N. 527
Feng,P. 1401
Ferracuti, B. 163
Ferreira, A.J.M. 695
Foret, G. 407
Foster, S.J. 1177
Fujisaki, T. 1435
Fukai,S. 1435
Fukuyama, H. 133,507,1435
Furuta, T. 133,507
Galati, N. 1219
Gale, L. 955
Gallagher, B. 1301
Gedalia, B. 497
Gettu, R. 173
Gonenc, 0. 1067
Gottardo, R. 1239
Grace, N.F. 1281
Grando, S. 1229
Gremel, D. 1067
Gu, X.L. 1107, 1259
Guadagnini, M. 517
Guan,H. 1381
Guglielmo, E. 1361
GuimarZes, G.B. 1003
Hadi, M.N.S. 487,613
Hamad, B.S. 633
Hanamori, N. 885
Harada,T. 89
Harajli, M.H. 633

Hashem, Y. 663
Hassan,T. 123
Hattori, A. 815,995
Hayashi, K. 885
He, W. 1157
Heffernan, P.J. 895
Hejll, A. 1371
Higuchi, T. 885
Hill, R.A. 1301
Hong, W.H. 1401
Huang, Y.H. 1107
Ibe,H. 227
Ibell, T.J. 539,955, 1097, 1147
Ichiryu,T. 885
Iervolino, I. 1361
Ikeda,A. 885
Ilki,A. 673
Ishikawa, T. 885
Ishiyama, S. 1037
Iwashita, K. 885
Janssens, J. 297
Jia, M. 875
Joh,O. 227
Kaku,T. 1445
Kanakubo, T. 133,507,1435
Karbhari, V.M. 759, 1381
Kassem, C. 1291
Keller, T. 1331
Kesse, G. 447
Khayat, K. 623
Khin, M. 89
Khomwan, N. 1177
Kirikoshi, K. 1037
Kishi, N. 287,327
Kishimoto, M. 865
Klaiber, F.W. 1269
Kobayashi, A. 865
Kobayashi, K. 1435
Koc,V. 673
Kojima, Y. 1157
Kong, K.H. 1127
Kubo,Y. 815
Kumbasar, N. 673
Kurihashi, Y. 287
La Tegola, A. 749,795,975, 1351
Labossikre, P. 779
Lackey, T. 1311
Lam, L. 99,601
Laoubi, K. 737
Lee,K. 247
Lees, J.M. 447,935
Leong, K.S. 257
Leung, H.Y. 1047
Li,A. 497
Li, J. 613
Liew, Y.S. 769
Ligozio, C.A. 79
Limam,O. 407
Limkatanyu, S . 307
Lin,L. 1401
Lopez, M.M. 317
Lu,M. 193
Lu, Z. 551,561
Luciani, P. 183
Maalej, M. 257
Manfredi, G. 653, 1209
Maqsood, T. 1047
Marcari,G. 1209
Marques, A.T. 695
Marzouk, H. 427,437
Masmoudi, R. 1341
Masuo, K. 1445
Matsui, S . 865
Matsuzaki., Y. 1445
Matthys, S. 297
Mazzoti, C. 163
McMonigal, D. 1067
Mehrabi, A.B. 79
Meier, U. 153, 1321
Melo, G.S. 477

Memon, A.H. 923
Micelli, F. 749,795, 1351
Migayama, T. 995
Mihashi, H. 1037
Mikami, H. 287,327
Miyagawa, T. 815
Modena, C. 1249
Monti, G. 183,387,1057
Morais, M.M. 1013
Morrill, K.B. 1199
Mortazavi, A.A. 643
Moulsdale, M. 613
Mufti, A.A. 923,945
Murakami,S. 885
Mutsuyoshi, H. 457
Myers, J.J. 749
Naaman, A.E. 3,25,317
Nagato, Y. 477
Nakai,H. 785
Nakan0.K. 1445
Nanni, A. 417,1097, 1147, 1219,
1229, 1455
Neale, K.W. 427,437,779
Nelson, B. 1067
Nilsson, L.O. 833
Nishimura, T. 785
Nishizaki, I. 779
Niu,H. 377
Nordin, H. 1077
Nurchi, A. 297
ORegan, B. 527
Oh, H.S. 905
Oliva, M.G. 1301
Ouyang, Y. 1107,1259
OzeLM. 1067
Parra, C.J. 337
Patoary, M.K.H. 1189
Pecce, M. 1209
Pelletier, M.-A. 623
Pigeon, M. 737
Pilakoutas, K. 5 17,643, 1117
Pimanmas, A. 277
Pornpongsaroj, P. 277
Porter, A.D. 1147
Poupard, 0. 833
Prota, A. 653
Qian, Z.Z. 1107
Rakib,T. 663
Renzelli, M. 183
Ribeiro, M.C.S. 695
Rizkalla, S.H. 123,685
Rousakis, T. 571,581
Russell, J.S. 1301
Russo, S. 1239
Sakai,H. 785
Santini, S. 1057
Saouma, V. 267
Sato, Y. 237,965
Savoia, M. 163
Sawada, S. 287
Sayed, G.A. 1281
Scarpa,M. 297
Schnerch, D.A. 685
Sen,R. 705
Shaaban, I. 663
Shaheen, H. 663
Sherping, R. 1137
Sim, J. 905
Smith, S.T. 193, 1023
Soudki, K. 855,1137
Spacone, E. 267,307
Spathis, L.A. 527
Stoecklin, I. 1321
Sugiyama, M. 727
Svecova, D. 945
Taerwe, L. 297
Tailhan, J.-L. 913
Takahashi, Y. 237
Takeda, T. 885
Taljsten, B. 467, 1077, 1167,

1371, 1425
Tamuis, V. 571,581
Tan, K.H. 769,985, 1087, 1127,
1189
Tan,K.Y. 417
Tanaka,M. 89
Tann, D.B. 347,357
Taranu, N. 1117
Teng,J. 591
Teng, J.G. 99,193,601
Tepfers, R. 571, 581, 833
Terrasi, G.P. 935
ThCriault, M. 623
Thomsen, H. 307
Tinazzi, D. 1249
Tjandra, R.A. 985
Toutanji, H. 367, 875
Triantafillou, T.C. 527
Tuladhar, R. 965
Tumialan, J.G. 417, 1219, 1229
Turco, V. 1219
Ueda, T. 51, 143,965
Ulaga, T. 153, 1415
Uomoto, T. 37,727,785
Utsunomiya, Y. 965
Valcuende, M. 337
Valerio, P. 539
Valluzzi, M.R. 1229, 1249
Van Zwol, T. 1137
Vanderpool, D.R. 79
Venkataramana, K. 89
Vogel, T. 153, 1415
Waldron, P. 5 17
Wang,Z. 227
Wight, R.G. 895
Wigum, B.J. 805
Wipf, T.J. 1269
Woods, S. 1301
Wu, G. 551,561
Wu, G. 551,561
Wu,H.C. 591
Wu, Z. 377,551,561,885,1157
Wu, Z.J. 217
Wu,Z.Y. 913
Xiong, Z.H. 487
Yamada, K. 1037
Yamamoto, S. 815
Yamamoto, T. 995
Yang,T. 1401
Ye, F.F. 1259
Ye, L.P. 1401
Yin, J. 1157
You, C.S. 571,581

Yue, Q.R. 1401
Zehetmaier, G. 397
Zhang, G.F. 327
Zhang,K. 1401
Zhang, N. 1401
Zhang, W.P. 1259
Zhang,Y. 367
Zhao, H.D. 1087
Zhao,L. 1381
Zilch, K. 397
Zou, P.X.W. 1023
Edited by Kiang Hwee TAN
Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
VOLUME 2
Proceedings of the
Sixth International
Symposium on FRP
Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
(FRPRCS-6)
^FRPRCS
1003 Singapore
World Scientific
Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
VOLUME 2
This page is intentionally left blank
Edited by Kiang Hwee TAN

National University of Singapore, Singapore
Singapore
8-10 July, 2003
Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
Proceedings of the
Sixth International
Symposium on F1P
Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures
VOLUME 2
(FRPRG-6)
Ilillii
2#PJ Si^^pum
World Scientific
New Jersey London
Singapore
Hong
Kong
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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UK office:
Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE
British Library Cataloguing-m-Publication Data

catalogue record for this book available from the British Library.
FIBRE-REINFORCED POLYMER REINFORCEMENT FOR

CONCRETE STRUCTURES (In Volumes)
Proceedings the Sixth International Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-6)
Copyright
2003 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
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ISBN 981-238-401-4 (Set)

ISBN 981-238-973- (Vol.
ISBN 981-238-972- (Vol.11)
Printed by Fulsland Offset Printing (S) Pte Ltd, Singapore
Preface
Research on the application of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) as
reinforcement for concrete structures appeared m as early as the 1960s.
However, was not until the late 1980s that such research has escalated,
leading to field applications. The interest in non-metallic reinforcement
was fuelled by the corrosion problem associated with steel reinforcement
that surfaced around the world at that time, and the downturn of the
aerospace industry where fibre-reinforced polymers have been widely
used due to its high specific strength and modulus, and other superior
characteristics.
I was fortunate to spend my sabbatical with Professor Naaman at the
University of Michigan, USA, during the Fall and Winter of 1991 and
with Professor Okamura at the University of Tokyo, Japan, during Spring
and Summer of 1992. The former introduced to me this new material that
has since fascinated many in the research community and construction
industry In okyo, in particular, was overwhelmed by the mountains of
research that were embarked by universities, public institutions and
private companies on the development and application of FRP rods as
reinforcement for concrete structures. There were round bars, flat bars,
square bars, braided bars, sanded bars, strands, grids and links, and even
three-dimensional reinforcement. Several applications m footbridges,
foundation beams, tunnel linings, and floating structures suddenly
mushroomed all over Japan and the rest of the world. That probably
constituted the first era in the application of FRP reinforcement in
The FRPRCS Symposia Series was initiated in 1993, and subsequently
held every two years in the continents of America, Europe and Asia, on
rotational basis. The previous symposia were held in Vancouver, Canada
(1993), Ghent, Belgium (1995), Sapporo, Japan (1997), Baltimore, USA
(1999), and Cambridge, UK (2001). This year marks the 10th anniversary
of the FRPRCS Symposia Series, and the Department of Civil Engineering
the National University of Singapore
honored to host the 6th
International Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures
(FRPRCS-6) in Singapore.
The planning and preparation works for FRPRCS-6 in effect began

almost six years ago in 1997 when was asked in Sapporo, to be the
second Asian host for the FRPRCS International Symposium. At that
time, there was still little awareness of the material known as FRP
reinforcement in Asia outside Japan, and if any the interests were
centered mainly on externally bonded FRP systems rather than FRP
reinforcing rods. The Kobe earthquake in 1995 has brought about
rapidly increasing interests in the use of FRP systems in structural
rehabilitation, and that marked the beginning of the second era in FRP
applications in concrete structures.
T promote awareness and interests in the development and
application of FRP reinforcement in Singapore and the region, the FibreReinforced Society (Singapore) was formed in September 2002 and has
since been co-organizer of this Symposium.
The FRPRCS-6 International Symposium will signify the beginning
of the third era, in which one could witness global interests in FRP
reinforcement, as well as the use of FRP reinforcements as structural
shapes, and in masonry and steel structures. This set of proceedings
contains total of 140 papers from 26 countries, in two volumes. Each
technical paper had been reviewed and selected for presentation by at
least two members of the International Scientific Committee, to whom I
would like to express my gratitude.
Volume of the proceedings contains four invited keynote papers
and 63 technical papers dealing with: (i) FRP Materials and Properties;
(ii) Bond Behaviour; (iii) Externally Bonded Reinforcement (EBR) for
Flexure, Shear and Confinement; and (iv) FRP Structural Shapes. The
topics covered in Volume 2 are: (v) Durability and Maintenance; (vi)
Sustained and Fatigue Loads; (vii) Prestressed FRP Reinforcement and
Tendons; (viii) Structural Strengthening; (ix) Applications in Masonry
and Steel Structures; (x) Field Applications and Case Studies; and (xi)
Codes and Standards. Seventy-three papers are included m Volume 2.
The FRPRCS-6 International Symposium also witnessed the
formation of the International Steering Committee, which comprises the
chairmen of the current and previous FRPRCS Symposia. The mam
purpose of this Committee
to chart the future directions for the
Symposia Series, has appointed three-man taskforce to determine the
Best Paper (Research), Best Paper (Application) and Honorable Mention
Awards, which were first introduced at FRPRCS-6. The three gentlemen
in the taskforce were Professor C.W Dolan from USA, Professor F.S.
VII
Rostasy from Germany, and Professor H. Okamura from Japan. All of

them are well known in the areas of FRP reinforcement and structural
concrete.
The organization of the Symposium would not have been possible
without the generous contributions from the sponsors, who are degussaMBT (S) Pte Ltd, Fyfe Asia Pte Ltd, Mapei Far East Pte Ltd, Sika (S) Pte
Ltd, Lee Foundation (Singapore) and Defence Science & Technology
Agency. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to the American
Concrete Institute, USA, Institution of Engineers, Singapore, Japan
Concrete Institute, Japan, and The Concrete Society, UK, for supporting
the event.
Last, but not least, I would like to acknowledge the help of my
colleagues, in particular, Balendra, Mansur and Maalej, and the
Secretariat, comprising Christine, Siti and Sarimah, who have devoted
many hours in getting the Symposium organized.
Kiang Hwee Tan

Singapore
July 2003
FRPRCS-6 Organizing Committees

National University of Singapore Organizing Committee
Chairman
Members
Secretariat
K.H. Tan
T. Balendra, M.A. Mansur, M. Maalej
C.S. Tan, Siti Rohani, Sarimah
International Steering Committee

S.H. Rizkalla, USA
L. Taerwe, Belgium
K.H. Tan, Singapore
T. Uomoto, Japan
CJ. Burgoyne, UK
C.W. Dolan, USA
A. Nanni, USA
H. Okamura, Japan
International Scientific Committee

K.H. Tan, Singapore (Chairman)
K.W. Neale, Canada
L.C. Bank, USA
K. Pilakoutas, UK
B. Benmokrane, Canada
S.H. Rizkalla, USA
C.J. Burgoyne, UK
J. Sim, Korea
E. Cosenza, Italy
R.N. Swamy, UK
C.W. Dolan, USA
L. Taerwe, Belgium
G.B. Guimaraes, Brazil
J.G. Teng, China
M. Harajli, Lebanon
R. Tepfers, Sweden
P. Hamelin, France
T. Ueda, Japan
L. Hollaway, UK
T. Uomoto, Japan
G. Manfredi, Italy
P. Waldron, UK
K. Maruyama, Japan
Z. Wu, Japan
U. Meier, Switzerland
Q.R. Yue, China
A.E. Naaman, USA
A. Nanni, USA
VIM
Contents
VOLUME 1
KEYNOTE PAPERS
FRP Reinforcements in Structural Concrete: Assessment,
Progress, and Prospects
A.E. Naaman
Progress and Prospects of FRP Reinforcements: Survey of

Expert Opinions
A.E. Naaman
25
Durability Design of GFRP Rods for Concrete Reinforcement

T. Uomoto
37
New Types of Continuous Fiber Reinforcements for Concrete

Members
T.Ueda
51
FRP MATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

Performance of Thermoplastic Fiber Reinforced Polymer Rebars
A.B. Mehrabi, C.A. Ligozio, A.F. Elremaily and D.R.
Vanderpool
79
Experimental Study on Poisson's Ratio for FRP Tendons

M. Tanaka, M. Khin, T. Harada and K. Venkataramana
89
Stress-Strain Model for FRP-Confined Concrete for Design

Applications
99
IX
Accelerated Techniques to Predict the Stress-Rupture

Behaviour of Aramid Fibres (Best Paper - Research)
K.G.N.C. Alwis and C.J. Burgoyne
111
BOND BEHAVIOUR
Bond Characteristics of Various FRP Strengthening Techniques
S.H. Rizkalla and T. Hassan
123
Bond Strength between Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates

and Concrete
T. Kanakubo, T. Furuta and H. Fukuyama
133
Local Bond Stress-Slip Relations for FRP Sheets-Concrete

Interfaces (Best Paper - Research)
J.G. Dai and T. Ueda
143
Bilinear Stress - Slip Bond Model: Theoretical Background and

Significance
T. Ulaga, T. Vogel and U. Meier
153
Non Linear Bond-Slip Law for FRP-Concrete Interface

M. Savoia, B. Ferracuti and C. Mazzoti
163
Experimental Analysis of Interface between CFRP

and Concrete using Cylindrical Specimens
A.C. Dos Santos, T.N. Bittencourt and R. Gettu
173
FRP Adhesion in Uncracked and Cracked Concrete Zones

G. Monti, M. Renzelli and P. Luciani
183
Neural Network Prediction of Plate End Debonding in FRPPlated RC Beams

S.T. Smith, J.G. Teng and M. Lu
193
Bond Behaviour of CFRP Strips Glued into Slits

M. Blaschko
205
XI
EXTERNALLY BONDED REINFORCEMENT FOR FLEXURE

Load Capacity of Concrete Beams Strengthened with External
FRP Sheets
Z.J. Wu and J.M. Davies
217
Reinforcing Effects of CFRP and AFRP Sheets with Respect to

Flexural Behaviour of RC Beams
O. Joh, Z. Wang and H. Ibe
227
Flexural Behaviour of RC Beams Externally Reinforced with

Carbon Fiber Sheets
Y. Takahashi and Y. Sato
237
Strength and Failure Mechanism of RC T-Beams Strengthened

with CFRP Plates
K. Lee and R. Al-Mahaidi
247
Effect of Beam Size on Interfacial Shear Stresses and Failure

Mode of FRP-Bonded Beams
K.S. Leong and M. Maalej
257
Debonding Failure of RC Structural Members Strengthened

with FRP Laminates
G. Camata, E. Spacone and V. Saouma
267
Effect of End Wrapping on Peeling Behaviour of

FRP-Strengthened Beams
P. Pornpongsaroj and A. Pimanmas
277
An Experimental Study on Debond-Control of AFRP for

Flexurally Strengthened RC Beams
S. Sawada, N. Kishi, H. Mikami and Y. Kurihashi
287
Tests on RC T-Beams Strengthened in Flexure with a Glued and

Bolted CFRP Laminate
A. Nurchi, S. Matthys, L. Taerwe, M. Scarpa and
J. Janssens
297
XII
Parametric Studies of RC Beams Strengthened in Flexure with

Externally Bonded FRP
S. Limkatanyu, H. Thomsen, E. Spacone and G. Camata
307
Concrete Cover Failure or Tooth Type Failure in RC Beams

Strengthened with FRP Laminates
M.M. Lopez and A.E. Naaman
317
Influence of Material Properties of FRPs on Strength of

Flexural Strengthened RC Beams
G.F. Zhang, N. Kishi and H. Mikami
327
Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with

CFRP Strips and Fabric
M. Valcuende, J. Benlloch and C.J. Parra
337
A Review of Ductility Determination of FRP Strengthened

Flexural RC Elements
D.B.Tann,P. DaviesandR. Delpak
347
A Semi-Empirical Approach for the Prediction of Deflections of

FRP Strengthened RC Slabs
D.B. Tann
357
Crack Widths in RC Beams Externally Bonded with CFRP

Sheets
Y. Zhang, H. Toutanji and P. Balaguru
367
Numerical Simulations for Strengthened Structures with

Hybrid Fiber Sheets
H. Niu and Z. Wu
377
Fibre-Section FE of FRP-Strengthened RC Beam in Flexure,

Shear and Confinement
G. Monti and M. Barbato
387
Interaction between Internal Bars and External FRP

Reinforcement in RC Members
G. Zehetmaier and K. Zilch
397
XIII
Strengthening of RC Two-Way Slabs with Composite Materials

O. Limam, G. Foret and A. Ehrlacher
407
Evaluation of Externally Bonded CFRP Systems for the

Strengthening of RC Slabs
K.Y. Tan, J.G. Tumialan and A. Nanni
417
Flexural Strengthening of Two-Way Slabs Using FRPs

427
Tensile Properties of Concrete in FRP Strengthened

Two-Way Slabs
437
EXTERNALLY BONDED REINFORCEMENT FOR SHEAR

Shear Critical RC Beams Strengthened with CFRP Straps
G. Kesse and J. M. Lees
447
Effective Shear Strengthening of Concrete Beams using FRP

Sheets with Bonded Anchorage
B.B. Adhikary, H. Mutsuyoshi and M. Ashraf
457
Behaviour of Concrete Structures Strengthened in Shear with

CFRP
A. Carolin and B. Taljsten
467
Strengthening of RC T Beams in Shear with Carbon Sheet

Laminates (CFRP)
G.S. Melo, A.S. Araujo and Y. Nagato
477
Strength Analysis of Sheared Beams Retrofitted with

Strengthening Materials
Z. H. Xiong and M.N.S. Hadi
487
Shear Performance with Externally Bonded Carbon Fibre

Fabrics
A. Li, C. Diagana, Y. Delmas and B. Gedalia
497
XIV
Evaluation of Shear Capacity of RC Columns Strengthened by

Continuous Fiber
T. Furuta, T. Kanakubo and H. Fukuyama
507
Shear Design Equations for FRP RC Beams

M. Guadagnini, K. Pilakoutas and P. Waldron
517
Strengthening of Corrosion-Damaged RC Columns with FRP

S.N. Bousias, T.C. Triantafillou, M.N. Fardis,
L.A. Spathis and B. O'Regan
527
Shear Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Decks using

FRP Bar
P. Valerio and T.J. Ibell
539
EXTERNALLY BONDED REINFORCEMENT FOR CONFINEMENT

Stress-Strain Relationship for FRP-Confined Concrete
Cylinders
G. Wu, Z. Lu and Z. Wu
551
Stress-Strain Relationship for FRP-Confined Concrete Prisms

G. Wu, Z. Wu and Z. Lu
561
Concrete Cylinders Confined by CFRP Sheets Subjected to

Cyclic Axial Compressive Load
T. Rousakis, C.S. You, L. De Lorenzis, V. Tamuzs and
R. Tepfers
571
Concrete Cylinders Confined by Prestressed CFRP Filament

Winding under Axial Compressive Load
T. Rousakis, C.S. You, L. De Lorenzis, V. Tamuzs and
R. Tepfers
581
Concrete Confined with Fiber Reinforced Cement Based Thin

Sheet Composites
H.C. Wu and J. Teng
591
XV
Hoop Rupture Strains of FRP Jackets in FRP-Confined Concrete

601
Externally Confined High Strength Concrete Columns under

Eccentric Loading
J. Li, M. Moulsdale and M.S.N. Hadi
613
Creep Performance of CFRP Confined Concrete Cylinders

M. Theriault, M.-A. Pelletier, K. Khayat and G. Al Chami
623
Development/Splice Strength of Steel Bars in Concrete Confined

with CFRP Sheets
M.H. Harajli and B.S. Hamad
633
Lateral Prestressing of RC Columns with FRP Jackets

A.A. Mortazavi, K. Pilakoutas and M.A. Ciupala
643
Confinement of RC Rectangular Columns Using GFRP

A. Prota, G. Manfredi and E. Cosenza
653
Behaviour of RC Columns Retrofitted by Fibre Reinforced

Polymers under Cyclic Loads
H. Shaheen, T. Rakib, Y. Hashem, I. Shaaban and
A. Abdelrahman
663
Photogrammetrically Measured Deformations of FRP Wrapped

Low Strength Concrete
A. Ilki, V. Koc, B. Ergun, M.O. Altan and N. Kumbasar
673
FRP STRUCTURAL SHAPES

Rectangular FRP Tubes Filled with Concrete for Beam and
Column Applications
A.Z. Fam, D.A. Schnerch and S.H. Rizkalla
685
Flexural Behaviour of GFRP-Polymer Concrete Hybrid

Structural Systems
M.C.S. Ribeiro, A.J.M. Ferreira and A.T. Marques
695
XVI
A New Concept for an FRP Panelized Rapid Deployment

Shelter
N.M. Bradford and R. Sen
705
Experimental Investigation of Pultruded FRP Section

Combined with Concrete Slab
A.Biddah
715
VOLUME TWO
DURABILITY AND MAINTENANCE
Research on Strength and Durability of GFRP Rods for
Prestressed Concrete Tendons
M. Sugiyama and T. Uomoto
727
Durability of Concrete Beams Reinforced with GFRP Bars

under Different Environmental and Loading Conditions
K. Laoubi, E.F. El-Salakawy, B. Benmokrane and
M. Pigeon
737
Environmental Effects on RC Beams Strengthened with Near

Surface Mounted FRP Rods
F. Micelli, A. La Tegola and J.J. Myers
749
Synergistic Hydrothermal Effects on Durability of

E-Glass Vinylester Composites
W. Chu and V.M. Karbhari
759
Durability of GFRP Composites under Tropical Climate

Y.S. Liew and K.H. Tan
769
Effects of Different Long-Term Climatic Conditions on

FRP Durability
P. Labossiere, K.W. Neale and I. Nishizaki
779
XVII
Durability of Aramid and Carbon FRP PC Beams under

Natural and Accelerated Exposure
H. Nakai, H. Sakai, T. Nishimura and T. Uomoto
785
Effects of Wet Environment on CFRP-Confined Concrete

Cylinders
F. Micelli, L. De Lorenzis, and A. La Tegola
795
Alkali Aggregate Reactive Mortar Cylinders Partly Restrained

by External CFRP Fabric
B.J. Wigum
805
ASR Expansion Reduction and Ductility Improvement by

CFRP Sheet Wrapping
A. Hattori, S. Yamamoto, T. Miyagawa and Y. Kubo
815
Durability of GFRP Rebars in Concrete Beams under Sustained

Loads at Severe Environments
T.H. Almusallam, Y.A. Al-Salloum, S.H. Alsayed and A.M.
Alhozaimy
823
Influence of Sustained Stress on the Durability of GFRP Bars

Embedded in Concrete
V. Dejke, O. Poupard, L.O. Nilsson, R. Tepfers and
A. Ait-Mokhtar
833
A Maintenance Strategy for FRP Strengthening Systems

P. Desiderio
843
SUSTAINED AND FATIGUE LOADS

Viability of using CFRP Laminates to Repair RC Beams
Corroded under Sustained Loads
T. El Maaddawy and K. Soudki
855
Fatigue Bond of Carbon Fiber Sheets and Concrete in RC Slabs

Strengthened by CFRP
A. Kobayashi, S. Matsui and M. Kishimoto
865
XVIII
Fatigue Performance of RC Beams Strengthened with CF

Sheets Bonded by Inorganic Matrix
H. Toutanji, Y. Deng and M. Jia
875
Fatigue Performance of RC Beams Strengthened with

Externally Prestressed PBO Fiber Sheets
Z. Wu, K. Iwashita, T. Ishikawa, K. Hayashi,
N. Hanamori, T. Higuchi, A. Ikeda, T. Takeda,
S. Murakami and T. Ichiryu
885
Prestressed CFRP Sheets for Strengthening Reinforced

Concrete Structures in Fatigue
R. El-Hacha, R.G. Wight, P.J. Heffernan and M.A. Erki
895
Fatigue Behaviour of Bridge Deck Specimen Strengthened with

Carbon Fiber Polymer Composites
J. Sim and H.S. Oh
905
Static and Fatigue Tests on Precracked RC Beams

Strengthened with CFRP Sheets
Z.Y. Wu, J.L. Clement, J.-L. Tailhan, C. Boulay and
P. Fakhri
913
Fatigue Investigation of Concrete Bridge Deck Slab Reinforced

with GFRP and Steel Strap
A.H. Memon, A.A. Mufti and B. Bakht
923
PRESTRESSED FRP REINFORCEMENT AND TENDONS

Fatigue of High Strength Concrete Beams Pretensioned with
CFRP Tendons
B.B. Agyei, J.M. Lees and G.P. Terrasi
935
Transverse Confinement of Deck Slabs by Concrete Straps

V. Banthia, A.A. Mufti, D. Svecova and B. Bakht
945
Design of Anchorage Zones for FRP-Prestressed Concrete

T.J. Ibell, L. Gale and M.C. Choi
955
XIX
A Simple Continuous System of Shear Reinforcement with

Polyacetal Fiber
R. Tuladhar, Y. Utsunomiya, Y. Sato and T.Ueda
965
Analytical Modeling of Splitting Bond Failure for NSM FRP

Reinforcement in Concrete
L. De Lorenzis and A. La Tegola
975
Strengthening of RC Beams with External FRP Tendons:

Tendon Stress at Ultimate
R.A. Tjandra and K.H. Tan
985
Comparative Analysis on Stress Calculation Methods for

External FRP Cables
L. An, T. Yamamoto, A. Hattori and T. Migayama
995
Moment Redistribution in Continuous Monolithic and

Segmental Concrete Beams Prestressed with External A ramid
Tendons
A.F. Araujo and G.B. Guimaraes
1003
Experimental Investigation on the Ductility of Beams

Prestressed with FRP
M.M. Morais and C.J. Burgoyne
1013
Time-Dependent Flexural Crack Width Prediction of Concrete

Beams Prestressed with CFRP tendons
P.X.W. Zou and S.T. Smith
1023
STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING
Multiscale Reinforcement Concept for Employment of Carbon
Fiber Woven Mesh
K. Yamada, S. Ishiyama, H. Mihashi and K. Kirikoshi
1037
Woven Composite Fabric to Strengthen Structurally Deficient

RC Beams
H.Y. Leung, R.V. Balendran and T. Maqsood
1047
XX
Calibration of Partial Safety Coefficients for FRP Strengthening

G. Monti and S. Santini
1057
Comparison between FRP Rebar, FRP Grid and Steel Rebar

Reinforced Concrete Beams
M. Ozel, L.C. Bank, D. Arora, O. Gonenc, D. Gremel,
B. Nelson and D. McMonigal
1067
Concrete Beams Strengthened with Pre-Stressed Near Surface

Mounted Reinforcement
H. Nordin and B. Talj sten
1077
Strengthening of One-Way RC Slabs with Openings using

CFRP Systems
H.D. Zhao and K.H. Tan
1087
Experimental Results of One-Way RC Slabs with Openings

Strengthened with CFRP Composites
P. Casadei, T.J. Ibell and A. Nanni
1097
Seismic Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beam-Column Joint

Strengthened with GFRP
Y. Ouyang, X.L. Gu, Y.H. Huang and Z.Z. Qian
1107
FRP Seismic Strengthening of Columns in Frames

M.A. Ciupala, K. Pilakoutas and N. Taranu
1117
Retrofitting of Shear Walls Designed to BS8110 for Seismic

Loads using FRP
K.H. Kong, K.H. Tan and T. Balendra
1127
Strengthening of Interior Slab-Column Connections with CFRP

Strips
K. Soudki, T. Van Zwol and R. Sherping
1137
Effectiveness of FRP Plate Strengthening on Curved Soffits

A.D. Porter, S.R. Denton, A. Nanni and T.J. Ibell
1147
XXI
Strengthening Performance of FRP Sheets Bonded to Concrete

Tunnel Linings
Z. Wu, W. He, J. Yin, Y. Kojima and T. Asakura
1157
Strengthening of Concrete Structures in Torsion

with FRP
B.Taljsten
1167
FE Modelling of FRP-Repaired RC Plane Stress Elements

N. Khomwan and S.J. Foster
1177
APPLICATIONS IN MASONRY AND STEEL STRUCTURES

Blast Resistance of Prototype In-Built Masonry Walls
Strengthened with FRP Systems (Honourable Mention)
M.K.H. Patoary and K.H. Tan
1189
Retrofit Techniques using Polymers and FRPs for Preventing

Injurious Wall Debris
J.E. Crawford and K.B. Morrill
1199
Experimental Behaviour of Masonry Panels Strengthened with

FRP Sheets
G. Marcari, G. Manfredi and M. Pecce
1209
Flexural Strengthening of URM Walls with FRP Systems

V. Turco, N. Galati, J.G. Tumialan and A. Nanni
1219
Shear Strengthening of URM Clay Walls with FRP Systems

S. Grando, M.R. Valluzzi, J. G. Tumialan and A. Nanni
1229
Effect of FRP Mesh Reinforcement on Shear Capacity and

Deformability of Masonry Walls
S. Russo, R. Gottardo and D. Codato
1239
Strengthening of Masonry Structures under Compressive Loads

by using FRP Strips
M.R. Valluzzi, D. Tinazzi and C. Modena
1249
Seismic Behaviour of Masonry Structural Walls Strengthened

with CFRP Plates
X.L. Gu, Y. Ouyang, W.P. Zhang and F.F. Ye
1259
Advanced Composite Materials for the Repair of Steel

Structures
A.H. Al-Saidy, T.J. Wipf and F.W. Klaiber
1269
FIELD APPLICATIONS AND CASE STUDIES

Construction and Evaluation of Full-Scale CFRP Prestressed
Concrete DT-Girder
N.F. Grace and G. A. Sayed
1281
Flexural Behaviour of Bridge Deck Slabs Reinforced with FRP

Composite Bars
E.F. El-Salakawy, C. Kassem and B. Benmokrane
1291
Details and Specifications for a Bridge Deck with FRP

Framework, Grid and Rebar
L.C Bank, M.G. Oliva, J.S. Russell, D.A. Dieter,
J.S. Dietsche, R.A. Hill, B. Gallagher, J.W. Carter,
S. Woods and A.H. Anderson
1301
Construction, Testing and Monitoring of FRP RC Bridges in

North America
B. Benmokrane, E.F. El-Salakawy, G. Desgagne and
T. Lackey
1311
Strengthening of Concrete Structures with Prestressed and

Gradually Anchored CFRP Strips {Best Paper - Application)
I. Stoecklin and U. Meier
1321
Strengthening of Concrete Bridges with Carbon Cables and

Strips
T.Keller
1331
New Corrosion-Free Concrete Bridge Barriers Reinforced with

GFRP Composite Bars
E.F. El-Salakawy, R. Masmoudi, B. Benmokrane,
F. Briere and G. Desgagne
1341
XXIII
Strengthening of Steel Silos with Post-Tensioned CFRP

Laminates
L. De Lorenzis, F. Micelli and A. La Tegola
1351
Seismic Performance Improvement of the Bell Tower in Serra

S. Quirico by Composites
E. Cosenza, I. Iervolino and E. Guglielmo
1361
Strengthening with CFRP under Simulated Live Loads

A. Hejll, A. Carolin and B. Taljsten
1371
Composite Structural Systems - From Characterization to Field

Implementation
V.M. Karbhari, H. Guan and L. Zhao
1381
Optimal Cost Design for Beams Prestressed with FRP Tendons

I. Balafas and C.J. Burgoyne
1391
FRP in Civil Engineering in China: Research and Applications

L.P. Ye, P. Feng, K. Zhang, L. Lin, W.H. Hong, Q.R. Yue,
N. Zhang and T. Yang
1401
CODES AND STANDARDS

Design Concepts of the New Swiss Code on Externally Bonded
Reinforcement
T. Vogel and T. Ulaga
1415
Design Guideline for CFRP Strengthening of Concrete

Structures
B. Taljsten
1425
Design Practice of Framed Building Structure Based on AIJ

Design Guideline 2002
K. Kobayashi, H. Fukuyama, T. Fujisaki, S. Fukai and
T. Kanakubo
1435
XXIV
Evaluations of Continuous Fiber Reinforced RC Members

based on AIJ Design Guildeline 2002
K. Nakano. Y. Matsuzaki., T. Kaku and K. Masuo
1445
Design Procedure of NSM FRP Reinforcement for

Strengthening of RC Beams
L. De Lorenzis and A. Nanni
1455
Durability and Maintenance

World Scientific Publishing Company
RESEARCH ON STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF GFRP

RODS FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TENDONS
M. SUGIYAMA
ARG Development Department, Nippon Electric Glass Co.,Ltd.
906 Ima, Notogawa, Kanzaki, Shiga, Japan
T. UOMOTO
Institute of Industrial Science, University of Tokyo
4-6-IKomaba, Meguro, Tokyo, Japan
Many concrete structures affected by chloride ions have been deteriorated
remarkably due to the corrosion of steel bars embedded in concrete
structures. This problem occurs not only in Japan but also in other countries.
The deterioration of concrete structures located at the coast and bridges
spread with de-icing salt is a big concern. To deal with the problem of
prestressed concrete structures constructed under environment of chlorideinduced corrosion, many attempts were performed to utilize cathodic
protection, epoxy coated reinforcing steel etc. Among many attempts,
utilization of fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) was evaluated as a good
method to deal with the problem drastically, because it does not corrode in
a chloride environment. In Japan, many researches have been performed to
utilize FRP rods as concrete reinforcement, especially for prestressed
tendons since 1980. Many researches have been reported on strength and
durability of FRP rods made of glass fiber, aramid fiber, and carbon fiber.
In this study, ultimate goal is that glass fiber reinforced plastics (GFRP)
rods are utilized as prestressed concrete tendons. Regarding GFRP rods
made of new glass fiber, physical properties and durability were
investigated.
INTRODUCTION
There is a high possibility of the utilization of FRP rods in the field of
concrete. They have characteristics such as high strength, high corrosion
resistance, light weight and non-magnetic property. However, in the case of
GFRP rods, alkali resistance, cyclic fatigue properties, and static fatigue
properties were inferior to AFRP rods, CFRP rods; hence there were many
problems in the practical application.
728 FRPRCS-6: Durability and Maintenance

In this study, GFRP rods made of conventional glass fiber (T type) and
new glass fiber (New type) were used. The strength and durability of GFRP
rods were investigated. In particular, cyclic fatigue properties, static fatigue
properties to be considered important items in the case of tendons were
evaluated.
OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS
The composition of glass fibers (T type, New type) is shown in Table 1. The
new type has Ti, Zr in its composition. Also, vinyl ester resin was used as
matrix. The properties of resin are shown in Table 2. The tested GFRP rods
are round bar, one-dimensionally reinforced rods with fiber content of 66%
by volume and the rods are 6 mm in diameter, and 40 cm in length. The rods
were gripped using two conical steel wedges, which were developed by
Kobayashi1^ To ensure sufficient gripping, the ends of rods were coated
with a mixture of unsaturated polyester resin and iron powder.
Table 1. Composition of glass fibers
Si02
Al203
MgO
CaO
BaO
Ti02
Zr02
others
T type
65
24
10
New type
44
16
10
12
Table 2. Properties of resin
Average
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
83.2
Elastic Modulus
(MPa)
3048
Maximum Strain
(%)
5.22
S.D.
1.13
36.3
0.11
C.ofV.
0.014
0.012
0.021
The tensile tests were performed using displacement control type

autograph (98kN) at room temperature(205C). The cross head speed of
the autograph was kept to 5 mm/min and the number of tests for each case
was fixed at 100.
The cyclic fatigue tests were performed using load control type
servopulser (98kN) at room temperature (20 5 C). Maximum stress
Strength and Durability of GFRP Rods 729

(upper stress) in the cyclic fatigue tests was set from 30% to 80% of static
tensile strength. Stress amplitude was varied as 50, 100, 250, 500 MPa,
frequency was set from 1 to 10 Hz and the number of tests for each case was
fixed at 8.
The static fatigue tests were performed using load control type
servopulser (98kN) at room temperature (205C). Sustained tensile load
in the static fatigue tests was set from 70% to 95% of static tensile strength.
The number of tests for each case was fixed at 8.
Tensile tests
Table 3 shows the average, standard deviation (S.D.), and coefficient of
variation (C. of V.) of tensile strength and elastic modulus of GFRP rods. It
is clear that the tensile strength of GFRP rods made of New type is low
compared with that of GFRP rods made of T type and elastic modulus of the
two types is almost the same.
Table 3. Properties of GFRP rods
Type
T type
New type
Tensile Strength
Average
1735
1192
(MPa)
S.D.
119.6
73.1
C.ofV.
0.069
0.061
Elastic Modulus
Average
59035
58839
(MPa)
S.D.
992
462
C.ofV.
0.017
0.008
Table 4 shows the average, standard deviation (S.D.), coefficient of

variation (C. of V.) of tensile strength and elastic modulus of glass fibers.
The tensile tests were performed using displacement control type autograph
(49N) in accordance with JIS R-7601. The cross head speed of the
autograph was kept to 2 mm/min and the number of tests for each case was
fixed at 50. It is clear from Table 4 that tensile strength of New type is low
compared with that of T type. It is because the New type has low Si content
in glass composition compared with T type.
Table 4. Properties of glass fibers(monofilament)
Type
T type
New type
Tensile Strength
Average
2460
2044
(MPa)
S.D.
853
497
C.ofV.
0.347
0.243
Elastic Modulus
Average
83780
86091
(MPa)
S.D.
15964
21063
C.ofV.
0.191
0.245
Usually, in the case of composite materials such as FRP, the law of

mixtures can be applied as shown in Equation (1), (2).
E = EjVf+Em{\ - Vf)
a=afVf+am{\-Vj)
(1)
(2)
in which E = elastic modulus of rods, Ef= elastic modulus of fiber, Em =

elastic modulus of matrix, a = tensile strength of rods, aj = tensile
strength of fiber, am = tensile strength of matrix, and Vf = fiber volume
fraction. The tensile strength and elastic modulus of matrix are very low
compared with those of fiber, hence one can neglect the matrix in the
calculation as shown in Equation (3), (4)
E = EfVf
a F ajVf
(3)
(4)
Table 5 shows the experimental values and the calculated values for
GFRP rods and their ratios. The experimental values are 0.88 to 1.07 that of
calculated values; hence, the tensile strength and elastic modulus of GFRP
rods can be obtained using the law of mixtures.

Table 5. Comparison of experimental values and calculated values
Type
T type
New type
Tensile Strength
Experimental (1)
1735
1192
(MPa)
Calculated (2)
1624
1349
(l)/(2)
1.07
0.88
Elastic Modulus
Experimental (1)
59035
58839
(MPa)
Calculated (2)
55295
56820
(l)/(2)
1.07
1.04
Cyclic fatigue tests

The result of cyclic fatigue test (New type, stress amplitude: lOOMPa) is
shown in Figure 1. The number of cycles at fatigue failure varied with the
same stress ratio, hence, average number of cycles of 8 specimens was
defined as the number of cycles at fatigue failure.
80
70
rf
H. LXJT"
60
2 50
hti K
^V-S-lJ
1 40
H 30
on
,\iJ&iiii
20
10
i I i iiii
L_L
i i .111-i ill.
i ! i;.,!
0
l.E+01 l.E+02 l.E+03 l.E+04 l.E+05 l.E+06
Number of cycles at fatigue failure
Figure 1. Result of cyclic fatigue test (New type, stress amplitude: lOOMPa)
Figure 2 shows the relation between the stress amplitude and the
number of cycles at fatigue failure of GFRP rods. The maximum stress was
set 30%, 50%, 70% of static tensile strength and the stress amplitude varied
from 50 MPa to 500 MPa for each condition. The tests were performed up
to 4 million cycles. In Figure 2, N30%, N50%, N70% represent 30%, 50%,
70% stress ratio using GFRP rods made of New type respectively, T30%,
T50%, T70% represent 30%, 50%, 70% stress ratio using GFRP rods made
of T type respectively.
As the maximum stress or stress amplitude increases, the number of
cycles at fatigue failure reduces. In the case of 30% stress ratio, the number
of cycles at fatigue failure is almost same in both rods. However, in the case
of 50% and 70% stress ratio, the number of cycles at fatigue failure of
GFRP rods made of New type increases compared with that of T type. In
particular, in the case of 70% stress ratio, there is a difference of 1 order or
more.
N30% N 5 0 % * N 7 0 %
- - O - - T30% - - a - -T50% - - -A - -T70%
1000
PL,
T3
S 100
D-
B
a
in
in
<D
-t-
C/3
10
l.E+01 l.E+02 l.E+03 l.E+04 l.E+05 l.E+06 l.E+07

Figure 2. Relation between stress amplitude and number of cycles at fatigue failure
Figure 3 shows the relation between the stress ratio and the number of
cycles at fatigue failure of GFRP rods at each stress amplitude. As the stress
ratio increases, the number of cycles at fatigue failure reduces rectilinearly.

Regarding the reduction rate of number of cycles at fatigue failure with the
increase of stress ratio, GFRP rods made of New type is small compared
with T type.
V}
<D
i-H
-t
l.E+01 l.E+02 I.E+03 l.E+04 l.E+05 l.E+06 l.E+07

Figure 3. Relation between stress ratio and number of cycles at fatigue failure
Static fatigue tests
The result of static fatigue test (New type) is shown in Figure 4. The
duration time varied with the same stress ratio, hence the average duration
time of 8 specimens was defined as the duration time to failure.
Figure 5 shows the relation between stress ratio and duration time. The
results of AFRP rods and CFRP rods were quoted from the results of
Uomoto et al2. The static fatigue behavior of AFRP rods and GFRP(T) rods
(made of T type) is almost the same. For GFRP(N) rods (made of New type),
the time of static fatigue fracture at the same stress ratio is longer compared
with AFRP rods and GFRP(T) rods. In the case of CFRP rods, static fatigue
fracture does not occur within 400 hours when the load is below 95% of
static tensile strength.

100
^fti^fPr^liU--
<tEii<
80
W::::::M-)':Wj|iv
.
60
"
40
.
20
:
0
l.E-03 l.E-02 l.E-01 1.E+00 l.E+01 l.E+02 l.E+03
Duration time(hr)
Figure 4. Result of static fatigue test (New type)
GFRP(T)
GFRP(N)
AAFRP
BCFRP
120
100
C? 80
2
: ::::::
+rr.
60
T!t?i
1 :; i
CO
<U
40
- ! i ii
20
', !!!!!!
0
0.01
0.1
1
10
Duration time(hr)
100
1000
Figure 5. Relation between stress ratio and duration time
Strength and Durability ofGFRP Rods 735

Regression analysis gives the relation between the stress ratio and
duration time after 0.01 hours to 1000 hours as follows:
GFRP(T)
GFRP(N)
AFRP
CFRP
:
:
:
:
7=79.2 7 = 88.4 7=79.8 7 = 102 -
8.29
4.14
5.67
1.91
X
X
X
X
hgT
hgT
logT
hgT
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
in which, 7 : stress ratio, and T: duration time(hours).

The coefficients of correlation for GFRP(T) rods, GFRP(N) rods,
AFRP rods and CFRP rods are -0.98, -0.95, -0.99 and -0.91 respectively;
thus all FRP rods exhibit good correlation. Using Eqs.(5), (6), (7) and (8),
the estimated static fatigue fracture limits after 100 years are 30.0%, 63.8%,
46.1% and 91.1% for GFRP(T) rods, GFRP(N) rods, AFRP rods and CFRP
rods respectively. The values of limit applied stress (limit stress ratio) vary
with the types of fibers considerably. Also, in the case of GFRP rods, the
values of limit applied stress (limit stress ratio) vary with the kind of glass
fiber. The static fatigue properties of GFRP rods made of New type are
superior to those of T type. The difference of glass composition and the
difference of glass / matrix interface can be considered as the reason. The
surface of New type is coated with silane coupling agent and polyester resin
that has good compatibility with the matrix. The silane coupling agent is
chemically and physically adsorbed on the surface of glass fiber; the
polyester resin covers the silane coupling agent and there is a formation of
interface, as shown in Figure 6. It is assumed that good formation of glass /
matrix interface is related to the improvement of the static fatigue properties.
Silane coupling agent
Matrix
Polyester resin
Figure 6. Schematic representation of glass / matrix interface
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) Tensile strength of GFRP rods made of New type is low compared with
that of T type, and is related to the tensile strength of glass fibers.
Tensile strength and elastic modulus of GFRP rods can be obtained
using the law of mixtures.
(2) Number of cycles at fatigue failure of GFRP rods is affected by mean
stress and stress amplitude. Number of cycles at fatigue failure reduces
in proportion to the increase in mean stress and stress amplitude. In the
case of 70% stress ratio, the number of cycles at fatigue failure of GFRP
rods made of New type fibers increases 1 order or more compared with
that of T type.
(3) Stress ratio is proportional to duration time in logarithm scale under
static fatigue tests; however, the gradient varies with the kind of fibers.
The gradient of GFRP rods made of New type is small compared with
that of T type and New type has good the static fatigue properties. One
of the reasons, is due to the formation of effective glass/matrix interface.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Mr. Tsugio Nishimura (Tokyo University) for his
cooperation in performing this study, and Mr Toshinobu Yamaguchi
(Kagoshima University) for his cooperation in performing the tensile tests
of fiber.
REFERENCES
1. K.Kobayashi, "Anchors for fiber reinforced plastic tendons for
prestressed concrete", Seiken leaflet, no. 158, 1987
2. T. Nishimura and T. Uomoto, "The fundamental, research on static
fatigue fracture of FRP rods", Annual meeting ofJCI, Japan, Vol.17, pp.
547-550, 1995

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE BEAMS REINFORCED WITH

GFRP BARS UNDER DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL AND
LOADING CONDITIONS
K. LAOUBI, E. F. EL-SALAKAWY AND B. BENMOKRANE
NSERC Chair, ISIS Canada, Dept. ofCivil Engrg
Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1K2R1, Canada
M. PIGEON
Dept. of Civil Engrg, Universite de Laval, Quebec G1K 7P4, Canada
This paper presents the test results of 14 concrete beams reinforced with
two types of glass FRP composite bars: Sand-coated and Ribbed-deformed
bars. The beams are 1800 mm long with a rectangular cross-section of
130-mm width and 180-mm depth. The individual and coupled effects of
freeze/thaw cycles and sustained bending stresses on the long-term
behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with GFRP composite bars were
investigated. The beams were exposed to 100 freeze/thaw cycles (-20 C
to +20 C) either in an unstressed state or loaded in bending to 1.4 times of
its cracking moment, which represents 23% to 27% of the GFRP bare bar
ultimate tensile strength. The conditioned specimens were tested up to
failure in a four-point bending set-up over a clear span of 1500 mm. The
test results showed that no significant effect for the coupled action of
freeze/thaw cycles and sustained bending stresses on the behaviour of the
tested beams.
INTRODUCTION
The research on the durability of FRP composite materials is of great
importance to establish their potential using in the field of construction.
The results of several studies1"6 showed variety of factors, which can
influence the durability of FRP materials as reinforcement for concrete
structures. The FRP can be damaged under certain physical (fatigue, creep,
diffusion of humidity, extreme variation of the temperature) or chemical
(alkaline environment) conditions. Freeze/thaw degradation is among the
most important factors affecting cracked concrete members taking into
account the fact that concrete is a permeable material. Thus, water could
potentially accumulate at the FRP-concrete interface. As temperatures drop

below freezing, the water will expand and as it crystallizes, it could
potentially induce forces that will damage the bond between the FRP and
concrete. In addition, the behaviour of concrete members under sustained
loading changes with time due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete. The
gradual development of creep strain in a beam causes an increase in
curvature and beam deflection. As in service conditions, the concrete
members can be subjected to freeze/thaw and sustained load (dead load plus
portion of live loads) simultaneously. The coupled effects of both
conditions are also of great concern. Very limited experimental and
analytical data is available on the effects of cold temperature or freeze/thaw
action on concrete members reinforced with FRP bars7. Virtually no work
has been done on the combined effects of freeze/thaw cycles and sustained
load action on concrete members reinforced with FRP bars.
An extensive research program investigating the individual and coupled
long-term effect of sustained loads and freeze/thaw cycles on the flexural
behaviour of concrete beams reinforced with different types of carbon and
glass FRP bars is currently in progress at the Civil Engineering Department,
Universite de Sherbrooke. The research program is carried out on 50
concrete beams reinforced with different types of FRP bars, which was
carried out in three phases based on the number of freeze/thaw cycles (100,
200, and 300 cycles). The first two phases have been completed. While,
the third phase (300 freeze/thaw cycles) is still in progress. This paper
presents the results of phase I (100 freeze/thaw cycles). The results of phase
II (200 freeze/thaw cycles) can be found elsewhere 8.
In phase I of the research program, a total of 14 concrete beams reinforced
with glass FRP bars were constructed and cured in laboratory environment
for at least 28 days before conditioning. After reaching the specified
number of freeze/thaw cycles, beam specimens were allowed ample time to
dry out before being tested in flexure to failure.
Durability of Concrete Beams with GFRP Bars 739
Test Specimens
The beams are 1800 mm long, 130-mm wide, and 180-mm deep as shown
in Fig. 1. The test parameters are the type of GFRP reinforcing bars,
freeze/thaw cycles, and sustained load. The specimens were divided into
two series. Series I included 7 beams reinforced with GFRP sand-coated
bars9. Series II included 7 beams reinforced with GFRP ribbed-deformed 10
bars. For each series, two identical beams were subjected to freeze/thaw
cycles, sustained loads or the combined effect of both freeze/thaw cycles
and sustained loads. One concrete beam was used as control for each series.
The bottom reinforcement of the beams consists of two No. 10 GFRP bars
(db = 9.5 and 9.0 mm for sand-coated and ribbed-deformed rods,
respectively). This gives an actual reinforcement ratio of 0.73% and 0.65%
for beams of Series I and Series II, respectively. For all beams, 10-mm
diameter smooth steel bars (db = 10 mm - A = 78.5 mm2) were used as top
reinforcement and stirrups (Fig. 1).
Steel bars
0 1 0 mm
O 10 mm @ 75 mm
z1
\l 1
1 1
y \
11
201
2J^_
*.
20^
>
130
GFRP
bars
Fig. 1. Concrete dimension and reinforcing details for the tested beams
Table 1 shows the details of the test specimens. The designation of the
specimens can be explained as follows. BG refers to beam reinforced with
glass FRP bars, IS or CB refers to sand-coated or ribbed-deformed, S refers
to sustained load, FT refers to freeze/thaw and the 0 refers to the control
beams.
Material Properties
The beams were constructed using normal-weight concrete with an average
28-day concrete compressive strength of 40 MPa. The properties of the two
different types of GFRP bars (sand-coated and ribbed-deformed) used in
reinforcing the beams are listed in Table 2.

Table 1. Details of the test specimens
Beams
designation
GFRP
Bars*
BG-IS-01
BG-IS-S1
BG-IS-S2
BG-IS-FTl
BG-IS-FT2
BG-IS-SFT1
BG-IS-SFT2
Sandcoated
(2x71mm2
No load
Sustained load
Ribbeddeformed
(2 x 64mm2
1-44
Environmental condition
Number of
Temp.
cycles
Room
0
Temperature
Room
0
Temperature
No load
Freeze/Thaw
100
Sustained load
Freeze/Thaw
100
No load
BG-CB-01
BG-CB-Sl
BG-CB-S2
BG-CB-FT1
BG-CB-FT2
BG-CBSFT1
BG-CBSFT2
p/h
Loading
condition
Sustained load
Room
Temperature
Room
Temperature
0
0
No load
Freeze/Thaw
100
Sustained load
Freeze/Thaw
100
pfb)
is the balanced GFRP reinforcement ratio

Table 2. Properl ies of Glass FRP bars
Tensile
Modulus of
Bar
Strength
Diameter
Elasticity
(GPa)
(MPa)
(mm)
GFRP Bar
Sand-coated
Ribbeddeformed
l0
Ultimate
strain
(%)
9.5
627 22
35 2
1.8
9.0
846 48
39 1
2.1
Instrumentation
For each beam, a total of 2 (5-mm long) and 5 (80-mm long) electrical
resistance strain gauges were used to measure strains in GFRP reinforcing
bars and in concrete, respectively. For GFRP bars, strains were measured at
the mid-span of the two bottom bars, while for concrete the strains were
measured in two locations: at mid-span and at 200 mm from mid-span as
shown in Fig. 2a. During conditioning of the specimens (under individual
and coupled effect of sustained load and freeze/thaw cycles), dial gauges
and 0.005-mm accuracy microscope were used to measure changes in midspan deflections and crack widths, if there were any, respectively. During
flexural tests, the dial gauges and the microscope were replaced with
LVDTs at mid-span and at the location of the first two cracks (Fig. 2b).
(a) Concrete strain gauges

(b) LVDT's for deflection and crack width
Fig. 2. External Instrumentation
Sustaimed Loading
In. this study, a new loading system for maintaining the concrete beam
specimens under constant load (bending stresses) has been developed and
fabricated at Universite de Sherbrooke. More details about this loading
system can be found elsewhere8. The sustained loads were applied through
four-point bending over a clear span of 1.50 m. A sustained moment, Msus,
of 3.70 kN.m, which is equivalent to 1.4 times the theoretical cracking
moment of the beam specimens (Mcr = 2.66 kN.m) was used. This sustained
load caused an initial strain of approximately 4900 fie, which is 23% and
27% of the sand-coated and ribbed-deformed bare bar ultimate tensile
strain, respectively. For the 14 beams under consideration, two sustained
loading systems, with 4 beams each, were used. The first loading system
was inserted inside the environmental chamber for freeze/thaw cycles (BGIS-SFT1, BG-IS-SFT2, BG-CB-8FI1, and BG-CB-SFT2). The second loading
system was kept in the laboratory at room temperature (BG-IS-S1, BG-IS-S2,
BG-CB-S1, and BG-CB-S2) for the same duration as that of their companions
subjected to freeze/thaw cycles (50 days for 100 freeze/thaw cycles).
Freeze-thaw Cycling
Freeze/thaw cycling were performed at the environmental laboratory of the
Civil Engineering Department at the Universite de Sherbrooke. A 3.7 m x

2.6 m environmentally controlled room accommodated two loading systems
with 4 beam specimens each as shown in Fig. 3. The relative humidity was
kept constant at 50% during all freeze/thaw cycles. During the freezing
process, the lower bound was set to -20 C for 6 hours. During the thaw
process, the temperature was raised to + 20 C for 6 hours. The freeze/thaw
procedure was carried out with heating and cool-down ramps (Fig. 4).
j~^l p
vj
0
Fig. 3. Beams under sustained load and

freeze/thaw cycles
r~
12 18 24
Time (hours)
Fig. 4. Ramp rate for temperature change
Flexure Test Set-up and Procedure

After reaching the 100 freeze/thaw cycles (50 days), the conditioned
specimens were allowed to dry out at room temperature for three days. Then,
all beams were tested under four-point bending over a simply supported clear
span of 1.50 m, which is identical to the sustained loading set-up. The load
was applied at a load-controlled rate of 2 kN/min to achieve failure in 25 to
30 minutes. Figures 5 and 6 show a photo and a schematic drawing for the
test set-up, respectively.
P/2
500
P/2
500
500
I Strain gauges
Deflection LVDT
Fig. 5. Test set-up
1500
^50
Fig. 6. Schematic drawing for the test set-up

The present results will focus on deflection characteristics, ultimate moment
capacity, and mode failure. The full results will be presented in a future
publication of the authors.
Conditioning
Figure 7 shows the typical mid-span deflection and strains in FRP bars
versus time, respectively, for beams under sustained loads (beam BG-IS-S1).
It can be noted from Figure 7a that the mid-span deflection increased by only
2% during the first 4 weeks and remained constant thereafter (for 3 weeks).
However, the maximum measured strain in the GFRP bars was increased by
2.6% through the first 2 weeks and remained constant for the following 2
weeks and then dropped down to approximately the initial value (when the
sustained load was first applied) as shown in Figure 7b. Very similar
deflection behaviour for beams subjected to the combined effect of sustained
loads and freeze/thaw cycles was obtained.
^
|
~
|
~ 5400
c
12 5
12.3
12.1
11.9
11.7
11.5
0.00
E 5200
*++++2.00 4.00 6.00

Time (weeks)
5000
4800
E
~ 4600
8.00 COT44000.00
M -
2.00
4.00
6.00
Time (weeks)
8.00
(a) Change in deflection

(b) Change in strain
Fig. 7. Typical change in deflection and tensile strains in GFRP bars under
sustained load (Specimen BG-IS-S1)
Flexure Test Results
In the following discussion, to define a reference for comparison purpose the
service load of the beam is considered as approximately 50 % of the average
ultimate load of the control beams (Pser = 28.9 kN - Mser = 7.2 kN.m). Table
3 gives a summary of the test results.
744
FRPRCS-6: Durability and Maintenance

Ultimate moment
Beams
M
(kN.m)
Change
(%)
Max Deflection at
service
S
(mm)
Change
(%)
BG-IS01
12.68
13.94
BG-IS12.71
13.55
-2.8
Sl
BG-IS12.72
S2
13.20
-5.3
Series BG-IS12.09
I
FT1
14.70
5.5
BG-IS12.59
FT2
14.66
5.2
BG-IS12.67
SFT2
13.56
-2.7
BG-IS12.29
SFT1
13.79
-1.1
BG11.14
CB01
14.83
BGCB10.54
SI
13.99
-5.7
BGCB10.65
S2
14.58
-1.7
Series BGCB10.70
FT1
15.08
1.7
BGCB10.38
FT2
14.88
0.3
BGCB11.76
SFT1
14.08
-5.1
BGCB11.31
SFT2
14.10
-4.9
* T = Tension failure. C = Compression failure
0.2
0.3
-4.7
-0.1
-0.1
-3.1
Max strain in
FRP (%)
Ser-
Failure
0.67
1.71
0.7
1.67
0.69
1.71
0.65
1.62
0.73
1.63
0.72
1.71
0.64
1.70
0.66
1.47
0.52
1.53
0.50
1.39
0.54
1.31
0.51
1.28
0.52
1.32
0.51
1.42
-5.4
-Â
-3.9
-j>
5.6
1.5
Mode of
Failure
Figure 8a shows load-deflection relationships for beams conditioned under

sustained loads compared to those of their control ones. The stressed beams,
BG-IS-S1 and BG-CB-S1 showed lower initial stiffness than the
corresponding control beams. Thus due to the initial pre-cracking of these
two beams under sustained load. However, with increasing the load above
approximately twice the cracking load, the stressed beams showed very
similar stiffness to those of their control. The average decrease in ultimate
capacity was 4.1% and 3.7% for beams reinforced with sand-coated and
ribbed-deformed bars, respectively. However, at service load limit, the midspan deflection increased by 0.3% and decreased by 3.7%, respectively.
10 15 20 25 30 35
Deflection (mm)
10
15
20
25
30
35
Deflection (mm)
(a) Sustained load at room temperature

(b) Freeze-thaw cycles
Figure 8. Beams subjected to individual conditioning
Figure 8b shows load-deflection relationships for beams conditioned
under freeze/thaw cycles compared to those of their control ones. Similar
deflection behaviour was obtained for the four beams through the load
history. However, the average increase in ultimate capacity was 5.3% and
0.3%o for beams reinforced with sand-coated and ribbed-deformed bars,
respectively. This can be attributed to an increase in concrete strength during
conditioning (50%> humidity). While, at service load limit, the mid-span
deflection decreased by 2.3% and 5.4%, respectively.
Figure 9 shows load-deflection relationships for beams conditioned under
the coupled effect of sustained loads and freeze/thaw cycles compared to
those of their control beams. Similar behaviour for the stressed beams, BGIS-SFT1, and BG-CB-SFT1 with lower initial stiffness, as they were precracked. However, with increasing the load above approximately 1.5 times
the cracking load, the stressed beams showed very similar stiffness to those
of their control. The average decrease in ultimate capacity was 1.9% and
5.0% for beams reinforced with sand-coated and ribbed-deformed bars,
respectively. While, at service load limit, the mid-span deflection decreased
by 1.6% and increased by 3.5%, respectively.
under sustained load andfreeze-thawcycles
Figure 10. Modes of failure
All beams reinforced with sand-coated bars (Series I) failed in tension by

rupture of GFRP bars. While, all beams reinforced with ribbed-deformed
bars (Series II) failed by crushing of concrete. Figure 11 shows typical
modes of failure. Strains in GFRP bars at service as well as at failure are
also listed in Table 3. At failure, for beams of Series I, strains in GFRP bars
reached the proximity of the ultimate strain (1.8%). These strains were about
60 to 75% of the ultimate strain for beams of Series II (2.1%).
CONCLUSIONS
A total of 14 concrete beams reinforced with two types of GFRP bars were
conditioned under the individual and coupled effect of sustained loads and
100 freeze/thaw cycles, and then tested to failure. The change in the overall
behaviour in terms of deflection, ultimate capacity, and mode of failure, for
the tested beams after conditioning compared to unconditioned control beams
was very small ( 6%) and can be considered insignificant. However, the
small increase in the capacity of beams subjected to the individual effect of
freeze/thaw cycles may be due to the increase in concrete strength as a result

of better curing.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge the financial support from Natural Science and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), Pultrall Inc. (Thetford
Mines, Quebec, Canada), Marshall Industries Composites Inc. (Lima, Ohio,
USA), the Network of Centres of Excellence ISIS-Canada, and the
Universite de Sherbrooke.
REFERENCES
1. Benmokrane, B. and El-Salakawy, E. (Editors), "Durability of Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction", Proceedings of
the Second International Conference (CDCC 02), Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, May 29-31, 2002, 715 p.
2. Benmokrane, B. and Rahman, H. (Editors), "Durability of Fibre
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction." Proceedings of
the First International Conference (CDCC 98), Sherbrooke, Quebec,
Canada, August 5-7, 1998, 692 p.
3. Neale, K. W. and Labossiere, P. (Editors), "Advanced Composite
Materials in Bridges and Structures," Proceeding of the First International
Conference, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada, 1992.
4. GangaRao, H. V. and Vijay, P. V., "Design of Concrete Members
Reinforced with GFRP bars", Proceedings of the 3 rd International
Symposium on the Use of Non-Metalic FRP Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures, Vol. 1, 1997, pp. 143-150.
5. Saadatmanesh, H. and Tannous, F. E., "Durability of FRP and Tendons",
the 3 rd International Sym. on Non-Metallic Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures, Japan, Vol. 2, 1997, pp. 147-154.
6. Porter, M. L., Mehus, J., Young, K. A., Barnes, B. A., and O'Neil, E. F.,
"Aging Degradation of Fiber Composite Reinforcements for Structural
Concrete", 2nd International Conference on Composites in Infrastructure,
ICCI'96, Tucson, AZ, 1996, pp. 641-647.
7. GangaRao, H., and Kumar, S., "Design and Fatigue Response of Concrete
Bridge decks Reinforced with FRP Rebars", Proceedings of the 2nd
International Symposium: Non-metallic FRP Reinforcement for Concrete

Structures, Ghent, Belgium, August, 1995, pp.663-671.
8. Laoubi, K., El-Salakawy, E., Pigeon, M., and Benmokrane, B.,
"Behaviour of Concrete Beams Reinforced with GFRP Bars under
Sustained Load and Freeze/Thaw Cycles", Proceedings, 2nd International
Conference on Durability of FRP Composites for Construction,
Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002, pp. 453-464.
9. Pultrall Inc., "ISOROD Composite Reinforcing Bars", Technical Sheets,
Thetford Mines, Quebec, Canada, 2000.
10. Marshall Industries Composites Inc., "C-BAR Reinforcing Rods for
Concrete Reinforcement", Technical Sheets, Lima, Ohio, USA, 2000.

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON RC BEAMS WITH

NEAR SURFACE MOUNTED FRP RODS
F. MICELLI AND A. LA TEGOLA
Innovation Engineering Dept., University ofLecce
Via per Monteroni, 73100 Lecce- ITALY
J. J. MYERS
University of Missouri - Rolla, Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies
325 Butler-Carlton Hall, Rolla, MO 65409
A new strengthening technique has been recently developed using fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) composite rebars bonded with epoxy resins into
grooves that are produced on the concrete surface. These rebars are known as
near surface mounted rods (NSMR). A possible concern with the
implementation of this new technology is the long-term in-service behavior,
since infrastructure applications could meet extreme environmental conditions
that may compromise structural safety. A pilot study related to the
environmental effects on RC beams strengthened with NSMR is presented
herein. Six RC beams were fabricated with internal mild reinforcing steel. The
RC beams were designed with an under reinforced cross section in order to
simulate a situation of insufficient longitudinal steel. Three beams were
strengthened with one glass FRP rod, while the other three were strengthened
with one carbon FRP rod. Four beams were exposed to environmental agents,
including freeze-thaw, high temperature and high relative humidity cycles,
with indirect UV exposure. Two beams were kept in a laboratory environment
at room temperature and were used as control specimens. FRP coupons, the
same used as NSMR, were exposed to the same environmental regimen in
order to investigate possible changes in longitudinal properties. Mechanical
properties of conditioned beams and FRP coupons did not show significant
decrease in comparison with control specimens.
INTRODUCTION
Experimental results suggest that near surface mounted FRP rods (NSMR)
can provide a significant increase in flexural and/or shear strength, as well as
an increase in flexural stiffness when used for flexural purposes1'2'3'4. Since
the technique is inexpensive, rapid to install, and the weight increase or
changes in cross-section geometry are negligible, a wide acceptance to field
applications is expected. A possible hindrance to the successful use of this
technology is the knowledge of long-term behavior of these materials under
various environmental conditions. This paper discusses tests and results of

one of the first durability studies on NSM FRP rods.
The program involved flexural tests on NSMR RC beams, and mechanical
tests on FRP bars. Some of the specimens were subjected to accelerated
aging which simulate environmental conditioning; others were tested as a
control series without any conditioning.
RC NSMR Beams
The RC beams were designed with an under reinforced cross section to
simulate a situation of insufficient longitudinal steel. Steel stirrups were
provided to prevent an undesirable shear failure. All beams were reinforced
on the tension side by 3 steel rebars with diameter of 6 mm and 2 steel
rebars on compression side with the same diameter; the concrete cover was
50 mm. Shear reinforcement was provided in the form of steel stirrups with
diameter of 6 mm spaced at 126 mm designed according to ACI 318-99
code specifications5. A concrete strength of 30 MPa and a yield stress of 620
MPa with elastic modulus equal to 200 GPa for steel reinforcement were
adopted according to manufacturers' specifications. The dimensions of the
beam cross-section are given in Figure 1. Prior to casting of the beams,
formwork was prepared in such a way that a groove at the center of the
tension face of the beam was indented. The groove was 18.5 mm width and
high, running the entire length of the beam.
Three beams were strengthened with one glass FRP (GFRP) rod, while
the other three were strengthened with one carbon FRP (CFRP) rod. In each
case the diameter of FRP rods was 6 mm. The beams were pre-cracked
under single point loading in a universal testing machine to simulate an
existing structure in service prior to strengthening. Four beams were
exposed to environmental agents, including freeze-thaw, high temperature
and high relative humidity cycles, with indirect UV exposure. Two beams
were kept in a laboratory environment at room temperature and were used as
control specimens. A development length of 152 mm in FRP rod was
provided on either ends of the beam to provide end-anchors for improved
bond performance. After the conditioning period, end-anchors were inserted
at the edge of the beams in the form of a steel tube around the FRP rods
filled with epoxy paste.
The beams were loaded under 4-point bending with a span of 838 mm as
shown in Figure 2. Instrumentation included two Linear Variable
RC Beams with Near Surface Mounted FRP Rods 751
Differential Transformers (LVDT) to measure half-span and quarter-span

deflections. The variables examined in the experimental test matrix were
material type of FRP rods. The classification and designation of near surface
mounted rod beams is shown in Table 1.
D = 6mm
Stirrups
D = 6mm
Dimensions in mm
NSM FRP
Rod
D = 6mm
Figure 1. Cross section of RC NSMR beams
FRP Coupons
Tensile tests, according to provisions of ACI 4406, and short beam test
(SBT), according to ASTM D44757, were used to study the changes in
longitudinal and transverse mechanical properties of FRP bars, respectively
after environmental conditioning.
Tensile test specimens were prepared using grouted steel anchors , in
which the pressure developed by an expansive grout was used to grip the
rod. PVC caps and steel washers were used to assure the alignment of the
rod during anchor installation. The total length of CFRP specimens was 152
cm; GFRP specimens had a total length of 122 cm. An electronic
extensometer with 51 mm gage length and 0.025 mm accuracy was mounted
on the center of the test section to measure rod displacement. In total, six
CFRP and nine GFRP tensile specimens were tested.
Even if longitudinal properties are usually used for design, transverse
properties would furnish a measure of potential resin degradation. It must be
noted that the apparent horizontal shear strength measured with the SBT do
not furnish values that can be used for design, but only for comparative
purposes. ASTM D4475 specimens were cut with lengths resulting in a
span/diameter ratio of 3.0 for both types of rods. Ten CFRP and eleven
GFRP SBT specimens were tested. Properties of FRP bars used are detailed
in Table 2.

102 mm
LVDT
152 mm
Anchors
Figure 2. Scheme of experimental set-up for flexural test
Beam
Designation
C-0
C-4-1
C-4-2
G-0
G-4-1
G-4-2
Table 1. Experimental Program

Type ofFRP
Rod Diameter
Number of Combined
Rod
(mm)
Environmental
Cycles
0
Carbon
6.3
Glass
4
Rod
Fibers
CFRP
GFRP
Carbon
Glass E
Table 2. Properties of FRP bars

., ^.
Diameter
Matrix
mm
Epoxy
6.3
Polyester
6.3
Surface
Smooth
Sand coated
Accelerated aging
The beams were conditioned in an environmental chamber for a total period
of 72 days. Four combined cycles were used for accelerated conditioning;
one combined environmental cycle consisted of 50 freeze-thaw cycles
followed by 3 sets of alternate 40 relative humidity cycles and 50 high
temperature cycles. The specimens were exposed totally to 200 freeze-thaw
cycles, 480 humidity cycles and 600 high temperature cycles totally. UV
lamps were switched on during high temperature and relative humidity
cycles. Each freeze-thaw cycle consisted of freezing at -18C for 50 minutes
and thawing at 4 C for 50 minutes. The transition period between freezing
and thawing was 30 minutes. High temperature cycles consisted of
temperature variation between 27 C and 49 C. Relative humidity cycles
were carried out between 80% and 100% at constant temperatures of 16 C
and 27 C. A complete cycle is represented in Figure 3.
All tensile specimens showed elastic behavior and tensile failure by fiber
rupture. This result highlighted the pressure developed by the grout, rod
alignment and anchorage length required to conduct a valid test. A
comparison between the results of unconditioned and conditioned coupons is
reported in Tables 3 and 4. The findings showed that environmental
conditioning did not affect the longitudinal properties and transverse
properties of the FRP bars. A minimal decrease of 7% was observed in the
ultimate strength of GFRP bars; that may be considered in the range of
experimental error. Seven concrete cylinders were tested together with the
beams, four coupons were subjected to the same environmental conditioning
of the beams, while three remained in a laboratory environment. The
compression strength did not show a decrease with an average test value of
29.73 MPa (standard deviation was 1.04 MPa).
Flexural tests of NSMR beams showed different modes of failure;
failure of CFRP beams was due to splitting of epoxy resin at the tension
side, accompanied by imminent concrete crushing at the compression side.
The premature debonding that caused the splitting of epoxy resin cannot
easily be predicted by analytical considerations, therefore the ultimate load
was less than the computed values. A typical sound of resin fracture was
heard for loads that were close to the ultimate. For values of applied load
higher than serviceability range, diagonal cracks were observed in the lower
region of the cross section due to the splitting stresses developed in the
concrete through the epoxy filled region; these stresses caused the failure of

Relative Humidity
Cycles
40 cycles
40 cycles
40 cycles
Figure 3. Environmental combined cycle

CFRP NSMR beams. GFRP NSMR beam failures were due to tensile
rupture of GFRP rod in presence of imminent concrete crushing. This brittle
failure resulted due to the elastic behavior of FRP, but was well predicted.
Rod
Table 3. Tensile properties of FRP bars

Ultimate stress Elastic Modulus Ultimate
Aging
(MPa)
(GPa)
strain
GFRP
Mean Values
Control
Standard deviation
COV
GFRP
4 Environmental
Mean Values
Cycles
Standard deviation
COV
CFRP
Mean Values
Control
Standard deviation
COV
CFRP
4 Environmental
Mean Values
Cycles
Standard deviation
COV
362
29.9
0.0124
44
6.9
0.0023
12%
23%
18%
338
27.4
0.0124
55
16%
2.1
8%
0.0021
17%
1943
129.0
0.0151
129
7%
1.5
1%
0.0008
5%
2060
116.8
0,0177
126
6%
5.0
4%
0,0019
11%

The theoretical ultimate loads were computed after the mechanical tests
on concrete and FRP coupons were undertaken. The CFRP NSMR beams
were designed to collapse at the ultimate load of 189 kN. The theoretical
ultimate load of GFRP NSMR beams was 107 kN.
The theoretical analysis was based on the hypothesis of RC theory,
assuming the FRP rods to be fully bonded to the beam. The ultimate load
and ultimate mid-span deflection of C-0 were 126 kN and 6.3 mm
respectively, while the ultimate load and ultimate mid-span deflection of G0 were 112 kN and 9.3 mm. The failure behavior of the conditioned beams
was the same and as control beams; in terms of ultimate load the values
were almost the same and a conditioned beams, a reduction was observed
only in terms of ultimate deflection. It can be concluded that there were no
significant effects due to the potential degradation produced by accelerated
aging. Ultimate loads, deflections and moments are reported in Table 5.
Splitting failure of CFRP beams and the fiber rupture in GFRP rods are
illustrated in Figure 4. Load deflection curves for C-0 and G-0 beams are
reported in Figure 5.
Table 4. Transverse properties of FRP bars

Rod
Aging
Load(kN)
ISS (MPa) Span/Diameter
GFRP
2.16
45.59
Mean Values
Control
Standard deviation
0.20
4.25
Variance
9%
9%
GFRP
2.18
46.00
Mean Values
4 Environmental
Standard deviation
Cycles
0.10
2.06
COV
4%
4%
CFRP
2.41
50.72
Mean Values
Control
Standard deviation
0.18
3.1
Variance
8%
8%
CFRP
2.38
50.10
Mean Values
4 Environmental
standard deviation
Cycles
0.16
3.47
COV
7%
7%
ISS = Interlaminar Shear Strength

CFRP NSMR Environmental Exposure
GFRP NSMR Environmental Exposure
(a)
(b)
Figure 4. Splitting of epoxy In CFRP NSMR (a) aed fiber rapture In GFRP
NSMR(b)
The specimens were unloaded from 4 kN to 0 kN5 and then reloaded

until failure. Steel yielding was observed approximately 'at 98 kN
corresponding to My exp of 18 kNm. A value of My ttm equal to 19 kNm was
computed by theoretically analysis and the corresponding applied load was
equal 102 kN. In the post-yielding region CFRP NSMR specimens showed
higher stiffness than GFRP due to the different mechanical properties of
reinforcement rods.
Table 5. Experimental and Theoretical results

specimen Pexp (kN)
C-0
126
C-4-1
125
C-4-2
Ptkeo (kN)
d^ (mm)
Maacp(kNx m) Mu Am(kNxm)
6.27
23
3.12
23
130
3.93
24
G~0
112
9.32
21
G-4-1
110
4.45
20
G-4-2
109
3.58
20
107
35
20
Experimental ultimate load; Ptheo^' Theoretical ultimate load;

Experimental Ultimate deflection; Mu exp = Theoretical ultimate moment
theo = Experimental ultimate moment
1 exp ~~~
Oexp ~ u
189
1/2 span
Deflection (mm)
Figure 5. Load vs deflection curves for C-0 and G-0 NSMR RC beams

A first study, aimed at examining the effect of combined environmental
cycles on the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams with NSM FRP
rods, was presented. Based on the research conducted and results from this
study, the following conclusions could be made:
(a) Longitudinal and transverse mechanical properties of FRP coupons were
the same before and after conditioning.
(b) Two different failure modes were observed; FRP rupture was observed
for GFRP strengthened beams, splitting of epoxy accompanied by CFRP
debonding was observed in CFRP strengthened specimens. A reduction
in ultimate deflections was observed for both types of NSMR
conditioned beams.
(c) The environmental exposure did not have an adverse effect on the
serviceability and ultimate load carrying capacity of the beams.
(d) Post-failure visual observation revealed no effect of environmental
exposure on FRP rod and epoxy paste.
(e) NSMR may result in a very effective strengthening technique with
minimal long-term degradation after severe environmental cycles.
REFERENCES
1. De Lorenzis, L., Nanni, A., La Tegola, A. (2000), "Strengthening of
Reinforced Concrete Structures with Near Surface Mounted FRP Rods",
Proceedings of Advancing with Composites Int. Conf., 2000, Milan,
Italy, May 9-11, pp. 419-426.
2. Khalifa, A., De Lorenzis, L., Nanni, A. (2000), "FRP Composites for
Shear Strengthening of RC Beams", Proceedings ACMBS III, Ottawa,
Canada, August 15-18, pp. 137-144.
3. De Lorenzis, L., Nanni, A., La Tegola, A. (2000), "Flexural and Shear
Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures with Near Surface
Mounted FRP Rods", Proceedings ACMBS III, Ottawa, Canada, August
15-18, pp. 521-528.
4. Nordin H., Taljsten B. and Carolin A., (2001), "Concrete beams
strengthened with pre-stressed near surface mounted reinforcement
(NSMR)", Proceed. CICE 2001, International Conference on FRP
Composites in Civil Engineering, 12-15 December 2001, Hong Kong.
5. American Concrete Institute (1999), "Building Code Requirements for
Structural Concrete (ACI 318-99) and Commentary (ACI 318R-99)".
ACI Committee 318, Detroit, MI.
6. ASTM, (1996 B), American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
D 4475 "Standard Test Method for Apparent Horizontal Shear Strength
of Pultruted Reinforced Plastic Rods By The Short Beam Method",
November 1996.
7. American Concrete Institute (2002), "ACI 440K - DRAFT - Guide Test
Methods for Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Rods and Sheets", ACI
440 committee.
8. Micelli, F., and Nanni, A., (2001), "Mechanical Properties and
Durability of FRP Rods", CIES Technical Report 00-22, March 2001,
127 pp.

SYNERGISTIC HYGROTHERMAL EFFECTS ON

DURABILITY OF E-GLASS VINYLESTER COMPOSITES
W. CHU AND V.M. KARBHARI
Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego
MC-0085, La Jolla, CA 92093-0085, USA
E-Glass/Vinylester composites fabricated through the pultrusion process
are characterized after exposure to a range of aqueous environments
including simulated alkali solution and concrete leachate. It is shown that
due to the nature of the vinylester two competing processes - post cure and
moisture related degradation, are seen when the samples are exposed to
aqueous environments. The effects of the solutions are different at both the
macroscopic and constituent level. Degradation processes are shown to be
largely reversible over short time periods and irreversible over longer time
periods. Acceleration of ageing effects is simulated through temperature
elevation and life predictions are also made for this set of materials.
INTRODUCTION
Due to considerations of low cost, high performance, ease of processing and

enhanced durability E-glass/Vinylester composites are increasingly being
considered for use in structural components and systems in bridge renewal
ranging from externally bonded strengthening systems to wall panels and
even bridge decks. However, uncertainty related to long-term durability and
a lack of understanding of deterioration mechanisms, especially in the case
of ambient temperature and low-to-moderate temperature cure systems, is
proving to be a major challenge to the widespread use and acceptance of
these materials.
Vinylester resin systems are combinations of methacrylated epoxy
compounds and styrene, wherein styrene is used as a reactive diluent and
the vinylester serves as the cross-linking agent. Cure is achieved by free
radical bulk polymerization with rates and degree of cure being highly
dependent on actual system formulation and cure regime used. Typical
vinylester systems contain 30-60% styrene monomer by weight, which both
increases overall hydrophobicity and decreases overall homogeneity. The
generic network formation process can be considered as a combination of
three ongoing processes with propagation taking place in the same time-
frame through three ongoing reactions between the vinylester (VE) and
styrene (ST) monomers, namely
VE+VE*^ (VE-VE) *
ST + ST* -> (ST-ST) *
(VE* + ST) + (ST* + VE) - (VEST)*
1 (a)
1 (b)
1(c)
wherein the first two equations represent homopolymerization of vinylester

and styrene, respectively, and the third represents their copolymerization.
Although the rate of fractional conversion of styrene double bonds is
initially less than that of the vinylesters, the styrene monomer may continue
reacting after the vinylester double bond conversion has stopped. This
difference in rates can result in the formation of microgel structures with
domains of high cross-link density in a pool of unreacted monomers, leading
to distinct heterogeneities. It is known that the presence of morphological
heterogeneities, especially as related to levels of fractional conversion, can
lead to moisture-associated degradation1'2. In addition, it is known that
levels of sustained stress can result in creep- and stress-rupture effects. The
potential for accelerated degradation effects due to synergy between
aqueous exposure, temperature and stress thus raises a number of questions
that need to be comprehensively understood before such materials can
routinely be used in civil infrastructure applications with expected service
lives of 50+ years. This paper presents the initial results of a study aimed at
the development of a detailed understanding of mechanisms of degradation
of these materials under hygrothermal and sustained stress environments.
MATERIALS AND TEST METHODS
The E-Glass fiber used in this investigation was in the form of Hybon 2001
rovings having a yield of 23 m/kN (112 linear yards per pound),
manufactured by PPG Industries Inc. Typical values of performance for the
fibers are: Young modulus of 72.4 GPa, ultimate tensile strength of 1.45
GPa, and a coefficient of thermal expansion of 5.04 um/m/C. The resin
used was a Dow-Derakane 411 -400 vinylester with nominal tensile strength
of a clear casting of 82-90 MPa, tensile modulus of 3586 MPa, flexural
strength of 151-166 MPa, flexural modulus of 3519 MPa, 7-8% elongation,
heat distortion temperature of 115-122C and a Poisson's ratio of 0.25. The
composite was manufactured in the form of 1.6 mm thick strips of 1524 mm
Durability ofE-Glass Vinylester Composites 761
width through the pultrusion process. Fiber volume fraction was estimated
to be 62% through burn-off.
In order to adequately assess changes in the mechanical characteristics
of the composite and mechanisms of degradation the material was subjected
to mechanical testing through tension and short-beam-shear modes and
dynamic mechanical thermal analysis (DMTA) techniques. In addition
moisture uptake was assessed through gravimetric means. The specimens
were exposed to 10 different environments over a period of 1 year as listed
below:
a) Storage at 23C and 46% RH
b) Immersion in deionized water at 23 C
c) Immersion in deionized water at 40C
d) Immersion in deionized water at 60C
e) Immersion in deionized water at 80C
f) Immersion in deionized water with CaC03 and Ca(OH)2 at 23 C
g) Immersion in deionized water with CaC03 and Ca(OH)2 at 40C
h) Immersion in deionized water with CaC03 and Ca(OH)2 at 60C
i) Immersion in deionized water with CaC03 and Ca(OH)2 at 80C
j) Immersion in concrete leachate at 23C
The pH value of the CaC03 and Ca(OH)2 and that of the concrete leachate,
formed by immersing 6 concrete disks of 15.24 mem diameter and 2.54 cm
thickness in deionized water at 23C was 11.5.
MOISTURE UPTAKE
Moisture uptake was measured on multiple specimens immersed in each
environment using gravimetric means. Overall results for moisture uptake
kinetics are given in Table 1.
Temperature
CQ
23
40
60
80
Table 1 Moisture uptake kinetics

Deionized Water
CaCO} and Ca(OH)2 Solution
Maximum
Coefficient of
Maximum
Coefficient of
Weight Gain
Diffusion
Diffusion
Weight Gain
(xl0-7mm2/s)
(xl0-7mm2/s)
(%)
(%)
2.17
0.1637
1.39
0.298
3.26
0.5293
2.17
1.426
4.42
0.5694
2.70
1.929
0.6227
3.14
5.95
4.205
It is noted that samples immersed in the concrete leachate solution at 23C

showed a maximum weight gain of 0.151% and a coefficient of diffusion of
2.80 x 10"7/mm2/s. It should be noted that at elevated temperatures there
was in most cases a level of leaching of low molecular weight polymer
species, as well as loss of some material from the interphase, causing an
interaction between weight gain due to moisture uptake and weight loss due
to these phenomena. Gravimmetric measurements however showed no
overall reductions in weight of the test specimens. It can however be noted
that the immersion in alkaline solution results in a significantly higher level
of moisture uptake and a more raid rate of absorption, as characterized by
the diffusion coefficient. However, in contrast to the simulated alkali
solution, results from concrete leachate showed a lower overall uptake but a
higher rate. This could be due to sieving of larger leachate particles causing
differential absorption or even partial blockage. It is, however, clear that
the effects of both solutions are different, although the pH is the same,
emphasizing differences as already noted in by Karbhari et al3.
ICP analysis on the solutions of deionized water at 23C showed an
increase in concentration of calcium, potassium, silicon, sodium and
potassium salts over the period of exposure, with dramatic rises in
concentrations of calcium, silicon and sodium after immersion at 80C.
MECHANICAL CHARACTERIZATION
Vinylesters and vinylester composites are known to show a slow
progression of cure over time with consequent change in properties. In the
case of the current investigation the E-glass/vinylester specimens were
determined to have an average tensile strength and modulus of 783 MPa and
47.6 GPa, respectively, at the outset of the investigation. After storage at
23C and 46% relative humidity for the period of investigation (52 weeks)
the values were noted to be 923 MPA and 52.2 GPa, respectively, indicating
a gain in performance over that period of time in conditions, which could be
considered as "ambient - unexposed." Changes in performance as a result
of deionized water and simulated alkaline solution on tensile strength are
shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. In both cases results are shown, as
averages, for specimens tested immediately after removal from immersion
environments, and after redrying (i.e. storage for 28 days under conditions
of 23C and 46% RH, which was the same period of preconditioning of all
specimens). It should be noted that this is done to differentiate between
effects that are largely reversible after moisture has been evaporated and
those that are irreversible and would hence cause degradation even in the

dry state. This is important since in the field, composites used in civil
infrastructure applications, are likely to be exposed to time-varying moisture
exposure through rain, humidity, and even immersion.
i\-
i.v
V
i'
-23 C
\
'
* 60
OS
" ~"-^
60 C
r- 80 C"
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
Time (weeks)
30
40
50
60
Time (weeks)
(a) "Wet" condition

(b) After redrying
Figure 1. Effect of Immersion in deionized water on tensile strength
As could be expected the drop in performance is increased through use
of higher temperatures. It is noted, however that there is almost no decrease
in modulus over the same time period for all conditions. Redrying does
result in regain in tensile strength to a degree with the maximum amount of
regain (determined as the difference between the percentage retention after
redrying to that in the wet condition) being at the lowest temperature level.
Regains of 7.46%, 3.83%, 3.83% and 1.49% can be computed for the
exposures at 23C, 40C, 60C and 80C levels, respectively.
v-.\N
V.
i
V.
:.--..- r.^.^.,
-23 C
-40 C"
\
..--..
>,,;,
80 C
20
30
40
Time (weeks)
20
30
40
Time (weeks)
(a) "Wet" condition

(b) After redrying
Figure 2. Effect of Immersion in simulated alkaline solution (CaC03 and Ca(OH)2 in
deionized water) on tensile strength

A comparison of results due to immersion in the simulated alkali
solution (Figure 2) indicates that the decrease in performance is greater than
due to immersion in deionized water at the same temperature levels, both in
the wet and redried cases. Micrographic examination of the specimens
shows that the exposure to the simulated alkali solutions results in a greater
level of degradation at the level of the fiber and the interface.
It is of interest to compare the effects of the three solutions - deionized
water, simulated alkali solution, and the concrete leachate on properties at
23C so as to assess effects that could take place when a FRP composite was
embedded in concrete (rebar for example) or constantly in contact with
concrete and hence subject to leachate due to moisture migration (as in the
case of external strengthening or structural formwork). A comparison of
effects in terms of percentage retention of properties is given in Table 2. It
can be seen that the exposure to concrete leachate causes the maximum
level of degradation emphasizing that the choice of solution used to assess
actual field level degradation is important as the conventionally used
simulated exposure conditions (deionized water and CaC03 and Ca(OH)2
solution) may not duplicate the actual effects of concrete salts. At the end
of the year-long exposure the percentage recovery between the wet and
redried specimens was 7.46%, 3.84% and 6.12%, respectively for the three
solutions. It is noted that even at 23C the composites did not regain a
substantial level of their properties after redrying indicating a high level of
irreversible damage in this class of composites.
Table 2. Comparison of aqueous immersion effects based on solution
Time
Period of
Exposure
5 weeks
10 weeks
15 weeks
20 weeks
30 weeks
50 weeks
Percentage Retention of Tensile

Strength
Concrete
Deionized Simulated
Water
Leachate
Alkali
85.15
90.29
93.58
84.17
86.33
92.35
82.45
83.20
91.33
83.18
79.72
88.38
76.73
87.51
77.73
60.69
72.68
66.35
Percentage Retention of Tensile

Modulus
Deionized Simulated Concrete
Water
Alkali
Leachate
88.65
89.23
89.77
91.68
92.36
92.77
92.52
86.80
90.61
91.14
91.73
92.74
91.05
91.69
92.63
90.89
90.29
90.89
Since microscopic studies conducted on the tension specimens indicated

degradation at the level of the interface it is of significant importance to
assess changes in short-beam-shear properties under similar conditions since
the tension tests only indicate changes in fiber dominated properties rather
than the other properties such as off-axis strength and shear properties
which are significantly affected by changes in the resin state and the
interface.
V\
w>-
\\
~23C
" - .
so
"~~- - - - .
\ .
20
70
30
\
v
-60C
10
40C
-23 C
40C
\,
-80C
'"""-...
40
20
30
40
-80C
Time (Weeks)
Time (Weeks)
(a) Deionized water

(b) Alkali solution
Figure 3. Effect of Immersion on short-beam-shear strength
Figure 3 provides a comparison of changes in short-beam-shear (sbs)

strength for the exposures related to deionized water and the simulated
alkali solution. As can be seen the immersion in simulated alkali solution
results in greater levels of degradation due to deterioration at the level of the
interface and the fiber, in addition to microcracking between fibers
coalescing to form a macrocrack. It is of interest to note that insofar as sbs
strength is concerned the use of concrete leachate actually results in the
least amount of degradation of all three aqueous solutions as shown in Table
3.
Time
Percentage Retention of ShortPeriod of
Beam Shear
Exposure
15
20
30
50
weeks
weeks
weeks
weeks
Deionized
Water
95.91
92.00
90.05
87.12
Simulated
Alkali
94.02
91.78
89.22
85.56
Concrete
Leachate
96.15
95.35
90.64
88.96
It should be remembered that interlaminar shear strength is affected by

the distribution of moisture in a composite. In a sbs test the center plane of
the composite specimen develops the highest level of shear stress. Thus
degradation due to moisture absorption is not fully operative at this level

until the moisture has diffused to the midplane. Using the calculated rates
of diffusion it can be seen that moisture does not penetrate to the center
plane till after the 15th week of immersion in deionized water at 23C.
Silvergleit indicated that for glass/epoxy composites immersed in water
shear strength initially decreased with increasing water content4. The rate
of shear strength reduction was noted to change slope and decrease more
slowly over time as moisture uptake reached saturation. It is interesting,
however, to note that as shown in Table 4 in the current samples, with the
exception of data corresponding to deionized water at 40C the initial
decline in shear strength is greater than that for the interval between 15
weeks and 50 weeks (the 15 week period is theoretically after moisture has
reached the midplane). It can also be seen that the initial decline in shear
strength increases with increase in temperature.
Temp. of Slope of Maximum Shear Strength Slope of Maximum Shear Strength
Change Between 15-50 weeks
Change Between 0-15 weeks
Exposn ire
Concrete Deionized Simulated Concrete
Deionized Simulated
CQ
Leachate
Water
Alkali
Leachate
Water
Alkali
-0.112
-0.1088
-0.1045
-0.0888
-0.1726
-0.1179
20
NA
-0.1144
-0.3505
-0.2838
NA
-0.2879
40
-0.2618
NA
-0.4827
NA
-0.4760
-0.2996
60
-0.2048
NA
NA
-0.8412
-0.1778
-0.9165
80
DMTA CHARACTERIZATION
As noted previously for long-term response, in ambient temperature cured
vinylester composites, there are often simultaneous effects of post-cure and
leaching/degradation.
Whereas the former causes an increase in
performance attributes the latter results in a decrease. However, this clarity
in differentiation is not seen in reality due to competition between the two.
Further, it is known that glass transition temperature can decrease due to
moisture uptake and hydrolysis2, whereas it can increase due to both
residual cure and the leaching of low molecular weight species. Figure 4
provides a record of the change in glass transition temperature with time
under deionized water exposure. Through additional tests such as ICP and
FTIR it was determined that the fluctuations are due to competing effects
especially of post cure due to elevated temperatures and that the apparent
higher levels of Tg attained after immersion in 60C and 80C deionized
water is actually due to leaching effects of low molecular weight species. It

is noted that the glass transition temperature (determined from the peak of
the tan 8 curve) of the material prior to immersion was 148C. As can be
seen the effect of the alkali solution is substantially less than that of
deionized water.
95
c
e
w\ '
r ''
V
. N.
v.
>
90
'
s"
80 C
^y^
;!5*;
60 C
&
3
85
u
ft.
80
^S,40C
23 C
20
30
40
Time (Weeks)
50
60
10
20
30
40
50
60
Time (Weeks)
(a) Deionized water

(b) Alkali solution
Figure 4. Effect of Immersion on glass transition temperature
A comparison of the DMTA characteristics for the exposure conditions
at 23C is given in Table 5 and it can be noted that as with the change in sbs
strength the alkaline environments have a reduced effect.
Percentage Retention of Glass
Time
Percentage Retention of Storage
Transition Temperature
Period of
Modulus at 25 C
Exposure Deionized Simulated Concrete Deionized Simulated Concrete
Alkali
Leachate
Water
Water
Alkali
Leachate
5 weeks
95.65
93.63
117.10
108.55
88.20
100.00
95.55
10 weeks
98.95
95.13
129.06
136.75
104.27
15 weeks
96.67
90.06
243.59
194.02
170.94
93.19
95.25
98.08
105.13
116.24
113.68
20 weeks
94.07
92.56
88.21
102.56
112.82
30 weeks
87.17
99.15
88.11
88.33
50 weeks
78.06
85.47
100.86
94.87
This points to the fact that the alkaline salts in the solution have a
greater effect on the fiber and the local fiber-matrix interphasial region
rather than the matrix itself indicating that degradation is more fiber
dominated than resin dominated. While this points out a weakness in the
composite in its primary load bearing constituent it also indicates a potential
means of increasing durability through the use of resins that can serve as
greater diffusion barriers for the salts causing fiber and fiber-matrix
interphase level degradation.
CONCLUSIONS
Mechanisms of degradation are seen to differ substantially based on
aqueous solution and although acceleration can be conducted through the
use of higher temperature levels this must be conducted with caution since
changes in temperature can result in dramatic changes in modes and
mechanisms of failure thereby nullifying the primary principles of timetemperature superposition for acceleration. The use of time-temperature
superposition on the deionized water exposure data provides a conservative
estimate of 42% retention of tensile strength after 10 years and 35%
retention after 30 years.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The support by the California Department of Transportation, the California
Department of Water Resources, and the National Science Foundation
through a CAREER award to the second author is gratefully acknowledged
REFERENCES
1. Burrell, P.P., Herzog, D.J. and MacCabe, R.T., "A Study of Permeation
Barriers to Prevent in Marine Composites and a Novel Technique for
Evaluating Blister Formation," Proceedings of the 42nd Annual SPI
Conference, Session 15E, 1987, pp. 15.E: 1-13.
2. Ghorbel, I. and Valentin, D., "Hydrothermal Effects on the PhysicoChemical Properties of Pure and Glass Fiber Reinforced Polyester and
Vinylester Resins," Polymer Composites, Vol. 14[4], 1993, pp. 324334.
3. Karbhari, V.M., Murphy, K. and Zhang, S., "Effect of Concrete Based
Alkali Solutins on Short-Term Durability of E-Glass/Vinylester
Composites," Journal of Composite Materials, 36[17], 2002, pp. 21012121.
4. Silvergleit, M., Macander, A.B., and Cardamone, J.A., "Effect of LongTerm Water Immersion on Properties of Graphite/Epoxy Composites,"
Report MAT-76-16, DTNSRDC, June 1976.

DURABILITY OF GFRP COMPOSITES UNDER

TROPICAL CLIMATE
Y. S. LIEW AND K. H. TAN
1 Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576
In this study, two types of glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)
composites were weathered outdoor and in accelerated weathering chamber
to evaluate the durability of the composites under tropical climate.
Engineering properties of GFRP laminates were evaluated after 1, 3, 6, 9
and 12 months of outdoor exposure, as well as in accelerated weathering
chamber after equivalent exposure times to correlate the effects of two
exposure conditions on the composites. In addition, the mechanical
properties of GFRP laminates obtained from weathering tests were used to
predict the ultimate moment capacity and failure mode of small-scale
GFRP-strengthened RC beams which were also exposed under the same
conditions. Test results showed that the tensile and bond strength of GFRP
laminates decreased with exposure time. The reduction in tensile strength
could be due to either a drop in ultimate strain or modulus depending on
the type of resin. Failure modes of small-scale GFRP-strengthened beams
were affected by exposure to outdoor weather. Such variations were
accurately predicted using appropriate mechanical model incorporating
weathering test data of the material.
INTRODUCTION
Externally bonded fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) system, either by wet
lay-up of fiber sheets or adhesive bonding of composite strips/panels, has
gained its popularity in structural retrofitting and rehabilitation of
deteriorated structures. However, the susceptibility of FRP reinforcement to
individual, as well as synergistic effects of ultra-violet (UV) rays, moisture
and heat were reported by recent studies.1 The high average annual
temperature, humidity and relatively constant UV dosage for tropical
countries in equatorial countries like Singapore2 is believed to have
detrimental effects on the mechanical performance of the externally bonded
FRP composites, which may further affect the performance of FRPstrengthened structures. Therefore, the durability of FRP composites under
tropical climate is an important issue to be addressed.
In light of this, a durability study was conducted to investigate the

effects of local weathering on engineering properties of glass fiber
reinforced polymer (GFRP) laminates and GFRP-strengthened beams.
Specimens were subjected to both natural and accelerated weathering tests.
The reproducibility of accelerated weathering tests was verified and the
performance of weathered GFRP laminates was evaluated. The weathering
test results of GFRP laminates were then used to predict the changes in
failure mode of small-scale GFRP-strengthened beams subjected to the
same exposure condition.
FAILURE MODE OF GFRP-STRENGTHENED BEAMS
With proper anchorage at the sheet cut-off points at beam ends including
the use of adequate transverse reinforcement, failure modes of beams
strengthened with GFRP laminates can be reduced to (i) compression
crushing of concrete, (ii) rupture of GFRP laminates and (iii) debonding of
GFRP laminates due to flexural cracks. Referring to Fig. 1, the internal
resisting moment of the beam at failure can be calculated as
M = ApspEp(dp -x)+A,e,E,{d,
-x)-A,'e,'E,'(d,'-x)
(1)
where Ap, As and As' = area of GFRP, tensile and compressive steel
reinforcement, respectively; Ep, Es and Es' = modulus of GFRP, tensile
steel reinforcement and compressive steel reinforcement, respectively; ep, es
and ss' = strains in GFRP, tensile steel reinforcement and compressive steel
reinforcement, respectively; ds and d/ = distance from the top concrete
fiber to the centroid of the tensile steel and compressive steel reinforcement,
respectively; x = neutral axis depth, b = beam width, h = beam depth (=
distance from the top concrete fiber to the centroid of GFRP). For tensile
and compressive steel reinforcement, esEs and ss'Es' are taken to be
A,'
JpK:T-7'
h ds
N.Ar "
(a) Beam section
(b) Strain distribution
(c) Stress distribution
Figure 1. Stress and strain distribution of a beam section
GFRP Composites under Tropical Climate 771
less than fy and fy', that is, the yield stress of tensile and compressive
reinforcement, respectively.
The beam moment capacity corresponding to concrete crushing and
GFRP rupture can be found by substituting values for sc or sp, that is,
EC = ecu for concrete crushing
(2)
or
ep=0.iepu for GFRP rupture
(3)
where scu and epu are the ultimate compressive strain of concrete and
ultimate tensile strain of GFRP laminates respectively, and solving other
terms by iteration until the following equilibrium condition is achieved
b jfjxjdx
+ A.'e.'E,1 = AsssEs + ApEpEp
(4)
The coefficient of 0.8 in Eq. (3) accounts for the average lower strains of
FRP rupturing when bonded to beams compared to strains measured from
material tensile test.3 To predict the flexural crack induced debonding, the
associated strain in GFRP laminates can be taken as4
P
~e-db- Ep ~ Ep i
tp
(5)
where a - calibration factor, flp = width coefficient, f5L = length coefficient,

fc'= concrete cylinder compressive strength, tp = thickness of GFRP
laminates. The failure mode and ultimate beam capacity are then
determined from the minimum moment capacity of all the three failure
modes,
that
is,
Mu = min(Mcc, Mfr, Mdb) where Mcc = moment capacity corresponding to
concrete crushing, Mfr = moment capacity corresponding to GFRP rupture
and Mas, = moment capacity corresponding to debonding.
To predict the time-dependent beam capacity, the properties of internal
steel reinforcement and concrete are assumed unchanged since the former is
protected by concrete while the latter gained most of its strength with good
initial curing and is not susceptible to moisture, heat and UV. Therefore, the
variation in the failure modes and moment capacity is associated with
changes in properties of GFRP laminates. With adequate field or well
represented accelerated weathering test data, the time-dependent GFRP
prosperities of GFRP laminates can be expressed as
Q{t) = 4>p(f)P0
(6)
where P0 is the initial property (for example, the as-received material
engineering properties), </>p(t) is the material property variation function and
Q(t) is the predicted property at time t. The property variation function

can be derived by regression function of outdoor or accelerated weathering
data, that is,
i n\ = I^L
(7a)
fpU
Pit.)
where P(t) is the regressed material property function, from either outdoor
or accelerated weathering tests, and t0 is the time where no weathering
effects have taken place on the material properties. If regression is obtained
from accelerated test data with a factor of ka, then Eq. (7a) becomes
*P(/k)
A(f) =
LLL.
(7b)
p
*P(0
where *P is the regressed material property function based on accelerated
weathering tests. With the above considerations, the beam capacity and
failure mode after a period of weathering can be estimated from Eq. (1) by
incorporating Eq. (7), with Eq. (2), (3) and (5) taking the form
concrete crushing (at age t): sc (t) = scu
(8a)
GFRP rupture (at age t): ep(t) = (j)e _ (t) epu
(8b)
GFRP debonding (at age t): ep(t) = 0e
(t) spdb
and the modulus of GFRP laminates in Eq. (1) taken as

EJt)=tE (t)Ep
(8c)
(9)
TEST PROGRAM
Tropical Climate and Accelerated Weathering Chamber
Table 1 shows summarizes the past 11 years (1987-1997) of meteorological
data of Singapore. Based on this, an accelerated test chamber was designed
by intensify the UV-A irradiance to six times that of outdoor, while
maintaining the proportion of light/dark, wet/dry period, as well as relative
humidity (RH) level.
GFRP Tensile Coupon
Two E-Glass composite systems, denoted as Gl and G2, with
different fiber weaving configurations and resin systems, were studied.
Their properties are shown in Table 2. Tensile coupons, as shown in
Fig. 2(a), were fabricated in accordance with JSCE-E-541-2000.5 The

Table 1. Average of Singapore outdoor weathering factors (1987-1997)
Weathering
Factor
Solar Irradiance
(m Wh/cm2)
Precipitation
(mm)
Temperature
Relative Humidity
(%)
Sunshine
Rainfall
Yearly
Monthly
Daily
Mean
13875.90
462.53
Mean
2044.80
170.40
Average
Max
Min
Average
Max
Min
Total hours
%
Total days
%
27.47
33.50
23.40
83.11
98.70
54.10
223.54
61
5.6
23
Table 2. Properties of Fiber sheets and Resins '

Gl
E-Glass
Unidirectional
roving
Tensile strength (MPa) 1700
Elastic modulus (Gpa) 71
Ultimate strain (%)
2.0
Two part, 100%
Type
Resin
solid, low
viscosity aminecured epoxy
Tensile strength (MPa) 54
Elastic modulus (Gpa) 3.00
Ultimate strain (%)
2.5
" Based on manufacturers' product specifications
Fiber
Type
Tow sheet form
G2
E~Glass
Bidirectional
woven roving
130
11
1.25
Orthophthalic
unsaturated
polyester
30
0.67
4.4
coupons were allowed to cure in the laboratory for at least 2 weeks before
being subjected to both outdoor and accelerated weathering. All the
coupons were tested after 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, 12 months for outdoor weathering
and after 5, 15, 30, 45, 60 days in the case of accelerated weathering.
GFRP-Concrete Plates
The bond strength of GFRP reinforcement was evaluated by using pullapart concrete plates bonded with GFRP laminates, as shown in Fig. 2(b).
The average compressive cube strength of the hosting plates was around 40
MPa. All the bonded plates were cast, bonded and cured at least 2 weeks in
laboratory and subjected to accelerated weathering and tested at 0, 1 week,
and 1, 3 and 6 months.
GFRPstrengthened Beams
Small-scale reinforced concrete beams bonded with Gl and G2 (as shown
in. Fig. 2(c)) were fabricated and exposed outdoor and in the weathering
chamber, and tested after 0, 1, 3, 6, 9, and 12 months of exposure.
Lateral View
Section A-A
(c) Schematic view of GFRP-strengthened RC beam
Figure 2. Types of specimen for weathering tests

Preliminary results up to 6 months have been obtained and are presented
herein.

Reproducibility of Outdoor Weathering Effects
Fig. 3(a) shows the measured temperatures and relative humidity (RH) for
outdoor condition and in the accelerated weathering chamber at different
time scale, in which 1 day in chamber is being compared to 6 days outdoors.
The observed outdoor temperature and RH were well reproduced in the
chamber while the UV-A intensity was kept 6 times that of outdoors. Fig.
3(b) shows the regressed ultimate strain and elastics modulus for both
outdoor- and chamber-exposed Gl tensile coupons on logarithmic time
scales, that is 1 to 180 days for outdoor and 1 to 30 days for chamber. It is
also obvious that both the outdoor- and chamber-weathered coupons
exhibited the same trend in their property variations.
Chamber Elapsed Time
8 hrs
16 hrs
21Jul'02
12:00pm
24 hrs
23Jul'02
12:00pm
Outdoor Elapsed Time
(a) Temperature and RH

Logarithmic chamber age, ln[ t ] (day)
1.00
O
3.
2.72
7.39
20.09
20
W 15
Outdoor
Chamber
1.00
2.72
strain
modulus
strain
modulus
7.39
a
A-
test
test
test
test -~.o
""I ' '
20.09
54.60
148.41
Logarithmic outdoor age, ln[ t ] (day)
(b) Properties of Gl
Figure 3. Comparison of outdoors and accelerated effects on specimens
Tropical Climatic Effects on GFRP Tensile Properties

For all the virgin and weathered specimens, Gl tensile coupons typically
ruptured with longitudinal splits between unidirectional fiber roving
whereas G2 coupons ruptured with cracks perpendicular to direction of
tensile load. The ultimate strain and modulus variation of Gl and G2
specimens after outdoor weathering are depicted in Figs. 4(a) and 4(b),
respectively. Under the same exposure condition, the variations were
different for composites with different resins. The ultimate strain of Gl
decreased significantly more than the modulus. However, the decrease in
ultimate strain in G2 specimens was relatively small compared to the
decrease in modulus. The ultimate strength of both Gl and G2 composites
decreased as a result of outdoor exposure. Reduction in ultimate strain after
environmental exposure was also observed in other durability tests
conducted on GFRP composites.6 By plotting the product of regressed strain
and
modulus,
spu(t)Ep(t), in
Fig.
4(c),
it
is
seen
that the product matches well with the regressed ultimate stress for both
composites. This implies that the strength reduction in weathered
composites could be due to either loss in ultimate strain (embitterment) or
modulus, or both, depending on the composite constituents.
Accelerated Weathering Effects on GFRP-concrete Bond
The GFRP-concrete interfacial bond strength after 6 months in chamber,
which is believed to be equivalent to that of 3 years outdoors, is depicted in
Fig. 4(d). The initial bond strength was governed by the type of resin matrix
used. However, both types of composites bond strength decreased at the
same rate throughout the accelerated weathering period.
Prediction and Test Result of' GFRP-strengthened Beams
Material property variation functions (<f>s ^ (t), <j)E
(t) , <f>E (t)) were
derived from the regressed material property functions (spu(t), *t(t), Ep(t))
using Eqs. 7(a) or (b). The failure modes and moment capacities of beams
were predicted using the above approach and compared with test results in
Table 3. The Hognestad concrete stress-strain model was used for concrete
stress in the calculation. The ratio of flexural capacity of weathered to
control beams, as well as failure modes, were predicted reasonably well.
J Outdoor
0
e
t ) = 21426.66148-1128.71689 In t
5'
o j
- J
s ( t ) = 18624.80911-86.95418 I n t
0
G1
G2
I H
1.00
test
0 test
2.72
^ ^ regressed
regressed
7.39
20.09
54.60
148.41
2.72
Logarithmic age, ln[ t ] (day)
(a) Ultimate strain
.E too
G1 test
G2 o test
)
regressed
regressed
60
90
X epIi,(t) E 0|(t)
+ e M(t) E 0!(t)
120
Age, t (day)
(c) Ultimate stress
7.39
20.09
54.60
148.41
Logarithmic age, ln[ t ] (day)
(b) Elastic modulus
O 0.25
m
60
90
120
Age, t (day)
(d) Bond strength
Figure 4. Property variation of outdoor and chamber weathered composites
Table 3. Comparison of predicted and test results for GFRP strengthened beam
Type
Outdoor
Age, t
(day)
Predicted
Test
Failure
Failure
MAO
Mode
Mode
Mu{t0)
MAO
1.00
CC
30
0.99
cc
CC/FR
CC
Gl
0.95
90
0.99
FR
FR/DB
1.01
180
0.96
CC
CC
1.00
30
0.95
CC
CC
1.02
G2
0.93
90
CC
CC
1.09
180
0.93
b
CC: concrete crushing; FR: GFRP rupture; DB: debonding
CONCLUSIONS
From the test results obtained in this study, it is concluded that
(a) the effects of tropical climate weather were reproduced well in
accelerated weathering test.
(b) tensile and bond strength of GFRP laminates decreased with time
when subjected to outdoor tropical climate.
(c) reduction of tensile strength of GFRP laminates could be due to either
drop of ultimate strain or modulus, and it is matrix dependent.
(d) failure mode of small scale GFRP strengthened beams changes with
weathering time in tropical climate, and can be predicted using
appropriate mechanical model with the material weathering test data.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENT
This work was financially supported by a research grant R-264-000-140112. The authors are indebted to F. L. Yap for laboratory works and
technical assistance rendered by Y. K. Koh and P. K. Choo.
REFERENCES
1. Uomoto, T., "Durability Consideration for FRP reinforcements", 5th
International Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures (FRPRCS-5), U.K., July 16-18, 2000, Vol. 1, pp. 17-32.
2. Keng, J. T. and Thong, N.G., "Solar Insolation in an Equatorial Region
(Singapore)", Solar Energy, 19,1976, pp. 101-103.
3. Bonacci, J. F. and Maalej, M , "Behavioral Trends of RC Beams
Strengthened with Externally Bonded FRP", Journal of Composite for
Construction, 5(2), 2001, pp. 102-113.
4. Teng, J. G., Chen, J. F., Smith, S. T. and Lam, L., FRP-strengthened RC
Structures, 2002, John Wiley & Sons Ltd., England.
5. Japanese Society of Civil Engineers, JSCE-E-541-2000: Test Method
for Tensile Properties of Continuous Fiber Sheets.
6. Al-Bastaki, N. M. S. and Al-Madani H. M. N., "Effect of Local
Atmospheric Conditions in Bahrain on the Mechanical Properties of
GRP", Polymer Testing, 14, 1995, pp. 263-272.

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT LONG-TERM CLIMATIC

CONDITIONS ON FRP DURABILITY
P. LABOSSIERE AND K.W. NEALE
Department of Civil Engineering, Universite de Sherbrooke
Sherbrooke, Quebec, JIK 2R1, Canada
I. NISHIZAKI
Advanced Materials Team, Public Works Research Institute
1-6 Minamihara, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8516, Japan
Over the last few years, the use of composite materials has become an
increasingly popular method of repairing and strengthening ageing civil
engineering structures. However, despite the efficiency and attractiveness
of this technique, its market progression has been impaired by the relative
lack of knowledge on the long-term behaviour of the FRP materials
themselves and, by extension, on the behaviour of the structures
strengthened with such products. This paper provides an overview of a
long-term research program that was undertaken by the authors.
INTRODUCTION
The use of composite materials is becoming an increasingly popular method
of repairing and strengthening ageing civil engineering structures around the
world. In Canada1'2, most structures reinforced with fibre-reinforced
polymers (FRPs) consist of transportation-related constructions, such as
road bridges and parking garages. Despite the efficiency and attractiveness
of this technique, its market progression has been impaired by factors such
as the lack of design codes readily available to the practising civil engineer,
and by the limited knowledge on the long-term behaviour of these new
products. Although the issue of codes has been addressed in many countries
with the recent publication of standards3 and design manuals4, the need for
extensive evaluation of the durability of FRPs exposed to civil engineering
environments has yet to be satisfied. Understanding the behaviour of FRPs
in adverse climatic conditions, in particular, has become essential to
guarantee the durability of these structural repairs. An extensive research
program in this field, undertaken by the authors, combines actual long-term
exposure tests in different climatic conditions, correlation with accelerated

ageing, and development of FRP degradation models. This paper provides
some details on the long-term exposure aspects of the research program.
RESEARCH PROGRAM
Exposure sites
The exposure program described in this paper was undertaken in 1997, and
is reported here for the first time. A series of identical specimens were
fabricated and installed at three exposure sites exhibiting very different
climatic conditions, two located in Japan and one in Canada, in order to
study the effect of actual weather conditions on the mechanical properties of
commercially-available products. The main characteristics of the three
exposure sites are shown in Figure 1.
Sherbrooke
Tsukuba
-A-Okinawa
Sherbrooke
HTsukuba
Q Okinawa
Figure 1 : Average monthly climatic conditions of exposure sites

The Canadian exposure site is located on the Universite de Sherbrooke
campus, approximately 150 km east of Montreal. The average annual
temperature in Sherbrooke is 4.TC, with usually harsh winter conditions
Long-Term Climatic Conditions on FRP Durability 781
almost six months of the year; daily extremes can reach -35C in winter and
35C in summer. Statistics of the last 30 years indicate an annual rainfall of
1084 mm in Sherbrooke. The other end of the climatic spectrum is
represented by the Okinawa exposure site, located in a seaside and semitropical environment of the South Pacific. The average annual temperature
reaches 22.4C and does not fluctuate much during the year. The reported
average annual rainfall is 2036 mm, almost double the Canadian exposure
site. Finally, the third site located nearby Tokyo, in Tsukuba City, has a
temperate climate, with an average of 1505 mm rainfall during the year and
an average annual temperature of 15.6C. The Okinawa and Tsukuba
exposure sites are both maintained by the Public Works Research Institute
of Japan. At the initiation of the research project, it was expected that
conditions such as the significant variations of temperature in Sherbrooke
and high salinity of the air in Okinawa would produce more adverse effects
on the specimens than conditions on the Tsukuba site.
Specimens
Identical specimens are submitted to the natural conditions of the exposure
sites for periods of 1, 3, 5, 7 and 10 years, beginning in 1997. The
specimens at each exposure site include :
(a) one-ply carbon fibre sheets of products A and B, 150 mm x 380 mm,
with fibres in the longitudinal direction. Products A and B are
commercially available in Canada and Japan. After exposure, the sheets
are tested in tension.
(b) three four-ply CFRP unidirectional laminates, 250 x 300 mm, with the
fibres in the longitudinal direction. Plates are made with products A and
B; a third plate, AC, is made of product A with a protective coating.
After exposure, five specimens can be cut from the laminated plates for
tensile testing. The size of the plates allows fabrication of additional
specimens that can be used for viscoleastic testing, in bending or
torsion.
(c) four-ply (45)s CFRP laminates of products A, B and AC, 250 x 500
mm. Specimens are recovered from these plates for tensile testing.
(d) 160 x 170 mm plates of epoxy matrix, approximately 5 mm thick. These
plates are made from each of the matrices usually employed with
products A and B. The plates are large enough to cut out specimens for
tensile tests, torsion tests and bending tests.
(e) standard concrete cylinders, 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in length,

confined with CFRP products A5 Bs and AC. Unconfined cylinders are
also kept for reference. Uniaxial compression tests are to be performed
after 3S 5 and 10 years of exposure.
The typical appearance of the specimens at the exposure sites is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Typical specimen exposure sites

Testing of specimens
The following tests have been undertaken on the recovered specimens:
visual observation of the general appearance of the CFRP laminates; tensile
tests on carbon fibre sheets in accordance with ASTM Standard D 4018
Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Fiber-Resin Composites;
tensile tests on FRP laminates in compliance with ASTM Standard D 3039
Standard Test Methodfor Tensile Properties of Fiber-Resin Composites; inplane shear tests on FRP laminates in accordance with ASTM Standard
D3518M Standard Practice for In-plane Shear-Strain Response of
Unidirectional Polymer Matrix Composites; tensile tests on resin specimens
in accordance with ASTM Standard D 638M Standard Test Method or
Tensile Properties of Plastics; compression tests on confined concrete
cylinders according to ASTM Standard C 39 Standard Test Method for
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. In addition, nonstandardized tests of bending and torsion were devised for the matrix plates.
An evaluation of the micro structural degradation of the FRP with electronic
microscope will take place later.
Long-Term Climatic Conditions on FRP Durability 783
OUTLINE OF RESULTS
The following tables provide an outline of some results obtained to date.
Table 1 indicates the evolution of the tensile strength of the specimens made
from the uniaxial CFRP plates; the results in the Sherbrooke, Tsukuba and
Okinawa columns are each the average of five tests. A global average of all
specimens after the same period is given in the last column. The general
tendency is that a significant reduction of the tensile strength generally
occurred over the 3-year period, probably due to the exposure conditions. In
some cases, the uncoated product A appears to have performed better than
its counterpart AC; longer exposure results are needed to confirm this
hypothesis. Products A and B have performed in a relatively similar way.
Table 1. Tensile tests on CFRP plates - Average of five tests (kN/m/layer)
Tsukuba
Test
Okinawa
Sherbrooke
527 (b)
535 w
Initial
527 (b)
1 year
449
558
491
472
489
537
3 years
527 (b)
535 (a)
Initial
527 (b)
Product AC
499
1 year
559
502
503
464
3 years
457
556 (c)
Initial
556 tc)
513
Product B
536
510
1 year
575
472
460
524
3 years
(a), (b), (c) Same superscript indicates same set of five specimens
Specimen
Product A
Average
531
500
499
531
520
465
534
540
485
Table 2. Shear streng;th of CFRP plates - Average of five tests (MPa)

Specimen
Product A
Product AC
Product B
Test
Initial
1 year
3 years
Initial
1 year
3 years
Initial
I year
3 years
Sherbrooke
46,1 ( a )
39,7
39,4
46,1 ( a )
38,6
35,9
33,4
33,4
30,3
Tsukuba
34,9 (b)
35,2
26,7
34,9 (b)
30,4
29,2
36,8 (c)
35,3
34,0
Okinawa
34,9 (b)
31,3
29,2
34,9 (b)
28,4
28,7
36,8 (c>
25,8
25,4
Average
41,1
35,4
31,8
41,1
32,4
31,3
35,0
31,7
29,3
(a), (b), (c) Same superscript indicates same set of five specimens
The evolution of shear strength shows more consistency than that of

tensile strength; Table 2 indicates that it diminished consistently for all
series of specimens. Once again, the coating does not appear to exert a
positive effect on the properties of the specimens.
CONCLUSIONS
The outline of a long-term project aimed at measuring the long-term
properties of CFRP laminates was presented. Initial results show that
climatic conditions actually have an adverse effect on the product
properties.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research program benefits from the long-term funding of the following
sources which are gratefully acknowledged: the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) through the ISIS
Canada Network of Centres of Excellence for the Canadian co-authors; the
Public Works Research Institute of Japan for the Japanese co-author. The
sabbatical stay of Professor Labossiere in Japan was financially supported
by the Japan Science Foundation: this invaluable contribution to the
establishment of a long-term international collaboration is gratefully
acknowledged. In addition, the authors wish to thank Mr. Marc Demers and
Mr. Iwao Sasaki for their technical advice and their support in the
maintenance of the exposure sites.
REFERENCES
1. Mufti, A.A., Labossiere, P., Neale, K.W., "Recent Bridge Applications
of FRPs in Canada," Structural Engineering Int., 12(2), 2002, 96-98.
2. Labossiere, P., Neale, K.W., Rochette, P., Demers, M., Lamothe, P.,
Lapierre, P., and Desgagne, G., "FRP Strengthening of the Ste-Emeliede-1'Energie Bridge: Design, Instrumentation and Field Testing,"
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, 27(5), 2000, 916-927.
3. Japan Society of Civil Engineers, "Code for Repair and Strengthening
of Concrete Structures Using Continuous Fiber Sheet, Concrete Library
no. 101, July 2000 (in Japanese).
4. ISIS Canada, "Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures with
Externally-Bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRPs)," Design Manual
#4, Winnipeg, Manitoba, 2001.

DURABILITY OF ARAMID AND CARBON FRP PC BEAMS

UNDER NATURAL AND ACCELERATED EXPOSURE
H. NAKAI
Manager, Sumitomo Construction Co., Ltd.
13-4 Araki-cho Shinjyuku-ku, Tokyo 162-5788, Japan
H. SAKAI
Chief Engineer, P.S. Corporation
Otuka-bld. 3F, 1-3-17 Kita-otuka, Tosima-ku, Tokyo 170-0004, Japan
T. NISHIMURA
Technician, IIS, The University of Tokyo
4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-8505, Japan
T. UOMOTO
Professor, The University of Tokyo, Japan
In an effort to better understand the durability characteristics of fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) bar in severe environment, a long-term study has
been undertaken using tendons made of aramid and carbon fibers, in
pretensioned concrete (PC) beams. Reference beams have also been cast
using normal steel reinforcement. The results obtained after 3 years of
exposure show that there is no noticeable deterioration in the FRP
reinforced specimens, though some differences are found in the flexural
behavior of specimens that use steel strands as reinforcement.
INTRODUCTION
Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) bars have attracted a lot of interest as an
alternative reinforcement material for concrete structures, due to their high
strength, light weight, non-magnetic nature and corrosion-free properties.
Since 1988, FRP bar has been used in over 180 structures throughout Japan1,
and no reports of degradation in any of these structures has been reported.
Also, in large-scale exposure tests undertaken by the government, academic
institutions and the private sectors, no degradation has been reported 2.
However, it has been pointed out that the bond between FRP and concrete
could be a potential problem due to the difference between the thermal
786
FRPRCS-6: Durability and
Maintenance
expansion coefficient of FRP and that of concrete; and secondly, the fact
that organic fibers are hygroscopic3.
The objective of this study is to better understand the degradation over
time of pretensioned concrete beams (reinforced with FRP or steel)
subjected to repeated drying/wetting cycles and variations in temperature.
Exposure tests were carried out in two environments - (a) a natural outdoor
exposure test at two sites: one in the splash zone, and the other inland, and,
(b) accelerated test, where the beams were stored in a tank with a controlled
temperature and saturation regime. This paper reports the results after about
40 months of exposure tests, though specimens have been prepared with a
15-year test program in mind.
THE PARAMETER OF EXPOSURE
The parameters of this study are the type of tendon material, the exposure
test method and exposure time. The extent of degradation was assessed
through static testing at the end of the exposure period, fatigue tests in some
cases to study any changes in the bond between the tendon and the concrete,
observation of the FRP tendons using an electron microscope, and
observation of the onset of rusting in the case of steel reinforcement.
In the natural outdoor exposure test (N series), the exposure locations
were splash zone (I) and inland (T), the tendon materials were aramid FRP
(A), carbon FRP (C) and steel (S). A total of 24 beams were used. In the
accelerated exposure test (A series), the tendon materials were (A), (C) and
(S), with 5, 5, and 3 beams, respectively, making a total of 13 beams.
'
fable 1. Parameter of exposure

;
Destru
40
2nd
Fatigue
Micro [ ReQuanInitial
Name of specimen
: months loading [loading ctiv e
: loading
test scope ' exposure ; tity
[exposure
yes
yes
yes
3
N[A,C,S]Control
yes
6
N[I,T][A,C,S]1
yes
yes
; yes )yes *'
yes
N[I,T][A,C,S][2,3] ! yes
yes
yes
12
NT[A,C,S]4
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
3/24
i A[A,C,SJControl
yes
3
; yes
yes
3
yes
yes
A[A,C,S]1
: yes yes *'
]
yes
A[A,C,SJ[2,3,4]
yes
yes
yes
7* 3 /13
Initial letter designates type of exposure: N = N a t u r a l ; A = Accelerated.
[I,T] designates exposure site: I = Splash zone on t h e Izu P e n i n s u l a ;
T = I n l a n d site at Chiba Prefecture.
[A,C,S] describes the tendon: A = A r a m i d ; C = Carbon; S = Steel.
* 1 : without Steel tendon
;* 2: with steel tendon specimen j * 3 : S h a s 2 o n l y
Durability ofAramid and Carbon FRP PC Beams
787
Materials
Table 2 shows the properties of the materials used as tendons. The aramid
FRP was Technora; the carbon FRP was CFCC; and the steel tendon
material was steel wire strand. Whereas the coefficient of thermal expansion
of steel is about the same as that of concrete, that of the FRPs is about zero,
or even negative in some cases. Comparing the Young's modulus of the
tendon materials reveals a ratio of 1:2:4 for aramid, carbon and steel,
respectively.
Table 3 shows the mix proportions of the concrete used - the proportions
were chosen so that the concrete has a strength of 35 N/mm2 at an age of 12
hours with steam curing, and had a W/C ratio of 0.372. Table 4 shows the
compressive strengths of concrete at the different ages. It is apparent that
the compressive strength of the concrete increases substantially over time
compared with the initial values. Creep and drying shrinkage measurements
were also carried out using the inland exposed beams in the N series. Figure
1 shows the shrinkage strain observed. At an age of 44 months after
prestressing (when the tests were carried out for the series of results
reported in this paper), a shrinkage strain of about 0.08% was observed.
Table 2. Properties of tendons and reinforcements
Material
Aramid
Nominal
cross section
(mm 2)
Nominal
capacity
Tensile Capacity
Elongation
SWPR-7A
SWM-P
<p9.3
tp6.0
32.5
45.3
79.1
51.6
28.3
6.4
7.6
10.0
9.3
6.0
56.9
57.0
104
88.8
15.3
62.5
60.0
114
103
18.6
46
104
104
197
206
3.8
1.2
1.2
7.1
-3
0.6
0.6
12
12
(kN)
(kN)
2
(%)
Thermal expansion
CFCC
ipl0.5
area
Young's modulus (kN/mm
Rebar
<p7.5
diameter (mm)
Guaranteed
Steel
<p6.0
Technora
Designation
Carbon
coefficient
xio~6/x:
W/C
(%)
Table 3. Mixture proportion o f concrete

S/A
Air Cement Water Fine A. Coarse
(%)
(%)
(kg)
(kg)
(kg)
(kg)
37.2
41.0
2.0
430
160
731
1060
S.P.
(kg)
4.73
T able 4. Compressive strength

Ave.
Age
38.2
Intro duce prestress
1 day
2 months 65.6
In tial loading
44 months 81.2
2 nd loading
Figure 1. Strain modification due to shrinkage without

thermal expansion on the exposed specimens at the
Specimen Details
All specimens were cast using pretensioning and the cross-section for the
different specimens are shown in Figure 2. Prestressing the reinforcement,
pouring of the concrete, steam curing of specimens, and introduction of
prestress to the beams were completed within a day. The jacking force for
all tendons was 62% of their guaranteed tensile capacity. The transverse
stainless steel reinforcing bars were arranged at a 30-mm pitch in all beams.
The dimensions of the beams in the N series are as follows: a height of
200 mm, width of 150 mm and a length of 2,000 mm. FRP-reinforced beams
had two tendons at the top and two at the bottom as shown, while the steelreinforced beams had one steel strand each at the top and bottom. The
calculated flexural failure mode in the case of the FRP beams, is the rupture
of the FRP tendons; while, in the beams with steel strands it is failure of
concrete in compression after the yielding of the steel strand.
The dimensions of the beams in the A series are as follows: a height of
100 mm, width of 100 mm and a length of 1,500 mm. Each tendon has
almost identical capacity, and is located in the center of the beam. The
25 ,
100
, 25
4@p6.0 Technora
A@f S.5 CFCC
SUS304/ &0
Rebar / &0
75
75
25
50
Natural Exposure (FRP)

(Steel)
Accelerated
Figure 2. Specimen cross sections
25
Exposure
Durability ofAramid and Carbon FRP PC Beams 789
100 mm, width of 100 mm and a length of 1,500 mm. Each tendon has
almost Identical capacity, and is located in the center of the beam. The
calculated flexural failure mode, for all beams, is the compressive failure of
the concrete.
The exposed specimens were subjected, as shown in Figure 5, to an
initial load of approximately 60% of the ultimate flexural capacity, to
introduce 6pre-cracks5 shown in Figure 6.
Exposure Methods
Natural exposure was conducted at two sites, as shown in Figure 3. The first
was a splash zone located at the Izu Peninsula facing the Pacific Ocean,
where the average annual temperature is about 15C, and the annual
precipitation is about 2,300 mm; the second was a inland site at Chiba
prefecture, having an average annual temperature and annual precipitation
of 15C and 1300 mm, respectively. In the splash zone, shown In Photo 1,
the specimens were fixed to the rocks, with the sea level approaching to
within about 0.5 meters at high tide. At the Inland site, the specimens were
exposed, supported by 90mm wooden blocks laid on a concrete base.
In the accelerated exposure test, the specimens were placed In a
Phoio I. '['he natural exposure

situation at the splash zone
Photo 2.The accelerated exposure

situation at the water tank
Figure 3. The location of natural

exposure site
Figure 4. Tank temperature and humidity

profile over a weekly cycle
circulating water tank, as shown in Photo 2. The specimens were subjected

to a 7-day cycle of repeated temperature and humidity loads, as described in
Figure 4. This temperature loading of maximum 60C accelerates the
exposure. Intermediate tests reported here have been carried out after about
150 cycles.
EVALUATION METHODS
Loading
Figure 5 shows the method used to apply a load to the specimens. The
following static loads were applied to the beams of both series: an initial
load before the exposure to introduce 'pre-cracks' at the age of about 2
months - equivalent to about 60% of the flexural capacity (35 kN to the
specimens in the N series; 13.5 kN to those in the A series). The cracking
load and the number of cracks were recorded.
At the age of 44 months, (after 40 months of exposure), a load equal to
the initial load (as mentioned above) was applied, the extent of cracking
including width and number of cracks observed, and a comparison made
with that recorded at the time of 'precrack' introduction.
Some of the beams in N series were also tested in fatigue for 400,000
cycles of load application. Specimens NT[A,C,S]4 were tested using
displacement control machines, at a displacement of 4 to 5 mm. This
displacement and amplitude were selected so that the concrete compressive
strain would be about 0.1%, the stress amplitude of the FRP and steel strand
would be 100 N/mm2. No fatigue failure was considered likely at these load
levels.
Also, some of the beams were statically loaded to failure to determine
the flexural capacity. In addition, beams were loaded to failure after
completion of the 400,000 cycles of fatigue loading.
1500
ICO
803
Saticloadng
7T
675
1fjp
f%tigue loadrg
Natural exposure specimen
290
400
250
8'
TS
4C0 j20O|
7T
Accelerated exposure specimen
Figure 5. Loading system
Durability ofAramid and Carbon FRP PC Beams 791
The remaining beams were loaded up to 80% of their capacity (the initial
level of load was 60% of the capacity, as indicated earlier), unloaded and
returned to the exposure site for continued exposure.
Observation via Electron Microscope
At the end of the tests, FRP tendons were extracted (in the case of N and A
series) by removing the concrete. Samples of FRP were drawn from
locations at 20mm and 600mm from the ends, for observations using an
electron microscope to study any deterioration in the epoxy matrix or fibers.
RESULTS OF EVALUATION
Loading
Figure 6 shows the results of cracking during initial loading. About 5 and 3
cracks appeared in the specimens of N and A series respectively. The
average of the maximum crack width was about 0.5 mm in the case of the
specimens reinforced with aramid tendons, but a little under 0.3 mm in
those reinforced with carbon or steel. It may be noted that all cracks
'closed' upon removal of applied load.
Figure 7 compares the calculated and actual experimental values at
different stages. Here 'cracking load' (at the time of initial loading) has
been taken to be the load at which visually observable cracks were first seen.
At the time of reloading after the exposure, 7i gauges were used to record
the variation of the crack width with the applied load. The "crack-reopening
load" has been taken to be the load at which the gradient of crack-width vs.
-N_A
-N_series II ---N_series
-A^series I -Q- A series
1.0
r
.a
0.0
AC
- - i -A_S
.......^
Flexural
capacity
a
t
Crack
reopening
Cracking
-*
w;
-a--
0.2
A_A
-N_C
Aramid Carbon
Steel
The material of tendon
Figure 6. Ave. of max. crack width &

number of cracks by the 1st loading
0.8
1.0
1.2
Exp./Calc.
Figure 7. Comparison between Exp.

& Calc. of each limit states

Aramid
Carbon
30
Steel
40
Deflection (mm)
Figure 8. Load & deflection curve

Upper: N series, Lower: A series
End 1
-0.1
-aEnd 2
0. 1 0.2
Slip (mm)
0.3
Figure 9. Slipping of steel

strand end in ASC
10'
10'
Cycle times
10
Figure 10. Relationship between

number of cycles & average load
load curve changes (reduces) drastically. The flexural capacities are

calculated by using the average value of material tests and concrete ultimate
strain of 0.0035. Effects of relaxation in the reinforcing tendon and the
shrinkage deformation (shown in Figure 1) have been included in estimating
effective prestresses4.
The comparison of experimental and calculated values reveals that with
the exception of specimen AS, the experimental values were equal to or
Durability ofAmmid and Carbon FRP PC Beams 793
greater than the calculated ones. During the exposure period (age of 2
months to the age of 44 months), there is continued hydration of concrete,
as shown by the continued gain in strength, and self-repair of spre-cracks' is
very likely. This perhaps explains the fact that the experimental "crack reopening load' was higher than the calculated value. The experimentally
measured ultimate flexural states were consistent with the calculated values,
both in capacities and failure modes. These results lead the authors to
consider that, with the exception of AS, no mechanical degradation has
occurred to the beams as a result of 40 months' exposure.
Figure 8 shows the typical load-deflection curves for the beams tested
under static loading. In the N series, all the envelopes are consistent with
one another. In the A series, the behavior of the steel (S) curves is different.
Figure 9 shows the extent of slippage of steel strand ends in the ASC after
the ASC specimens were subjected to loading and unloading. The results
indicate that the slip at the anchoring point could be responsible for the
decrease in the strength of these specimens. The A-series steel ASC
specimens were cured and stored outside to serve as controls. Thus,
although these specimens are subjected to drier conditions than the
specimens in the accelerated tests, other external degrading factors are
believed to be less intense.
As indicated above the fatigue tests were carried out with displacement
control, and the actual load was periodically monitored. Figure 10 shows a
variation of the observed load with the number of cycles. It can be seen that
the proportion of the decline of the applied fatigue load increases in the
order of (A) < (C) < (S). The amplitudes of the stress applied to the tendon
materials were almost the same for all specimens of (A), (C) and (S). This
order of (A) < (C) < (S) is thought to be the order of the mechanical bond
degradation between the tendon material and the concrete. However, it can
be stated that the extent of deterioration in the bond is still such that it does
substantially affect the flexural failure moments after fatigue loading.
Aramid tendon (NIA1: P=20mm)

Carbon tendon (MCI: P=20mm)
Photo 3 The surface parts of FRP tendon were no damage (x750)

Observation via Electron Microscope
As indicated in Photo 3 observations from the electron microscope reveal
that in both (A and N) series, there are no cracks in the matrix due to
absorption of moisture, or the swelling of the fiber. In other words, the FRP
tendons were undamaged.
CONCLUSION
The following conclusions may be drawn from the study.
(a) There are no observable deterioration in terms of load carrying capacity,
and others, in the flexural properties of FRP pretensioned beams after
40 months of exposure, at the splash zone or inland site, or after they
were subjected to accelerated cyclic heating and wetting.
(b) The pre-cracking of the pretensioned beams at 60% of flexural capacity
does not have a negative influence on tendons in beams exposed at the
splash zone for 40 months.
(c) The bond of steel wire strands with concrete sustains some damage due
to exposure leading to a reduced flexural capacity. No such
deterioration in bind is observed in case of FRP tendon reinforced
beams.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was made possible through funding and personnel assistance from
the ACC Club. The authors wish to thank the ACC Club for its support.
REFERENCES
1. ACC, "ACC Club Project using new materials", October 2002
2. Fuminori TOMOSAWA, Teruyuki NAKATSUJI, Kozo KIMURA, Koji SAKA,
Hiroyasu KAWAGUCHI, "Evaluation of ACM reinforcement durability by
exposure test", ASME, 17th International Conference on Offshore Mechanics
and Arctic Engineering (OMAE98-4361), 1998
3. Raj an Sen, Mohsen Shahawy, Josas Rosas and Satya Sukumar, "Durability of
Aramid Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pretensioned Elements under Tidal/Thermal
Cycles", ACI Structural Journal/ January-February 1999, pp.95-104
4. Research Committee on CFRM, "Recommendation for Design and Construction
of Concrete Structures using Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials", JSCE,
September 1997.

EFFECTS OF WET ENVIRONMENT ON CFRP-CONFINED

CONCRETE CYLINDERS
F. MICELLI, L. DE LORENZIS AND A. LA TEGOLA
Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell 'Innovazione, Universita degli Studi di Lecce
Via per Monteroni, 73100 Lecce
One of the most successful uses of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)
composites in civil engineering is confinement of concrete or masonry
columns in order to increase their load-carrying capacity and ductility. It is
essential to consider the effects of aggressive environmental agents on the
long-term performance of these members. Any agent that may damage the
fibres, or embrittle the resin can reduce the ability of the system to transfer
stress between the fibres. The resulting effect of aggressive environmental
agents may be a lower ultimate load and decreased ductility. An
experimental research program on FRP-confmed concrete cylinders
subjected to accelerate environmental exposure is presented herein.
Concrete cylinders were wrapped with one layer of unidirectional and
quadriaxial carbon FRP (CFRP) sheets using the same type of epoxy resin.
The specimens were immersed in three different aqueous solutions for 2000
hours: NaCl, HC1 and water. Unwrapped concrete cylinders were used as a
control series and tensile characterization was performed on conditioned
and unconditioned CFRP sheet coupons according to ASTM D3039. All
cylinders were tested under uniaxial compression until failure. In the paper,
the performance of CFRP coupons and cylinders before and after
conditioning is illustrated and discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The use of FRP as confining device for axially loaded concrete members
under static and cyclic loads has been demonstrated effective by numerous
experimental tests1"4. Analytical models were also developed and calibrated
in order to predict the stress-strain behaviour of FRP-confmed concrete "6.
These efforts were aimed at developing applicable design guidelines for
engineers and practitioners that intend to use innovative FRP materials in
construction. At the moment one of the undisclosed questions is related to
the long-term behaviour of FRP-confmed concrete since FRP-confined
columns are exposed to aggressive environments or immersed into
potentially aggressive fluids. A limited number of durability studies is
available7"9, and further research is needed to translate experimental or
empirical information into design recommendations that should take into
account the potential decay of mechanical properties due to aging or

possible chemical attacks.
In this study, the problem of possible physical-chemical aggression due
to immersion in aqueous fluids was investigated. CFRP-confined concrete
cylinders were aged by means of immersion into water, saline and acidic
solution and tested in compression until failure.
The experimental programme consisted of testing plane and FRP-confined
concrete cylinders with different wrapping configurations and after different
exposure conditions. Tensile tests were performed to measure the potential
degradation of CFRP sheets. Gravimetric measurements were also made
after different periods of water immersion to investigate the absorption
properties of the epoxy resin used to bond CFRP to concrete substrate. In
other words, all constituent parts of the FRP-confined system were
investigated separately to understand if possible damage mechanisms occur
at FRP, concrete or resin level.
Thirty-five concrete cylinders with diameter of 150 mm and height of
300 mm were cast. Three different types of specimens were prepared:
control specimens without any external reinforcement, CFRP-confined
cylinders with one layer of unidirectional sheet (fibres at 90 with respect to
the vertical axis of the cylinder), CFRP-confined cylinders with one layer of
quadriaxial sheet (fibres oriented at 0, 90, +45 and -45 with respect to
the vertical axis of the cylinder).
Four different conditioning exposures were used to simulate possible
physical-chemical attack to FRP-confined concrete due to the wet
environment. Plain and FRP-wrapped concrete cylinders were kept in a
laboratory environment at 22C to serve as control unconditioned
specimens. A second series of specimens was immersed in water at 40C for
2000 hours to detect the effects of moisture penetration. Another series of
specimens was immersed at 40C in a saline solution with 5% NaCl by
weight, for 2000 hours, to simulate the aggression due to deicing salts or
marine environment. Another series of specimens was subjected to
immersion in HC1 solution with pH=3 at 40C for 2000 hours to simulate
potential degradation by acidic environment. The experimental programme
related to different FRP confining systems or accelerate conditioning is
reported in Table 1. All cylinders were tested under axial compression load.
Load was applied with a 3000-kN compression machine and measured
by means of a pressure transducer. Two LVDTs were used to monitor the
Wet Environment on CFRP-Confined Cylinders 797

relative displacement between the extreme faces of the cylinder, and, from
it, the average axial strain at each load level. Four strain gauges, two in the
longitudinal and two in the hoop direction, were applied on each cylinder at
mid-height. In order to avoid that the axial load be applied directly on the
CFRP and result in local buckling of the composite close to the loaded
surfaces, the CFRP wrap did not cover the full height of the cylinder;
instead, a narrow gap was left between the end concrete surfaces and the
extreme composite fibres.
Table 1. Experimental Programme
Specimen
Code
C-C
u-c
Q-C
c-w
u-w
Q-W
C-NaCl
U-NaCl
Q-NaCl
C-HC1
U-HC1
Q-HC1
TU-C
TQ-C
TU-W
TQ-W
TU-NaCl
TQ-NaCl
TU-HC1
TQ-HC1
FRP system
Aging
Number of
specimens
Cylinders
Unconfmed
Unconditioned
CFRP Uniaxial
CFRP Quadriaxial
Unconfmed
Water immersion
CFRP Uniaxial
40C /2000hrs
CFRP Quadriaxial
Unconfmed
NaCl immersion
CFRP Uniaxial
40C /2000hrs
CFRP Quadriaxial
Unconfmed
HC1 - pH=3 immersion 40C
CFRP Uniaxial
/ 2000 hrs
CFRP Quadriaxial
ASTM D3039 - CFRP tensile specimens
CFRP Uniaxial
Unconditioned
CFRP Quadriaxial
Water immersion
CFRP Uniaxial
40C / 2000 hrs
CFRP Quadriaxial
NaCl immersion
CFRP Uniaxial
40C / 2000 hrs
CFRP Quadriaxial
HC1 - pH=3 immersion
CFRP Uniaxial
40C / 2000 hrs
CFRP Quadriaxial
5
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
r n5
3
3
4
4
3
3
Prior to compression tests, tensile CFRP specimens were prepared

according to ASTM D303910 and part of them were subjected to the same
conditioning regime used for cylinders. Testing was performed in
displacement-control mode on a 150-kN universal testing machine, with a
cross-head displacement rate of 2 mm/min. An electrical extensometer was
used to measure the strain of CFRP under tensile force. The number of
virgin and conditioned tensile specimens is reported in Table 1 within the

experimental programme.
Resin specimens (five disks with diameter of 70 mm and thickness of 5
mm) were cured at 28C and immersed in water at 40C to measure the fluid
content due to absorption at different times, and the gravimetric curve was
plotted using the weight measurements made every 72 hours.
In this research a temperature of 40C was used to accelerate the fluid
absorption by CFRP epoxy composite. Differential scanning calorimetry
(DSC) was used to measure the glass transition temperature (Tg) range of the
resin, and activation of Tg resulted at 75C. Therefore a conditioning
temperature of 40C resulted far from possible thermal degradation of the
resin or thermal activation of eventual post-cure polymerisation.
The conditioning regimes of cylinders did not take place in presence of
stress, differently from what would happen in the filed. However, in real
concrete columns under service loads radial cracking should not occur and
the transverse strain in the concrete should remain below its cracking strain.
Therefore the stress in FRP jacket is negligible under service conditions,
and should be significant only during overloads that are temporary in nature
(as also recommended by ACI 440F11).
In the tensile tests, failure occurred in all cases by tensile fibre rupture of the
laminate, therefore, results were reliable. Tensile properties of
unconditioned and conditioned FRP coupon sheets are summarized in Table
2, where the values in brackets are referred to standard deviation. A
reduction of about 20% was observed in the elastic modulus and tensile
strength of unidirectional CFRP immersed in acidic solution. Tensile
strength of other immersed CFRP showed variations with respect to the
control values within the experimental error, which confirmed the high
chemical resistance of carbon fibres. Thus, residual properties of
conditioned CFRP sheets resulted unaffected by presence of wet aggressive
environments in the cases of water and NaCl.
Resin specimens subjected to water immersion gave information on the
absorption properties of the epoxy used to bond the carbon fibre sheets to
the concrete surface. Figure 1 shows the absorption curve. The weight
increase was computed using Eq.(l):
M,(%) =
W-Wd
^--100
Wd
(1)
Wet Environment on CFRP-Confined Cylinders 799

where M,(%) = Percentage of fluid content at time t; Wd = Weight of the
dry specimen at time t=0; and W= Weight of the moist specimen at time t
An equilibrium moisture concentration was achieved after 1500 hours,
and the percentage of fluid content was 2.48%, that can be considered
acceptable in the range of epoxy resins cured at room temperature.
03
W
TO
fa
-50/
3/o
i -*
0%
250
500
750
1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
Time (hours)
Figure 1. Weight increase in epoxy matrix after water immersion at 40C
Table 2. Tensile test results
Specimen
TU-C
TU-W
TU-NaCl
TU-HC1
TQ-C
TQ-W
TQ-NaCl
TQ-HC1
Load (kN)
10.56
(1.24)
9.51
(0.72)
9.36
(1.69)
8.75
(1.82)
3.75
(0.68)
3.60
(0.76)
3.86
(0.74)
3.73
(1.10)
Strength (MPa)
4216
(334)
3795
(288)
3736
(675)
3494
(726)
1498
(272)
1437
(304)
1542
(294)
1489
(439)
Modulus (GPa)
246
(9)
215
(6)
211
(23)
200
(31)
88
(7)
91
(14)
99
(8)
93
(16)
ultimate strain %
1.82
(0.15)
1.77
(0.15)
1.76
(0.18)
1.74
(0.21)
1.70
(0.34)
1.59
(0.27)
1.56
(0.21)
1.57
(0.23)
Experimental results related to compression test of concrete cylinders

are summarized in Table 3 with standard deviation values in brackets. In the
table, f c and f cc indicate the compressive strength of plain and confined
800 PRPRCS-6; Durability and Maintenance

concrete, respectively, whereas ea and er are respectively the axial and hoop
strain of the cylinders at failure. In the last column, eacc/eac is the axial strain
at failure of confined cylinders normalized to the respective unconfined
value.
Plain concrete cylinders failed showing typical cracking parallel to
loading direction, under compressive loads. Compressive strength of
control specimens was 42.66 MPa. This value increased to 58.21 MPa
after immersion in water, and to 46.67 after immersion in NaCl
aqueous solution, but decreased to 39.31 MPa after exposure to acidic
solution.
Cylinders wrapped with unidirectional CFRP sheets failed showing fibre
rapture in all cases. Failure was sudden and explosive, and a crashed
concrete core was evident after sudden expulsion of FRP jacket as shown in
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Failure of unidirectional CFRP-wrapped cylinders

The strength and strains of wrapped cylinders were compared to those of
concrete specimens subjected to the same conditioning regime. Control
confined cylinders had a strength of 74.71 MPa. In all cases the
experimental ultimate strain of wrapping fibres was less than ultimate strain
of straight tensile CFRP specimens. From the analysis of experimental data
there are no differences in compressive strength between virgin and
conditioned specimens, and strain values appeared to be unaffected from
exposure. Typical stress-axial strain curves of unidirectional CFRP
confined-concrete are illustrated in Figure 3. A bilinear curve is evident, in
Wet Environment on CFRP-Conftned Cylinders 801

the first part the properties are mostly related to the uncracked concrete core,
after cracking of the concrete the elastic hoop action of FRP is represented
by the second pseudo-linear region.
Table 3. Experimental results after compression tests
Specimen
C-C
fc
(N/mm2)
42,66
(2,21)
u-c
Q-c
c-w
58,21
(3.87)
u-w
Q-W
C-NaCl
46,67
(5.99)
U-NaCl
Q-NaCl
C-HC1
39,31
(7.79)
U-HC1
Q-HC1
f1
cc
(N/mm2)
74,71
(5,23)
53,67
(2.52)
75,14
(6.97)
65,00
(1.63)
74,34
(1.12)
54,09
(12.19)
74,30
(4.81)
60,25
(0.38)
Sa
(%)
0,35
(0,02)
1.22
(0,13)
0,57
(0.02)
0,26
(0.01)
1,17
(0.13)
0,72
(0.01)
0,18
(0.01)
1,24
(0.27)
0,89
(0.07)
0,33
(0.00)
1,26
(0.47)
0,63
(0.06)
(%)
0,066
(0,011)
1,06
(0.26)
0,86
(0.13)
0,023
NA
1,20
(0.16)
0,61
(0.28)
0,027
(0.002)
0,86
(0.18)
1,00
(0.12)
0,043
(NA)
1,23
(0.42)
0,95
(0.05)
I cc' I c
42,66
(2,21)
1,75
(0.12)
1,26
(0.06)
tacc'âc
3,50
(0.36)
1,61
(0.06)
1,29
(0.12)
1,12
(0.03)
4,49
(0.48)
2,77
(0.05)
1,59
(0.02)
1,16
(0.26)
6,91
(1.50)
4,93
(0.39)
1,70
(0.28)
1,41
(0.16)
3,83
(1.44)
1,89
(0.19)
Cylinders confined by quadriaxial CFRP sheets showed a brittle failure

but without explosive effects that usually cause extensive expulsion of FRP
jacket. FRP failure developed helically as shown in the examples of Figure
4. It is evident that the presence of carbon fibres oriented at 45 influenced
the directions of the stress carried by the FRP jacket prior to failure. A
moderate increase in compressive strength was achieved, lower than in the
case of unidirectional sheets, because of lower amount of reinforcement.
Also for quadriaxial CFRP there were no significant reductions in
mechanical properties after immersion in aqueous fluids. Figure 5 illustrates
the typical stress-axial strain curves observed for quadriaxial CFRP

specimens. Also In these cases two distinct regions can be distinguished
prior and after macro-cracking of the concrete core.
90
80
c-w
70
c-c
"U-c
u-w
#e9d
twci
U-NaQ
60
50
CO
>
40
30
o
O
20
10
0
0
0,0025
0,005
0,0075
0,01
0,0125
0,015
axial strain
Figure 3. Stress vs axial strain curves for unidirectional CFRP-confined concrete
Figure 4. Failure of quadriaxial CFRP-wrapped cylinders
Wet Environment on CFRP'-Confined Cylinders 803
90
~m 75
Q-C
D.
LUO
^
<>
/ 60
<>
/
Q>
</) 45
01
>
to
w 30
<u
a.
15
â~^
m-~*-
7>
i
r
0
Q-NaQ
^
/
am
W*
y
0,0015
0,003
0,0045
0,006
0,0075
0,009
axial strain
Figure 5. Stress vs axial strain curves for quadriaxial CFRP-confined concrete

A study on durability of CFRP-confined concrete was carried out. From the
experimental results achieved in this research it resulted that immersion at
40C for 2000h in aqueous fluids, such as water, NaCl and HC1 solutions,
did not affect the mechanical properties of CFRP-confined concrete. The
increase in compressive strength due to the presence of FRP confining sheet
varied from 26% for quadriaxial jacket to 75% for uniaxial jacket. The
presence of 45 oriented fibres (with respect to the axis of the concrete
cylinder) in the quadriaxial sheet played a significant role in the failure
mode and resulted in a progressive helicoidally developed fracture.
CFRP sheets were also tested in tension after conditioning, and results
confirmed the high chemical resistance of carbon fibres. A maximum
reduction of 20% was measured in strength and modulus of CFRP immersed
in HCl solution. Epoxy resin used as polymer matrix showed a water
sorption of about 2.5% in weight after immersion in water at 40C for 2000
hours.
In conclusion, CFRP confinement seems to be a durable structural
solution in environments that are highly aggressive for traditional metallic
reinforcement.
REFERENCES
1. Hosny A., Shahin H., Abdelrahman A. and T. El-Afandy (2001),
"Strengthening of rectangular RC columns using CFRP", Proceedings of
FRPRCS-5, Vol.2, Cambridge, UK, July 16-18, 2001, pp.773-782.
2. Rodrigues C.C. and Silva M.G. (2001), "Experimental investigation of
CFRP reinforced concrete columns under uniaxial cyclic compression",
Proceedings of FRPRCS-5, Vol.2, Cambridge, UK, July 16-18, 2001,
pp.783-792.
3. Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M. R., and Li, M. W. (1994). "Strength and
ductility of concrete columns externally reinforced with fiber composite
straps." ACIStructural Journal, 91(July-Aug.), pp.434^147.
4. Karabinis A.I. and Rousakis T.C. (2001), "Carbon FRP confined
concrete elements under axial loads", Proceedings FRP Composites in
Civil Engineering Vol.1 , CICE Conference, December 12.15 2001,
Hong Kong, pp.309-316.
5. Amir Z. Fam and Sami H. Rizkalla (2001), "Confinement Model for
Axially Loaded Concrete Confined by Circular Fiber-Reinforced
Polymer Tubes", ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 98, N.4, July 2001.
6. De Lorenzis, L., and Tepfers, R. (2002), A comparative study of
models on confinement of concrete cylinders with FRP composites ,
ASCE Journal of Composites for Construction, accepted for publication.
7. Toutanji, H. A. (1999), "Durability characteristics of concrete columns
confined with advanced composite materials," Composite Structures, 44
(1999), pp.155-161.
8. Karbhari, V. ML, and Eckel, D. A., (1993), "Effect of cold regions
climate on composite jacketed concrete columns," Journal of Cold
Regions Engineering, 8 (3), 1993, pp. 73-86.
9. Micelli, F., Myers J.J., and Murthy S.S. (2001), "Effect of
Environmental Cycles on Concrete Cylinders Confined with FRP",
Proceed. CCC2001 Composites in Construction, International
10. ASTM, (2000), American Society for Testing and Materials, ASTM
D3039/D 3039 "Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of
Polymer Matrix Composite Materials", April 2000.Conference, October
10-12 2001, Porto, Portugal, pp. 317-3 21.
11. ACI 440F DRAFT (2000), "Guide for the Design and Construction of
Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete
Structures", ACI 440 Committee, Externally Bonded FRP Systems for
Strengthening Concrete Structures.

ALKALI AGGREGATE REACTIVE MORTAR CYLINDERS

PARTLY RESTRAINED BY EXTERNAL CFRP FABRIC
B. J. WIGUM
ERGO Engineering Geology, Ltd.
Grundarstigw 2, 101 Reykjavik, Iceland
Mortar specimens with alkali reactive aggregates have been tested in

accelerated laboratory conditions. The specimens were partly restrained by
external CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers) fabric or partly
restrained by elastic tape. Expansion results for the various types of
specimens are presented in this paper. Preliminary assessments of the
results indicate that the CFRP fabric is capable of hindering alkali
aggregate volume expansion above a certain limit. Final results will be used
to make implications of full-scale relevance of CFRP fabric as a repair
medium to prevent AAR expansion.
INTRODUCTION
A wide variety of aggregate types in common use, particularly those with a

siliceous composition, are vulnerable to attack by the alkaline pore fluid in
concrete. This attack, which in wet conditions produces a hygroscopic and
hydraulic gel, can cause cracking and disruption of the concrete. The
deterioration mechanism is termed Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR).
An example where AAR has disrupted a concrete structure is Elgeseter
Bridge in Trondheim, Norway. The 50-year old structure is a continuous
220 m long reinforced concrete beam bridge supported by eight rows of
columns, each consisting of four columns with diameter of 80 cm (Figure
1). AAR was diagnosed in 1990 and in-situ measurements of crack
development and humidity were established in 1995 (Jensen 2000)'. The
concrete beam bridge has expanded by 200 mm in the free direction and
several vertical cracks, up to 2 mm in width, were observed in the columns
and can be followed from ground level to the underside of the supported
beams (10 meters).
Figure 1. Overview of the Elgeseter Bridge near the Nidaros Cathedral in

Trondheim. Picture to the left shows close-up of vertical cracks in columns due to
AAR. The concrete beam bridge has expanded by 200 mm in the free direction and
several vertical cracks, up to 2 mm in width, are in the columns.
The necessity of repairing the structure is evident., however the main

concern has been what kind of repair methods and materials are best fitting,
with the purposes to reduce humidity in the columns, stop further crackdevelopment and finally strengthen the columns. Wrapping the columns
with CFRP fabric has been proposed as a possible solution. The positive
strengthening effect of columns with CFRP fabric has already been
demonstrated in full-scale at SINTEF (Thorenfeldt 2000)2.
The main purpose of this study has been to assess CFRP fabric as a
repair material in order to strengthen and repair bridge pillars damaged by
AAR. Advantages and disadvantages of the material for this particular
purpose will be considered in a separate report.
In this paper, preliminary results from the laboratory test programme are
reported and discussed. Of main concern, is the development of expansion
and cracking due to AAR in mortar specimens partly restrained by external
CFRP fabric.
Alkali Aggregate Reactive Mortar Cylinders 807
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Preparation of Mortar Mix, Cylinders and Initial Storage of Cylinders
A mortar-mix, expected to be highly alkali-reactive, was prepared using a
high w/c-ratio (0,65), enhanced alkali content in the cement and externally
added NaOH (total 9,5 kg Na2Oeq./m3). The well-documented highly
reactive "Spratt" aggregates (siliceous dolomitic limestone) from Canada
were used, with a grading curve according to requirements in ASTM 1260
(1994)3.
A total of eight mortar cylinders (<))10 x 45 cm) were cast, with fixed
studs (for expansion measurements) at the ends of four cylinders. To initiate
the reaction, all cylinders were pre-stored in accelerated conditions (1 N
NaOH at 80 C) for 14 days. Subsequent to the initial storage, the cylinders
were kept at room temperature, and the mortar surfaces dried and cleaned
with sandpaper.
Two of the cylinders, one prepared with elastic tape (sample C2) and
one with CFRP fabric (sample Al), were pre-loaded up to about 10 MPa.
The purpose of this was to examine any influence on the Young's modulus
caused by the introductory accelerated exposure. Since the behaviour at the
very beginning of the loading was important in these tests, they were carried
out with deformation control. However, the tests gave no indication of any
change in the Young's modulus compared to that of the initially cast
concrete.
Preparation of Samples for Further Testing
Four of the cylinders were wrapped and restrained with single bands of
CFRP fabric embedded in epoxy resin, while four other cylinders were
wrapped with bands of an elastic non-permeable asphaltic tape with the
purpose to simulate the same surface area exposed to water (as for the
cylinders with CFRP bands), without any restraining effect. Each cylinder
was covered with seven parallel bands, each of 53-mm width, and in
between were six open areas, each of 13-mm width. Two of the CFRP fibre
wrapped cylinders (Samples Al and A2) and two taped cylinders (Samples
CI and C2) were without end-studs. These cylinders were fixed in rigs with
four 0 14 mm steel rods with 30 mm thick steel plates at both ends (see
Figure 2).
A total number of eight strain gauges (WFLA-6) were fixed in each
sample; one at each of the four rods, two parallel in the length direction of
80S FRPRCS-6: Durability and Maintenance
the cylinder and two parallel in the circular direction of the cylinder. Strain
gauges in relation to the elastic tape were glued on the concrete before
placing the tape, while strain gauges related to CFRP were glued upon, the
CFRP.
Small loads were initially placed on the specimens by screwing down
bolts at the end of the four steel rods. Strain was introduced into the rigs
according to Table 1.
30 mm Siml plate
Figure 2: Configuration of mortar cylinder fixed in rig.

Table 1. Initial strain in rigs and mortar specimens
Strain in Mortar (MPa)
Initial Microstrain
Specimens No.
2.24
140
Al
1.76
110
A2
1.92
120
CI
1.92
120
C2
The two CFRP fibre wrapped cylinders with end-studs (Sample Bl and
B2), and the two taped cylinders with end-studs (Sample Dl and D2) were
covered with epoxy at both ends. A total of four strain gauges (WFLA-6)
were fixed on each sample; two parallel to the length direction of the
cylinder and two in the circular direction of the cylinder.
mm 11 ,
]ir am
S'::
JflfP&
-rf
fit si'
*I
raft*
*\3888^"
Figure 3. Configuration of the four different specimen set-up (each set-up with a
duplicate sample); Samples Al & A2: CFRP fibre wrapped cylinders, fixed in rigs;
Samples Bl & B2: CFRP fibre wrapped cylinders., with end-studs; Samples CI
&C2: Elastically taped cylinders, fixed in rigs; Samples Dl & D2: Elastically taped
cylinders, with end-studs.
Exposure and Measurement during Testing Period

The strength of the epoxy resin decreases with increased temperature, and
the influence of IN MaOH solution on the properties of epoxy was
uncertain, hence all samples were stored in water at 38C. Manual
measurements of expansion between end-studs and weight changes of
cylinders Bl, B2, Dl and D2 (weighed both in air and water) were carried
out after 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 13, 21 and 28 weeks respectively, accompanied by a
visual inspection of crack development. The strain gauges of all the samples
were logged automatically every hour, and results stored in a computer.
PRELIMINARY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Expansion and stress measurement in longitudinal direction
Expansion results in longitudinal direction for the four specimens not fixed
in rigs after 39 weeks exposure in 38 C water are found in Figure 4. The
percentage expansion in the longitudinal direction is almost linear, and
reaches values in the order of 0.30-0.43% after 39 weeks of exposure. One
of the two taped specimens (D2) exhibits slightly higher values than the
CFRP wrapped specimens (Bl and B2). A possible explanation for this
could be differences in properties of the CFRP fabric versus the elastic tape,
with the former preventing water ingression into the mortar. Cylinders with
elastic tape could get more water in - the weight increase is greater for the
taped samples than the CFRP wrapped samples (see Figure 5).
It is difficult to compare the expansion with other standard test results
due to the non-standard size of the mortar cylinders. However, the "Spratt"
aggregates used in this study have exhibited 0.29-0.50% expansion in the
accelerated mortar-bar test after 14 days of exposure and 0.17-0.19%
expansion in the Canadian concrete-prism test after one year of exposure.
(RILEM 2002)4. The linear development of the expansion indicates a
potential of further expansion.
0.45
_- 6
0.40
0.35
**"
0.30
n 0.20
a.
0.15
^ * * " ^ ^ * l
"T
.^^r^^^
.-y^}^
,.^^
D B1 (CFRP) Expansion
is
0.10
0.05
__~-0
o B2 (CFRP) Expansion
- -D - D1 (Elastic-tape) Expansion
o - D 2 (Elastic-tape) Expansion
0.00
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
Weeks of exposure in water (38C)
30
32
34
Figure 4. Results of longitudinal expansion (%) after 28 weeks.
36
38
Preliminary results from the strain gauge measurements are not fully
interpreted yet. However, it appears that cylinders, which are free to expand
in longitudinal direction, i.e. cylinders with end-studs (B and D), reach a
higher longitudinal expansion, 0.15 - 0.25% after 120 days compared to
0.08 - 0.11% expansion in the cylinders fixed in rigs (A and C).
It is however difficult to depend upon the strain gauge measurements, as
it seems that they have not been durable in the water storage. At least this is
the case for strain gauges not embedded in the epoxy resin.
-..--Or-'
= - =;ss -4a
200
- 150
D B1 (CFRP) Change of weight
o
m
100
oB2 (CFRP) Change of weight

- -D - D1 (Elastic tape) Change of weight
o D2 (Elastic tape) Change of weight
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
Figure 5. Results of change of weight (g) after 21 weeks.

Volume expansion
For volume changes, the various samples were weighed in water and in air.
The volume change was then taken as the difference of the weight in air and
water. As evident in Figure 6, shrinkage appears after three weeks of
exposure. No explanation is found for the enhanced shrinkage for the
cylinders with elastic tape. The effect of shrinkage is not found in the
measurement of the longitudinal expansion.
After 21 weeks of exposure the volume expansion for the taped
cylinders (D) is in the order of 1.10%, while volume expansion of the CFRP
wrapped cylinders is lower (0.70%). These are approximately three times
the values of the longitudinal expansions, as expected.

It is however very interesting to note that for the cylinders with CFRP
fabric, the volume expansion reaches a certain level and slows down after
21 weeks - the volume expansion development for both Bl and B2 are
much lower after 39 weeks. It is apparent that the CFRP fabric is starting to
manage the expansion completely, and will continue to keep the volume
almost constant - to a potential failure. For the cylinders with the elastic
tape the volume expansion continues to rise.
Preliminary results from the strain gauge measurements up to 120 days,
show higher circular expansion for CFRP cylinders fixed in a rig (sample
A) (0.3-0.4%), compared to CFRP cylinders (sample B) free to expand in
longitudinal direction (0.15-0.20%). This indicates the expansion favouring
the direction of less resistance. More strain gauge data (beyond 120 days)
should be needed to verify this. However, this will not be carried out due to
the durability difficulties with the strain gauges.
Cylinders not fixed in the longitudinal direction, that is sample D with
elastic tape, show a little higher circular expansion (0.25%) than sample B
with CFRP fabric.
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
-B1 (CFRP) Volume-expansion

o B2 (CFRP) Volume-expansion
- -O - D1 (Elastic-tape) Volume-expansion
o - D2 (Elastic-tape) Volume-expansion
Figure 6. Results of volume expansion (%) after 28 weeks.
38

Visual Inspection
After 21 and 39 weeks of exposure, a detailed visual inspection was carried
out for all specimens. No visual cracks were observed for cylinders that
were fixed in the rigs (Al, A2, CI and C2). However, cracks (~ 0.1 mm)
could be observed for all cylinders that were free to expand in longitudinal
direction. For cylinders with CFRP fabric the cracks appear approximately
45 to the longitudinal direction. Cylinders with elastic tape however
exhibited cracks both in longitudinal direction and the transverse on that
direction (se Figure 7).
v * 'si
Figure 7. The picturetothe left shows cracks in cylinder with CFRP, while the
picturetothe right shows cracks in cylinder with elastic tape.
CONCLUSIONS
(a) Mortar cylinders wrapped with CFRP fabric - free to expand in
longitudinal direction - reach a volume expansion level after 21 week.
Prolonged expansion data for all relevant specimens, will in ultimately
demonstrate if this is genuine.
(b) For further evaluations of the stress-strain relationship, some of the
cylinders will be loaded under deformation control to failure at the end
of this investigation.
(c) Crack development will be studied by polished plan-section and
petrographic thin-sections prepared from the various mortar
specimens.
(d) The final conclusions will be used as a basis in assessing and
evaluating a proposal for a full-scale pilot repair test.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is part of the EU TMR network; Development of Guidelines for
the Design of Concrete Structures, Reinforced, Prestressed or Strengthened
with Advanced Composites. The author wishes to acknowledge the
European Commission for funding the EU TMR Network "ConFibreCrete"
and Sika in Norway for providing materials. Colleagues at SINTEF and
ERGO are acknowledged for technical assistance and discussion during the
process of the work.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Jensen, V., "In-situ measurement of relative humidity and expansion of

cracks in structures damaged by AAR". 11th International Conference
on Alkali-Aggregate Reaction, Quebec City, QC, Canada, June 2000,
pp. 849-858.
Thorenfeldt, E., "Forsterkning av betongsoyler med karbonfibervev"
(in Norwegian). SINTEF Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Cement and Concrete. Project nr. 22M17600, 18 pp.
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Volume 4.02, Concrete and
Aggregates, C1260-94, Standard method for potential alkali-silica
reactivity of aggregates (mortar bar method), 1994, pp 648-651.
RILEM, "Outline Guide to the use of RILEM Methods in Assessments
of Aggregates for AAR Potential. RILEM Recommended Test Method
AAR-0. Direction of Potential Alkali-Reactivity of Aggregates,
DRAFTS 4 (Version 2)", May 2002, 8 pages with appendix.

ASR EXPANSION REDUCTION AND DUCTILITY

IMPROVEMENT BY CFRP SHEET WRAPPING
A. HATTORI, S. YAMAMOTO AND T. MIYAGAWA

Department of Civil Engineering, Kyoto University
Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
Y. KUBO
Department of Civil Engineering, Kanazawa University
Kanazawa 920-8667, Japan
Benefit of the CFRP sheet wrapping on reduction of alkali-silica reaction
(ASR) expansion on RC members and improvement of their flexural
behaviors are discussed. An experimental work was done using small RC
beam specimens with or without reactive aggregate. The beams had
different amounts of steel hoop confinement some of which were wrapped
spirally using the CFRP sheet. Then, the beams were exposed to an
accelerating chamber for approximately two years until the expansion
settled. The reversed cyclic bending test was conducted on the beams
before and after deterioration. Obtained results indicate that the CFRP
sheet wrapping worked sufficiently on reduction of ASR expansion with its
equivalent volumetric ratio of 1.6% or more. Flexural behaviors expressed
by deflection ductility factor and dissipated energy under static incremental
reversed cyclic loading were improved by the CFRP sheet wrapping after
the accelerated expansion. The latter benefit was more significant than the
former one.
INTRODUCTION
Previous studies' have indicated that RC members deteriorate in terms of
load carrying performance when subjected to alkali-silica reaction (ASR)
unless they have sufficient longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
Although the FRP sheet is expected to be effective for ASR expansion
reduction as well as improvement of load carrying behavior of such
members, it should be taken into consideration that the FRP sheet is a
material sensitive to stress (crack) direction and it can affect the moisture
flow through concrete surface when applied it to ASR members.
In this study, an experimental work was done using small RC beam
specimens with or without reactive aggregate. The beams had different

amounts of steel hoop confinement some of which were wrapped spirally
using the CFRP sheet. Then, the beams were exposed in an accelerating
chamber and the expansion was monitored for approximately two years
until it has settled. The reversed cyclic bending test was also carried out on
the beams before and after deterioration.
EXPERIMENT OUTLINE
The test parameters of the RC beam specimens are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Test parameters and RC beam specimens
Concrete
Coarse
aggregate
Alkali
Nonreactive
Reactive
NaN0 2
Reactive
NaN0 2
Volumetric ratio of lateral

confinement (%)
Steel hoop, ps CFRP sheet, pf
(External)
(Internal)
0.8
0.14
0.8
0.14
0.27
1.6
2.4
Environment
Indoor
Accelerated
* Arrangement pitch of the steel hoop: 122, 61 or 40mm / CFRP sheet: 122 or 61mm.
* py is the volumetric ratio of carbon fiber.
Concrete Mixtures
The target strength of the concrete was 30N/mm2 for all the RC beam
specimens. Concrete mixtures differed in the coarse aggregate (nonreactive
or pessimum mix of nonreactive/reactive) and added alkali (NaN02: Na20
equivalent alkali: 12.0kg/m3). It is noted that NaN02 works favorably
against steel corrosion.
Dimensions and Arrangement of Reinforcement
Dimensions of the RC beam specimens are shown in Figure 1.
Mechanical properties of the longitudinal steel bar and the steel hoop for
the internal lateral confinement, and the CFRP sheet for external wrapping
are shown in Table 2 and Table 3, respectively. As for the internal confinement and the shear reinforcement, rectangular steel hoop stirrups (<)>6mm)
with 135 degrees hook were used. The central 700mm portion including the
ASR Expansion Reduction and Ductility Improvement
817
bending span (300mm) was designated as the confined region. Sufficient

shear reinforcement was given in order to investigate flexural behavior.
<L
350n
Steel hoop confinement

pitch: 122, 61 or 40
<J>6
'D10
uoti a
-diooU-
700
150
* A hoop at the center
Coated strain gauges

(length: 2)
* Transverse expansion
. cBare
a r e concrete surface
CFRP sheet
\\\\\\\\\ I
-J U-
-JU-
Buried or attached
points
CFRP wrapping CFRP width

pitch: 122 or 61
50
(Unit: mm)
Figure 1. RC beam specimens with/without the CFRP sheet wrapping

and monitoring of steel hoop strain / transverse expansion
Table 2. Mechanical properties of steel bars

Steel bar
D10
#6
Nominal
diameter
(mm)
9.53
6.0
Yield
strength
(N/mm2)
353
563
Tensile
strength
(N/mm2)
505
596
Elongation
(%)
28.2
-
* D10 is for the longitudinal reinforcement, <j>6 is for the 135 degrees hook type hoop.
* Young's modulus was assumed to be 200 000N/mm2 for both.
Table 3. Mechanical properties of CFRP sheet
Weave
Density
Mm2)
200
Design
thickness
(mm)
0.111
Young's
modulus
(N/mm2)
230 000
Tensile
strength
(N/mm2)
3 400
Elongation
1.5
Lateral Confinement
Lateral confinement consisted of two materials, that is,, internally used steel
hoops and externally wrapped CFRP sheet. Both materials are expected to
reduce ASR expansion and to improve flexural behavior. The CFRP sheet
was applied before ASR expansion. This experiment was meant for
examining the applicability of the CFRP sheet to the members with residual
expansion as well as to potentially deteriorative members.
Although the CFRP sheet is often used for strengthening, it can work as
a repair surface protection layer against ASR expansion. It is expected to
improve durability (i.e. reduce expansion) by the fiber resisting tension
force due to cracks and by the (epoxy) resin shutting out moisture ingress.
However, since the fiber is not so strong against the transverse shear (i.e.
unidirectional CFRP sheet is orthotropic) generated by the multidirectional
ASR cracks, and the resin stops moisture egress as well, applicability of the
CFRP sheet to ASR members should be carefully examined.
Since it was necessary to apply the CFRP sheets at an angle, the whole
surface of the specimen was wrapped when the pitch of wrapping centerline
was 61mm and a clearance existed (Figure 1) when the interval was 122mm.
In addition, primer, putty and resin impregnation were applied only on the
area where the CFRP sheets existed. Egress and ingress of the moisture
were made possible through the bare surface between the wrapped CFRP
sheets that were placed at a pitch of 122 mm.
Accelerated Exposure
Some specimens were exposed in an accelerated deterioration chamber
(40C, 100%RH). Transverse expansions were monitored on the concrete
surface and on the CFRP sheet by a mechanical contact deformeter
(measuring base: 100 or 150mm, resolution: 0.01mm) during the exposure
period. Strain of the steel hoop was also monitored by attached strain
gauges. Details of monitoring gauges are shown in Figure 1.
Reversed Cyclic Loading
The four-point reversed cyclic bending test was conducted on the beams
before and after deterioration. The loading test setup is shown in Figure 1.
Loading continued until the beams significantly lost their capacity in the
falling branch due to buckling of the compression bar and/or rupture of the
tension bar as well as compression failure of concrete, with unloading at
every deflection of (2n-\) 5y. By measuring the applied load and the
deflection at span center, the maximum load and ductility were examined.
ASR Expansion Reduction and Ductility Improvement 819

ASR Expansion after Deterioration
The expansion settled after about 200 days of accelerating exposure.
Hereinafter, this state is called "after deterioration". Effect of confinement
on transverse expansion after deterioration is shown in Figure 2. The
confinement is expressed by simple addition of p/to p s , with consideration
for the ratio of Young's modulus that is (ps+/= ps + EJ Ef pj).
s* 0.6
-\
o 0.5
c/>
<5 0.4
&
0.3
\
\
- 0.2
>
= = =
V)
g 0.1
ô.o I
0.0
1.0
2.0
Volumetric ratio of confinement, %
1
3.0
Figure 2. Effect of confinement on transverse expansion

( / O : with/without the CFRP sheet wrapping)
In the case of p,+/(= ps) = 0.8%, transverse expansion reached as much

as about 0.55%. However, it was suppressed to about 0.25% and 0.22% for
ps+f= 1.6% and 2.4% respectively. The CFRP sheet wrapping (legend: )
resulted in similar tendency as the steel hoop. However, the rate of increase
in benefit decreased for ps+f over 1.6%.
The strains in the steel hoop were measured by strain gauges for about
100 days of accelerating exposure. The relationship between the transverse
expansion and the steel hoop strain in this period is shown in Figure 3. The
strain in the steel hoop is about half (1/2) that of the transverse expansion.
Assuming that this relationship is valid for some larger expansion, the strain
in the steel hoop is approximately estimated to be 0.30% for ps+f (= ps) =
0.8%. Therefore, the steel hoop has possibly yielded. Yield of
reinforcement due to ASR expansion may cause significant reduction in
load carrying capacity and ductility of members. On the contrary, for p J+/
between 1.6 and 2.4%, the strain in the steel hoop is estimated to be about
0.10% which is smaller than the yield strain. Judging from the above
discussion, pJ+y = 1.6% is the optimum amount of confinement,

with/without the CFRP sheet, to expect reduction of the ASR expansion.
0.15
c"
2 0.10
to
Q.
O
O
f 0.05
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Transverse expansion, %
Figure 3. Transverse expansion and steel hoop strain (in 100 days)
Flexural Behavior after Deterioration

Cracks were formed with widths of 0.1mm or less, although their
inclinations are small owing to the longitudinal reinforcement. No rupture
of the CFRP sheet was observed.
Load carrying behaviors of the specimens are shown in Figure 4 to
Figure 6. Maximum load, Pmax, and ductility indicated by deflection
ductility factor, ju, and dissipated energy, Ed, were examined respectively
where ju = 8U I Sy (Su: ultimate deflection at P = 0.8Pmax, &/ yielding
deflection), and Ed is area enclosed by the load-deflection hysteresis curve
up to P = 0.8Pmax- The indexes are values normalised with "before
deterioration" values without the CFRP sheet.
ASR expansion is
represented by the transverse expansion.
All indexes decreased as transverse expansion increased. Although it
has been reported that no severe reduction in static load carrying behavior
occured in RC members subjected to ASR if sufficient reinforcement has
been provided", excessive expansion and/or reversed cyclic loading in
earthquakes can degrade the performance.
ASR Expansion Reduction and Ductility Improvement 821

1.8
1.6
1.4
0 1.2
1 1.0 ^1
E
x 0.8
o*
TO
0.6
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.6
0.4
Figure 4. Effect of the ASR expansion on maximum load, Pm

1.8
.2 1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0 <R1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure 5. Effect of the ASR expansion on deflection ductility factor, /i

1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
C)
~iO
o
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
Figure 6. Effect of the ASR expansion on dissipated energy, d

( / O : with/without the CFRP sheet wrapping in Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6)
While the CFRP sheet wrapping has little effect on maximum load, it
increased the ductility remarkably. This is a common situation in usual
confined concrete. The CFRP sheet wrapping had only similar degree of
benefit as steel hoops in the reduction of ASR expansion. However, its
ability to improve ductility is more significant than suppressing the
expansion. In specimens without the CFRP sheet wrapping, cover spall
induced by ASR cracks were the cause of significant decrease in ductility.
The CFRP sheet wrapping could improve ductility more effectively than
internally arranged steel hoops in that it can reduce spalling as well as
cracking. In this way, the CFRP sheet wrapping is expected to be applied to
increase ductility of ASR deteriorated members indirectly.
CONCLUSIONS
Some conclusions can be drawn from this study as follows:
(a) As a remedial action to reduce residual ASR expansion and to improve
flexural ductility in existing structures in which internal lateral
confinement is insufficient, it is effective to apply additional CFRP
sheets.
(b) The CFRP sheet wrapping has a similar degree of benefit as steel hoops
in the reduction of ASR expansion. Volumetric ratio of confinement of
about 1.6% by combination of the internal steel hoops and the external
CFRP sheet is expected to provide an effective reduction in ASR
expansion.
(c) The CFRP sheet improves ductility expressed by deflection ductility
factor, fj, and dissipated energy, Ed, more significantly than it suppresses
ASR expansion.
REFERENCES
1. For example, Y. Kubo, S. Yamamoto, A. Hattori and T. Miyagawa,
"Influence of Alkali-Silica Reaction on Load Carrying Behavior of
Flexural Concrete Member", Journal of the Society of Materials
Science, Japan, Vol. 50, No. 9, 2001, pp.1013-1020. (in Japanese)
2 For example, W. Koyanagi et. al., "Mechanical Behaviors of RC Beams
and Columns Deteriorated Due to ASR", Proceedings of the Japan
Concrete Institute, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1996, pp.843-848. (in Japanese)

DURABILITY OF GFRP REBARS IN CONCRETE BEAMS

UNDER SUSTAINED LOADS AT SEVERE ENVIRONMENTS
T.H. ALMUSALLAM, Y.A. AL-SALLOUM, S.H. ALSAYED AND
A.M. ALHOZAIMY
Department of Civil Engineering, King Saud University
P.O. Box 800, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia
The objective of this study is to investigate the long-term durability of
GFRP bars under sustained loads in different exposure conditions. This can
be achieved and best represented through testing concrete beams reinforced
with GFRP bars and subjected to a certain stress level. In order to
accelerate the reaction, all beams were completely or partially immersed in
different environments (tap-water and sea-water) at elevated temperature.
The results of this investigation will provide a certain confidence level in
using GFRP bars in concrete structures taking into account the durability
issue (i.e. long-term behavior of concrete beams with GFRP reinforcement).
INTRODUCTION
The reliability of any reinforcement in concrete structures depends mainly
on their continued competence to accommodate the required tensile forces.
This means that adequate long-term performance is essential. The suitability
and long-term performance of reinforcing steels, used in concrete, are more
or less known. But some disadvantages like sensitivity to corrosion do exist
specially in environments, such as the harsh environment in the eastern and
western province of Saudi Arabia.
Most composites exhibit a long-term static strength that is significantly
lower than the short-term strength. This long-term static strength is
observed by exposing the material to sustained stress for a long period of
time in a certain environmental exposure (i.e. in air, acid, alkaline, sea water
at ambient temperature). This failure due to the degradation of the material
properties with time is also referred to as creep rupture. The loss of strength
can be accelerated in adverse environments, such as, in the presence of
water, or strong acidic or alkaline solutions.
Reduction in original properties of GFRP bars may occur under harsh
environments and under physical aging, jeopardizing structural safety and
effectiveness of composite systems'. The extent of degradation may be
accelerated under high pH environment of concrete, sustained stress, and
exposure to freeze-thaw conditions. Hence, understanding the durability of

GFRP bars as a function of glass fibers and polymeric resin is essential to
design GFRP reinforced concrete members and to guarantee the typical
infrastructure service life (~75 years), and safety.
The long-term static strength of E-glass tendons at 10,000 hours (about 1
year) has been reported to be 70% of the short-term static strength2'3. Sultan
et al.4 reported that remaining strengths after 10 to 15 years were 40% for
hand laid-up fiber glass, and 50% for filament wound composites. Slattery5
reported that long-term tests on Glass/Epoxy composites showed failure of
about half of the samples tested at a sustained stress of only 50% of ultimate,
after about 7 years. Fujii et al.6 tested E-glass composites with relatively
brittle polyester matrix. These composites showed significant matrix
microcracking when loaded to only 40% of their short-term ultimate
strength. This microcracking resulted in a significant loss of tensile strength
(more than 50% in 720 hours) when the composite was immersed in an
acidic solution.
Tests at Iowa State University used accelerated aging techniques to
determine the long-term strength of GFRP composites7'8. The accelerated
aging procedure involved exposing specimens to an alkaline solution at high
temperature (up to 140 F) for 2 to 3 months, simulating about 50 years of
exposure to real weather. Tensile tests on 3 rebar types indicated remaining
strengths of 34%, 52%, and 71% of the measured short-term strengths.
Local studies by the authors at King Saud University on the durability of
GFRP sheets910, and on the durability of GFRP bars11'12 , for unstressed
specimens have been conducted at different environmental conditions.
These studies showed that there is a reduction in strength for GFRP bars and
for some types of GFRP sheets.
Beam Details
A total of 24 concrete beams of (100 x 100 x 2000 mm) were prepared for
this study with 1 <>
j 10 mm GFRP rebars placed at the tension side (bottom).
No stirrups were provided for all beams in which the concrete was chosen
such that the concrete will carry all shear forces without having a chance of
shear failure for all beams. The beams were designed such that the sustained
load will provide 20-25% stress level on the GFRP bars of their ultimate
tensile capacities. The GFRP bars were coated with high alkali cement paste
(40 x 40 x 700 mm) at the middle to increase the alkalinity content around
Beams under Sustained Loads at Severe Environments 825

GFRP bars and to allow easy extraction of bars from beams at the day of
testing. The beam cross-section and details are shown in Fig. 1.
High Alkaline
Cement Paste
40x40x700 irm
m
700rrm
l<|>10mm
GFRP Bar
. 1800mm
2000mm (a) Beam set-up
High Alkaline
Cement Paste
40 x 40 x 700 mm
1 <)| 10 mm
GFRP Bar
mm
Section A-A
(b) Beam cross-section
Fig. 1 The beam specimen details
Material Properties
Concrete
The compressive strength of concrete, / was determined by testing
standard concrete cylinders that were taken from the mix patch used for all
beams after 120 days. The average value offc was 43 MPa.
The high alkali cement paste used for the middle part of the beam (see
Fig. 1) has a 0.6 water cement ratio. In order to increase the alkalinity in the
paste Na20 was increased from 0.2% to 1% (about 3.62 kg of NaOH for 350
kg cement). The specified weight of NaOH pellets were dissolved in the
mixing water and then cement added gradually. The average compressive
strength of (50 x 50 x 50 mm) paste cubes at the day of testing was about
44.2 MPa.
GFRP bars
All beams were reinforced with (|>10 mm GFRP bars for this study. The
average ultimate tensile strength of 4 samples was determined to be 743
MPa. This value was considered as the reference value for tensile strength
of GFRP bars.
Beams and Environmental Groups
After casting and curing all the 24 beams, they were subdivided into 3
groups based on their environmental exposure. Each group consisted of 8
beams reinforced with GFRP bars and scheduled to be exposed to a certain
environment. Three tanks were fabricated for the three groups of beams and
painted with an enamel paint for protection and fitted with electrical heaters,
thermostat to control the temperature of water to about 40C. The tanks
were designated as Tl (for tap water continuous exposure at 40C), T2 (for
sea water continuous exposure at 40C), and T3 (for wet/dry cycles of sea
water exposure at 40C). Each tank contains 8 beams, in which 4 beams
were unloaded and the other 4 were loaded with sustained dead loads, which
represent about 20-25% stress level in the GFRP bars. A sketch that shows
the arrangement of the specimens in each tank is shown in Fig. 2.
TEST RESULTS
Tension Test Results
After 4 and 8 months of exposure in all environments, four beams from each
environment (2 unloaded and 2 loaded) were removed from tanks to prepare
crr
I1
B8-U
i
X
1!
1
'
\
\-
B6-L
B5-U
; i
'
-u
Steel Tank
!
]
;
U -Unloaded
L - Loaded
x - Thermostat
!!
I..:
B3-L
' '
B2-L
i 1
ShM.lined
1 .ud
i
i
i
v^
j"v
IUU
nun
^-
'
^j
Steel Plate
Loaded Beam
700 mm
mm
2000 mm
Fig. 2 Arrangement of specimens in each tank.
i
i
i
i
i
->j j
'
Bl-U
x
\
B4
!
i
ir: l
B7-L
samples for testing. The GFRP bars were extracted carefully from all beams
and two samples of GFRP bars were taken from each beam to be ready for
tension test. Uniaxial tension tests were performed on the stressed and
unstressed GFRP bars using 500 kN capacity universal testing machine, with
specially modified grips consisting of 10 cm split steel pipes used for
gripping the bars after sand coating at both ends. Bars were tested as
received directly from the manufacturer without simulating any
environmental or loading effects. Data obtained from these bars were
utilized as a basis (control) for evaluating the performance (reduction in
tensile strength) of conditioned and stressed bars. The tensile average
strength values for stressed and unstressed tested samples for all bars after 4
and 8 months of exposure are shown in Fig. 3.
It is clear from Fig. 3 that the maximum reductions in tensile strength for
wet/dry sea-water exposure, after 4 and 8 months for unstressed specimens
were about 10% and 17%, respectively. However, the maximum reductions
in tensile strength for unstressed specimens, continuously immersed in tapwater for 4 and 8 months exposure at 40C were about 5% and 13%,
respectively. Also, the maximum reductions in tensile strength for
unstressed specimens, continuously immersed in sea-water for 4 and 8
months exposure at 40C were about 2% and 16%, respectively. For
specimens with stressed GFRP bars (20% - 25% of their ultimate), the
maximum reduction in tensile strength after 4 months of continuous
conditioning in sea-water at 40 C was about 30%, while the maximum
reduction after 8 months exhibited for wet/dry sea-water exposure at 51%
reduction. The other reduction values can be observed clearly from Fig. 3
for 4 and 8 months exposure period. All values are compared with the
control value to quantify the reduction in the tensile strength in the GFRP
bars due to sustained load at different environmental exposure conditions.
Sample of one of the bars after testing is shown in Fig.4.
Load Deflection Behavior
Most of beams were tested for flexure before extraction of GFRP bars in
order to study the effect of environments and sustained loads on the loaddeflection behavior of conditioned beams reinforced with GFRP bars.
Figures 5 and 6 shows the load deflection curves for most of the beams
tested for flexure from two of the considered exposure conditions.
Each figure shows the reduction in load capacity, stiffness and deflection
due to exposure and loading conditions for all unstressed and stressed beams
after 4 and 8 months of exposure.
D Unconditioned (Control)
Stressed (4m)
11 Stressed (8m)
3 Unstressed (4m)
Unstressed (8m)
c
CO
Tap-Water
(Immersed)
Sea-Water
(Immersed)
Sea Water
(Wet/Dry)
Environment
Fig. 3
The average tensile strength variation for all GFRP bars tested after 4 and 8
months under all exposure conditions
Fig. 4
Sample of tested TIB 1 specimens of GFRP bars (after failure)
In most cases the maximum load capacity and deflection reductions were
exhibited for stressed beams after 8 months of exposure for all
environments. The same trend was observed for unstressed beams after 8
months of exposure. Some of unstressed samples such as T1B5 in Fig. 5
exhibited higher initial stiffness than T1B1. This is attributed to the gain in

concrete strength between 4 and 8 months of exposure in tap water. Also it
can be observed from most of the curves that all stressed beams exhibited
higher stiffness after 4 and 8 months of exposure than unstressed samples at
high load levels. There is no obvious clear reason for such observation.
However, it seems that for stressed beams the combination effect of creep
and loading may lead to higher stiffness at high load level.
5 -
4 -
Jy/
J/'f
3 J//
J*'/
\lf
0 -
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
90
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 5 Load-deflection relationships for beams tested after 4 and 8 months of

exposure in Tank 1 (for tap water continuous exposure at 40C)
CONCLUSIONS
The laboratory test results presented in this study clearly show that there is a
significant loss (about 27-29% after 4 months and about 37-51% after 8
months) in tensile strength of GFRP bars when subjected to sustained stress
of about 20-25% of their ultimate for the three environments considered in
this study. The loss in tensile strength of the unstressed specimens under the
same environments ranges between 2-10% after 4 months and 13-17% for 8
months of exposure. It is clear that the degradation in the GFRP bars
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Deflection ( mm )
Fig. 6
Load-deflection relationships for beams tested after 4 and 8 months of

exposure in Tank 3 (for wet/dry sea water exposure at 40C)
is significant when the bars were subjected to sustained stress for a period of
time. Similar losses in the flexural strength of these beams were noticed.
However, further studies are required in order to come up with solid
conclusions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support received from
Saudi Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC).
REFERENCES
1.
GangaRao, H.V.S., Vijay, P.V. and Derek, A., "Durability of Glass

Composites Under Alkaline and Prestress Environment", Proc. of
International Conference on Fiber Reinforced Structural Plastics in Civil
Engg., IIT, Madras, December , 1995, pp. 371-378.

2.
Wolff, R. and Miesseler, H.J. (1989), "New Materials for Prestressing and
Monitoring Heavy Structures", Concrete International, 1989,Vol. 11, No. 9,
pp. 86-89.
3.
Taerwe, L., "FRP Developments and Applications in Europe", FiberReinforced- Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures: Properties
and Applications, Developments in Civil Engg., 42, A. Nanni ed., Elsevier
Science Publishers, 1993, pp. 99-114.
4.
Sultan, M., Hawkins, G. and Sheng, L.H., "CALTRANS Program for the
Evaluation of Fiber Reinforced Plastics for Seismic Retrofit and Rehabilitation
of Structures", Proceedings, FHWA National Seismic Conference, San Diego,
CA., 1995.
5.
Slattery, K., "Mechanistic Model for the Creep-Rupture Process in Filamentary
Composites", Infrastructure: New Materials and Methods of Repair,
Proceedings, Third Materials Engineering Conference, San Diego, CA, 1994,
pp. 215-222.
6.
Fujii, M., Z., Hamada, H., Kubota, T., Murakami, A. and Yoshiki, T.,
"Evaluation of Initial Damage and Stress Corrosion of GFRP", 9th Intl. Conf.
on Composite Materials (ICCM/9), Madrid, Spain, 1993,Vol. 5, pp. 562-568.
7.
Porter, M.L. Mehus, J., Young, K.A., O'Neil, E.F. and Barnes, B.A., "Aging
Degradation of Fiber Composite Reinforcements for Structural Concrete",
Technical Session: Durability of FRP Reinf in Concrete, ACI Spring
Convention, Denver, CO.,1996a.
8. Porter, M.L. Mehus, J. Young, K.A. Barnes, B.A., O'Neil, E.F., "Aging
Degradation of Fiber Composite Reinforcements for Structural Concrete", 2nd
Intl. Conf. on Composites in Infrastructure, ICCI'96, Tucson, AZ, 1996b, pp.
641-647.
9. Almusallam,T.H., Al-Salloum,Y.A. and Alsayed, S.H., "Behavior of Concrete
Cylinders Confined with GFRP Sheets in Severe Environmental Conditions",
Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Concrete Under Severe
Conditions: Environment & Loading (CONSEC'OI), Vancouver, Canada, June
18-20., 2001.
10. Al-Salloum, Y.A, Alsayed, S.H., and Almusallam, T.H., "Effect of Aggressive
Environments on Strength of RC Beams Strengthened with Composite
Laminates", Proceedings of the SAMPE 2001 Symposium, Society for the
Advancement of Material and Process Engineering, 6-10 May 2001, Long
Beach, California, pp. 485-496.
11. Alsayed S., H., Alhozaimy, A.M., Al-Salloum, Y.A., Almusallam, T.H.,
"Durability of The New Generation of GFRP Rebars Under Severe
Environments," Proceedings of The Second International Conference on
Durability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Composites for Construction
(CDCC2002), Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 29-31 May 2002, pp. 651-663.
12. Alsayed, S. and Alhozaimy, A., "Effect of High Temperature and Alkaline
Solutions on the Durability of FRP Bars", Proceedings of the First
International Conference on Durability of FRP Composites for Construction
(CDCC'98), Sherbrooke, Canada, August 5-7, 1998, pp. 623-634.

INFLUENCE OF SUSTAINED STRESS ON THE

DURABILITY OF GFRP BARS EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE
V. DEJKE u , O. POUPARD ' 2, L.O. NILSSON1,
R. TEPFERS1 AND A. AIT-MOKHTAR2
'Department of Building Materials, Chalmers
University of Technology, SE-412 96 Goteborg, Sweden
2
L.E.P. T.A.B., University of La Rochelle,
Av. Michel Crepeau, 17041 La Rochelle cedex 1, France
3
IFP Research AB, SE-431 22 Molndal, Sweden
A new test equipment has been created to study the combined effects of
environmental exposure and external stress on the durability of a GFRP (EGlass/Vinyl ester) rebar. GFRP specimens embedded in moisture-saturated
concrete have been conditioned at two temperatures and at two levels of
sustained tensile stress (5% and 25% of the ultimate tensile strength).
According to the preliminary results, stress levels up to 25% of the original
tensile strength do not appear to have a negative influence on the durability
of GFRP bars embedded in concrete.
INTRODUCTION
During the last decade, the use of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
reinforcement for concrete has gained an increasing interest worldwide. The
main advantage over steel is their good corrosion resistance in aqueous and
saline environments and in long-term contact with organic solvents.
Nevertheless, the concrete reinforcement application is relatively new and
consequently, there is a lack of data regarding their long-term performance.
In concrete, degradation of glass FRP (GFRP) may take place, primarily due
to the high alkalinity of concrete and in some applications high moisture
levels, which result in deterioration of the mechanical properties.
Consequently, the durability issue is essential for use and design of GFRP
materials in civil engineering applications.
Many studies have reported the influence of various environmental
conditions (alkaline or saline environment, moisture and freeze-thaw
actions) on the GFRP durability1'2. However they are commonly limited to
exposure tests on unstressed specimens. A literature review highlights the
lack of quantitative information on the durability of GFRP reinforcement
under the combined effect of environmental conditioning and mechanical
stress3'4'5.
OBJECTIVES
In the current project the overall objective is to investigate the combined
effect of sustained stress and environmental conditioning on the durability of
GFRP bars. The ambition is to be able to determine the allowable design
strength for GFRP-reinforcement with accounts for the environmental
influence. In more detail, the objectives are as follows:
(a) to develop a test equipment suitable to subjecting GFRP specimens to
a combination of environmental exposure and different stress levels,
(b) to characterize the relationship between the stress level and the
environmental conditioning on the durability of GFRP composites in
terms of tensile properties,
(c) to suggest a service life predictive model that incorporates both
environmental and load conditions.
The aim is not to study the stress-rupture phenomena but rather the
degradation process occurring at stress levels lower than that required for
stress-rupture. This paper presents the development of the test method and
discusses the first experimental results.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Durability is an important topic when considering the use of GFRP materials
in civil engineering infrastructure applications. The influence of water
absorption, alkali attack and application of mechanical loading have been
identified as major factors that may cause the degradation of the material
through a wide range of chemical and physical processes1'2'3. Experimental
results on the degradation of GFRP composites under alkaline and moist
environments have shown that, in order to safely design concrete structures,
it is necessary to account for the long-term deterioration of the mechanical
properties1,6'7'8. Some predictive models have been suggested based on the
"Arrhenius" equation1'6'8. However these studies are limited to the case of
unstressed specimens (only environmental exposure). Nevertheless, in real
applications, the reinforcement will be subjected to a sustained load, and
more particularly for those used as primary reinforcements.
The degradation mechanism under a combination of load and
environmental influence may be quite complex due to the occurrence of
several interacting physico-chemical and mechanical processes. The
application of a mechanical stress can affect the durability of the material in
various ways by causing3'9:
Durability ofGFRP Bars Embedded in Concrete 835
(a) the formation of microscopic cracks even in the absence of aggressive

environmental conditions,
(b) a displacement of the molecules from their original position involving
a lower energy necessary to break the intra-molecular bindings in the
non-fissured matrix area,
(c) an increase of the "plasticization" effect in the composite matrix
during ageing process.
Furthermore, the formation and the opening of micro-cracks enable more
aggressive species from the surroundings to penetrate the matrix and reach
the sensitive fibres at a higher rate. Despite the potential accelerating
influence of stress, only relatively few reports have been published on the
combined effect of environmental exposure and external stress on durability
ofGFRP 3 ' 45 .
Material
One type of GFRP bars was studied in this experimental work. Its
characteristics are given in Table 1. The initial ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) was measured to about 770 MPa (average value of five specimens).
The standard deviation was 17 MPa.
Table 1. Characteristics of GFRP rebar.
Fibre
E-Glass
Matrix
Diameter (specified)
Vinyl ester
9 mm
Diameter (measured)
10.1 mm
For the environmental conditioning, the GFRP bars were embedded in

"concrete prisms" (with a square cross-section of 5 cm and a length of 20
cm, Figure 1), consisting of a low alkali Portland cement ("Degerhamn PC")
and a water/cement ratio of 0.5. At the ends of the bars, steel pipes were cast
(using epoxy) to enable a strong anchorage at exposure and testing. The
concrete/GFRP specimens were kept in 100% humidity at room temperature
for 28 days (cure period) before the test. Only the middle part (about 20 cm)
of the length of the bars was embedded in concrete. To prevent the concrete
from carrying any load during the exposure, slits were cut in the concrete,
which reduced the cross-section area by approximately 80%. This ensured
that the concrete cracked due to the tensile load and that the load
consequently acted only on the GFRP bars at the positions of the cracks.
Furthermore, the distances between the slits/cracks were not long enough to
build up stresses in the concrete to any appreciable extent.
Figure 1. View of specimens.
Experimental equipment
A new device was developed within the project, that enables the specimens
to be simultaneously subjected to environmental conditioning and sustained
load. The set-up consists of: lever arms, counter weights and concrete
support. The experimental device is shown in Figures 2 and 3. Compared to
other test methods described in the literature4,7, this one is cheap (no
expensive parts), reliable (the concrete support and the lever arm are very
robust and the "hinge" is attached on the lever arm to ensure that the stress
acting on the bar is constant). Moreover, the load level is not affected by any
relaxation process. This device requires roughly 1.2x2.5 meters of floor
space for one structure (6 specimens per structure). Two stress levels, 5%
and 25%, of the UTS, have been applied in this study. At these stress levels,
stress rupture is assumed to not take place10.
To be able to determine the time temperature relationship for the
strength deterioration, the GFRP bars are exposed to moisture saturated
concrete at two temperatures, 20C and 60C. The specimens are put in a
thermally insulated box with the bottom part consisting of a water tank. A
heater in the water and a thermostat are used to control the temperature, A
good homogenization of the environmental conditions (temperature and
humidity) is ensured with a fan inside the box. The temperature and the
relative humidity are frequently checked during exposure. The moisture
condition (100% relative humidity) has been chosen as it will represent the
"worst case condition" faced by GFRP-reinforcement when used in out-door
structures. The results obtained in this study will, hence, be on the safe side
for most normal applications.

Steel
pipes
Metallic
beam
^
Insulation]*:
GFRP bars
Concrete
Counterweight
Fixing support
. Concrete
structure
Water
Figure 2. Schematic view of the experimental set-up.
Figure 3. Photograph of the experimental set-up.
Special measures were taken to ensure a uniform stress distribution in

the bar. For some bars5 a slight bending was observed during loading. This
behaviour was attributed to an uneven distribution of the strength from the
lever arm to the bar, via the steel pipes. To handle this problem, a bearing
support device was made (Figure 4). In principle, the "bearing" consists of a
"rubber washer" (5 mm thick) between two steel washers. The rubber is
used to ensure a reliable distribution of the applied strength on the steel
pipes. A rubber with a relatively low stiffness has been selected to improve
the deformability, and thereby the stress distributive capability. Because of
its viscous characteristics, the rubber tends to "float away" when the load is
applied. To avoid this problem, the system (rubber and steel washers) is
encapsulated by a metallic pipe. This method showed to be effective for low
stresses at 20C. However, at 60C, and especially for the specimens
subjected to 25% of UTS, the rubber tended to "float" away through the
narrow gap present between the GFRP bars and the steel washers. Therefore
this system was only used for the specimens subjected to load of 5% of UTS
at 20C.
Figure 4. Experimental device to improve the stress distribution between the

metallic support and the specimen.
Test Method and Test Program

Aged GFRP bars have been tested in terms of tensile properties, initially and
after exposure. Table 2 shows the details of the experimental test program.
Table 2. Experimental program.
Relative
Load level
Temperature
humidity
(% of the UTS)
100%
20C
^
j
100%
60C
100%
20C
o<
ZJ
100%
60C
Initial tests of imaged specimens
Total number of
specimens
6
6
6
6
5
Prior to the tensile strength testing, the bars were extracted from the
concrete.

PRELIMINARY RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Test results for specimens aged for up to 4 months are presented herein. The
test values are given in Table 3. Only specimens who showed fibre rupture
located in the region exposed to the concrete have been included.
Table 3. Tensile strength retention for the specimens,
Stress
level
Temperature
20C
5%
60C
20C
25%
60C
Exposure
duration
Tensile strength (%ofUTS)

#1
#2
Average
114 days
101
90
96
172 days
83
84
83
15 days
81
73 days
72
85
79
114 days
101
92
96
172 days
90
102
96
15 days
27 days
82
74
97
.
90
74 a
73 days
88
88 a
81 a
As reported by several researchers, the test results obtained so far in this

project indicates that the environment of moist concrete has a negative
influence on the mechanical properties of GFRP-reinforcement. Moreover,
the degradation mechanism, causing the deterioration, is accelerated by an
elevated temperature. The stress, as previously discussed, is generally
believed to generate growth of flaws or micro-cracks within the bulk
composite, which increases the diffusion of aggressive species and
consequently speeds up the degradation. However, the results do not indicate
such behaviour. There is no noticeable effect of the stress level applied on
the tensile strength retention. These experimental data have been compared
to the experimental results obtained by Dejke1 for unstressed specimens
under similar environmental conditions. Figures 5 and 6 summarize the
strength retention for the unstressed and stressed specimens, at 20C and
60C respectively. Each data point represents an average value (on 1 or 2
specimens tested). It is believed that when the applied stress level is
: only one measurement available

sufficiently low, the viscoelastic behaviour of the matrix provides stress
relief so that the crack formation does not occur11. From the results obtained
within this project it appears that sustained stress, 25% of UTS and lower,
does not have a pronounced effect on the rate of deterioration of tensile
strength for GFRP reinforcement embedded in moist concrete. Only the
environmental conditions seem to have an influence effect on the tensile
strength decrease. However, these test data are obtained after relatively short
exposure durations and are rather limited in number and therefore not
sufficient for drawing a clear conclusion regarding the stress effect on the
durability of GFRP rebars in concrete.
F 100 a
X
D
2 80
60
J3
40
x without load
Stress level: 5%
A Stress level: 25%
2, 20
H
0
0
50
100
200
150
250
Time (days)
Figure 5. Tensile strength retention for the specimens exposed to concrete at
20C without stress1, and at 5% and 25% of UTS.
100'
a
H 80
c
B
J3
e 60
00
i
A
D
X
x without load
D Stress level: 5%
A Stress level: 25%
S 40
t-
20
ens
50
100
150
Time (days)
200
250
Figure 6. Tensile strength retention for the specimens exposed to concrete at

60C without stress1, and at 5% and 25% of UTS.
There is an unexpected difference between the results obtained within

the present and the previous project1. For specimens exposed at 60C (as
can be seen in Figure 6), the strength retention is lower for the bars exposed
without load. The reason for this is unclear at present time. Possible
explanations are: a) misleading information due to big scattering of test data,
b) overlooked differences in the exposure conditioning used in the two
projects or c) different quality of GFRP-bars used in the two projects (the
bars in the two projects originated from different batches).
CONCLUSIONS
This study investigated the influence of stress, temperature and moist
concrete on the durability of GFRP reinforcement. The following
(a) a new test equipment has been proposed in which GFRP bars can be
subjected to a combination of environmental exposure and sustained
stress. Thereby the conditions at real applications can be simulated,
(b) moist concrete causes a time dependant deterioration of the tensile
strength, and the mechanism leading to deterioration is accelerated
at elevated temperatures,
(c) the initial results (for short conditioning periods) did not indicate
that the presence of a sustained load, of 25% of UTS or lower,
accelerates the degradation process.
The test program is ongoing and planned to run through year 2003. The
ambition is to formulate a service life prediction model for GFRP bars (in
real case applications) based on the data obtained in this project. Such
models are essential for a safe and optimal design of concrete structures
using GFRP reinforcement.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge ConFibreCrete (Training and
Mobility of researchers, EU project), the Development Fund of the Swedish
Construction Industry (SBUF) and the Swedish Research Council for
Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (FORMAS) for
their financial support and Hughes Brothers Inc. who has supplied the GFRP
bars used in the experiments.
REFERENCES
1. Dejke V., "Durability of FRP reinforcement in concrete", Licentiate
Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden, 2001
(Can be downloaded at www.bm.chalmers.se/research/publika/doktor.htm)
2. Schutte C.L., "Environmental durability of Glass Fibre
Composites", Materials Sciences and Engineering, 7, 1994, pp. 265322.
3. Kajorncheappunngam S., "The effects of environmental Aging on
the durability of Glass/epoxy composites", Thesis Dissertation,
West Virginia University, USA, 1999.
4. Buck S.E., Lischer D.W., Nemat-Nasser S., "The durability of EGlass/Vinyl Ester composite materials subjected to environmental
conditioning and sustained loading", Journal of Composite
Materials, 32(9), 1998, pp. 874-892.
5. Rahman A.H., Lauzier C , Kingsley C , Richard J., Crimi J.
"Experimental investigation of the mechanism of deterioration of
FRP reinforcement for concrete", 2nd International Conference on
Fibre Composites in Infrastructure, Vol. 2, Tucson, 1998, pp. 501 511.
6. Porter M. L. and Barnes B. A., "Accelerated ageing degradation of
glass fibre composites", 2nd International Conference on Fibre
Composites in Infrastructure, Vol. 2, Tucson, 1998, pp. 446-459.
7. Benmokrane B., Rahman H., Ton-That M.T., Robert J.F.,
"Improvement of the Durability of FRP Reinforcements For
Concrete Structures", 1st International Conference on Durability of
FRP Composites for Construction, Sherbrooke, 1998, pp. 571-585.
8. Vijay P. V., and GangaRao V. S., "Accelerated and Natural
Weathering of Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic Bars", 4th
international Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures, Baltimore, 1999, pp. 605-614.
9. Comyn J., "Polymer permeability", Chapman and Hull, Printed in
Great Britain by Ipswich Book Co, Ipswich, Suffolk, 1985.
10. Audenaert K., Taerwe L., Gazouli D., "Stress-rupture of FRP: state
of the art", 5lh International Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures, Cambridge, 2001, vol.1, pp. 517-526.
11. Devalapura RK., Gauchel J.V., Greenwood M.E., Hankin A.,
Humphrey T. "Long-term durability of Glass-fibre reinforced
polymer composite in alkaline environment", 3rd International
Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures, Vol. 2, Sapporo, 1997, pp. 83-90.

A MAINTENANCE STRATEGY FOR FRP

STRENGTHENING SYSTEMS
P. DESIDERIO
Department o f Building Engineering, University of Naples "Federico II"
P.le Tecchio, 80, 80125 Napoli - Italy
It is generally believed that FRP strengthening systems have a very high

level of durability. In order to assess the durability of a FRP component it is
necessary to fix performance levels, under which the component has to be
considered. It is also necessary to observe that for FRP systems, as for
each building component, intermediate performance levels, which require a
variety of maintenance intervention, are to be considered. In the first part of
the paper, the application of a general method to determine the Estimated
Service Life (ESL) of external or internal FRP Reinforcement systems is
presented. This is used to define the intervention time threshold required to
develop a maintenance strategy for FRP strengthening systems, as
presented in the second part.
INTRODUCTION
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) systems are increasingly being used in the
strengthening of civil structures. It is generally believed that they have a
very high level of durability. However, this is not necessarily true and it
depends on the specifics of the chosen materials, the processing technique,
the type of existing load regime and level of environmental exposure.
In order to assess the durability of a FRP component it is necessary to
fix performance levels, under which the component has to be considered. It
is also necessary to observe that, similarly for FRP systems, intermediate
performance levels, which require a variety of maintenance intervention, are
to be considered.
The worldwide experimental research has demonstrated that some
properties of FRP systems degrade under exposure to certain environmental
agents, such as alkalinity, acidity, salt water, moisture, ultraviolet light, high
temperature and freezing and thawing cycles. The researchers often do not
take into account other factors such as the work execution, the type and the
configuration of the application surface, and separately consider the
influence of each factor. The most difficult issue regarding durability

studies, in fact, is taking into account all factors (technological,
environmental, climatic and of configuration) that affect the service life of a
building or its components. In reality, in spite of many studies, the service
life of FRP systems under various environmental conditions, is still
unknown. At present, the monitoring and the inspection for their in-service
behaviour and sub-condition maintenance strategy, are the only ways to
prevent a premature or unexpected failure.
APPLICATION OF THE NIC METHOD TO DETERMINE
SERVICE LIFE OF EXTERNALLY BONDED FRP SYSTEMS
The application of the method by Nicolella to determine the ESL (Estimated
Service Life) of FRP externally bonded systems (figure 1) is studied.
The most difficult issue regarding durability studies is to take into
account all factors (environmental, mechanics, others) that affect the service
life of a building or its components. This method provides a simplified
procedure for considering each of the variables that is likely to affect
service life.
The methodology estimates the service life of a component as a
deviation from a standard value, named mid-normal, which is calculated by
using modifying factors deriving from influencing agents. The "midnormal" value is obtained through statistical elaboration of field-collected
data for the assumed conditions.
According to that method, the phases needed to determine the service
life of a building component are listed below:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Definition of the experimentation on the field, in order to calculate all

the parameters of the "mid- normal" value;
Definition of the agents mainly influencing the service life of the
chosen component;
Dimensioning of the modifying factors;
Validation of the adopted factors through laboratory tests.
Maintenance Strategy for FRP Strengthening Systems 845
Field
1 Definition 11 Dimensioni 1 I
ngofthe
1
Monitoring j
of the
I
modifying 1
influencin
todefinelhe 1
factors W^
midmrmd 9A^ e aeents W 1
Laboratory
tests
on
FBSFRP
V
Service Life Prediction of FRP
Figure 1. Schematic description of the study program
In order to assess the durability of a component it is necessary to fix

performance levels, under which the target component has to be considered
in a state of damage. In the present study, the failure is estimated in terms of
performance decay of bond capacity and strength.
In order to identify the failure due to peeling, delamination or
debonding, reference will be made to the permissible threshold values (in
terms of percentage of degraded surface with respect to the entire plated
surface), as indicated by ACI 440 F (2000): In order to assess tensile
strength degradation, creep - rupture and fatigue performance of FRP
laminates, the value of the residual strength will be compared with those
calculated according to existing guidelines.
It is necessary to observe that, for each building component,
intermediate performance levels are also to be considered. Table 1 shows
the intermediate performance levels along with the relevant intervention
classes.
Tablet. The intermediate performance
DEGRADATION
PERFORMANCE
INTERVENTION TYPOLOGIES
State!
Level I
Monitoring /inspection
State2
Level 2
Cleaning / repair of surface
State3
Level 3
Repair/restoration
State4
Level 4
Partial substitution / integration
State5
Level 5
Total substitution
The degradation states and the consequent intervention typologies are

specified for the FRP systems, as expressed below:
(a) Monitoring /inspection
This is required for defining the in-service behaviour and the sub condition maintenance strategy. For the installed FRP, inspections can
be carried out by means of visual inspection, searching for changes in
colour, debonding, peeling, blistering, cracking, crazing, deflections,
indications of reinforcing bar corrosion, and other anomalies. In
addition, ultra-sonic, acoustic sounding (hammer tap), or thermographic
tests may indicate and quantify the entity of possible peeling, debonding
or delamination. A mechanical inspection, instead, can include
conventional structural loading tests or pull-off tension tests.
(b) Cleaning / repair of surface
The surface protective coating (plasters, varnishes, panels) is to be
replaced. The surface coating may be replaced using a process
approved by the system manufacturer.
(c) Repair/restoration
The intervention is aimed at eliminating the small anomalies with the
respect to the restoration of the initial conditions. The smaller
delaminations can be repaired by epoxy resin injection.
(d) Partial substitution / integration
In this case, a part of the system is removed or replaced because the
removal of the defects is not possible without adding new parts. For the
FRP systems, this happens when the damage can affect the structural
integrity of the laminate, such as localized FRP laminate cracking or
abrasions.
This type of damage can be repaired by bonding FRP patches on to the
damaged area. The FRP patches should have the same characteristics
(such as thickness, ply orientation) as the original laminate and the FRP
patches should be installed in accordance with the material
manufacturer's recommendation.
(e) Total substitution
It coincides with the "death" of the component and therefore it
identifies its life cycle. In the case of the FRP systems this phase is
identified with the peeling and/or the debonding of large areas, which
require removal of the affected area, reconditioning of the substrate, and
replacing the FRP laminate. With reference to the American ACI440-F
guidelines3, the states of degradation are therefore characterized in
Table 2:

Table 2. States of degradation according to ACI 440-F
Statel Conditions similar to initial ones, absence of superficial anomalies and
patina
Statel Chromatic alterations (colour changes), presence of patina, gap presence
in the protective layer or small delaminations peeling or debonding
presence less than 2 in2each (1300 mmq) so long as the delaminated
area is less than 5 % of the total laminate area and no more than 10 such
delaminations per 10 ft2 (1 mq)
State3 Delaminations peeling or debonding presence less than 25 in2 (16000
mmq)
State4 Large delaminations, greater than 25 in2 (16000 mmq) but confined.
State5 Large areas subjected to peeling and/or the debonding which require
removal of the affected area, reconditioning of the substrate, and
replacing the FRP laminate
According to the method, the mid-normal values can be applied to any

other context, when manipulated through the modifying factors, which are
thought to be function of the specific case. For opportunity reasons, in order
to extrapolate the mid - normal values, some FRP EBR applications carried
out in Naples could be taken into account.
As a result of the monitoring of these applications, some performance
time diagrams will be extrapolated.
Once the mid-normal value has been determined, the service life of any
FRP system will be evaluated through Eq.(l)
PP=
xIlF'
(^
in which Dpp is "the most probable" service life, Dmn is the mid-normal
duration and Ft the modifying factors expressed as a function of the groups
of the influencing agents.
All the most influential agents (with respect to component life) are
arranged in groups, with each generating a single factor.
In brief, different "scores", depending on the real condition of the
component, are assigned to each influential agent. Elaborating the "scores"
regarding any group of agents, it is possible to obtain the value of the
modifying factors (each weighted depending on its incidence) used in the
formula. The groups of homogenous agents are those in Table 3:

Table 3. Influencing agents
GROUPS OF
AGENTS
INFL UENCING A GENTS
WEIGHT AGE
Technological
characteristics
System components, application surface

state,
installation
procedure,
work
execution level, protection
Climatic agents
Temperature, wind and rain, snow, UV

exposure, Temperature cycling (daily,
seasonally, annually), Humidity and
moisture
Environmental/
Chemical agents, exposure to salts, in use
operational
condition (operational environment agent)
environment agents
Configuration
Shape/lying, extension,
discontinuity / chines
presence
of
As far as the application of the method to the EBR FRP systems is

specifically regarded, the definition of involved agents will depend strongly
on the use of the examined FRP system. In fact, the method concurs to
neglect the agents, which do not affect the durability of the examined
component. This is one of the advantages of the Nicolella Method
compared with the other existing methods to estimate the service life of a
building component. For example, it will be possible to disregard all agents
related to the rate of catch, the wind, the snow and the UV exposure in the
case of indoor applications such as plating of arch and vaults, where the
agents related to the configuration became important.
The last phase of the method, schematically indicated in Figure 1,
features the evaluation of the modifying factor assumed by means of
laboratory tests. In fact, taking into account the difficulties to define the
correlation between accelerated laboratory tests and real exposure
conditions and to appraise the validity of the extrapolation of results
obtained from specimens to real structures, the method uses laboratory tests
exclusively in order to estimate the relative incidence of the factors on the
service life.
MODEL FOE MAINTENANCE OF FRP STRENGTHENING

SYSTEMS
Regarding the maintenance policy for buildings, the author and his
research group, has proposed a model. The Maintenance File comprised the
following: a Maintenance Manual, a Maintenance Plan and an Application
Manual. In particular, while the maintenance plan, consists of intervention
forms where every maintenance activity is described (working phases, staff
employed, personnel safe handling and clothing, workplace safe handling),
the maintenance programme is a yearly calendar of controls and
intervention operations as foreseen in the maintenance plan. A different
form is provided for each building component and intervention.
The intervention forms, for instance, could be designed and filled for
the FRP systems, for surface cleaning, for protective and decorative surface
treatments, for repair of delaminated or debonded areas by epoxy resin
injections (e.g. FRP-i2), for its removal or replacement by adding new parts
and for the total substitution of that system. It is desirable to do that just in
case of programmed interventions. The planned monitoring and inspection
activities are also arranged through forms (e.g. FRP-c2) such as visual
inspections (to evaluate change in color, debonding, peeling, blistering,
cracking, crazing, deflections, indications of reinforcing bar corrosion, and
other anomalies), tapping4, thermography (see Figure 2) and ultrasonic
techniques, and mechanical tests.
Each form is identified with a code, which, in the maintenance

planning, synthetically indicates the different type of intervention or
control, as indicated in the table below:

Table 4. Intervention on the FRP strengthening systems (FRP-i)
Surface cleaning
FRP-i 1
Surface protective coating (plasters, varnishes, panels)
FRP -i2
replacing
FRP-i3
Repairing of delaminated areas by epoxy resin injections
Removing the existing FRP or replacing it adding new parts
FRP-i4
Table 5. Control on the facing (FRP-c)

Visual inspection and tapping
Bond quality controls by NDT
(Thermography and Ultrasonic techniques)
mechanical inspection (conventional structural loading tests,
pull - off tension tests and s.o.)-
FRP-cl
FRP-c2
FRP -c3
MAINTENANCE PROGRAM OF THE BULDING IN 777777 STREET, N. X

BUILDINGS ELEMENTS
FOUNDATION
INTERVENTION TEMPORAL EXPIRIES (years)

6
8
10 12 14 16 18 20 | 22 24
FO-d/2
MA-d/2/3
MASONRY
COLUMNS
IF-cl
IRON FLOORS
FRP-d/2/3
VAULTS
Figure 3. An extract of maintenance program
An intervention schedule is reported below to illustrate the application

of the methodology.
LXTERIKXT/OX
Repairing by cpoxy resin injections
SYNTHETIC
DESCRIPTION
CODE
FRP-i3
FRP strengthening system bonding with epoxy resin
WORKING
PRATICES
FREQUENCY
RACCOMANDATION
S
REFERENCES
LABOUR
MATERIALS
EQUIPMENTS
SAFETY D E V I C E S
debonded areas location (thermographic or tapping tests

results);
Practicing small diameter holes;
PVC small pipes fixing;
Grouting of injectors and surface damage before

injection of resin through a low-pressure pump;
Epoxy mortar or epoxy resin mixing;
Low pressure injections in the holes reaching the

saturation point
In case of need
D o not use at temperatures below + 5 C , D o not apply to wet
surfaces; D o not apply on dusty, friable or weak substrates.
Technical report page 7
Drawing n. 4
Team: 1 skilled worker, 1 unskilled worker
PVC pipes, tiller, Epoxy resin, Epoxy mortar
Injector, airless spraying
rubber or plastic gloves, Safety eye-glasses or goggles, dust
masks or respirators
Figure 4. Example of intervention schedule
CONCLUSIONS
Despite several FRP system applications for the strengthening of existing
structures, designers do know a little about their durability. Indeed, neither
all the available specifications are well documented nor easily accessible to
civil engineers. As a consequence, the monitoring and the inspection, to
define the FRP system behaviour in service, and the implementation of a
maintenance strategy are essential to prevent the strengthened structure
from a premature or unexpected failure. From now on, the development of
research will be focused on the collection of the most important scientific
results concerning the durability of these materials and on the application of
the method presented in the paper, in order to create a database to evaluate

the service life of FRP strengthening systems.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Nicolella M., Affidabilita e durability degli elementi costruttivi in

edilizia - Un'ipotesi metodologica per il calcolo, CUEN, Napoli,
2000
Nicolella M., Components service life: from field test to
methodological hypothesis, 9th International Conference on
Durability
of
Building
Materials
and
Components
Proceedings, Brisbane, Australia, 2002
ACI 440 "Externally Bonded FRP system for strengthening
concrete structures", American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
MI,. July 2000
Fib Bulletin No. 14 Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC
structures, Federation International du Beton, Bruxelles, 2001
JSCE Raccommendation for design and construction of concrete
structures using continuous fiber reinforcing materials, Concrete
Engineering Series 23, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Japan
Molinari C, Manutenzione in edilizia, ed. Angeli, 1989
Talamo C, La manutenzione in edilizia, ed. Maggioli, 1998
Di Giulio R., Manuale di manutenzione edilizia, ed. Maggioli 2000
Sustained and Fatigue Loads

VIABILITY OF USING CFRP LAMINATES TO REPAIR RC

BEAMS CORRODED UNDER SUSTAINED LOADS
T. EL MAADDAWY AND K. SOUDKI
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo
200 University Avenue West, ON, Canada, N2L 3GJ
This paper presents the results of an experimental study designed to
investigate the interaction between sustained loads and the corrosion of
steel reinforcement in concrete as well as to quantify the ability of carbon
fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates to restore/enhance the structural
capacity of corroded reinforced concrete (RC) beams at different levels of
damage. A total of 9 beams having the dimensions 152.4 mm x 254 mm x
3200 mm were tested. Test parameters included, the loading condition
during corrosion exposure (loaded or unloaded) and the level of corrosion
damage (0, 5.5%, and 12% theoretical mass loss). Two beams were used as
control specimens; one was tested in an uncorroded-unstrengthened
condition (virgin) while the other was tested in an uncorroded-strengthened
condition. Seven beams were corroded electrochemically by impressing a
constant current density of 150 Â/cm2 through the main reinforcing bars.
A new experimental set-up was developed to apply a sustained load to the
test specimens while they were exposed to accelerated corrosion. Following
the corrosion phase, 4 beams were tested to failure in four-point bending
while the other three were repaired by the application of CFRP laminates
and then tested to failure. Test results showed that CFRP repair is an
efficient technique to enhance the structural capacity of corroded RC
beams. Moreover, it was concluded that the effect of sustained load should
be considered when evaluating the flexural behavior of corroded and
repaired RC beams.
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion of steel reinforcement in concrete represents the most widespread
form of deterioration of RC structures. When the reinforcement corrosion
starts it affects firstly, the steel, by a reduction of the bar cross section,
secondly, the concrete, due to the cracking of the concrete cover produced
by the expansion of corrosion products and finally, the composite action
between the steel and the concrete due to bond deterioration.
The use of advanced composites in the form of externally bonded fibre
reinforced polymer (FRP) laminates has been shown to control corrosion
856 FRPRCS-6: Sustained and Fatigue Loads
cracking and spalling by providing confinement to resist the expansive

forces caused by corrosion of the steel reinforcement '"3. However, two key
factors were not considered in the previous studies. The test specimens used
were not under load during the corrosion process while in field conditions
flexural members undergo corrosion of reinforcement under sustained loads.
Previous work focused on the behavior of strengthened then corroded
specimens rather than studying the feasibility of using FRP laminates to
repair corroded elements at different levels of damage. Practical
applications in the field will involve the repair of already corroded
elements.
The present work is a part of ongoing research initiated to investigate
the long term performance of corrosion-damaged RC beams repaired by
CFRP laminates. The purpose of this paper is to study the effect of
sustained load on the flexural behavior of corroded RC beams and to
investigate the effectiveness of using CFRP laminates to improve the
stiffness and the structural capacity of RC beams corroded while unloaded
and under sustained load. Future work will focus on the effect of sustained
load and the repair scheme configuration on the post-repair performance of
CFRP repaired RC beams.
TEST PROGRAM
Specimen Details
The test specimen is shown in Figure 1. Each specimen is 3200 mm long
with a cross section of 152 mm x 254 mm. The flexural reinforcement
consists of two No. 15 deformed rebars in the tension zone and two 8 mm
diameter plain rebars in the compression zone. The shear reinforcement
consists of 8 mm diameter plain stirrups with 25 mm clear cover spaced at
80 mm on centre (o/c) in the shear span and at 333 mm o/c in the constant
moment region. The middle eight stirrups in each specimen were protected
from corrosion by using an anticorrosion epoxy resin and a plastic tape was
wrapped around the stirrups corners at the contact points between the
longitudinal rebars and the stirrups. A stainless steel bar in the form of a
tube (9.53 mm external diameter) is placed 80 mm from the bottom of the
specimen to serve as a cathode during the accelerated corrosion process. To
prevent a loss of bond in the shear zones, corrosion was restricted to the
flexural reinforcement in the middle 1400 mm zone of the specimen. The
beams had 2.2 % CI" (by weight of cement) in the bottom third of the
constant moment region and a further 200 mm at each end of this region.
RC Beams Corroded under Sustained Loads 857

2-8 mm diameter plain bars
Cross section
8mm stirrups @ 80 mm 8mm stirrups @ 333.3mm 8mm stirrups @ 80 mm
epoxy coated stirrups

|140|
960
1000
3200
960
i140|
Elevation
(Ail dimensions are in mm)
Figure 1. Details of test specimen
Material Properties
The concrete was supplied by a local ready-mix concrete producer. The 28day compressive strength was on average 40 1.7 MPa and 41 1.5 MPa
for the salted and unsalted concrete, respectively. The yield strength and the
ultimate strength of the reinforcing No. 15 rebars were 450 MPa and 570
MPa, respectively. For the CFRP laminates, the data sheets of the
manufacturer specified a typical tensile strength of 960 MPa, an ultimate
elongation of 1.33 %, and a modulus of elasticity of 73 GPa. The thickness
of the CFRP layer was estimated to be 1 mm.
Test Matrix
Table 1 summarizes the experimental program. The nine test specimens
were divided into two groups (A and B) in addition to the virgin and the
uncorroded-strengthened control beams. Group [A] (4 beams) served as
corroded-unrepaired beams. This group was used to evaluate the effects of
corrosion with and without sustained load on the flexural behaviour pf RC
beams. The specimens were exposed to two different levels of accelerated
corrosion damage (5.5% and 12% theoretical mass loss). Two beams were
exposed to corrosion under sustained load while the other two were kept
unloaded during corrosion. Group [B] was used to quantify the ability of
CFRP repair to improve the flexural performance of corroded beams at two
different levels of corrosion damage (5.5% and 12% theoretical mass loss).
It consisted of 3 specimens. Two specimens were subjected to accelerated
corrosion under sustained load until they reached 5.5% and 12% theoretical
mass loss. The third specimen was unloaded while it was corroded until it
reached a 5.5% theoretical mass loss. Following the corrosion exposure, all
specimens of this group were repaired by the use of CFRP laminates.
Table 1. Test Matrix
Group
Control
[A]
[B]
Level of corrosion
damage
5.5 %
5.5 %
12%
12%
5.5 %
5.5 %
12%
Loading condition
during corrosion
Sustained
No load
Sustained
No load
No load
Sustained
Sustained
Name"
virgin
strengthened
CUS-5.5
CUN-5.5
CUS-12
CUN-12
CRN-5.5
CRS-5.5
CRS-12
CUS-5.5: Corroded - Unrepaired - Sustained load during corrosion-5.5 % mass loss.

CRN-12: Corroded - Repaired - No load during corrosion - 12 %mass loss.
CFRP Repair Scheme

In order to counteract the loss of the rebar cross sectional area due to
corrosion one layer of flexural laminate with a 120 mm width was bonded to
the tension face of the beam over a length of 2900 mm with the fibres
oriented in the longitudinal direction. The middle 1500 mm of the beam
were wrapped with a U-shaped transverse laminate bonded around the
tension face of the beam and up each side to about 225 mm to improve the
bond at the steel/concrete interface within the corroded zone of the beam.
Three U-shaped strips were provided within the shear span of the beam to
serve as end anchorages for the longitudinal CFRP sheet and to avoid any
premature shear failure due to the increase in flexural capacity. The Ushaped strips had a width of 100 mm, except at the supports where the width
was increased to 200 mm.
Figure 2 shows the CFRP repair scheme used in this study. Special
consideration was given to the surface preparation before bonding the
CFRP laminates to the concrete surface. Sandblasting was employed to
remove the weak surface layer from the concrete beam and then the surface
was cleaned with a high-pressure air jet. Then, the longitudinal cracks due
to corrosion and/or the flexural cracks due to the sustained load were sealed
using an epoxy gel adhesive. The epoxy sealant was used also to seal any
voids on the concrete surface to avoid having any air pockets between the
CFRP sheets and the concrete. Finally, the concrete surface was ground to
smoothen the surface and to round the specimen corners for the CFRP
application.
Transverse laminate
(Fibres in transverse direction)
50 200 5x100=500
(Fibres in longitudinal direction)

1500
5x100-500 200
,
150
Elevation
(Ail dimensions are in mm)
Figure 2. Repair scheme
TEST SET-UP
The experimental set-up subjected the test specimens to sustained structural
loading in an accelerated' corrosion environment. Following the corrosion
exposure and the CFRP application all test specimens were tested in fourpoint bending with an effective span of 3000 mm and a shear span of 1000
mm. Load was applied in displacement control by means of a servohydraulic actuator at a load rate of 1.5 mm/min. The flexural behavior was
monitored with the use of a load cell and a linear variable displacement
transducer (LVDT) placed at the mid span. The sustained loading system
and the accelerated corrosion test set-up are described in the following two
sections.
Sustained Leading System
To apply the sustained load to the reinforced concrete beams while they are
exposed to an accelerated corrosion environment, a new loading system was
designed and developed by the authors based on the research work at the
University of Sherbrooke4. Load was applied by using a mechanical loading
system in which two beams were placed horizontally back-to-back in the
loading frame. The system applies four-point bending with a constant
moment in the middle third of the beam. The applied moment was
equivalent to 3 times the cracking moment of the beam and produced a
tensile stress in the rebars of about 60% of the yield strength. Figure 3
shows the sustained loading system.
Figure 3. Sustained load set-up
Accelerated Corrosion
A constant current density of 150 (iA/cm2 was used to Induce corrosion. The
corroded specimens were connected in series in order to obtain a constant
current through the specimens. The direction of the current was adjusted so
that the tension reinforcing steel served as the anode, while the stainless
steel bar served as the cathode. To control the humidity of the environment
the specimens were encased in a polyethylene tent while a special nozzle
was used to supply oxygen and water simultaneously. Both are necessary
for corrosion reactions to occur. The corrosion process required 50 days and
110 days to induce estimated mass losses of 5.5% and 12%, respectively.
EXPERIMENTAL EESULTS AND ANALYSIS
Group [A]
Load-deflection relationships for specimens of this group along with the
virgin control specimen are shown in Figure 4. The failure mode for all of
these specimens was a ductile flexural mode of failure. From this figure,
several observations can be made. Corrosion of the steel reinforcement up to
a 5.5% theoretical mass loss while the beam is unloaded resulted in a 10%
and 9% reduction in the yield and the ultimate loads, respectively compared
to those of the virgin uncorroded beam. The reduction in the yield and the
ultimate capacity increased to 13% and 13.2%, respectively when the
corrosion occurred under sustained load. A 12% theoretical mass loss of the
steel reinforcement caused 16% and 11% reductions in the yield and the
ultimate loads, respectively when corrosion occurred without load. Loading
the beam during corrosion until a 12% theoretical mass loss resulted in
larger reductions in the yield and the ultimate load to 22% and 17%,
respectively compared to those of the virgin uncorroded specimen. The
presence of the transverse cracks due to sustained load may have facilitated
the diffusion of oxygen and moisture into the test specimens. The specimens
will be broken apart and the steel rebars will be examined to determine
whether the area reduced faster for the loaded than for the unloaded beams.
20
40
60
80
100
120

Figure 4. Load-deflection response for specimens of group [A]
Although corrosion of the steel rebars to a 5.5% theoretical mass loss
caused an average crack widths of 1.00 mm and 0.8 mm for the loaded and
the unloaded beam, respectively, the stiffness of these beams improved.
This suggests that initially corrosion increases the surface roughness of the
bars and improves the bond between the bar and the concrete. This result
agrees with the results obtained by other researchers5 who reported that a
beam damaged by corrosion showed a greater stiffness than an uncorroded
beam even in the presence of 0.3 mm longitudinal corrosion cracks. At a
12% theoretical mass loss the stiffness of the corroded beams (loaded or
unloaded) was almost the same as that of the uncorroded beam.
The unloaded corroded beams exhibited a higher initial stiffness than
the loaded corroded ones until they reached the cracking load after which
the stiffness reduced and then was similar to that of the unloaded beams
until the yield load. The loaded corroded beams exhibited a lower initial
stiffness than the unloaded ones because they already had flexural cracks

due to the presence of sustained load during the corrosion phase (precracked). It should be noted that the effect of sustained load on bond
deterioration was not clear in this investigation since corrosion was induced
only in the constant moment region of the beam. Sustained load would be
expected to have a more pronounced effect if corrosion was also induced in
the shear zones.
Group [B]
Figure 5 shows the load-deflection response for the specimens of this group
along with those of the virgin and strengthened control beams. Failure of the
specimens occurred by yielding of the steel and ultimately rupture of the
CFRP longitudinal sheet followed by concrete crushing. For all specimens
there was an increase in the load carrying capacity when CFRP external
reinforcement was added. Compared with the uncorroded virgin beam, the
uncorroded-strengthened beam exhibited a 30% and a 49% increase in the
yield and the ultimate load, respectively. Also, the stiffness was improved
by 22 % due to the addition of the external reinforcement (the longitudinal
laminate) and due to the confinement effect provided by the transverse
laminate.
20
40
60
Figure 5. Load-deflection response for specimens of group [B]
100
When a beam is corroded before the application of the CFRP laminates

it does not reach the same strength as a strengthened uncorroded beam. The
yield and the ultimate loads of the corroded-repaired beam at a 5.5%
theoretical mass loss were 85% and 97%, respectively of that of the
uncorroded-strengthened beam but they were higher than those of the virgin
control beam by 11% and 43%, respectively. Increasing the level of
corrosion damage to a 12% theoretical mass loss before repair reduced the
yield strength to 77% of that of the uncorroded-strengthened beam while the
ultimate strength remained at 97% of that of the uncorroded-strengthened
beam. The yield load of the beam repaired after corrosion to a 12%
theoretical mass loss was almost the same as that of the virgin control beam
while the ultimate strength was still higher than that of the virgin beam by
43%.
It is interesting to note that the ultimate strengths of the corrodedrepaired beams were similar and very close to that of the uncorrodedstrengthened beam. This means that while corrosion of the steel
reinforcement reduces the ability of the CFRP repair to increase the yield
load its effect on the ultimate strength gained by repairing the beam with
CFRP laminate is minimal. The reduction of the yield load is clearly due to
the reduction of the cross sectional area caused by corrosion of the rebar. It
is believed that after yielding of the steel rebars the beam behaved as an
arch with a tie (the longitudinal CFRP sheet) so that the ultimate capacity of
the beam did not alter. It is worth noting that the stiffnesses of the repaired
beams that were corroded under load to the two degrees of corrosion were
identical and higher than that of the uncorroded-strengthened beam. The
yield load of the specimen corroded under sustained load prior to the CFRP
application (CRS-5.5) was reduced by only 3.2 % compared with that
corroded without load prior to repair (CRN-5.5) while the ultimate load was
similar for the two beams.
CONCLUSIONS
(a) Corrosion of the steel reinforcement has a significant effect on the yield
and the ultimate load capacities of reinforced concrete beams. The
stiffness shows a small initial increase with corrosion.
(b) The presence of sustained load during corrosion exposure results in a
larger reduction in the load carrying capacity caused by corrosion.
However, its impact on the load carrying capacity is minimal when the
corroded beams are repaired by the use of CFRP laminates.
(c) CFRP laminates enhance the serviceability and the load carrying
capacity of RC beams for corrosion up to 5.5% theoretical mass loss.
At 12% mass loss, CFRP repair restores but does not improve the yield
load, although it still improves the ultimate carrying capacity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research is conducted with the financial assistance from ISIS Canada
Network of Centers of Excellence. The authors wish to record their thanks to R.
Sherpping from Sika Canada for his support during the execution of the work
and to the civil Engineering technicians at the University of Waterloo for their
help throughout the testing.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bonacci, J.F. and Maalej, M , "Externally Bonded Fiber-Reinforced

Polymer
for Rehabilitation of Corrosion Damaged Concrete Beams",
ACI Structural Journal, 97 (5), 2000, pp 703-711.
Masoud, S., Soudki, K.A., and Topper, T., "CFRP-Strengthened and
Corroded RC Beams under Monotonic and Fatigue Loads", ASCE
Journal of Composites for Construction, 5 (4), 2001, pp 228-236.
Soudki, K. A., and Sherwood, G., "Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete
Beams Strengthened with Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer Laminates
Subjected to Corrosion Damage", Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, 27 (5), 2000, pp 1005-1010.
Laoubi, K., El-Salakawy, E., Pigeon, M., Benmokrane, B., "Behaviour of
Concrete Beams Reinforced with GFRP Bars under Sustained Load and
Freez/Thaw Cycles", Durability of Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites
for Construction (CDCC 02), Montreal 2002, pp 453-464.
Kawamura, K., Maruyama, F., Yoshida, S., Masuda, T., "Residual
Capacity of Concrete Beams Damaged by Salt Attack", Concrete Under
Severe Conditions: Environment and Loading, Vol. 2, London, 1995, pp
1449-1457.

FATIGUE BOND OF CARBON FIBER SHEETS AND

CONCRETE IN RC SLABS STRENGTHENED BY CFRP
A. KOBAYASHI
Nippon Steel Composite Co. ltd.
3-8, Nihonbashi Kobunacho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-0024, Japan
S. MATSUI
Dept. of Civil Engrg., Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University.
2-1, Yamadaoka, Suita-city, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
M. KISHIMOTO
Fuji P. S. Corporation
2-l,Shibata, Kita-ku, Osaka-city, Osaka 530-0012, Japan
In this study, a new apparatus for static and fatigue testing of Carbon Fiber
Sheets (CFS) was developed to investigate the bonding shear behavior
between carbon fiber sheet and concrete. Although the test apparatus is a
bending-type machine, it can easier induce shearing stress to the bonding
layer of CFS, compared to conventional methods. Under a dynamic fatigue
loading, de-bonding propagation of CFS was observed. The de-bonding
propagation rate became faster as the loading ratio was increased. After
these observations, wheel running tests of CFS reinforced slabs were
conducted under the load observed in actual wheel load conditions, and
bonding stresses were calculated using measured strain distributions on the
bottom surface. In the wheel running tests, no de-bonding between CFS and
concrete was observed and the calculated maximum bonding stress in the
slab was found to be only 1/10 of the critical stress for de-bonding.
INTRODUCTION
In Japan, Carbon Fiber Sheet (CFS) bonding method has been commonly
used for strengthening existing concrete structures, particularly for damaged
RC slabs. The RC slabs of a highway bridge suffer from fatigue damage due
to the repeated loading from vehicular wheel loads and eventually could
result in punching shear failure. It has been confirmed by the wheel load
running test that the fatigue durability of a RC slab is substantially increased
by bonding a CFS to the bottom surface of the slab.' This CFS improves the
flexural stiffness and restricts the propagation of cracks caused by live load.

As the bonding shear force acts repeatedly at the interface between CFS and
concrete near a crack, bonding fatigue fracture could occur.
In this study, a new static and fatigue test machine for CFS was
developed to investigate both static and fatigue bond shear behaviors
between CFS and concrete. Using the new test machine, experiments on the
bonding fatigue of CFS and concrete were conducted, and the bonding
fatigue characteristics were clarified. Based on these characteristics and the
results of the wheel load running test of RC slabs reinforced by CFS, the
bonding fatigue fracture characteristics of CFS in a RC slab was discussed.
FATIGUE BOND EXPERIMENT
Development of Interfacial Fatigue Test Machine
In the conventional uniaxial tensile test method, two concrete blocks are
butted against each other. CFS are bonded onto the two opposing concrete
surfaces, and a tensile load is applied to both ends of the concrete blocks.2
However, in this method it is not easy to transfer the tensile load uniformly
to the two bonded interfaces and peeling fracture tends to occur due to
eccentric loading which could lead to de-bonding fracture between CFS and
concrete. Therefore difficulties have been encountered to evaluate properly
the bonding fatigue characteristics between CFS and concrete.
To solve these problems, a beam bend type bond-testing machine was
newly developed. As shown in Figure 1, two H-steel beams, which make up
the base of the bending shear testing machine, are connected with a hinge at
the center. Two concrete blocks, to which a piece of CFS is bonded
1,200
Figure 1. Bending shear type fatigue testing machine
Fatigue Bond of Carbon Fiber Sheets and Concrete 867
continuously on the flange that faces the hinge, are mounted on each Hibeam across the centerline. By applying vertical loads to both ends of the
steel beam, the center part of the test machine is subjected to uniform
bending moment, and thus a simple tensile force can be given to the CFS at
the center part of the specimen. The tensile force in the CFS is transferred to
the concrete blocks via interfacial epoxy resin layer; as a result, bonding
shear force acts between CFS and concrete. This test machine converts the
bending moment into a tensile force so that eccentric loading does not occur
easily, peeling does not occur while de-bonding proceeds, and thus it is
possible to apply a stable bond shear force.
Test Procedure and Specimens
The test conditions and the specifications of specimens are shown in
Table 1. To study the effect of concrete strength on the fatigue bond
strength, concrete blocks which have three different strengths were prepared.
The material characteristics of the CFS and epoxy resin are shown in Table
2 and Table 3 respectively. In some test specimens, a soft layer was formed
between the concrete and CFS. The soft layer is an elastic epoxy resin
whose properties are shown in Table 4 which has a high deformability and
can be expected to prevent the concentration of bonding shear stress and to
increase the static bonding strength.
The upper limit load ratios in the fatigue test were set as 60%, 75% and
85% of the static strength. The lower limit load was set as 0.98kN for all
specimens. The upper limit loads of the specimens having soft layer were
set to the same load levels to the specimens without soft layer. In the fatigue
test, static loads were applied and strains of CFS were measured regularly
by stopping cyclic loading. Also, the bond fracture area of the CFS and
concrete was observed by tapping test.
Figure 2 The experimental situation and an example of fracture surface of

fatigue test
Specimen
50-60-(1,2)
50-75-(l,2)
50-80-(1,2)
40-60-(1,2)
40-75-(l,2)
40-80-(1,2)
30-60-(1,2)
30-75-(1,2)
30-80-(l,2)
40-25-SL-(l,2)
40-31-SL-(l,2)
40-34-SL-(l,2)
Tabl e 1. Specimens and test condition

Strength of
Static
Upper Limit Upper Limit Type
Concrete
Ultimate Load ratio
Load
of
load
CFS
(MPa)
(kN)
%
(kN)
60
10.0
50.2
16.7
75
12.5
80
13.7
60
8.8
14.8
37.9
75
10.9 < -| A
11.8
80
60
8.8
14.7
29.2
75
10.9
80
11.8
88
25
37.9
31
34.9
10.9
B
34
11.8 <
Soft
layer
non
exist
Table 2. Material properties of carbon fiber sheets

Fiber Arial Weight Design Thickness
Tensile
Tensile Modulus
(mm)
(GPa))
Type
Strength
(g/m2)
(MPa)
300
0.167
3980
250
A
B
400
0.222
250
4119
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
59.5
Table 3. Material properties of epoxy resin

Compressive
Compressive
Shear Strength
Strength (MPa)
(MPa)
Modulus (GPa)
2.4
86.0
17.0
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
1.7
Table 4. Material properties of soft layer

Shear Strength
Tensile Modulus
(GPa)
(MPa)
3.4
1.0
Elongation
%
123
Results of Bond Tests

The static de-bonding capacities at concrete strengths of 29.2MPa and
37.9MPa were 14.7kN and 14.8kN respectively and turned out to be almost
equal. With a specimen having a high concrete strength of 50.2MPa, the
static de-bonding capacity was also high at 16.7kN. The static de-bonding

capacity of the specimen having a soft-layer was 34.9kN, which was higher
than those of specimens without soft-layer.
As shown in Figure 3, in the static loading test the de-bonding area
Loading step - o i
6000
5000
a.
^4000
3000
*V \
Av
^1000
0
\\v\\
2000
-a2
-6-3
-*-4
-* 5
-s6
t7
-8
De-bonding section
Effective
bonding section
*4
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Distance from center (mm)
Figure 3. The strain distribution of CFS at static test
Distance
extends outward as the displacement between the concrete blocks increases.

Here, as depicted schematically, the strain curve can be divided into two
sections, a de-bonding section and an effective bond section. In the debonding section, the strain was constant and nearly the same as the strain
calculated from the tensile force acting on the CFS. In the effective bond
section, the strain decreased with a certain rate. The section with constant
strain corresponds to the de-bonding zone and matched well with the debonding zone observed by tapping test. The maximum bond stress was 4 to
5.5MPa, nearly the same as the result of 2 to 5MPa which was reported by
the conventional uniaxial tensile test.3 Here, the bond stress was calculated
as,
ds
(1)
dx
where rx = bonding stress, Ecj= Young's modulus, tCf= thickness of CFS,
s = strain, x = distance.
In the cyclic load test, de-bonding of the CFS from the concrete
proceeded gradually outward from the specimen center accordingly as the
load was applied repeatedly. Changes of strain distribution for CFS 40-80-1
under cyclic loading are shown in Figure 4 as an example. As in the static
test, the strain curve can be divided into two sections. The section with
constant strain again matched well with the de-bonding zone observed by
tapping test. As the number of cycles increased, the de-bonding area
=w

Number of cycles
0
-m 1
A5147
K100180
605148
200
100
150
Figure 4. The strain distribution of specimen 40-80-1
50
900000
1357222
1723498
- B 2050305
A2291866
2594213
e 3000000
grew,and the bond transmission section shifted outward from the specimen
center. Strain curves in the effective bond zone shifted almost in parallel
and the slope was nearly equal. Figure 5 shows the strain distribution of 4025-SL-l having a soft layer. Compared to specimens having no soft layer,
the effective bonding length was longer and nearly covered the whole
specimen length. As the number of loading cycles increased, de-bonding
proceeded and strain also increased in the entire bonding area. It was
confirmed that by applying a tensile force of 60% or more of the static
bonding capacity repeatedly, de-bonding by fatigue proceeded gradually.
Number of cycles
5000
50
100
150
-A1000
-X5000
-^31979
-219680
- I 272575
312211
416086
-416086
- B 434385
- A 530286
Figure 5. The strain distribution of specimen 40-25-SL-l

1?
Number of cy cles
1
* - 50000
A100180
X-387740
*685394
1203817
-t 2291866
* 3000000
S 4
a
T3
1
J
a 2
i
0
0
50
100 150 200
Distance from center(mm)
Figure 6. The bond stress distribution of
specimen 40-80-1
Figure 6 shows changes in bonding stress distribution for 40-80-1

specimen according to cyclic loading. Because de-bonding failure occurred
due to cyclic loading, the position where bonding stress was generated also
shifted outward from the specimen center. The maximum bonding stress at
each loading cycle were almost the same in individual specimens, ranging
from3to5.5MPa.
The relationships between de-bonding length and number of cycles for
specimens whose concrete strength was 40 MPa, for the case of upper limit
loading ratios of 60, 75 and 80%, are shown in Figure 7. The propagation
speed of de-bonding was high in the early stages, and thereafter became
lower with de-bonding proceeding in a stable manner. De-bonding tended to
proceed more quickly when the specimen had lower concrete strength or in
the case of higher upper-limit load ratio. And also de-bonding of the
specimens (40-34-SL-l, 2) having soft layers proceeded quickly compared
to specimens without soft layers. For both specimens de-bonding spread to
the entire bond area and bond fracture occured within 1 million cycles. In
contrast, for specimens without soft layers and with 40MPa concrete
strength, despite the application of the same upper-limit load, de-bonding
did not reach the entire bonding area even after 3 million times of cyclic
loading. It was found that when a soft layer was formed, the bonding fatigue
capacity decreased whereas the static bonding capacity increased.
500000
1000000
1500000 2000000
Number of cycles
2500000
3000000
Figure 7. The relationship between de-bonding length and loading

WHEEL RUNNING TEST
The reinforcement effect of CFS on the improvement of fatigue durability
of RC slabs under wheel load and the bonding characteristics to concrete
was studied. In the experiment, the wheel running testing machine shown in
Figure 8 was used. The steel wheel runs reciprocally onto the slab. During
the test, the specified wheel load was applied to the slabs by using a
hydraulic jack to press the iron wheels onto the loading board. Two RC slab
specimens, 180mm in thickness, were designed based on old design criteria
and prepared for the test. One was non-reinforced, and the other was
reinforced with two plies 600g/m2 of high-strength CFS at the bottom
surface, in which each layer was applied in the main reinforcement direction
and in the distribution bar direction. Although the current design load is
lOOkN, the wheel loads were set to 150kN, 180kN and 210kN in the fatigue
tests because 150kN load had been observed in the actual bridge slabs.
Figure 8. The wheel running machine
Fatigue Bond of Carbon Fiber Sheets and Concrete
873
Loading 2KlkN
.E+05
4.E+05
6.E+05
Number of cycles
Figure 9. The relation between the load and the deflection
O.E+00
2.E+05
1 .E+06
Number of cycles
(xlO3 cycles)
100 200 300 400 500 600

Figure 10. The strain distribution
0
200
400
600
Distance fromcenter(mm)
Figure 11. The bond stress distribution
Figure 9 shows the relationship between the live-load deflection at the

slab center and the number of cycles. For the non-reinforced RC slab, the
deflection increased quickly after 100,000 cycles of 150kN loading and
punching shear fracture occurred after 230,000 cycles of 180kN loading. On
the other hand, reinforced slab did not fracture even after 1 million of
loading cycles (100,000 cycles at 150kN + 700,000 cycles at 180kN+
200,000 cycles at 210kN). The live-load deflection was smaller than the non
-reinforced slab and remained stable, though it tended to increase slightly as
the loading cycle increased. Thus, the CFS method was confirmed to be
effective in improving the fatigue capacity of RC slabs. Figure 10 shows the
strain of the CFS at the slab bottom surface. The distribution of bond stress
was determined from this strain distribution and shown in Figure 11. The
bond stress reached the maximum value of 0.5MPa in the region near the
crack where strain changed quickly. This value was observed at the load of
180kN, which was considerably larger than the design load of lOOkN. In the
cyclic fatigue bond test, the bond stresses at fatigue de-bonding were 4 to
5.5MPa, hence the value of 0.5MPa observed in the wheel running test was
one order of magnitude smaller. Accordingly, the possibility of fatigue debonding proceeding in slabs under actual traffic loads is quite small. Also,
the specimen was checked by tapping, and no de-bonding was recognized.
CONCLUSIONS
(a)
(b)
It was found that the newly developed flexural shear tension type
fatigue bond test machine could be used to measure the bond strength
and fatigue bond strength. In the cyclic loading, de-bonding
proceeded gradually. The maximum bond stress when fatigue debonding occurred was 4 to 5.5MPa, and was almost constant even
when the numbers of cycles was increased. The de-bonding
propagated faster when a soft layer was formed.
The maximum bond stress between CFS and concrete, observed in the
wheel load running test, was 0.5MPa and was found to be one order
of magnitude smaller compared to 4 to 5.5MPa observed in the
bending test when interfacial fatigue de-bonding occured. The
possibility of interfacial fatigue de-bonding proceeding in the actual
bridge slabs is therefore considered to be quite small.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Special thanks are expressed to the students of Osaka University and carbon
fiber repair and reinforcement research association (TANPOKEN), which
cooperated with this research.
REFERENCES
1. S.Matsui, N.Mori, A.Kobayashi, M.uemura, "Study of Concrete Slab
Reinforcement With Carbon Fiber Sheet", ICCE/3, July 21-26, 1996 in
New Orleans.
2. Japan Society Concrete Engineers, "Recommendations for upgrading of
concrete structures with use of continuous fiber sheets", Concrete
engineering series 41, Mar. 2001
3. Japan Concrete Institute, "Report of the research committee on
continuous fiber reinforced concrete vol.2", 1998 (in Japanese)

FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF RC BEAMS STRENGTHENED

WITH CF SHEETS BONDED BY INORGANIC MATRIX
H. TOUTANJI, Y. DENG AND M. JIA
University ofAlabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, AL 35899 (USA)
The objective of this paper is to study the fatigue performance of concrete
beams strengthened with carbon fiber sheets bonded with inorganic matrix.
Steel reinforced concrete strengthened with 3 layers of carbon fiber sheets
were used for this study. The relationship between fatigue strength, fatigue
life, crack width, and number of cycles were studied. Results showed that
with increasing the number of cycles, the crack width and crack depth
increased at about the first half million cycles of loading and thereafter the
crack width and depth tended to stabilize. Both load capacity and number
of fatigue cycles of RC beams significantly increased with carbon fiber
sheets. The fatigue cracks seemed to develop during the first few cycles.
The study showed that strengthening RC beams with carbon fiber sheets
bonded by inorganic matrix improved fatigue performance and increased
fatigue strength. The fatigue strength increased by 55% as compared with
control beams.
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening RC beams with externally bonded fiber reinforced polymer
(FRP) composites is one of the techniques developed in recent years. High
strength carbon, glass and aramid composites are being promoted as an
alternative to steel plates.1'2 The major advantages in using FRP composites
are lightweight, high strength, corrosion resistance and ease of application.
The matrix used in these composites has been organic resin matrix.
Compared with the organic, the inorganic matrix has a number of
advantages, such as high resistance to fire and high temperature, resistance
to UV radiation and easy handling. Inorganic resin is water based and emits
no odor and toxins during construction or curing period. Temperature
exposure tests showed that, by using inorganic matrix, only 37% of the
composite's initial flexural strength is lost after one hour of exposure at 800
C as compared to organic matrix.3 The inorganic matrix is a low-viscosity
resin, suitable for penetrating carbon or glass fiber sheets. It is prepared by
blending aluminosilicate powder with water-based activator. More
background on inorganic matrix is presented elsewhere.3"5
Since 1980's, a number of studies have focused on the static behavior of

structures strengthening with advanced composites. But very little work has
been done on their fatigue performance. Although, some researchers have
studied the fatigue life of FRP or RC beams, these studies have investigated
each system separately. This paper focuses on the fatigue performance of
RC beams strengthened with inorganic resin.
BEAM PREPARATION
A total of nineteen beams were cyclically tested: four without strengthening
(control beam) and fifteen with FRP strengthening. All beams have
dimensions of 110x160x1800 mm. The dimensions and reinforcement
details of the tested beams are shown in Figure 1. Commercially available
carbon fiber was used. The carbon fiber has a tensile strength of 3,838 MPa,
modulus of elasticity of 228 GPa and an ultimate strain of 1.7%. The
inorganic matrix consisted of aluminosilicate powder blended with waterbased activator.
The bottom surface of the beam was roughened, first by dry coarse
grinding until coarse aggregates were seen then followed by sanding. The
rough surface was primed with the same matrix as that used for the fibers.
The fabric was impregnated with the matrix and then placed at the bottom
surface of the beam before the resin dried. The beams were strengthened
with 3 layers of unidirectional carbon fiber fabric with the same matrix and
tested under cyclic loading at a frequency of 2 Hz. After beams were
strengthened with FRP sheets, extra strengthening for shear was required to
ensure flexural failure. The beams were strengthened for shear using 2-inch
wide fiber sheet strips with a 45-degree orientation as shown in Figure 2.
Each beam was instrumented with four electrical resistance strain
gauges: two attached directly to the top of the concrete beam at mid-span
and two to the bottom of the beam directly on the carbon sheet at mid-span.
Dial gauges and displacement transducers were also used to measure the
mid-span deflection of the tested beams. The beams were loaded at different
load levels S (S =fmax/fr, wherefmax= maximum fatigue load and/> ultimate
static load). The load levels, S, range from 0.5 to 0.8. Constant amplitude
sinusoidal loads were applied at frequency of 2 Hz. The test was
automatically terminated when the specimen failed or a maximum limit of
two million cycles was reached, whichever was earlier. The beams that
were not broken after two million cycles were tested in static flexure to
determine their load capacity after two million cycles.
RC Beams with CF Sheets Bonded by Inorganic Matrix 877
P/2
P/2
1
5E
560 mm
,03 mm
~^m~
1526 mm
2#2 bars
:sr
203 mi
yk-
560 mm
B
B
\o
CN
" -a
a
B
00
o
*-t
v3
*L____3 :
26 mm
Figure 1. Test Beam Details and Setup
Shear
strengthening
strips
Figure 2. Shear Strengthening with Organic in 45 Degree

Failure Modes and Crack Patterns
Figure 3 shows typical crack patterns and failure modes for unstrengthened
RC beam and RC beam strengthened with carbon fiber sheets under cyclic
loading. Through the experiment, it was found that the cracks were formed
during the first few cycles of loading. With Increasing number of cycles,
the depth of cracks Increases. The shorter cracks In Figure 3 (b) appeared
during the last few thousand cycles before failure. The beam failure started
with steel fatigue rapture first and then fiber failure (Figure 3 (c)), and
finally total beam failure.
(a) PCF Beam

*****îi&a** \
(b) Kircu&lhencd Beam
(c) Fiber Rupture

Figure 3. Typical Crack Pattern: (a) PCF Beams,
(b) Strengthened Beam, (c) Fiber Rupture
Fatigue Load and Strength

Table 1 summarizes the results of the fatigue tests. The symbol PCF
represents unstrengthened RC beams under fatigue. The minimum fatigue
loads are fixed at 6.23 kN and maximum fatigue loads vary at
unstrengthened level of 50%, 60%, 70% and 80% of the ultimate static load,
respectively. In addition Figure 4 compares FRP strengthened beams with
those unstrengthened. The results show that FRP strengthening using
inorganic matrix increased the fatigue performance of the RC beams by over
50%.
Table 1. Summary and Results of Fatigue Test
Beam
Carbon
Fiber
Area (cm )
Total
Cycles at
failure
PCF-1
PCF-2
PCF-3
PCF-4
3F-5
3F-6
3F-7
3F-8
3F-9
3F-10
3F-11
3F-12
3F-13
3F-14
3F-15
3F-16
3F-17
3F-18
3F-19
0
0
0
0
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
0.5574
3167
57266
533587
2000000"
2000000a
2000000a
2000000a
2000000a
259432
314728
197954
316300
143370
74383
74579
2122
2375
4480
5047
Fatigue
Load
Level (%
of ultimate
static
load)
90%
80%
60%
50%
50%
50%
50%
50%
60%
60%
60%
60%
60%
70%
70%
80%
80%
80%
80%
Specimens did not fail at 2 million cycles
Max.
Load
(kN)
Min.
Load
(kN)
33.6
29.7
22.3
18.7
28.9
28.9
28.9
28.9
34.7
34.7
34.7
34.7
34.7
43.2
43.2
46.3
46.3
46.3
46.3
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
6.23
>
u
Strengthened Beam
RC Beam
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
Number of Cycles
Figure 4. A Comparison of RC Beam vs. Strengthened Beam
A number of studies were carried out to look at the fatigue behavior of

plain concrete. An accepted relationship between stress levels, which is the
ratio of maximum fatigue stress fmax to maximum static strength fr, and the
number of loading cycles N that cause failure is known as the Wholer's
equation shown below6'7
S=fmatfr = a + blogvN)
(1)
where a and b are parameters obtained experimentally and by statistical

analysis method. However, Eq.(l) does not reflect the stress range. Some
researchers6"9 use the modified Wholer's Equation as follows:
S =fmJfr =\-p{\-R) logX0{N)
(2)
where jB is an experimental coefficient and R is the ratio of minimum/atigue

stress^,-B to the maximum s t r e s s / ^ .
By testing plain concrete for fatigue failure at 2 million load repetitions
in compression, Aas-Jackobsen7 demonstrated that /? is 0.064. Tepfers9
verified equation (2) by laboratory compression fatigue experiments but
recommended /? = 0.0685 and obtained /? = 0.0690 by flexural test of plain
concrete beams.
In our study, the modified equation, Eq. (2), was used to investigate load
level S. But by analysis, it was found that J3 is not a constant for RC beams

strengthened with carbon fiber sheets bonded by inorganic matrix. Instead, /?
is obtained by regression analysis of the experimental data as:
f}= 0.08 ln{R) +0.2251
(3)
By using Equations (2) and (3), the analytical load level (5) is obtained.
A comparison of experimental S with analytical S is shown in Table 2 and
Figure 5. They showed that experimental data compare well with those of
analysis.
Table 2. A Comparison of Experimental S with Analytical S
Number of
Cycles
3506
74481
246357
2000000
Experimental S
Analytical S
1
1
0.8
0.802
0.7
0.689
0.6
0.612
0.5
0.494
Analytical
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
Number of Cycles
Figure 5. Comparison of Experimental Load Level S vs. Analytical S
Crack Width
Crack width is one of the most important parameters for serviceability. If
crack width is too large, moisture will enter concrete and cause the steel
reinforcement to rust. So, almost every concrete code limits crack width to
an acceptable value.
Initial crack was formed during the first cyclic loading. Then, with the
increase in number of cycles, the crack width increases. The cyclic
relationship between maximum crack width and number of cycles for 3=0.5
is shown in Figure 6. The maximum crack width increases with number of
cycles less than 500,000. After 500,000 cycles, the maximum crack widths
almost keep constant, even when the number of cycles reach the limit of two
millions. For other cases of 5=0.6, 0.7 and 0.8, the results are similar, but
the beams failed before 2 million cycles.
By regression analysis, a formula between the maximum crack width
and the number of cycles is given in Equation (4).
wmax= ax ln(N)+ b
(4)
where wmax = maximum crack width (mm); N = number of cycles; and a

and b parameters are a function of 5 (S =fmax /fr).
By regression analysis, parameters a and b can be expressed as follows:
a=0.00003e76274S
(5)
6=0.0043e5263<w
(6)
From Equations (5) and (6), the parameters a and b at different load
levels of S can be found as shown in Table 3.

0.18
0.16
-g-0.14
J 0.12
|
0.1
^ 0.08
"1 0.06
u 0.04
-*
Maximum Crack Width

Log. (Maximum Crack Width)
0.02
500000
1000000 1500000
Number of Cycles
2000000
2500000
Figure 6. Crack Width vs. Number of Cycles for 50% Load Level (5=0.5)
Table 3. Parameters a and b for max crack width

Parameter
5=0.5
5=0.6
5=0.7
5=0.8
0.0014
0.0033
0.0061
0.0145
0.0611
0.0985
0.1608
0.3
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study.
(a) Fatigue failure of RC beams strengthened with carbon fiber sheets
bonded with inorganic resins started with steel rupturing first, then fiber
rupture.
(b) Due to FRP strengthening, the fatigue load of RC beams increased by
55%.
(c) Cyclic crack width is a function of number of cycles. They are linearly
related to logarithm of cycles.
(d) The study showed that the modified Wholer's Equation can be used to
predict the fatigue strength of strengthened RC beams accurately.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of the National
Science Foundation Grant CMS-9900431.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
ACI committee 440, State of the Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures. American Concrete Institute, Detroit,
MI, 1996.
Toutanji, H. and Gomez, W., "Durability of Concrete Beams Externally
Bonded with FRP Sheets in Aggressive Environments," Cement and Concrete
Composites Journal 19(4), 1997, pp. 351-358.
Balaguru, P. and Kurtz, S., "Use of Inorganic Polymer-fiber Composites for
Repair and Rehabilitation of Infrastructures," Proceedings of Repair and
Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Structures, Maracaibo, Venezuela,
1997, pp. 155-168.
Foden, A., Lyon, R., Balaguru, P. and Davidovitz, J., "High Temperature
Inorganic Resin for Use in Fiber Reinforced Composites," Proceedings,
First International Conference on Composite in Infrastructures, ICCI'96,
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 1996, pp. 166-177.
Toutanji, H., Deng, Y., Zhang, Y., and Balaguru, P., "The Use of Inorganic
Matrix for Strengthening of RC Beams with Carbon Sheets," Proceedings of
FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, CICE, Hong Kong, 2001, pp. 11171126.
Shi, X. P., Fwa, T. F., and Tan, S. A., "Flexural Fatigue Strength of Plain
Concrete," ACI Materials, V.90, No.5, September- October 1993, pp. 435-440.
Aas-Jakobsen, K., "Fatigue of Concrete Beams and Columns", NTH institute
for Betonkonstruksjoner, Bulletin,~No. 70-1, Sept., 1970, P. 148.
Singh, S. P., and Kaushik, S. K., "Flexural Fatigue Analysis of Steel FiberReinforced Concrete", ACI Materials Journal, V 98, No.4, July- August 2001,
306-312.
Tepfers, R., and Kutti, T., "Fatigue Strength of Plain, Ordinary and Light
Weight Concrete", ACI Journal proceedings, V.76, No.5, May 1979, pp. 635652.

FATIGUE PERFORMANCE OF RC BEAMS STRENGTHENED

WITH EXTERNALLY PRESTRESSED PBO FIBER SHEETS
Z. WU AND K. IWASHITA
4-12-1 Nakanarusawa-cho, Hitachi-shi, Ibaraki 316-8511, Japan
T. ISHIKAWA
Advanced Composite Evaluation Technology Center, National Aerospace
Laboratory; 6-13-1, Ohsawa, Mitaka-shi, Tokyo 168-0015, Japan
K. HAYASHI, N. HANAMORI
ABE KOGYO SYO Co., Ltd.
3-13-3 Rokujoomizo, Gifu-shi, Gifu 500-8357, Japan
T. HIGUCHI AND A. IKEDA
TOHO EARTHTECH, Inc.
COMSBldg., 2-3 Uguisudani-cho, Shibuya-ku.Tokyo 150-0032, Japan
T. TAKEDA AND S. MURAKAMI
Nippon Steel Composite Co., Ltd.
Ohara Bldg., 3-8 Nihonbashi Kobuna-cho, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-0024, Japan
T. ICHIRYU
TOYOBO Co., Ltd.
2-8 Dojima Hama 2 Chome, Kita-ku, Osaka 530-8230, Japan
This paper is mainly focused on investigating the effectiveness of P-PUT
(PBO-Prestressing Upgrading Technique) method which is used to retrofit
RC beams under fatigue loading using prestressed PBO (Poryparaphenylene-benzo-bis-oxazole) fiber sheets (PFS). An experimental program
is carried out to confirm the behavior in terms of deformation, cracks,
load-carrying capacity, stiffness characteristics, ductility, and resistance of
crack opening of retrofitted RC with prestressed PFS. The design variables
including PFS prestressing level and upper limit of fatigue loading. The
results of this study demonstrated the high reliabilities of P-PUT method in
the rehabilitation and strengthening of RC structures with respect to fatigue
performance.
INTRODUCTION
Based on the concept of prestressing technique and FRP bonding technique,
some attempts to externally strengthen concrete structure with prestressed
carbon fiber sheets or plates were made by many researchers 1_4. Recently,
the authors have developed the PBO Prestressing Upgrading Technique
(P-PUT), in which PBO fiber sheets (PFS) are used as reinforcements. The
PFS provides equal or higher strength and stiffness in comparison with
high-strength carbon fiber sheets (CFS) and superior performance in energy
adsorption. The relaxation behavior is similar to that of CFS 5'6. This
technique was intended mainly to capitalise on the high tensile capacity of
PFS to increase the load-carrying capacity as well as to provide an effective
solution to premature PFS debonding and compression failure in concrete
structures.
This paper is mainly focused at investigating the fatigue capacity of RC
structures strengthened with the P-PUT. An experimental program is carried
out to confirm the behavior in terms of mid-span deformation, crack number,
width and distance, PFS strain and the reinforcement effects on
load-carrying capacity, stiffness characteristics, ductility, and resistance of
crack opening. The design variables including PFS prestressing level and
upper limit of fatigue load.
PRESTRESSING AND BONDING OF PBO FIBER SHEETS
The concept of the P-PUT and prestressing system have been shown in
previous literature 5'6. The prestressing procedure include: (1) pretension of
PFS; (2) bonding to the tension face of the concrete structure (including
curing of adhesive and cutting of the PFS ends); and (3) appropriate
anchorage treatment. The prestressing system is designed such that steel-PFS
lapped joint is connected to a load cell and a hydraulic jack. Both the load
cell and the hydraulic jack are mounted to a stiff steel frame. PFS, 10 meters
long and 0.3 meters wide can be prestressed to about 65% tensile strength
without resin impregnation and curing procedure, or about 100% tensile
strength with partial resin impregnation. An air bag system is used to ensure
perfect bond between PFS and concrete surface. The prestressed PFS is press
against concrete surface by air pressure. The suction pump sucks out the air
within the film package and produces a vacuum in which the prestressed
PFS is sealed tightly.
RC Beams with Externally Prestressed PBO Fiber Sheets 887
Prestressing
jr
Insertion of
unbonding sheets
^
Shear stress
(a) Stress concentration at PFS ends (c) Practical method used to relieve the
shear stress concentration at PFS ends
U shape extra bonded PFS
(2 layers to each end) tmsim fece 0f c o n c r e t e
feM^MBBBBBII^^^^W^
prestressed
(2 layers)
v
Shear stress
(b) Relieving stress concentration
(d) Anchorage by extra bonded U shape PFS

Figure 1 Shear Stress Distribution and Practices for
Relieving Stress Concentration at PFS Ends
INTERFACIAL SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION

STRATEGY TO RELIEVE STRESS CONCENTRATION
AND
Prestressing of the PFS may result in a very high interfacial shear stress
around the PFS ends (Figure 1 (a)), which may cause PFS anchorage
debonding. In order to avoid a premature debonding failure, the shear stress
caused by PFS prestressing and external load should not exceed the
interfacial bond strength. One attempt to relieve the stress concentration at
the sheet end is to reduce gradually the number of the PFS layers towards the
end of the PFS as shown in Figure 1 (b). Figure 1 (c) shows a practical
method to form of PFS end treatment through inserting different lengthy of
unbonding sheets between the PFS layers. Moreover, some effective
anchorage techniques can be used to ensure the prestressing effect such as
the U shape PFS bonded to different anchorage areas, which has been
adopted in this study as shown in Figure 1 (d). Although, only the case of
two layers around the PFS ends are shown in Figure 1, a stepwise treatment
of anchorage for the prestressed PFS can' be extended into general
multi-layers.

Load carryiii|
20d
Figure 2 Details of Specimens
DESCRIPTION OF TEST PROGRAM

A total often RC beam specimens, 1800 mm long, 150 mm wide and 200
mm, deep were constructed as shown in Figure 23 and the material properties
are listed in Table 1. Three specimens reinforced with 2 layers of PFs.
Table 1 Summary of Material Properties

Concrete
PFS
Re info re ing h a rs
Ep oxy re s in fiR~E3 P )
Compressive strength (MP a )
36.8
Young's modulus (GPa)

Poisson's ratio
Tensile strength
(MPa)
Thickness (mm)
Tensile strength (MPa )
Yielding strength (MPa)
Te ns He stre ngth (MPa )
Tensile shear stress (MPa)
30.0
0.3
4000
240
0.128
400
300
210
51.9
2450
16.2

Table 2 Typical Data of Experimental Results
No
Specimen's
Specimens ;
Upper : Designed Lower Designed

Steel
,,
limit of maximum limit of minimum .. ,
Cracking
. ,,.
ultimate
fatigue
PFS
fatigue
PFS
i .mm
yielding
load (kN)had(kN>
: load
strains
load
strains '""''W
(kN)
(micro)''
(kN) (micro)*
no-preslressed
PFS (2 layers)
12
87
119
25%-prestressed
30
121
141
36
112
132
PFS (2 layers)
33%-prestressed
PFS (2 layers)
no-prestressed
PFS (2 layers) ;
25%-prestressed
PFS (2 layers)
25%-prestressed
PFS (2 layers)
33%-prestressed
PFS (2 layers)
33%-prestressed:
PFS (2 layers)
RCF-059.5
RCF-2564.0(1)
RCF-2576.8(1)
RCF-3355.2
RCF-3366.0
RCF-2525%-prestressed
64.0(2)
PFS (2 layers)
RCF-2576.8(2) 25%-prestressed
PFS (2 layers)
59.5
64.0
76.8
55.2
66.0
64.0
76.8
1250
[1271]
1250
[1138]
1500
[1537]
1000
[1008]
1250
[1260]
1250
....El?.?.!]....
1500
[2294]
Average
PFS
0
Strain at
failure*
Failure
mode
PFS
Debonding
PFS
Debonding
9904
[4200]
8067
[5544]
PFS
Rupture
PFS
Debonding
7957
PFS
[4200] Debonding
6445
PFS
[4200] : Debonding
6640
PFS
[5544]
Rupture
7910
PFS
[5544]
Rupture
8733
13.5
140 [211]
12
94
120
16.0
140(138]
28
141
160
16.0
140 [138]
30
152
161
15.0
140(160]
36
134
143
15.0
140 [165]
36
121
146
16.0
140(145]
28
120
134
9749
[4200]
16.0
140 [142]
30
136
146
7505
[4200]
PFS
Debonding
:
PFS
Debonding
* The values in [ ] show the measured PFS strains at the specimen's mid-point due to
upper or lower limit of fatigue loading.
** Under static loading
* * * The values in [ ] show the PFS strains due to PFS prestressing and the average PFS
strain is average value of 5 gages within the range of equal moment section.
were designed with 0%, 25% and 33% prestress levels of PFS tensile
strength. These specimens are initially tested under static loading in
four-point bending at a loading rate of 2kN/min. Seven specimens reinforced
with non-prestressed (one specimens) and, two layers of 25% (four
specimens) and 33% (two specimens) prestressed, internal PFS are tested
under fatigue loading at a frequency of 2.4Hz. An upper load is set,
assuming PFS strains at beam mid-span of about 0.0125 (in all-prestressing
level), 0.015 (in 25%-prestressing) and 0.01 (in 33%-prestressing) at the first
cycle of fatigue loading, and the lower load is set at a strain of 0.0014 in all
investigations. The measured PFS strains are shown in Table 2. Where the
beam specimens did not fail under 2 million cycles of fatigue load, they are
subsequently tested under static loading. Design valuables are displacement,
reinforcement bar strain, PFS strain, concrete strain at beam mid-span, crack
width, number and spacing of cracks as shown in Figure 2. The test
temperature is about 26-29C.
890
FRPRCS-6: Sustained and Fatigue Loads
Initiation of crack A
2500
nHtfatioTToT crackl B
EESjuuture.
2000
1500 l< g J E J fl B7JM&>A-M
-RCS-0
RCS-25
RCS-33
60
20
40
D isplacem ent rfjm )
Figure 3 Static Performance of
PFS-strengthened Beams with
Different Prestressing Levels
5 1000
BNo.4:RCF-0-59.5
No.5:RCF-25-64.0
' No.6:RCF-25-76.8
1 No,7:RCF-33-55.2
ANO.8RCF-33-66.0
500
1000000
2000000
Number of cycles
Figure 4 PFS Strain Versus Loading

Cycles Relationships
Initiation of
30
25
20
-HNo.4:RCF-0-59.5
0 No.5:RCF-25-64.0
No.6:RCF-25-76.8
I No.7:RCF-33-55.2
-ANo.8:RCF-33-66.0
15
10
5
0&
0
ration of crack)
Initiation! rackB
1000000
Number of Cycles
2000000
Figure 5 Displacement Versus

Loading Cycles Relationships
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
ckB
-No.4:RCF-0-59.5
-No.5:RCF-25-64.0
-No.6:RCF-25-76.8
-No.7:RCF-33-55,2
-No.8:RCF-33-66.0
1000000
2000000
Number of Cycles
Figure 6 Crack Width Versus

Loading Cycles Relationships
Typical data of the experimental results are summarized in Table 2 and the
load versus mid-span deflection curves under static loading is shown in
Figure 3. Specimens RCS-0 and RCS-25 exhibited debonding failure of the
PFS, which initiated from a flexural crack within the beam mid-span region.
Only specimen RCS-33 showed a tensile rupture of the PFS at beam
mid-span. The ultimate load of the RCS-25 is about 18.5% higher than
RCS-0, and cracking load and yielding load of reinforcing bars major
increases due to prestressing of the internal PFS. However, comparing
RCS-33 with RCS-25, ultimate load does not increase although prestress of
internal of PFS is larger. It is considered to be due to a premature PFS
rupture in RCS-33. Under fatigue load, the relationships of displacement,

i \ > i
\\
\ /,
V\\
(f) No.6 RCF-25-76.8

Crack B
Crack B Crack A Crack B

\
K\
IX
n\ \\
11 \
f
A\<
Ah
(e) No.5 RCF-25-64.0
\
(d) No.4 RCS-0-59.5

Crack
B Crack A crack
Crack B
r^cKBiracKA
a
/CrackB
Wtittf
1\ \
(c) No.3RCS-33
Crack A
f 1 1/ {\
(b) No.2RCS-25
Crack B Crack A
(a) No.l RCS-0

i i
1 \
irr A#\ \
III
tTlll
tS&
(g) No.7 RCF-33-55.2

(h) No.8 RCF-33-66.0
Figure 7 Cracking Distributions before Yielding of Reinforcing Bars
PFS rupture
RCF-25-64.0(2)
RCS-25
12000
150
2)
10000
8000
100
' \.J/
PFS debonding
6000'
W"'-- AB -- RR CC FF -- 20 5- 5- 694. 5. 0
50
-RCF-33-66.0
0
0
20
40
4000
X0%-prestressedPFS
strengthened beam s
2000 -
D25%-prestressedPFS
strengthened beam s
0
Displacement (mm)
50
U p p e r Limjt of Fatigue L o a d i n g
100
(kN)
Figure 8 Fatigue Performance of Figure 9 Relationship of PFS Strain at

PFS-strengthened Beams with Failure under Following Static Loading
Different Prestressing Levels
Versus Maximum Fatigue Loading
PFS strain and crack width at beam mid-span versus number of cycles are
shown in Figures 4-6, and the crack patterns before steel bar yielding are
shown in Figure 7, where crack A indicates cracks occurring in 0-1 million
cycles and crack B those in 1-2 millions cycles. Mid-span displacements
appear to increase temporarily with increasing number of cycles in all
strengthened beam specimens. However, PFS strain and crack width rapidly
decreased when new cracks occurred under fatigue loading.
All strengthened beam specimens did not fail under 2 million cycles of
Concrete surface debondins

5 Omni
(a) No.2 RCS-25

(b) No.5 RCF-25-64.0 (c) No.6 RCF-25-76.8
Figure 10 Photos of Concrete Surface after Debonding Failure
Non-fatigue specimens are stiffer than Fatigue specimens

180 j^-~--- -pFSndebonding i
Ming
160
140 _ _ _ A.EES..debQiKiing...
140
120
120
100
80
60
RCF-25-64.0(l)
-RCS-0
40
RCF-25-76.8 (L)
RCF-25-64.0G)
20
RCF-0-59.5
RCF-25-76.8 C)
0
20
40
0
80
20
40
60
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
Figure 11 Fatigue Performance of Figure 12 Fatigue Performances of 25%no-prestressing PFS strengthened prestressing PFS Strengthened Beams with
Beams
Different Upper Limit of Fatigue Loading
loading and were subsequently tested under static loading. The relationships
of load versus beam mid-span deflection under static load are shown in
Figure 8. Compared with result of static test in Figure 3, ultimate load and
steel yielding load of fatigue'damaged specimens are the same or higher than
no-fatigue damaged specimens. The relationship between PFS strain at
failure under static loading and the upper limit of fatigue loading is shown in
Figure 9. The average PFS strain at beam mid-span at failure appears to
decrease linearly with increasing upper limit of fatigue loading. Appearence
of the concrete surface after PFRP sheets debonding and cracking patterns
are shown in Figure 10. The cover concrete debonded with PFRP sheets, and
the depth is about 50mm in RC8-25, about 2mm by 40mm width in
RCP-25-64.0 and about 2mm in RCF-25-76.8. These depths decrease
linearly with increasing upper limit of fatigue load. It is considered that
PFS-concrete interface is damaged
150
130
110
90
70
50
30
10
-10
Hcrackhg hsiie of state badhg before fatigue badhg

EDcrackhg hsiie offatgue badhg
RCF-25-76.8
PES rupture
riifc^l
RCF-25-64.00
[fir
RCF-33-66.0
if
RCF-33-55.2
-*-RCS-33
1 RCF-33-55.2
-A-RCF-33-66.0
RCF-25-76.8
RCF-25-64.0
ram
RCF-0-59.5
60
20
40
D ispfecem entrfjm)
Figure 13 Fatigue Performances of
33%-Prestressing PFS Strengthened
Beams with Different Upper Limit
of Fatigue Loading
RCS-33
RCS-25
RCS-0
5
10
Numberof crack
15
Figure 14 Comparison of Crack Number

among Different Specimens before The
Yielding Steel Reinforcement
Table 3 Crack Spacing

No.
Specimens
Crac k spacing after 2 millions of

eye les of fatigue loading (mm)
RCS-0
84
static
loading
RCS-25
84.5
static
loading
79
static
I 3
'
C rack spacing at first cycle of

fatigue loading (mm)
5
6
7
8
RCS-33
RCF-0-59.5
! RCF-25-64.0
! RCF-25-76.8
; RCF-33-55.2
RCF-33-66.0
90.0
88.9
110.0
83.8
88.0
loading
80.8
68.5
83.3
70.8
86.4
according to the fatigue load. Figures 11 to 13 show the load versus

deflection relations at beam mid-span for each prestressing level. It is found
that the load-carrying characteristics both for the yielding load of reinforcing
bars and ultimate load increase due to the additional cracking occurring
under fatigue loading. Moreover, it also alters some other characteristics
such as stiffness. Comparison of number of cracks among different
specimens is shown in Figure 14 and crack spacing is shown in Table 3.
Crack number is increased and crack spacing decreased linearly with
increasing loading cycles.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this experimental investigation, the following
conclusions can be obtained:
(a) It is shown that RC beam strengthened with prestressed PFS following
the P-PUT method exhibits satisfactory fatigue performance.
(b) The capacity of PFS-concrete interface generally weaker with an increase in
the upper limit of fatigue load; however, the interfacial performance of
beams strengthened with prestressed PFS is the same as those of beams
strengthened with no-prestressed PFS.
(c) The load-carrying characteristics in terms of the yield load and ultimate
load increase due to the additional cracking occurring under fatigue
loading. Moreover, it alters some other characteristics such as stiffness.
REFERENCES
1. Wight R.G., and Erki M.A., Prestressed CFRP Sheets for Strengthening
Concrete Slabs in Fatigue, International Conference on FRP Composites
in Civil Engineering, Hong Kong, pp. 1093-1100, 2001.
2. T.C. Triantafillou and Deskovic N., Innovative prestressing with FRP
sheets, Mechanics of short-term behavior, Journal of Engineering
Mechanics, ASCE, Vol. 117, No.7, pp. 1653-1672, 1991.
3. EI-Hacha R., Wight G., and Green. M.F., Strengthening Concrete Beams
with Prestressed Fiber Reinforced Polymer Sheets:Behavior at Room and
Low, Fourth International Symposium Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement
for Reinforced Concrete Structures, ACI, SP-188, pp.737-749,2000.
4. Wu Z.S., Matsuzaki T. Fukuzawa K.and Kanda T, Strengthening Effects
on RC Beams with Externally Prestressed Carbon Fiber Sheets, Journal
of Material, Concrete Structures and Pavements, JSCE, pp. 153-165, 2000.
5. Wu Z.S., Iwashita K., Hayashi K., Higuchi T, Murakami S., Koseki Y,
Strengthening PC structures with externally prestressed PBO fiber sheets,
International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering,
Hong Kong, pp. 1085-1092, 2001.
6. Wu Z.S., Iwashita K., Hayashi K., Higuchi T, Murakami S., Koseki Y.,
Strengthening Method for RC structures with externally prestressed PBO
fiber sheets, Journal of The Japan Society for Composite Materials,
Vol.28, No.4, pp.146-155, 2002.

PRESTRESSED CFRP SHEETS FOR STRENGTHENING

REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN FATIGUE
R. EL-HACHA, R.G. WIGHT, P.J. HEFFERNAN AND M.A. ERKI
Department of Civil Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada
P.O. Box 17,000 Station Forces, Kingston, ON, K7K 7B4 CANADA
Strengthening with externally bonded prestressed carbon fibre reinforced
polymer (CFRP) sheets combines the benefits of excellent durability and
structural improvement in terms of serviceability and ultimate conditions.
The addition of CFRP sheets to the tension surface of a beam or slab
reduces the stresses in the steel and this can dramatically improve the
fatigue life of the specimens. By prestressing the sheets, stresses are
further reduced and can result in even greater increases in fatigue life.
During the initial stages of this research program, three one-way slabs and
three large-scale reinforced concrete T-beams were constructed and tested
to investigate the effectiveness of using prestressed CFRP sheets to
strengthen concrete beams subjected to fatigue loading. The loading
applied was very severe with an amplitude of loading from a small preload
to a load from 90-100% of the yield load of the steel reinforcement. For
both the beams and the slabs, one specimen was unstrengthened and used
as a control, the second specimen was strengthened with non-prestressed
CFRP sheets, and the third specimen was strengthened with prestressed
CFRP sheets tensioned to approximately 30% of their ultimate tensile
strength. An anchorage system was developed to directly prestress the
CFRP sheets against anchors mounted of the strengthened structure itself.
The testing program for the slabs confirmed the benefits of prestressing the
CFRP sheets and the practicality of the prestressing technique used. The
prestressed sheets bonded to the lower surface of the beam relieved the
stresses present in the internal reinforcing steel and were much more
effective at extending the fatigue life, increasing the strength and improving
the serviceability of the beams than non-prestressed sheets. For the Tbeams however, the details of the anchorage were such that a failure at the
anchor location caused a premature failure of the strengthening system and
the benefits of prestressing were less significant. Similar anchors had
performed very well under static loading. It is clear that caution must be
exercised when designing prestressing anchors if the structure will be
subjected to very severe loading.
INTRODUCTION
Non-prestressed FRP sheets bonded to the tension face of an under-strength
or structurally damaged concrete member supplement the flexural
reinforcement of the deficient member. Studies have shown that the flexural
strength under service load was improved slightly and the ultimate strength
was significantly increased. However, only a portion of the strength of the
FRP sheets is effective in non-prestressed strengthening applications. To
improve the efficiency of this strengthening technique, the sheets may be
prestressed prior to bonding. This strengthening technique offers the
benefits of both a prestressed system that contributes to load carrying
capacity even before further deformation occurs in the structure, and a
bonded system that sustains a significant portion of the load under further
deformations. Prestressed FRP sheets can improve the serviceability of the
beam by limiting deflection and providing excellent control of cracks, and
can restore prestress to a system that has suffered a loss of internal
prestressing. The benefits and advantages associated with prestressed FRP
sheets have been discussed by El-Hacha et al., (2001).
There is very little research into the use of prestressed FRP sheets for
strengthening beams and slabs. Generally, researchers found that failure
was due to fracture of the internal reinforcing steel, the fatigue life was
increased and the deflections were decreased2'3,4,5'6.
Research into the fatigue behaviour of members strengthened with
prestressed FRP sheets is also limited. A fatigue test was carried out at
EMPA with the CFRP plate prestressed to 50% of its strength. Thirty
million cycles were performed without any evidence of damage to either the
concrete or the CFRP plate7. Wight and Erki (2001) found that the
prestressed sheets were much more effective at extending the fatigue life of
the reinforced concrete slabs than non-prestressed sheets.
OBJECTIVES
This investigation is part of a large experimental/analytical project studying
the fatigue behaviour of concrete beams and slabs strengthened with bonded
non-prestressed and prestressed CFRP sheets. Only the effectiveness of
CFRP sheets when used to strengthen, in flexure, simply supported
reinforced concrete T-beams is reported in this paper and will be compared
with the results of the one-way reinforced concrete slabs. A new mechanical
anchorage system has been developed as part of this study and used to
directly prestress the CFRP sheets by jacking and reacting against anchors
mounted on the web of the strengthened beam itself.
Prestressed CFRP Sheets for RC Concrete Structures 897
Specimen Details, Test Set-Up and Strengthening Materials
The experimental program consisted of testing, simply supported, three 4.0
m reinforced concrete T-beams, and three 3.0 m one-way reinforced
concrete slabs (90mm x 1000mm) under four-point loading. In each group,
one specimen was unstrengthened and used as control, the second specimen
was strengthened with non-prestressed CFRP sheets, and the third specimen
was strengthened with prestressed CFRP sheets. The specimens were tested
to failure 7 days after strengthening. A summary of these specimens is given
in Table 1. The 28-day compressive strength of the concrete was 40MPa.
The test set-up of a T-beam specimen, reinforcement details and
strengthening schemes are shown in Figure 1. The total load was applied to
the specimen using a 500kN capacity actuator through an MTS controllertesting machine operating under load-control mode. The specimens were
initially loaded to 5kN to ensure stability before starting the cyclic loading.
All fatigue loads were applied at a rate of 2Hz, and data was recorded at
every 1000th cycle and 10,000th cycle. The beams were subjected to a cyclic
load from 5 to 65kN, and the slabs to a cyclic load from 5 to 55kN. All
specimens were fully instrumented.
Table 1. Experimental Program
Beam #
TBeamC
TBeamNP
TbeamP2
SF
SF-N
SF-P
Type of Strengthening
Unstrengthened Control Beam
Four layers of Non-Prestressed CFRP Sheets
Four layers of Prestressed CFRP Sheets
Unstrengthened Control Slab
Two Strips (two layers each) of Non-Prestressed CFRP Sheets
Two Strips (two layers each) of Prestressed CFRP Sheets
Strengthening System
The FRP system used for strengthening the T-beams and slabs was the wet
lay-up composite system consists of dry unidirectional high tensile carbon
fiber sheet9. According to the manufacturer the sheet had a nominal
thickness of 0.165mm/ply, and ultimate tensile strength and tensile modulus
of elasticity of the sheets were 3800MPa and 227GPa, respectively. The
design strength per unit width was 627N/mm. Details of T-beam
strengthening are given in the following sections and details of slab
strengthening are given in Wight and Erki (2001).

1.0 m
LVDT
-1.55m
1.55m
'-- 0.8 m H^~"
L<-
500
70
Section a-a
(Dimensions in mm)
15o
'5mm $
@100mm
25mm
*
I 30mm $"
120
Jacking end anchor
Prestressed CFRP sheet
Fixed end anchor
Strips 50 r n m ^ .
6m
k 0.4m -4*" 0.5m ~H
Non-prestressed CFRP sheet
Figure 1. Test set-up and details of the T-beam specimens

Non-Prestressed CFRP Sheets for the T-Beams
Four layers of non-prestressed CFRP sheets were applied to the bottom
width of the concrete beams over a length of 3.6m with a width equal to that
of the T-beam (120 mm). The flexural strengthening system was
supplemented by CFRP stirrups. Seven single strips of CFRP sheet were
added to the beam so that the fibre direction is aligned vertically as shown
in Figure 2. Installation procedures followed the manufacturer's
recommendations.
Figure 2. Non-preslrcsscd CFRP strengthening system for the T-Beams
Anchorage System and Application ofPrestressing CFRP Sheets

A modified mechanical anchorage system similar to that developed by ElHacha et aL, (2002) was used to directly prestress the CFRP sheets by
jacking and reacting against permanent anchor brackets mounted on the web
of the concrete T-beam itself.
Four layers of CFRP sheets were bonded with epoxy at each end to a
special jacking end anchor (steel plate) and fixed end anchor (steel angle)
designed for the prestressing application (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Jacking and fixed end anchorages
The four-layer set of CFRP sheets was initially tensioned against the Tbeam to 764MPa representing approximately 30% of the sheet's ultimate
tensile strength obtained from tension tests (2640MPa) before being bonded
to the bottom width (120mm) of the T-beam over a length of 3.6m. At time
of testing the T-beams, the prestress level was 676MPa. The anchorage
system was left in place after prestressing to avoid peeling failure
associated with the high shear stresses present at the ends of the CFRP
sheets (Figures 4 and 5). A similar level of prestress existed in the
prestressed CFRP sheets used for slab strengthening8.
Figure i. Prcslreêd CI RP strengthening system for the T-Beam at the fixed end
Figure 5. Prestresscd CFRP strengihening sy>;em [\v ihe i -Beam at the jacking end

The T-beam and slab specimens were subjected to severe repeated loadings
and the unstrengthened control T-beam and slab specimens failed at a low
number of fatigue cycles. CFRP sheets bonded to the bottom face of the
concrete specimens increased the fatigue life and reduced the deflection
however the prestressed sheets appeared to be more effective at reducing
the deflection and increasing the fatigue live. Failure of all specimens was
initiated by the fatigue fracture of the internal tension reinforcement. The
fracture of the steel in the T-beams occurred at a single crack location at
midspan that repeatedly opened and closed with the fatigue loading. The
control unstrengthened T-beam failed after 1373000. cycles, however, it
should be noted that the fatigue loading amplitude up to 30000 cycles was 5
to 65 kN after which and due to technical error it changed to 18 to 62 kN. It

is likely that this error extended the fatigue life of the unstrengthened
control T-beam. The T-beams strengthened with non-prestressed and
prestressed CFRP sheets failed by steel fracture followed by sheet peeling
at the anchors after 141,000 cycles and 153,000 cycles, respectively. The
unstrengthened control slab failed after 37,000 cycles, and the slab
strengthened with non-prestressed and prestressed CFRP sheets failed after
169,000 and 314,000 cycles, respectively. For the T-beam and slab
specimens strengthened with non-prestressed CFRP sheets, failure of the
internal reinforcement caused a sudden transfer of tensile stresses to the
sheets. The non-prestressed CFRP sheets debonded from the specimens
with a sudden loss of load capacity. The failure of the slab strengthened
with prestressed CFRP sheets occurred after four of the internal reinforcing
bars were fractured. Two of the steel bars were ruptured at two locations
along their length. For the T-beam and slab specimens with strengthened
prestressed CFRP sheets, the presence of the anchors at the ends of the
prestressed sheets delayed the failure associated with the peeling of the
sheet and after further loading, the sheets debonded from the anchor.
The reinforcing steel in the unstrengthened control T-beam and slab
specimens was stressed through a cycle of approximately 10 to 100 % and
10 to 90% of its yield strength, respectively. The addition of CFRP sheets
significantly reduced the stresses that existed in the reinforcement of the Tbeam and slab specimens. The relief occurred because with the additional
flexural reinforcement applied to the lower face of the concrete specimen,
the neutral axis of the section was lower and a greater area of concrete was
activated. Stresses in the steel of the T-beam and slab specimens
strengthened with non-prestresseed CFRP sheets were observed to be
approximately 82% and 65% of those observed in the unstrengthened
control specimens. Prestressed CFRP sheets resulted in substantially more
relief where stresses in the steel were observed to be 52% and 45% of those
observed in the unstrengthened control T-beam and the unstrengthened
control slab, respectively.
The maximum deflection at midspan of the T-beams and slabs subjected
to fatigue loading from the 1000th loading cycle to failure are shown in
Figures 6 and 7, respectively. The decreased deflections observed in the Tbeam and slab specimens strengthened with CFRP sheets may be attributed
to the lower plastic straining in the compressive concrete, lower stresses in
the steel and the better control of cracking with the addition of the CFRP
sheets. Further reduction in the deflections were observed in the T-beam
and slab specimens strengthened with prestressed CFRP sheets due to the
better control over both cracking and plastic straining. The deflection was
also lower due to the camber induced in the specimens by the prestressing.
The increased deflection in slab shown by the prestressed CFRP sheets near
the end of its fatigue life may be attributed to the incremental failure of the
internal steel reinforcement and the debonding of the CFRP sheet.
60
"^"Unstrengthened Control T-BeamC
3 10
E
""^Strengthened Non-Prestressed CFRP Sheets T-BeamNP

-- Strengthened Prestressed CFRP Sheets T-BeamP2
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
Loading Cycles
Figure 6. Displacement in T-Beams subjected to full-range loading
40
30
"Unstrengthened Control (SF)
20
"Strengthened Non-Prestressed CFRP Sheets (SF-N)
10
"Strengthened Prestressed CFRP Sheets (SF-P)
-+0
50,000
-t-
-+-
-+-
100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000

Loading Cycles
Figure 7. Displacement in slabs subjected to full-range loading
CONCLUSION
The testing program confirmed the benefits of prestressing the CFRP
sheets and the practicality of the prestressing technique used. Nonprestressed CFRP sheets bonded to the tension face of a reinforced concrete
member can significantly increase the fatigue life. Prestressed CFRP sheets
can be much more effective at extending the fatigue life. Strains in the steel
reinforcement and plastic creep strains in the concrete are decreased by the
addition of CFRP sheets and are further decreased by prestressing the CFRP
sheets. Deflections are decreased by the addition of CFRP sheets.
Prestressed CFRP sheets further control deflections. The presence of
anchors can delay the ultimate fatigue failure of reinforced concrete
members strengthened with CFRP sheets. There was a significant difference
between the slab and the beam specimens strengthened with prestressed
CFRP sheets. For the T-beam however, the details of the anchorage were
such that a failure at the anchor location caused a premature failure of the
strengthening system and the benefits of prestressing were less significant.
Similar anchors had performed very well under static loading. It is clear that
caution must be exercised when designing prestressing anchors if the
structure will be subjected to very severe loading.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
El-Hacha, R., Wight, R.G., and Green, M.F., "Prestressed FibreReinforced Polymer Laminates for Strengthening Structures." Progress
in Structural Engineering and Materials, 3(2), pp. 111-121, 2001.
Kaiser, H., "Bewehren von Stahlbeton Mit Kholenstoffaserverstarken
Epoxidharzen." PhD Thesis, Diss ETH Nr. 8919, Zurich, 224p.
Deuring, M., "Verstarken Von Stahlbeton mit gespannten
Faserverbundwekstoffen." (Post-Strengthening of Concrete Structures
with Pretensioned Advanced Composites), ), published by the EMPA
in German as EMPA Research Report No.224, 1993, 279p.
Heffernan, P.J., "Fatigue Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Beams
Strengthened with CFRP Laminates", Ph.D. Thesis, Royal Military
College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, 1997, 157 pp.
Kobayashi, A., Ohori, N., and Kuroda, H., "Repair and Reinforcement
of Concrete Structure with Carbon Fiber Tow Sheet." The 2nd
International RILEM Symposium (FRPRCS-2), Ghent, Belgium,
August 1995, pp. 687-695.
6.
Muszynski, L.C., and Sierakowski, R.L., "Fatigue Strength of

Externally Reinforced Concrete Beams." Materials for the New
Millennium, Proceedings of the 4' Materials Engineering Conference,
Washington D.C., November 10-14, 1996, pp. 648-656.
7. Meier, U., Deuring, M., Meier, H., and Schwegler, G., "Strengthening
of Structures with CFRP Laminates: Research and applications in
Switzerland." The Is' International Conference on Advanced
Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, (ACMBS I).
Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada, October 1992, pp. 243-251.
8. Wight, R.G, and Erki, M.A., "Prestressed CFRP Sheets for
Strengthening Concrete Slabs in Fatigue." The International
Conference on FRF Composite in Civil Engineering (CICE'01), Hong
Kong, China, December, 2001, pp. 1093-1110.
9. MBrace Composite Strengthening System, "Engineering Design
Guidelines." Second Edition, September 1998.
10. El-Hacha, R., Wight, R.G., and Green, M.F., "Innovative System for
Prestressing FRP Sheets." ACI Structural Journal (accepted for
publication)

FATIGUE BEHAVIOR OF BRIDGE DECK SPECIMEN

STRENGTHENED WITH CARBON FIBER POLYMER
COMPOSITES
J.SIM
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanyang University
1271 Sa IdongAnsan Korea 425-791
H. S. OH
Department of Civil and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia University
605A SWMUDD 500 West 120th Street New York, NY USA 10027
Most of recent studies on strengthening material and method for concrete
members have focused only on beams but rarely on slabs. In this study, an
experiment was carried out on bridge decks strengthened with isotropic
carbon fiber sheets and grid typed carbon plastic, under fatigue loads. The
behavior was compared to the fatigue behavior of non-strengthened bridge
decks. Test results show that the strengthened bridge decks not only
improved in fatigue strength, but also in load-displacement relationship and
total released energy as opposed to the non-strengthened bridge decks. A
fundamental strengthening design procedure for the deteriorated concrete
bridge deck considering fatigue behavior is also proposed in this study.
INTRODUCTION
In a bridge structure, reinforced concrete bridge deck is a structural member
which receives vehicle loads directly and transfers them to bridge girders.
Therefore, deterioration of bridge decks, caused by direct damages from
repeated vehicle loads and the deterioration of the girder, will further
exacerbate the conditions of the bridge decks1'2. But until now, strengthening
of bridge decks mainly depended on practical techniques rather than
reasonable techniques based on test data or analyses.
In particular, when reinforced concrete bridge decks are subjected to
traffic loads, the failure mechanism of the slab is very much complicated
because the effect of fatigue damages due to the traffic loads are added to
the static responses3.
In this study, the difference in fatigue behavior with staticresponse due
to strengthening material, such as Carbon Fiber Sheet (CFS) and Grid typed
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (GCFRP), is examined through fatigue tests
with prototype deck panel specimens. Test results show that the fatigue
resistance of slab strengthened by CFS and GCFRP under cyclic loading

conditions is improved.
In this study, to propose a strengthening technique that improves usability
and structural performance of bridge decks, prototype bridge deck
specimens similar to real bridge decks are created as shown in Fig. 1. A total
of nine prototype RC deck specimens were constructed using ready-mixed
concrete and tested. The specimens consisted of a typical slab and beam, and
the slab panel was supported on two sides by edge beams and they were
integrally connected with the slab. For all the specimens., the clear span of
the slab panels was constant at 1.6m5 and the chosen slab thickness was 220
mm beyond beams of 520 mm. Also, the reinforcement ratio of transverse
rebar per unit width is p=0.00551(Asx/d) and the amount of embedded
longitudinal rebars is about 67%(p=0.003675 Asy/d) of the transverse steel in
accordance with the Korean Highway Design Specification. At this time5
16mm deformed rebar is used for transverse and longitudinal reinforcement.
The concrete used in the specimens consisted of ordinary Portland
cement5 natural sand, and crushed coarse aggregate with maximum size of
25 mm. The mixture resulted in the cylinder strength of approximately
24MPa (or 310 kgfcm2) aged 28-day.
D18-Sg 300
,
i[ ^T7*"^~ "7~X"~7~y~,
7"T~TTT1
iiii
L.=JJ ,
010-lfl 150
.,11
1
nS
III!
Jj
_.
O jugs J3\
ri
>
}-
-i h
"[fn
zttttt
zttttt
a) Reinforcement details
b) Test setup
Figure 1. Specimen details and test setting
Fatigue Behaviour of Bridge Deck Specimen 907

*M
*?'4
\'1
W'- - - -
'Mi-
flllr
'*k ~- ~- '-
4 - -W
(a) CFS
(b) GCFRP
Figure 2. Strengthening Details
The 16 mm and 10 mm diameter deformed bars (D16 and D10) were
used in the slab panels and beams, but only <|>10mm bars are used for stirrups
in the edge beam. They have an average yield strength of 350 MPa (or
3,530kgf/cm2) as obtained from tests.
Test variables and strengthening details for fatigue tests are as shown in
Table 2 and Figure 2, respectively, in which CFS and GCFRP denote
strengthened specimens with carbon fiber sheet and grid typed carbon fiber
reinforced plastic, respectively. Stress levels of non-strengthened specimens
are adopted at 40(CON40), 70(CON70), 90(CON90)%, of the yielding loads
obtained from static test results. Also strengthened specimens are loaded at
60(CFS60, GCFRP60), 70(CFS70, GCFRP70), 80(CFS80, GCFRP80) % of
yielding load obtained from static load, respectively.
Table 1. Physical Properties of Materials (unit: MPa)
Table 1. Physical Properties of Materials (unit: Mpa)
~~~~~-~-~-~^Properties Yielding
Ultimate
Modulus of
Strength
Strength
elasticity
Materials~^---~-^^
343.2
Rebar
294.2
200000.0
3,481.5
230500.0
CFS
GCFRP
1,500.0
100000.0
~~~~~~-^PropertiesCompressive
Young's
Shear Modulus
Materials~~~~~~^^^ Strength
Modulus
25900.0
Concrete
24.0
8600.0
7000.0
Epoxyfor CFS
88.3
2300.0
Mortar for
15000.0
24.0
8600.0
GCFRP
Ultimate
Strain
1.5
Poisson 's
Ratio
0.18
0.3
0.18
The test set-up is illustrated in Figure 1. The specimen was put on two
separate steel pedestals with hinge supports. To simulate the contact surface
of truck wheel for design, 250 x 500mm rectangular steel plate and rubber
pad, and the actuator with the capacity of 100 Tonf were used for test. An
automated data acquisition system was used for acquiring data from the test.
Linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) were used to
record the slab deflections along the central line to obtain deflection profiles
of the slab. Concrete strain gages were attached on the compressive surface
of the slabs to measure the radial and tangential variations of concrete strain,
and electrical resistance strain gages were bonded on the main reinforcement
to measure the strain profiles. Two Hz loadings rate was repeatedly applied
on the steel plate and rubber pad at the geometric center of the slab, and
rubber pad was used in order to avoid disintegration of contact surface.
Table 2. Test variables for fatigue test and number of failure
Specimen
40%(260kN)
CON
1,000,000
CFS
GCFRP
Stress Level (%) and Load (kN)

70%
60%(440kN)
80%(590kN)
(450kN) (520kN)
68,834
1,000,000
501,981
90,074
19,836
864,408
20,023
90%(580kN)
10
Load-Displacement Relationship According to Load Cycle
A summary of test results is shown in Table 2, and the load-cumulative
displacement relationships corresponding to load cycles of slabs, are
illustrated in Figure 3. All specimens excluding the CON40, CFS60 failed
due to fatigue punching shear failure under cyclic loading, and the
GCFRP60 developed brittle failure of RC beam with simulated girder.
CON40 and CFS60 were statically loaded after 1,000,000 cycles. Deflection
and residual deflection increased greatly in initial repeated loading state.
Maximum accumulation displacement of each specimen under the fatigue
loading showed a similar displacement at peak loads due to static loading.
Also, bridge deck strengthened with CFS displayed similar behavior to nonstrengthened specimen and ductility that is comparable to GCFRP specimen.
0000
100000
500000
000000
fter 1000000
tatb test
,20
30,
40
tsp Seem en
1 urn m j
10
20
30
40
D ispbcem ent(m m )
50
(a) CON 40
(b) CON 70
3 00
800
300
600
-1000
-10000
100000
-500000
-1000000
- a f t e r 1000000
- s t a t e test
400
200
400
0000
00000
00000
000000
fter 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
ta tic t e s t
200
0
10
20
30,
40
D isp boem ent(m m )
50
10
20
30
40
0 isp lac em en t(m m )
(c) CFS 60
10
20
30
40
D isp bcem ent(m m )
50
(d) CFS 70
10
20
30
40
0 isp bcem ent(m m
(e) CFRP60
(f) CFRP70
Figure 3. Load-displacement relationships
Variation of Compliance According to Load Cycle
Compliance that is a function of crack length showed a great increase at the
initial loading state, a gradual increase after initial state that indicates a
stabilized crack state, and finally a rapid increase at the development of
fatigue failure, as shown in Figure 4.
As shown in Figure 4, the compliance of slabs after-strengthening is
smaller than that of slabs before-strengthening, and corresponding results
indicate that CFS and GCFRP have the advantage of crack control. In
addition, the magnitude and the rate of compliance for GCFRP70, which
received the same loads with CFS70, is smaller than CFS70. Therefore, it is
considered that these are caused by the superior compliance control capacity
of GCFRP, as opposed to that of CFS, which disperses the mechanical
cracks into the entire specimen.
Release of Energy According to Load Cycle
As a quasi-brittle material, concrete structure that receives an excessive
external loading develops a residual displacement and shows a different
load-displacement relationship at loading state and un-loading state from the
initial behavior in the elastic limit. Therefore, the degradation of concrete
structure can be assessed on a qualitative analysis based on the difference in
area under the load-displacement relationship during the loading and
unloading state.
Energy release rate (G) of deck specimen, which is caused by the
development of fatigue crack that is, the increase in crack length and
residual deflection, is plotted against the number of local cycle in Figure 5.
The value of G which indicates the amount of deterioration, is calculated by
the integration, from the area under load-displacement curve at each number
of cyclic loading. All specimens suddenly disperse a relatively large energy
at the initial cyclic loading state; and at the stabilized deterioration state, the
energy release rate is slowed.
0.6
0.55
-B-C0N40
0.5
-&-CFS60
--CFS70
-&-GCFRP60
~*-GCRRP70
0.45
0.4
: 0.35 V
-C0N70
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
\
\ \
^d E:
M- -
.E+04
N
Figure 4 Compliance according to load cycle

Also, strengthened specimens release more energy that the non-strengthened
specimens. Comparing CON70 and GCFRP 70 which were at the same
stress level, GCFRP70 displayed a larger amount of energy release than

500
IT
450
1 400
i 350
o
o 300
CO
'1
t
t
t
t
t
..
F-CON40
-S-CFS60
-A-GCFRP60
\\
f
|
,\ \
S 150
\ V,- {
iS ioo
^ T
50 i^
'-- - : m ^ ml m!h
g 250
tr 200
--CON70
-*-CFS70
-*-GCFRP70
'j
CD
'
S;
0
1.1
Figure 5 Energy release according to load cycle

CON70. Specimen GCFRP70 is therefore more efficient in stress
distribution on the longitudinal and transverse direction than CON70.
While non-strengthened specimens suddenly developed main macro
cracks, strengthened specimens such as series CFS and GCFRP specimens,
displayed a decrease in the main crack width of deck and an increase in the
number of cracks. The amount of total energy release of strengthened
specimens increased by 100% compared to the amount of non-strengthened
specimen.
S-N RELATIONSHIP
S-N relationship of each specimens is shown in Figure 6, and empirical S-N
equations of deck based on the regression are obtained as.
CON : Stress Level(S) = -0.0257Ln(N) + 0.982
CFS : Stress Level(S) = -0.0241Ln(N) + 1.0045
GCFRP : Stress Level(S) = -0.0216Ln(N) + 1.003
As shown in Figure 6, strengthened bridge decks with Carbon Fiber
Sheet or Grid typed Carbon Fiber Plastic improve fatigue behavior and
fatigue limit as well as load carrying capacity under static loads. Fatigue
limit of CON specimen is 62.7% and fatigue limit of strengthened specimen
with CFS and GCFRP is about 67.1% and 70.5%, respectively, while fatigue
limit cycle is regarded as 106 cycles. In particular, fatigue strength of series
GCFRP specimens increases by about 4 % more than for the series CFS
specimens.
0.8
CD
>
0.6
CD
_]
CO
gO.4
"
CON
02
FatQue L'm i t o f CON : 62.7%
' CFS
F a f g u e L h i itof CFS : 67.1%
AGCFRP FatgueL'm it of GCFRP :70.5%
I
I
M M Mill
I I I IliMI
I
1.E+00
1.E+02
1.E+04
1 .E+06
ill
1 .E+08
N
Figure 6. S-N relationship
CONCLUSIONS
Generally, strengthened decks are found to be more efficient compared with
CON in fatigue crack control. At the same stress level, the specimen
strengthened by GCFRP is exhibit a remarkable structural enhancement in
resisting fatigue loads because the stress distribution of deck is more
effective under service load state. The test results show that the structural
behavior of strengthened bridge decks with GCFRP is improved more than
strengthened decks with CFS.
REFERENCES
1. Sim, J. And Oh, H.-S., "An Experimental Study on Flexural Behaviour of
RC Bridge Deck Strengthened with Carbon Fiber Sheet", Proceedings,
Korean Concrete Institute, Vol.10, No. 2, Nov., 1998, pp. 827-832.
2. Sim, J. And Oh, H. -S., "Experimental Study of Strengthening Technique
Using Carbon Fiber Sheets on Prototype Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Deck Specimens", ACI SP-193, Vol. 2, Sep. 2000, pp, 343-359.
3. Sim, J., Oh, H.- S. And Yu, J.-M., "Fatigue Behavior of the Strengthened
Bridge Deck with CFS", Proceedings, Korean Concrete Institute, Vol. 12
No.2, Nov.,2000, pp.701-704.

STATIC AND FATIGUE TESTS ON PRECRACKED RC

BEAMS STRENGTHENED WITH CFPR SHEETS
Z. Y. WU, J.-L. CLEMENT, J.-L. TAILHAN, C. BOULAY AND P.FAKHRI
Laboratoire central des ponts et chaussees
Division BCC/ Section CMM, Paris, France
This paper presents the results of an experimental study on the static and
fatigue behaviour of precracked RC beams strengthened with CFRP sheets
under 3-point bending test. The RC beams (20x15x70 cm3), which were
initially crack-damaged by pre-loading until the sum of two crack widths is
equal to 0.7 mm, were subsequently : strengthened by bonding CFRP
sheets on the tensile surface and on the lateral faces at the two ends of the
beams using epoxy resin adhesive. The effect of bridging cracks with
carbon fiber sheets is also studied in this paper. The results indicate that RC
beams strengthened by CFRP sheets demonstrate significant improvement
in stiffness, ultimate capacity and ultimate fatigue life.
INTRODUCTION
The external bonding of high-strength Fiber Reinforced Plastics (FRP) to
structural concrete members has widely gained popularity recently,
particularly in rehabilitation works to rectify inadequate design or structural
damage. Many recent research works have shown that external bonding of
FRP to structural concrete members is an effective and simple method to
increase their structural capacity, for example, as in reinforced concrete
columns or reinforced concrete beams retrofitted by FRP. However most of
these studies are concentrated on the static behavior of structural members
strengthened with FRP, only a few has been done on their fatigue
performance.
Clement1 used RC beams, which were strengthened with bottom and
lateral carbon cloth, to study the cyclic behavior of such strengthened
beams. These beams were submitted to 100 cycles of a loading between 8%
and 60% of their ultimate load. Ferrier's2'3 studies on a RC beam
(100x10x17 cm3) indicated that the fatigue life of the beam reinforced with
one ply of composite plate was increased by 25% in comparison with a non
reinforced beam. RC beams, which were pre-damaged in fatigue, then
rehabilitated with different layers of CFRP, and subjected to fatigue loads
again until failure, were used by Shahawy4 to study the fatigue behavior of
such structures. In the research of Richard5'6, 5 RC beams with a length of
230cm, in which 3 were plated with CFRP, were tested under 4 point
loading to study the fatigue behavior of RC beams plated with CFRP, and it

was concluded that the fatigue failure of the internal reinforcement steel
appear to be the dominant factor governing failure. In spite of these works,
further studies on the long-term performance of FRP-strengthened concrete
members are needed for their wide acceptance.
DESCRIPTION OF TEST PROGRAM
In this study, 11 RC beams (15x20x70 cm3) reinforced with 2 steel rebars
(HA8) in the tension zone were tested. Of these, 4 beams, in which two were
strengthened with CFRP sheets, were subjected to static tests; and another 7
beams, in which 4 were strengthened with CFRP sheets, were subjected to
fatigue tests. The dimensions and the reinforcement details of the beams are
shown in Figure 1. One strain gauge was stuck on each steel bar at the
middle of each beam.
The beams were subjected to a 3-point bending test (Figure 2). The
strengthened beams were precracked before the bonding of CFRP. For the
beams without CFRP sheets but subject to fatigue tests, they were
precracked as well. The process of precracking was controlled by the sum of
widths of two cracks, which were located at two positions of stirrups near
the middle of beams, taken as 0.7 mm. This load is denoted as F0.7. At this
load, the maximum tensile stress in the steel rebar was about 350MPa
(assumed as service limit state).
HA6
HA6
5x12
i1
<r
20
HA8
~ZT
HAS
60
Figurel. Dimensions and steel rebars of specimen (unit: cm)

All the strengthened beams had been sand blast before initial
precracking. The beams were then strengthened by one layer of CFRP sheet
on the tensile surface and on the lateral surfaces at the two ends of beam.
The CFRP sheet on the lateral surface is in the form of a "U-shape". There
are two kinds of "U-shape" form carbon sheet, as showed in Figure 3.
During the tests, the applied load, deflection, strain in the steel rebar at
the middle of beam and the widths of the two cracks were measured for
specimens without CFRP sheets. For those strengthened by CFRP sheets,
Precrached RC Beams with CFRP Sheets 915
strains were also measured in the CFRP sheet on the tensile surface, at the
positions of two cracks and at the middle of the beam.
Materials
The concrete has a Young's modulus of 34GPa, compressive strength of
43.5MPa? and a tensile strength of 3.4MPa. The reinforcing steel bar has a
Young's modulus of 200GPa5 and yield strength of 570MPa. The CFRP
sheet is a bi-directional fabric. In the primary direction, there are 70% of
fibers and in the other direction, 30% of fibers. The average thickness is
0.43 mm, and average density is 1.8 g/cm3. The mechanical characteristics
of the CFRP sheet is: Young's modulus of 105GPa, and tensile strength of
1400MPa. The epoxy resin is a composite with two components.
. Test Procedure
The static tests were carried out using deflection control. All beams were
loaded until failure. Application of the fatigue load was achieved by means
of an electro-hydraulic actuator programmed to deliver a sinusoidal loading.
The amplitude (Pmnx-Fmk) of the fatigue load was changed for different
specimens. The frequency of the fatigue load is 4 Hz.
The procedure of fatigue test is as follows: First, the load was applied up
to average of Fmax and F ^ . Then, the fatigue load was applied until the
rupture of specimens or until the end of the designated number of cycles,
for example two millions cycles. During the first cycle and the last cycle of
the fatigue loading, instrumentation were measured at 0.5 kN intervals.
During the fatigue loading, only the values at peaks and at valleys were
measured at certain interval of cycles. The fatigue test was carried out under
load control.
Figure 2. Fatigue test ( beams with and without CFRP)
4L
\f r t r
(Beam 8 and 16)
(Beam 7,15,23,24)
Figure 3. Bonding of U-shape CFRP sheet (carbon cloth)

Static Tests
Static tests were conducted on 2 non-strengthened RC beams (N06 and
N022) and on 2 strengthened RC beams (N07 and N015). The tests results are
given in Table 1 and are plotted in Figures 4 and 5. The strengthened
specimens failed explosively in shear because of the debonding of the
CFPR carbon sheet on the lateral surface. At failure, the stress in the CFRP
sheet on the tensile face, in the central zone is about 60%-70% of its tensile
strength. In Table 1, it is observed that the ultimate strength of the
strengthened beams is nearly 1.9 times that of the beam without CFRP
sheet, and that the deflection and the strain in steel rebars of strengthened
beams are nearly one half of those of beams without CFRS sheets. The
external bonding of CFRP sheet increases significantly the stiffness of
structure, but decrease their ductility. During the test, it was observed that
the two main cracks of the non-strengthened beams propagated in an
inclined direction towards the loading point; however, the cracks of the
strengthened beams propagated more vertically. The magnitude of crack
width before failure of strengthened beams is much smaller than that of nonstrengthened beams.
Fatigue Tests
Specimens without CFRP sheet
Three specimens were used as control beams in the fatigue tests. After
initial crack-damage, the specimens were subsequently subjected to fatigue
loading. The amplitude of fatigue loading for specimen N021 was between
5%F0.7 and 100%F07; for the other 2 specimens (N012 and N013), the
amplitude was between 40%F 07 and 100%F0.7. The detailed test results are
Precracked RC Beams with CFRP Sheets 917
given in Table 2 and plotted in Figures 6, 7 and 8. Figure 6 and 8 show that
during fatigue tests, the deflection and the crack width develop in three
N0
ultimate
strength
(kN)
Table 1 Results of static tests

max crack max strain max strain in TFC (nm/m)
max
width
in rebar
deflection
(mm)
(u.m/m)
crack 1 middle crack 2
(mm)
Beams strengthened with CFRP sheets
N07
167.5
5.6
1.3/2.5
6621
7497
7813
8627
N 0 15
178.8
9.5
1.4/3.8
5698
7813
9365
N06
91.3
13.9
6.7/10.1
12350
2 rebars in plasticisation
N 0 22
90.7
16.6
10.0/10.0
11480
2 rebars in striction
Beams without CFRP sheets
Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Force -Deflection Curves
Strain of steel rebars (|jm/m)
Figure 5. Force-Strain Relations
stages: first, a rapid increase up to about 20 % of ultimate fatigue life;

second, a uniform increase and finally a rapid increase to failure. However,
in Figure 7, it is observed that before the fracture, the strain in steel rebars
remains nearly constant. At the end of the fatigue test, for all these 3 beams,
it was observed that one of the two rebars had been broken. The fatigue
failure of RC beam happened suddenly. Table 2 shows that for the RC
beams, the larger the stress range, the smaller the number of cycles to
fatigue failure of the beams.
Specimens strengthened with CFRP sheets
Four strengthened specimens were subjected to fatigue tests. Specimen N08
was tested under fatigue loading with an amplitude between 40%F0.7 and
100%F0.7. After 2 millions cycles, this specimen did not fail, and no evident

deformation was observed in the steel rebars. Static test was carried out on
beam N08 after the fatigue test, and the test results are shown in Figures 4
3S00
3000
2500
^_
|
apeak
2000
1500
1000
500
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
Figure 6 and 7. Fatigue test results of specimen N012 (without CFRP sheet)
i...
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
600000
Figure 8. Evolution of crack widths of specimen N012 (without CFRP sheet)

and 5 (No8bis). In these two figures, it is observed that before 140 kN, that
is, about 80% of ultimate strength of the strengthened beam, the test results
of beam N 0 7, N08bis and N015 are nearly the same. This indicates that the 2
million cycles of fatigue loading affects the static behaviour of the
strengthened beam only slightly, if any. It also indicates that the external
bonding of CFRP sheet increases the ultimate fatigue life of the
strengthened beam significantly. For beam N016, the amplitude of fatigue
load was increased by increasing the maximum load to 150%F0.7. This beam
failed because of the shear failure of concrete. For this reason, the width of
the "U-shape" CFRP sheet was increased from 7.5 cm by extending to the
edge of the initial cracks for Beams N023 and N024 (Figure 3).
For Specimens N023 and N 0 24, a different amplitude was applied. These
two specimens failed at different number of cycles. The fracture of steel
rebars in Beam N023 happened at 640002 cycles, and the fatigue test was
continued until 1040582 cycles, but the beam did not fail completely. At the
end of the fatigue test, the delamination of concrete was observed at the
middle of the beam; and debonding was observed at the end of the CFRP
sheet. The fracture of steel rebars in Beam N024 happened at 370003 cycles.
Soon after the fracture of steel rebar, this beam failed. The detailed tests
results are shown in Table 2 and Figures 9, 10, 11 and 12.
It is observed from Figure 9 that during the fatigue test, the development
of the strain in steel rebars can be divided into 3 stages: a uniform increase
in the first two stages and finally failure. The change between the first 2
stages is sudden. This is different from that of beams without CFRP sheets.
Figure 10 shows that the development of the strain in CFRP sheets on the
tensile surface at the position of two cracks and at the middle of specimen
exhibits three stages as well, and the sudden change in strain happened at
the same cycles as that for steel rebar. In Figures 11 and 12, it is observed
that the deflection and crack width also develop in three stages during the
fatigue test.
The tests results show that the sudden change of crack width happened
at the same cycles as that of deflection, and of strains in steel rabars and in
carbon sheet. This indicates that the propagation of cracks is the main reason
to produce the change in the stress in steel rebars, and the main redution in
the stiffness of the beam.
For all four specimens, it is observed that during the fatigue test, the
CFRP sheet, were still in a good condition after the break of steel rebar, and
they continued to take the fatigue loading. Thus, the CFRP sheets have
good fatigue resistance and significantly improved the ultimate strength of
pre-cracked RC beams.
For all four specimens, the cracks near the CFRP sheets hardly
developed at the beginning of fatigue test, (Figure 12). This indicates that
with the epoxy resin adhesive, the CFRP sheets bridge the cracks well. In
Table 2, it is observed that under the same fatigue loading, the stress range
in strengthened beam (N08) is decreased evidently compared to the beams
without carbon cloth (from about 150 or 160 MPa to 100 Mpa). It is also
observed that there are two stress range values for beams N023 and N024.
This is different from that of beams without CFRP sheets, and that of
strengthened beams but under lower level of stress (N08 and N016).
Probably, the change in stress range of steel rabars in Beams N023 and N024
comes from the fatigue failure of the adhesion between the steel rebars and
the concrete. Table 2 shows that for the strengthened beams, the larger the
stress range in steel rebar, the smaller is the number of cycles required for
the fracture of steel rebars. However, for strengthened beam N023, although
the stress range of steel rebars (180/260 MPa) is bigger than that of beam
N012 and N013 (160 MPa and 150 MPa respectively), the number of cycles
to the fracture of steel rebar of strengthened beam N023 is more than that for
the un-strengthened beams N012 and N013. Figure 8 shows that the
maximum crack width in beam N012 propagated from 0.52 mm to 0.62 mm
920
FRPRCS-6:
Sustained and Fatigue
Loads
before the fracture of steel rebar. However, in Figure 12, it is observed that
the maximum crack width in Beam N023 remained at about 0.3 mm in the
first stage (until 37002 cycles), and then suddenly increased to 0.54mm. In
the second stage, this value increased from 0.54mm to 0.67mm. This proves
that besides the stress range, the crack width affects the ultimate fatigue life.
vatayTFC
poaksTFC
vaBey steel bar
peak steel bar
WHUarm
100000
200000
300000
40000Q
500000
600000
700000
8O0O00
100000 300000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000

cycles
cycles
Figure 10. Strain in CFRP sheet

(specimen 23)
Figure 9. Strain in steel rebar

(specimen 23)
Table 2 Results of fatigue tests

No
F 07
(kN)
Fmin
(kN)
Fmax
(kN)
Force
range
(kN)
Stress
range of
rebars
(Mpa)
number of
cycles for failure
Steel rebars rupture

model
Beams without carbon sheet

N 0 12
54
40% F0.7
100% Fo.7
33.4
160
511000
One fracture another

striction
N 0 13
52
40% Fo.7
100%Fo,7
31.2
150
528000

striction
N 0 21
57
5% Fo.7
100% Fo.7
55.2
320
128997

striction
N8
53
40% Fo.7
100% Fo.7
31.8
100
> 2000000
No evident
deformation
N16
54
60%F 0 7 .
150% Fo.7
49
140
266037
Concrete shear
failure
N 0 23
58
20% F0.7
112% F0.7
52
180/260
1040582 (stop)
(rebar 640002)
1 rebar fracture
N024
58
12%Fo,7
120%F0,7
63
207/274
371571 (rebar
370003)
2rebars fracture
Beams strengthened with carbon sheet
Figure 11. Deflections of strengthened specimens
100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000

cyclas
Figure 12. Propagation of crack widths in specimen N023

CONCLUSIONS
This test study has shown that:
(a) The external bonding of CFRP sheets on initially crack-damaged RC
structures is an effective method to restore and improve the structural
strength and ultimate fatigue life.
(b) For beams with a small shear span/beam depth ratio, besides
strengthening on tensile surface, additional strengthening in shear is
usually necessary under static and fatigue loads.
(c) Under static and fatigue loads, CFRP sheet reduces the propagation of
cracks because of the bridging effect. On the other hand, the stress
redistribution between CFRP sheet and steel reduce reduce the stress
range in the steel rebars.
(d) The development of strains in steel rebar under fatigue load in beams
strengthened with carbon cloth is different from that in unstrengthened
beams.
(e) The fracture of steel rebar is the main reason for fatigue failure of RC
beams strengthened with CFRP sheet. This kind of failure is not sudden:
after the fracture of the steel rebars, the specimen does not fail
completely,
(f) The stress range is the principal reason for the fatigue fracture of steel
rebars. Morever, the magnitude of crack width affects this fracture
significantly.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was supported by DRAST(MEMR) and the CFRP sheets were
TFC, provided by Freyssinet International.
REFERENCES
1. Clement, J.L., Dumas, C. and Belhoul, M., Numercial simulations of
RC beams strengthened by carbon cloth. Computational modelling of
concrete structures (EURO-C1998), de Brost, Bicanic, Mang and
Meschke(eds), Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 54 10 946, pp.741-748.
2. Hamelin, P. and Ferrier, E., Etude bibliographique sur les renforcements
par materiaux composite de structures du genie civil. Rapport N
LCPC/01/du 27/04/01.
3. Ferrier, E., Naseri, H. and Hamelin, P., Fatigue Behavior of Composite
Reinforcement for Concrete Structure. Fourth International Symposium
Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for Reinforced Concrete
Structures. ACI special publication SP-188, pp. 535-545, 1999.
4. Shahawy, M. and Beitelman, T.E., Fatigue Performance of RC Beams
Strengthened by CFRP Laminates. CDCC 98, pp. 169-178, 1998.
5. Barnes, R.A. and Mays, G.C., Fatigue Performance of Concrete Beams
Strengthened with CFRP Plates. Journal of composite for construction
may, 1999 pp.63-72.
6. Chollaway, L. and Bleeming, M. Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Structure - Using Externally Bonded FRP Composites in Structure and
Civil Engineering . Woodhead publishing england and CRC press USA
2001.
7. Wu, Z.Y., Clement, J.L., Tailhan, J.L., Boulay, C. and Fakhri, P.,
Fatigue Test on Damaged reinforced Concrete Specimens Strengthened
by Carbon Cloth. Proceedings of HPSC2002, Seville Spain 2002, pp.
347-355.

FATIGUE INVESTIGATION OF CONCRETE BRIDGE DECK

SLAB REINFORCED WITH GFRP AND STEEL STRAP
A. H. MEMON, A. A. MUFTI AND B. BAKHT

ISIS Canada, University of Manitoba
#A250 Agricultural and Civil Engineering,
Winnipeg, MB, R3T2N2, Canada
This paper describes the behavior of one segment of the cast in situ fullscale model of bridge deck slab reinforced with glass fibre reinforced
polymer (GFRP) internally and externally with steel strap. Due to this
hybrid GFRP and steel strap, corrosion can be eliminated completely from
the deck slab, leading to an economical durable bridge deck system. The
model of the deck slab was tested under cyclic loading to investigate the
fatigue behavior. The cyclic load was simulating the effect of truck wheel
load. From the test results, it was observed that at 25 tones load level, the
model deck slab completed 1,000,000 cycles without any damage and this
satisfied the serviceability and lifetime number of axles that a bridge deck
would experience. The deflection behavior, crack width, strain distribution
in GFRP bars and steel straps with the number of cycles are reported.
INTRODUCTION
The decline in North American infrastructure has never been more prevalent
than it is today. In particular, the highway system and its bridges have been
adversely affected by age and weathering over the past two decades.
Surveys show that the majority of the highway bridges have reinforced
concrete decks supported on steel or concrete girders. Concrete has been the
choice for highway bridge decks for a long time. Over the years, the weather
has taken its toll on these reinforced concrete decks. Rainwater and de-icing
chemicals applied to roadway surfaces during the winter months have
seeped through many concrete decks and caused corrosion of the reinforcing
steel. To avoid the corrosion of steel, Mufti et al.1 proposed the concept of a
steel-free deck slab entirely free of any internal steel reinforcement. In a
steel-free deck slab, steel straps are connected to the top flange of the girder
providing lateral restraint, which develops compressive membrane force in
the deck slab. In operation, as the bridge deck withstands the stress of the
traffic loads, the deck will deform and stresses develop. Eventually the
loads will reach a magnitude where the tensile stresses will cause the
concrete to crack. Once the bridge deck cracks it resists traffic loads through
arching action. Such arching action is characterized by compressive
membrane action and failure by punching shear.
This paper describes a study to replace the steel reinforcement
completely from the deck slab with hybrid internal GFRP and external steel
strap as an alternative solution to increase the service life of bridges. This
study investigates the fatigue behavior of a cast in situ full-scale model of a
bridge deck slab. This full-scale model of a deck slab is divided into three
segments (A, B and C). Segment A is designed according to the Canadian
Highway Bridge Design Code Section 8, while segment B and C are
designed according to Section 16 and make use of the principle of a steelfree deck slab that is confined transversely by steel straps. In segment B,
carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP) are used, while in segment C,
GFRP are used to reduce the chances of development of cracks. The test
results of segment C, GFRP panel is reported in this paper.
During its lifetime, a bridge deck slab is subjected to a very large
number of wheels of different magnitudes. By contrast, the laboratory
investigation of the fatigue resistance of a bridge deck slab is usually
conducted under wheel loads of constant magnitude. The design codes
(AASHTO 2 and CHBDC 3 ) are not explicit with respect to the design
fatigue loads on deck slabs. An analytical method was developed by Mufti
et al.4 for establishing the equivalence between fatigue test loads and a
given population of wheel loads. While the method is general enough to be
applicable to all deck slabs of concrete construction, it is developed
especially for steel-free deck slabs 1,s which are relatively new and do not
have a long track record of field performance. In this paper, fatigue behavior
of segment C, model of bridge deck slab is reported.
Details of Bridge Deck Slab
The full-scale model of bridge deck slab was tested under cyclic loading to
investigate fatigue behavior. The model of deck slab consisted of 3.0 m each
with overall dimensions of 9.0 x 3.0 mm and a thickness of 175 mm, as
shown schematically and before casting in Figures 1(a) and 1(b). The deck
slab was cast in situ compositely on two steel girders at a center-to-center
spacing of 2.0 m through the use of shear connectors and had a 500 mm
long cantilever overhanging beyond the center of the each girder. In the
Concrete Bridge Deck Slab with GFRP and Steel Strap 925
longitudinal direction, (i.e.: parallel to the girders), the deck slab was 9.0 m
long. Although cast monolithically, the slab was conceptually divided into
three segments, as shown in Figure 1(a). Segment C of the deck slab was
reinforced with hybrid GFRP internally and externally with steel strap.
GFRP bars with a modulus of elasticity 40.8 GPa and ultimate tensile
strength of 690 MPa were used. One GFRP bar with a diameter of 12.7 mm
(#4) is spaced at 150 mm in the transverse direction, providing a reinforcing
ratio of 0.48% (0.16% per m), and one 12.7 mm (#4) is spaced at 200 mm in
the longitudinal direction, providing a reinforcing ratio of 036% (0.12% per
m). The steel strap having dimensions 25.4 x 38.1 mm (1" x 1.5") is spaced
at 1000 mm in the transverse direction only, providing the reinforcing ratio
of 0.55% (0.18% per m). A steel free concrete deck slab of girder bridge
derives its strength from an arching action, which is harnessed by both
longitudinal, and transverse confinement system, the latter may comprise
transverse steel strap connected to the top flange of the girder. To control
the temperature and thermal cracking, concrete is mixed with 0.3% chopped
polypropylene fibers. The average concrete compressive strength was 57.7
MPa.
H-lfflttttlilhTiirtliTfl
_L 1 I 1
1 M
1 1
if
1 InMiHlri-J|J-1J_MÎM
00
-4rnTrTOTtr
MM
JL
N i l hj'
M1
Segment A
Segment B
00
iTtfrf
l 1
, ,., iJ
Segment C
m (12.7 mm) cSa Asian 190

QFRP rsbar @ spacing ef 15C
mm In Transvsrs* and 200
Figure I (a), Reinforcement detail or the deck slab
Figure 1(b). Picture of the deck slab showing GFRP
Instrumentation
To Investigate the performance under cyclic loading, the model of the deck
slab was monitored through a number of sensors, which included linear
variable displacement transducers (LVDTs), strain gauges5 and pi-gauges.
Vertical deflection of the model was measured by LVDTs. In order to
measure deflection of the deck slab with respect to girders, the displacement
transducers (5 LVDTs) were attached to steel beams resting directly above
the center of the girders, as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Test Setup and Instrumentation
The displacement transducers were located at mid-span and on all four

sides in both the longitudinal and transverse centerline of the model, so that
profile of the deflection can be obtained with respect to the increasing
number of cycles. In order to monitor the performance of the steel straps, an
electrical resistance strain gauge was mounted on the middle of each strap.
To monitor internal performance of the deck slab through GFRP bars, an
electrical resistance strain gauge was mounted on five transverse and three
longitudinal bars at the center and away from the center as shown in Figure
1(b). The purpose of doing this was to get the distribution of strain with
respect to the number of cycles. The ultimate goal is to monitor the yielding
of the steel strap and rapture of the GFRP bar. Pi-gauge instruments were
used to measure the crack width. To monitor the crack width of the
longitudinal crack of the model deck slab, three pi-gauges were mounted at
the bottom surface of deck slab at the center (under the load) and 1.0 m
towards West end (near the edge beam)- and 1.5 m towards East, as shown in
Figure 3.
Testing Procedure
To understand the fatigue behavior of cast in situ full-scale model of bridge
deck slab, cyclic test was conducted at 25 t load. The load was applied
through a hydraulic actuator. The load cell has a capacity of 1000 kN. The
load was controlled by an MTS controller. For this dynamic test, the load
control was selected at 1 Hz frequency. The data was recorded through Data
Acquisition System. The deck slab was tested under a central rectangular
patch load measuring 610 x 305 mm, with the later dimension being in the
longitudinal direction of the deck slab. The test setup is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 3. Bottom View, steel straps and Instrumentation
WHEEL LOADS DATA

Commentary Clause C3.6.1.4.2 of the AASHTO 2 Specifications (1998)
notes that the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) in a lane is physically limited to
20,000 vehicles, and the maximum fraction of tracks in traffic is 0.20. Thus,
the maximum number of trucks per day in one direction (ADTT) is 4,000.
When two lanes are available to trucks, the number of trucks per day in a
single lane, averaged over the design life, (ADTTSL) is found by multiplying
ADTT by 0.85, giving 3,400. It is assumed that the average number of axles
per truck is four (a conservative assumption), and that the life of a bridge is
75 years. The maximum number of axles that a bridge deck would
experience on one lane during its lifetime is 372 million.
Matsui and Tei 6 described the maximum axle load observed in Japan
as 32 t, or 314 kN. The close correspondence between the expected annual
maximum axle weight in Canada4 and the maximum observed axle load in
Japan indicates a similarity between the axle loads in the two countries.
Matsui and Tei 6 also provided a histogram of axle weights observed on 12
bridges in Japan. In the absence of data on Canadian tracks, this histogram
was used to construct the wheel load statistics, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Statistics of wheel loads
Wheel Weight (Tons)
Percentage of Total (%)
21.25
32.06
21.61
12.60 6.48 3.24 1.44
0.54
No. of Wheels (million)
79.05
119.3
80.39
46.87 24.1 12.1 5.37
2.01
Wheel Weight (Tons)
10
11
12
Percentage of Total (%)
0.32
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.04 0.02 0.01 0.003
No. of Wheels (million)
1.19
0.67
0.41
0.26
0.15 0.07 0.04
13
14
15
16
0.01
This table also includes the numbers of wheels of various magnitudes,

corresponding to a total of 372 million wheel passes. Any fatigue test load
on a bridge deck slab should cause the same damage in the slab as the
damage caused by all the wheel loads included in this or any similar table.
An analytical method was developed by Mufti et al.,4 according to this
approach:
N2=Nl*e(K>-*>>'3
(1)
RX=P,/PS
(2)
R2=P2/PS
(3)
with
and
Pi and P2 are two different wheel loads; Ni and N2 are the corresponding
number of passes of Pi and P2 respectively; while Ps is the static failure
load.
The ultimate capacity of the deck slab can be predicted by using Punch
Program developed by Newhook and Mufti7. The reliability of this program
is discussed in Mufti and Newhook 8. Therefore according to the Punch
Program, the ultimate capacity of the segment C model deck slab is about
827 kN (84.41).
Consider that model deck slab has a static failure load (Ps) of 84.4 t;
while Pi, P2 and Ni are 11, 161 and 79.1 million, respectively. By using the
equation (1), N2 will be 0.38 million, as shown in Table 2. From this table 2,
it is clear that the maximum number of axles that a bridge deck would
experience in one lane, during its lifetime, is 372 million. This includes the
number of wheels of various magnitudes from 1 t to 161.
Table 2. Lifetime number of cycles, equivalent to 161 wheel load
Static Load (Ps)
Load (Pi)
No. of Cycles (n1)
Load (P2)
No. of Cycles (n2)
(Tons)
(Tons)
(million)
(Tons)
(million)
84.4
79.05
16
0.38
84.4
84.4
2
3
4
119.26
80.39
46.87
16
16
16
0.82
0.79
0.66
84.4
24.11
16
0.48
84.4
12.05
16
0.34
84.4
84.4
7
8
5.37
2.01
16
16
0.22
0.12
84.4
84.4
9
10
1.19
0.67
16
16
0.10
0.08
84.4
84.4
84.4
84.4
11
12
13
14
0.41
0.26
0.15
0.07
16
16
16
16
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.03
84.4
15
0.04
16
0.03
84.4
16
0.01
16
84.4
Total No. of Cycles @ 16 Tons
0.01
4.25

Test results show that at 25 t load level; model deck slab completed
1,000,000 cycles, without any damage. As mentioned earlier, during its
lifetime, a bridge deck slab is subjected to 372 million cycles of different
magnitudes. By using an analytical approach, which was explained earlier,
372 million cycles are equivalent to 4.25 million cycles of 16 t load, as
shown in Table 2. From the experimental results, the deck slab completed
1,000,000 cycles at 25 t, which is equivalent to 4.25 million cycles at a
20.93 t. This can increase the carrying capacity to approximately 30% more.
Vertical deflection of the deck slab was measured by displacement
transducers. It was observed that maximum deflection was obtained at the
center of the deck slab, as shown in Figure 4. From Figure 4, it is clear
deflection was increased with increasing number of cycles. It was also
found that the maximum deflection is less than the permissible limit.
In order to measure the internal and external response of the deck slab,
strain gauges were mounted on every strap, GFRP bars in transverse and
longitudinal and maximum response was measured under the applied cyclic
load, as shown in Figure 5. From Figure 5, it is clear that maximum strain
was achieved by GFRP bar in transverse direction, followed by GFRP bar in
longitudinal direction and steel strap. All values are lower than the
serviceability limit.
2.S 2.0 -j
I,..
5
',
1.0
LVDT2@Center
0.5
200000
400000
600000
800000
No. of Cycles (Nos.)
1000000
1200000
Figure 4. Deflection-No. of cycles near the applied load
1000
O
X
Z.
800
600
400.
.*-
-'
..- ""
200
"
"
- - - -Steel Strap
GFRP-Longitudinal
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
Figure 5. Strain-No. of Cycles under the applied load

A longitudinal crack was observed along the centerline of the deck slab
at 20,000 cycles. Few cracks were noticed when the deck slab completed
1,000,000 cycles. To monitor the propagation of the centerline longitudinal
crack, a pi-gauge was mounted at the bottom of the deck slab under the load.
The crack width with the increasing number of cycles is shown in Figure 6.
From Figure 6, it is clear that crack width increased with the increasing
number of cycles and maximum crack width was found less than the
permissible limit.
From these results it is clear that the maximum deflection of the deck
slab, strain in the steel strap, GFRP transverse and longitudinal bars and
crack width in the deck slab are within the permissible limits.
0.4 -,
I"
ack
1o
PG2@Under Load
200000
400000
600000
800000
1000000
1200000
Figure 6. Crack width-No. of cycles under the applied load
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the analysis and findings of this investigation, the following
(a) The presence of GFRP bars in the deck slab reduced the chances of
development of cracks.
(b) The concrete deck slab reinforced with hybrid GFRP and steel strap
completely eliminate the corrosion of the deck slab.
(c) Test results show that GFRP bar in transverse direction reached
maximum strain under load of about 0.12%, which is 60% of the
service strain, hence area of the GFRP bar in transverse direction can
be reduced up to 40%.
(d) Experimental results show that fatigue damage induced at 25 t, are
within permissible limits.
(e) Analytical results show that during the bridge deck's lifetime, it is
subjected to 372 million cycles of different magnitudes, which are
equivalent to about 4.25 million cycles of a 161 wheel load.
(f) Experimental results show that, 1,000,000 cycles at 25 t, equivalent to
4.25 million cycles of a 20.93 t, can increase the carrying capacity to
approximately 30% more during the lifetime.
(g) The deck slab satisfied the serviceability and lifetime number of axles
that a concrete bridge deck slab would experience.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The financial assistance provided by ISIS Canada, A Network of Centres of
Excellence, and the Cement Association of Canada are gratefully
acknowledged. The authors gratefully acknowledge the GFRP bars provided
by Hughes Brothers, Inc. USA. Special thanks to Moray Mcvey, Grant
Whiteside and Liting Han for their assistance during fabrication and testing
of the deck slab and the administrative support from ISIS Canada.
REFERENCES
1. Mufti, A.A.; Jaeger, L.G.; Bakht, B.; and Wegner, L.D., "Experimental
Investigation of FRC Slabs Without Internal Steel Reinforcement,"
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, V. 20 No.3, 1993, pp. 398-406.
2. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 1998.
3. CHBDC, "Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, "Canadian
Standards Association International, Toronto, 2000.
4. Mufti, A.A., Memon, A.H., Bakht, B., and Banthia, N., "Fatigue
Investigation of the Steel-Free Bridge Deck Slabs," ACI International
SP- 206, American Concrete Institute, 2002, pp. 61-70.
5. Bakht, B. and Mufti, A.A., "Five Steel-Free Bridge Deck Slabs in
Canada," Journal of the International Association for Bridge and
Structural Engineering (IABSE), V. 8, No. 3, 1998, pp. 196-200.
6. Matsui, S. and Tei, K., "Researches and Japanese Developments on
Highway Bridge Slabs and Contribution of Wheel Running Machines,"
Proceedings, Third International Conference on Concrete under Severe
Conditions, Vancouver, June 18-20, 2001, V. 1, pp. 992-1008.
7. Newhook, J.P. and Mufti, A.A., "Punch Program User Manual ", Nova
Scotia CAD/CAM Centre Dalhousie University, Hallifax, Nova Scotia,
September, 1998.
8. Mufti, A.A. and Newhook, J.P., "Punching Shear Strength of Restrained
Concrete Bridge Deck slabs", ACI Structural Journal, 95(4), 1998, pp.
375-381.
Prestressed FRP Reinforcement and Tendons

FATIGUE OF HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE BEAMS

PRETENSIONED WITH CFRP TENDONS
B. B. AGYEI AND J. M. LEES
Dept. of Engineering, Univ. of Cambridge, Trumpington St., UK
G. P. TERRASI
SACAC Schleuderbetonwerk AG, Lenzburg, Switzerland
The research investigates the fatigue resistance of high strength concrete
beams prestressed with CFRP tendons. The fatigue performance of bare
CFRP tendons has been found to be very good. However, the influence of
stress concentrations at concrete crack locations on the fatigue behaviour
requires further verification. In the main experiments, concrete beams
pretensioned with CFRP tendons were subjected to cyclic loading. The
maximum and minimum loads were chosen so that the beams were cycled
above and below the cracking load. Thus, as the cracks opened and closed
the concrete crack faces rubbed against each other and potentially against
the tendon. It is concluded that the fatigue resistance of CFRP tendons
does not appear to be affected by stress concentrations at crack locations
since debonding occurs and reduces the strain concentrations.
INTRODUCTION
The first CFRP prestressed high strength concrete pylon for transmitting
electricity was produced in Switzerland, in September 2000'. The 27m pole
was manufactured using a centrifugally-cast high strength concrete
containing silica-fume-blended cement and polypropylene chopped fibre
reinforcement. The CFRP prestressed pole had a wall thickness of only
40mm and the weight was 40% less than that of a conventional steel
prestressed concrete pole design.
Having successfully used CFRP tendons in pylons, the potential of
extending this novel idea to the design of wind turbine towers was
identified. Wind turbines are very efficient in onshore and offshore
environments. However, these environments are very aggressive causing
corrosion of steel or steel-prestressed concrete towers. It is thus an ideal
application for combining concrete with a non-corrodible, lightweight and
high strength tendon material such as CFRP. Although the initial cost of the
structure is expected to be higher, lower maintenance, transportation and
installation costs are expected to make CFRP-prestressed poles cost
936 FRPRCS-6: Prestressed FRP Reinforcement and Tendons
effective. The most severe loading condition for wind turbine towers is
fatigue in a corrosive environment. Hence, the initial focus of the research
was to study the fatigue of CFRP tendons embedded in concrete.
FATIGUE REVIEW
The goal was to carry out a series of experiments to investigate the fatigue
behaviour of high strength concrete prestressed with CFRP. In particular,
the required stress range and mean stress to be used in the experiments
needed to be determined. As a basis for the design of the experiments,
various codes of practice and relevant publications were studied. The
findings are shown in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 summarises various fatigue
tests on bare CFRP tendons (not in concrete) undertaken by others. The
tests were conducted under varying stress ranges and frequencies but on
average for about 3000000 cycles. All the tests shown in the table survived
the specified number of cycles. However, in Saadatmanesh et al's2 tests, the
tendons failed for a stress range of 200 MPa when the minimum stress was
90% of the ultimate tendon strength and also for a stress range of
400 MPa when the minimum stress was 60% of the ultimate tendon
strength. In the case of Uomoto's3 experiments, tendons subjected to
maximum stresses greater than 87.5% failed during testing.
Table 1. Summary of CFRP fatigue tests.
Ref
Uomoto*
Saadatmanesh 2
UomotoJ
Adim?
Freq.
(Hz)
Stress
(MPa)
Range
(MPa)
Min. no.
of cycles
mean 85%
m/30-90%
min 30-60%
min 30%
max 87.5%
min/max=0.1
100
100
200
400
100-1000
98.8-988
2000000
3000000
3000000
3000000
4000000
4000000
3-5
3-5
3-5
1-10
4
Ultimate
Strength
(MPa)
1295
2000
2000
2000
1390
2600
Table 2 shows the specifications of various design codes for the fatigue
performance of bare steel tendons and also for steel embedded in concrete.
The table shows that most of the codes specify a mean stress range of about
180 MPa for 2000000 cycles. As the CFRP tendons are expected to be used
instead of steel, these results would represent a minimum baseline fatigue
performance.
High Strength Concrete Beams with CFRP Tendons 937

Table 2. Summary of code recommendations for the fatigue resistance of steel.
Ref/Steel status
CEB-fip "/bare
CEB-flp '/bare
Mallet*/bare
Mallet1'Ibare
Mallei/bare
SiA^/in cone.
SiA^lin cone.
Stress (MPa)
max 70%
-
Range (MPa)
170-180
80-280
80-280
180-260
50-220
100-150
10-12% of
Strength
Cycles (N)
2000000
2000000
1000000
2000000
10000000
4000000
* In the absence of fretting effects.
An alternative approach to designing fatigue experiments is to specify a

load range above and below the beam cracking load. Hence, an example of
a possible practical stress range that could be used in the experiments is that
which corresponds to a minimum load (Pmi) below the cracking load and a
maximum load (Pmsx) above the cracking load as indicated in Figure 110. It
is expected that fatigue failures would almost always occur at crack
locations as a result of stress concentrations. These loads (Pmax and Pmi) can
be used to calculate the tendon stress range Afp . Using the S-N curve for
the tendon, Figure lb, the corresponding number of cycles until failure (N)
can then be deduced from the S-N plot. This approach was used in the
design of the experiments. A typical S-N curve (as shown in Figure 1)
predicts the fatigue life of a material at given stress ranges or stress ratios
for a given frequency of tensile oscillation and a given temperature. The
fatigue life is usually predicted within a 90/95% confidence limit.
A
00
<+H
<l
TT
(b)
Figure 1. Determination of stress range about a crack.
LogN^
EXPERIMENTS
Rectangular beams with similar tendons and concrete as used in the poles
were considered in the experiments.
Tendon and Concrete Properties
The manufacturer's mechanical properties for the CFRP tendons are shown
in Table 3. The tendons were pultruded rods consisting of 60% by volume
of fibres. The tendons had a ceramic coating on the outer surface to improve
the bond properties.
Table 3. Mean CFRP tendon properties.
Diameter
(mm)
4.2
Ultimate
Stress (MPa)
2540
Strain %
1.60
E(MPa)
161000
Breaking Force
(kN)
35.12
Rapid hardening cement, CEM II/A-D 52.5, blended with microsilica

was used to obtain a high early strength concrete. Polypropylene (PP) fibres
were added to improve the resistance of the concrete to shrinkage cracking
and fire. A superplasticiser was used to improve the workability and enable
the use of a low water/cement ratio. The average 28 day cube strength of the
mix was 92 MPa and the modulus of rupture was 6.56 MPa.
Experimental Procedure
Experimental setup
Since unidirectional FRP tendons have a low shear strength and the fibres
are susceptible to damage, the tendons are difficult to anchor. Thus an
anchoring system using expansive cement was employed. The initial
prestress level, about 60% of the ultimate tendon capacity, is what is used in
the poles but the choice was also partly influenced by the efficiency of the
anchorage. One reinforced and five prestressed beams were cast. Figure 2
shows the beam dimensions and loading configuration.
Fatigue design philosophy and load ranges
The intention was to examine the influence of cracking on the fatigue
resistance of CFRP tendons when embedded in a pre-cracked prestressed
60mm
496mm
742mm
742mm
1980mm
60mm
_j
Beam
107mm
M.
234
23.5
Section
Figure 2, Schematic beam diagram.

beam subjected to cyclic loading. The beams were designed to fail by
rupture of the tendons. All the beams were pre-cracked before the cyclic
loading so as to exert the maximum possible damage on the tendons. The
beams were subjected to four-point bending to obtain a constant moment
region between the point loads (see Figure 3). The frequency of oscillation
chosen was 5 Hz. After every 400000 cycles, a static test was carried out
for each prestressed beam up to the maximum cycling load. The loading for
the test series was chosen to cycle about the cracking load. Figure 4 shows
a schematic representation of the load ranges used in the experiments. In
this figure, PBM stands for a prestressed beam, RBM is a reinforced beam,
and the number identifies a particular beam. PBM1 was used to establish
the maximum static capacity of a beam not subjected to cycling. The failure
moment was 11.50 kNm which represents a total applied load of 30.5 kN.
Figure 3. Test rig for fatigue test.

Load (kN)
Beam
5/6
10/11
if
20/21
30.5
RBM1
PBM2
PBM3
PBM4
PBM5
i
if
Cracking for
reinforced beam
Decompression Cracking for pre- Failure

for prestresssed stresssed beam
beam
Figure 4. Schematic representation of load ranges.
Beam Analysis
The beams were analysed using the principle of plane sections remain plane.
Using this principle, a Matlab programme was developed to determine the
stresses in the tendon, based on the load exerted on the beam. It was also
used to calculate the cracking load, ultimate load and the load-deflection
behaviour of the pre-tensioned simply supported beams. The behaviour of
the beam was divided into two stages: the pre-cracked stage, and the postcracked stage. In the pre-cracked stage, the beam behaved elastically. The
analysis of the beam after cracking, was based on the 2-dimensional
Newton-Raphson iterative procedure using the equilibrium of forces and
moments.
Details of Fatigue Test
The maximum and minimum loads exerted on the beam and thus the
stresses in the tendons were varied for each beam. In Table 4, the initial
prestress force, P, the total force exerted on the spreader beam and the
corresponding tendon stresses are shown for each beam. The details of the
fatigue loading regimes are shown in Table 5.
RESULTS OF BEAM TESTS
Table 5 summarises the performance of the beams after the cyclic loading.
After the targeted number of 2000000 cycles, most of the beams were
allowed to undergo further cycles. Only beam PBM5 failed during cycling.
In all other cases, the beams were tested to static failure after the number of
cycles specified in Table 5 to determine the residual moment capacity.

In Table 5, TR stands for a failure by tendon rupture and CC for
concrete crushing. In PBM5, both tendon rupture and concrete crushing
occurred almost simultaneously.
Beam
RBM1
PBM2
PBM3
PBM4
PBM5
Beam
RBM1
PBM1
PBM2
PBM3
PBM4
PBM5
Table 4. Forces and stress on beams and tendons.

Stress in tendon
P(kN) Force onbeam
Lower Upper Lower Upper
(kN)
(kN)
(MPa) (MPa)
10.00
12.00
768
944
1104
12.00
14.00
944
14.00
18.00
1104
1440
1744
2000
38.45
21.28
24.18
38.24
20.00
23.66
1616
1872
12.00
23.66
1392
1952
38.63
37.50
9.42
23.33
1350
1904
Stress
Range
(MPa)
176
160
336
256
256
560
554
Table 5. Residual strengths after cycles and modes of failure.

Prestres No. of
Predicted Static
Failure
s force
cycles
ultimate capacity mode
capacity
after
cycling
(kN)
(kNm)
(kNm)
900000
11.50
8.59
TR
38.00
none
11.50
11.32
TR
38.45
3850000
11.50
12.23
TR
38.24
2000000
11.50
11.03
TR
TR
38.63
5200000
11.50
11.20
TR/CC
37.50
5300
11.50
-
Failed
during
cyclin
g
(Y/N)
N
n/a
N
N
N
Y
Load-Deflection Behaviour with Increasing Number of Cycles

The load-deflection response of the beams was used as the criterion for
determining the extent of the stiffness deterioration of the beams after
cycling. In the prestressed beams, static load-deflection measurements were
taken initially before the cyclic loading began, and then after every 400000
cycles until the targeted 2000000 cycles was reached. The exception was the
reinforced beam, where the load-deflection curve was determined before the
loading, and then after 40000,250000, 500000 and 900000 cycles. It was
during the static test after 900000 cycles that beam RBM1 failed. A typical
series of load-deflection curves (beam PBM4) measured after the specified
number of cycles is shown in Figure 5.
initial
after 400k
after 800k
after 1200k
after 1600k
after 2000k
2
3
d e f l e c t i o n (m m )
Figure 5. Residual load vs mid-span deflection curves after cycling.

Comparison of Beams PBM1, PBM2, PBM3 and PBM4
In Figure 6, a comparison is made between beam PBM1, which was used to
establish the ultimate capacity of a beam before cycling and the residual
ultimate capacity of beams PBM2 to 4. Beam PBM5 was not included since
it failed before 400000 cycles.
35
30
jjmr^^^
PBM1
PBM2
PBM3
PBM4
25
f
20
15
10
l>
/ f/
i f
"
.
-
i HI
iff
/
10
12
14
deflection (mm)
Figure 6. Residual strengths after cycling.
The post-cycling stiffness of PBM2 did not change as significantly as
that of PBM3 and PBM4. This was probably because both the maximum
and minimum loads were above the cracking load. Also the change in
stiffness of beam PBM2 after decompression, which occurred at 10.71 kN,
is minimal as shown in the figure. In PBM3 and PBM4, the change in
stiffness at decompression is much more prominent. This could also be

explained by the distribution of the maximum and minimum loads (see
Figure 4). Whilst the minimum load for PBM2 was above the cracking
load, PBM3 (which has the same stress range) had a minimum load which
was below the cracking load.
When PBM4 and PBM5 are compared, the stress range was similar yet
PMB5 failed only after 5300 cycles. In PBM5 the prestress force in one of
the tendons dropped unexpectedly from 21 to 17 kN and when the tendon
was re-stressed the force dropped again, thus it is possible that one of the
tendons was damaged and/or was actually stressed to a higher stress than
expected. Another reason could also be because, unlike PBM4, PBM5 was
cycled below the decompression force. This could perhaps lead to a
deterioration in the region of the tendon leading to premature failure.
However, further tests are required to investigate this result.
It is of interest that PBM3/PBM4 behaved similarly even though their
stress ranges were different. The reason may be because they both had their
upper and lower loads above and below the cracking load respectively.
It can be deduced that stress concentrations occur at the crack locations, but
do not appear to be significant enough to cause premature failure during
fatigue loading. One contributing factor is the possible debonding at the
crack locations, which reduces the stress concentrations.
CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded that the CFRP prestressed concrete beams performed
well when subjected to fatigue loading at a frequency of 5 Hz for 2000000
cycles over stress ranges varying from 256 to 560 MPa. Thus when CFRP
tendons are used in the design of a prestressed wind tower, the fatigue
resistance of the tower is expected to be good and potentially better than that
of an equivalent steel prestressed concrete tower. It was also found that:
(a) It appears that the different stress ranges used here did not have a
significant influence on the ultimate fatigue capacity of the beams.
(b) The extent of stiffness deterioration is greater when the maximum and
minimum loads are above and below the cracking load respectively.
(c) Further studies are needed to verify the fatigue behaviour when the
minimum cycling stress is below the decompression force.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are grateful to the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust and
SACAC - Switzerland for the diverse ways in which they contributed to
funding this research project. We are also grateful to the technical staff of
the Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge for their help.
REFERENCES
1. Terrasi G. P. and Battig G. and Bronnimann R., "Pylons Made of HighStrength Spun Concrete and Prestressed with CFRP for High Power
Transmission Lines", Proceedings of the 5th International Conference
on FRP for Reinforced Concrete Structures, (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge,
UK, 16-18 July, 2001, Vol. 2, pp 1103-1112.
2. Saadatmanesh H. and Tannous F. E., "Relaxation, Creep and Fatigue
Behaviour of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic Tendons.", ACI Materials
Journal, 96(2), 1999, pp. 143-153.
3. Uomoto T., Nishimura T. and Ohga T., "Static and Fatigue Strength of
FRP Rods for Concrete Reinforcement.", Proceedings of the 2nd
International Rilem Symposium, (FRPRCS-2), Ghent, Belgium, 1995,
pp. 100-107.
4. Uomoto T, "Durability Considerations of FRP Reinforcement.",
Proceedings of the 5lh International Conference on FRP for Reinforced
Concrete Structures, (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, 16-18 July, 2001,
Vol. l,pp 17-32.
5. Adimi M. R., Benmokrane B. and Rahman A. H., "Fatigue Behaviour of
FRP Reinforcements Encased in Concrete.", Advanced Composite
Materials in Bridges and Structures, 1996, pp. 691-698.
6. Comite Euro-International du Beton, CEB-flp Structural Concrete.
International Federation for Structural Concrete-fip. Bulletin 1 Vol. 1,
1999.
7. Comite Euro-International du Beton, CEB Fatigue of Concrete
Structures. State-of-the-Art. International Federation for Structural
Concrete-^. Bulletin d'Information No. 188, 1988.
8. Mallet G. P., Fatigue of Reinforced Concrete. State-of-the-Art Review 2,
1991.
9. SiA., "Structural Concrete Code.", SiA-Swiss code, 1993.
10. Collins M. P. and Mitchell D., Prestressed Concrete Basics. Canadian
Prestressed Concrete Institute, 1987.

TRANSVERSE CONFINEMENT OF DECK SLABS BY

CONCRETE STRAPS
V. BANTHIA, A. A. MUFTI AND D. SVECOVA
ISIS Canada, A 250 Agricultural and Civil Engineering Building,
96 Dafoe Road, University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg Manitoba, Canada R3T2N2
B. BAKHT
JMBTStructures Research Inc., 21 Whiteleaf Crescent
Scarborough, Ontario Canada Ml V 3G1
Research conducted over the past ten years has shown that concrete deck
slabs supported on parallel beams derive their high load carrying capacities
from both transverse and longitudinal confinement. The transverse
confinement is provided either by bottom transverse bars embedded in
concrete, or by straps that are external to the slab. Both these forms of
transverse confinement serve the function of restraining the lateral
movement of the top of the girders, which is induced by the arching action
in the slab. The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code1 specifies an
equation for the cross-sectional area, A, of straps in fiber reinforced
concrete (FRC) slabs without tensile reinforcement. According to this
equation, A is inversely proportional to the modulus of elasticity of the
material of the strap. In all applications of the FRC slab, the straps have
been made of steel. Typically, the steel straps are 50x25 mm in crosssection, and are spaced at about 1.0 m. Realizing that the substantial
modulus of elasticity of concrete in a component in tension can be
mobilized prior to cracking, it was decided to study experimentally the
axial stiffness of reinforced concrete straps as well as prestressed concrete
straps with GFRP tendons. Tests on a full-scale model have confirmed the
validity of the use of prestressed concrete slabs in steel-free deck slabs.
INTRODUCTION
It is hypothesized that the transverse confinement to a steel-free deck slab2,3
can also be provided externally by means of concrete straps, which are kept
from cracking by means of pretensioning. The prestressing can be provided
by means of either steel or FRP tendons. Some attributes of the different
tendons are noted in the following.
Steel tendons are the least expensive but not suitable in aggressive
environments and prestress losses in thin concrete elements are large owing
to their high stiffness ratio. Carbon FRP (CFRP) tendons are suitable in
aggressive environments but are very expensive and suffer high prestress
losses. Glass FRP (GFRP) tendons are not as expensive as CFRP tendons
and are suitable in aggressive environments. Because of their low modulus
of elasticity, GFRP tendons suffer very little prestress losses.
The factored load on two closely spaced wheels of a CL-625 Truck" for
the ultimate limit state is 208 kN. Newhook and Mufti3 have measured
strains in the straps of a full scale model of a steel free deck slab; their
measured strains for a wheel load of 400 kN led to a tensile force of 50 kN
in the strap. In order to be extremely conservative, it is assumed that the
maximum tensile force in the concrete strap would be twice the
experimental force i.e. 100 kN. In order to keep the concrete of the strap
always free from any cracks, it should be prestressed with a minimum force
oflOOkN.
DESIGN OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRAP
The Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code1 specifies an equation for the
cross-sectional area, A, of straps in fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) slabs
without tensile reinforcement. According to this equation, the minimum area
of cross-section, A, of the strap is given by the following equation.
A = (FsxS1xSiX
109)/(Ext)
(1)
where F = 6.0 and 5.0 MPa for external and internal panels, respectively; S
is the girder spacing in m; Si is the strap spacing in m; E is the modulus of
elasticity of the strap material in MPa; and / is the slab thickness in mm. Of
special consideration is the fact that the above equation relates to the axial
rigidity of the strap and not to its strength.
Preliminary details of a concrete strap pretensioned with GFRP tendons
are developed in the following for an external deck slab panel on girders at a
spacing of 2.0 m. The composite slab is 175 mm thick, and the straps are
proposed to be made with 35 MPa concrete. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete is given by the following equation1.
E = (3000/,5 + 6900) (yc 12300)'5
(2)
when it is assumed that yc, the mass density of concrete, is 2500 kg/m3, Eq.
(2) yields the modulus of elasticity equal to 27932 MPa.
The minimum spacing of presumably steel straps specified by the
CHBDC is 1.25 m. In order to keep the clear spacing between the straps the
same, the centre-to-centre spacing of concrete straps is initially selected as
Confinement of Deck Slab by Concrete Straps 947
1.5m. Using all the above parameters, Eq. (1) gives the cross-section area of
7364 mm2 for the concrete straps.
For a GFRP tendon with a diameter of 15 mm, and a cover of 40 mm,
the minimum thickness of the concrete strap is 95 mm. A thickness of
100 mm is selected. As shown in Figure 1, the minimum cover of 40 mm
forces the width of the concrete strap to be at least 150 mm, thus, providing
the area equal to 15,000 mm2, more than twice the required value of
7364 mm2.
100
15M*I4 GFR^
Bar
Figure 1. Cross-section of strap
In order to optimize the design of concrete straps, various developmental
and confirmatory studies were undertaken, mostly with the help of full-scale
laboratory models.
Assessment of the Tensile Strength of the GFRP Bar
It was decided to prestress the straps with tendons of glass fibre reinforced
polymer (GFRP). C-Bar manufactured by Marshall Industries Composites
Inc. was chosen. For #15 bar, the manufacturer quoted the following
mechanical properties.
Mean Tensile Strength
Standard Deviation of Tensile Strength
Average Modulus of Elasticity
= 680 MPa
= 22 MPa
= 42 GPa
Four 2.1 m long GFRP rods were tested in tension, each with a 300.mm
long anchor at each end. The anchor sleeves were of steel with a thickness
of 3 mm9 and the inner diameter of 25 mm. The sleeve was filled with
WEST SYSTEM Brand Epoxy 105/205 in an upright position. The
specimens were allowed to cure for 24 hours before testing. The bars were
instrumented-with strain gauges, and the strains were monitored .with'the aid
of a data acquisition system. The test setup can be seen in Figure 2. It was
observed that the GFRP bars failed well away from the anchors (Fig. 3). The
stress-strain diagram for one of the bars is shown in Figure 4; it can be seen
that, as expected, the stress-strain curve is linear.
Fi
Figure 2. Test Set-up
gure 3. GFRP
The measured mechanical properties of the GFRP Bar are as follows:

Ultimate Tensile Strength
= 900 MPa
Modulus of Elasticity
=41.15 GPa
Poisson's Ratio
= 0.277
800 -i
700 600 -
500 400 -
m
m
300 -
200 -
100 0
0.005
0.01
. .
0.015
0.02
Figure 4. Stress-Strain relationshio for C-Bar
0.025
It can be seen that while the measured modulus of elasticity matches

very well the manufacturer's prediction, the actual tensile strength is much
higher.
Assessment of the Stiffness of the Straps
The proposed concept is based on the premise that a prismatic concrete
member in tension retains its fall axial rigidity5 provided that the applied
force does not exceed the prestressing force. This premise was explored
quantitatively with the help of tensile tests on reinforced and prestressed
concrete straps, each with a length of 1.5 m between the grips, and a
100x150 mm cross-section. Hie former straps were reinforced with two
20 mm diameter steel bars, and the latter was pretensioned with two 15 mm
diameter GFRP bars, each stressed with a force of 78 kN. In each case, the
concrete strap was first subjected to 50 cycles of gradually increasing load,
peaking at 50 kN. Thereafter, each strap was tested under a tensile load of
up to 250 kN. The behavior of the straps was also modeled analytically.
Concrete strap reinforced with steel bars
Three specimens were constructed and tested in tension. The length of the
anchorage zone was 300 mm; the cross-section through the anchorage zone
is shown in Figure 5. The steel bars in the straps were installed with strain
gauges at seven locations along the length of the bar. The concrete used in
the strap had a 28-day compressive strength of 40.75 MPa.
Wire Mesh
100
Threaded Rod
Figure 5. Anchorage Zone Crosssection
Figure 6. Test set-up
Load was applied with the help of a hydraulic jack and a 330kN
capacity load-cell was used to monitor the load. The test setup is shown in
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.!
ELONGATION (mm)
Figure 7. Comparative axial stiffness of Reinforced Concrete Strap and steel strap
Figure 6. In each case, the strap failed in the anchorage zone after the steel
bars in the strap had yielded. The load-elongation curves for all three
reinforced concrete straps were almost identical; one of these curves is
shown in Figure 7, which also includes the calculated load-elongation curve
for a grade 300W steel strap with 50 x 25 mm cross-section as well as the
bare 2-20 mm <j) steel bars. It can be seen that the axial stiffness of a typical
steel strap is about twice as large as that of the reinforced concrete strap and
the reinforced concrete strap shows the effect of tension stiffening after
cracking.
Prestressed concrete strap
Six specimens of the prestressed concrete strap were constructed, of which
three were tested 43 days after casting. The remaining three straps are meant
to be tested two years later to study the durability of the GFRP tendons. The
GFRP bars came in 6 m lengths, permitting the serial casting of two straps
as can be seen in Figure 8. Each GFRP tendon was instrumented with three
strain gauges.
The GFRP tendons were pretensioned with a force equal to 55% of the
5th percentile tensile strength. Strains in the tendons were monitored from
initial stressing to the time when the concrete had set and the stress was
released. It was found that the loss in prestress was about 14% of the initial
force; the loss included relaxation losses and other time dependent losses.
Prior to releasing of the stress and before testing of the straps, the concrete
was tested for its compressive and direct cracking strengths. The
pretensioned straps were also subjected to fifty cycles of gradually

increasing tensile load of 50 kN, and then tested to a tensile load of 250 kN.
Figure 8. Prestressing Set-up
All the pretensioned concrete straps had nearly identical load-elongation

relationships. One of these curves is presented in Figure 9 along with the
corresponding curves for a typical steel strap as well as that for a typical
reinforced concrete strap. It can be seen that until it cracks at a load of
nearly 170 kN, the behavior of the pretensioned concrete strap remains
linear; this strap has 200% higher axial stiffness than that of the steel strap.
Since the maximum axial load induced in a typical strap of an FRC slab is
significantly smaller than 170 kN, the pretensioned concrete strap can
clearly prove to be a viable component in FRC slabs.
-300-
Prestressed Concrete Strap
SteelStrap
<
//y
Reinforced Concrete Strap
ELONGATION (mm)
Figure 9. Comparative axial stiffnesses
10
12
DECK SLAB WITH PRESTRESSED CONCRETE STRAPS

The OHBDC (1979), and recently CHBDC (2000)1, permit a reinforced
concrete deck slab with a minimum thickness, hsiab, of 175 mm. The largest
girder spacing is given as 15 hsiab, which for a 175 mm deep slab is equal to
2.625 m. It is assumed that 30 MPa concrete is used, and the bottom
transverse reinforcement is the smallest permitted by the codes, i.e. 0.3 % of
the area of concrete. The charts given in the various editions of the OHBDC
give the static failure load of this slab to be about 750 kN.
By contrast, the theoretical failure load by PUNCH Program of an FRC
slab with pretensioned concrete straps is typically about 250 kN, the failure
being caused by the inadequacy of the straps to sustain very large axial
loads. It is argued in the following that notwithstanding its low failure load,
the proposed slab has adequate strength to sustain even the heaviest
expected wheel loads.
As researched by Mufti et al.4, the maximum lifetime axle load
anywhere in Canada is expected to be 345 kN. The maximum axle load
observed in Japan is 32 t, or 313 kN. To be conservative and following the
practice of BC Ministry of Forests, it is assumed that the wheel loads on an
axle are distributed in the 60:40 ratio. Thus, the maximum wheel load
expected during the lifetime of a bridge in Canada is 207 kN (= 0.6x345). It
is interesting to note that corresponding factored wheel load of the CL-625
Truck (OHBDC, 2000), including a Dynamic Load Allowance of 0.4, is
0.14x625x1.7x1.4 = 208 kN.
Since slabs designed by the OHBDC/CHBDC empirical method are not
known to fail in fatigue, it is assumed that the above 'weakest' deck slab
would also not fail in fatigue. This presumption is valid for only those slabs,
which fail in punching shear under the monotonically increasing, or static
load, and in which the lateral restraint does not give in prior to the punching
shear failure. It is also important to note that during its lifetime, a deck slab
is not expected to be subjected to a wheel load heavier than 207 kN.
Therefore, as long as the straps themselves do not fail in fatigue, nor yield
under the maximum lifetime wheel load (i.e. 207 kN), the deck slab would
have the same fatigue resistance as that of slab with steel straps.
After due consideration, it was decided to construct and test a full-scale
partial model of a steel-free deck slab with prestressed concrete straps as
transverse confinement and subject it to 500,000 cycles of a pulsating load
peaking at 208 kN. This loading is equivalent in its effect to damage
induced by the maximum number of wheel loads expected in 75 years on a
bridge deck4.
Experimental Investigation
The model comprised a 175 mm thick steel-free deck slab on two steel
girders.. The 9000 mm long girders (W 760 X 196) were spaced at 2000 mm
and were connected at each end by diaphragms. Three prestressed concrete
straps were placed on top of the girders between the steel studs at a clear
spacing of 1000 mm. The deck details and the test set-up are shown in
Figures 10 and 11.
Figure 11. Test Set-up
Figure 10. Deck Details
100000
200000
300000
400000
500000
{"!
600000
NO. OF CYCLES
Figure 12. Fatigue Investigation at 208 kN load level
It was observed that after about 0.1 million cycles, the deck slab
stabilized (Fig. 12). After the completion of the fatigue analysis, a static test
was done at the same location, and after that, another static test at the centre
of the central strap, and the two failure loads were 384 kN and 267 kN
respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
The tests have confirmed that within the expected range of tensile forces in
straps of typical FRC deck slabs, the 150x100 mm prestressed concrete
straps have about twice the stiffness as that of 50x25 mm steel straps.
Because of the early failure of pretensioned concrete straps, the ultimate
failure loads of FRC slabs with these straps is substantially smaller than that
of slabs with steel straps. It was nevertheless concluded that the fatigue
resistance of the proposed slabs was not inferior to that of the conventional
slabs.
While some experts are concerned about the durability of GFRP tendons
in the alkaline environment of concrete, the GFRP tendons of the
prestressed concrete straps have not shown signs of distress even one year
after casting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is made possible by the financial support through grants from the
Canadian Centers of Excellence on Intelligent Sensing for Innovative
Structures (ISIS), Canada. Also recognized is the valuable technical support
contributed in the laboratory by the research technicians and the
administrative support by ISIS Canada.
REFERENCES
1. CHBDC (2000) Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, Canadian
Standards Association International, Toronto.
2. Mufti, A.A., Jaeger, L.G., Bakht, B., and Wegner, L.D. (1993).
Experimental Investigation of FRC deck-slabs without internal
reinforcement. Canadian Journal of Civil Eng, 20(3), pp. 398-406.
3. Newhook, J.P., and Mufti, A.A. (1996). A reinforcing steel-free
concrete deck slab for the Salmon River Bridge. Concrete International,
18(6), pp. 30-34.
4. Mufti, A.A., Memon, A.J., Bakht, B., and Banthia, N. (2002). Fatigue
investigation of steel-free bridge deck slabs, ACI SP-206, pp. 61-70.

DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE ZONES FOR FRPPRESTRESSED CONCRETE

T. J. IBELL, L. GALE AND M.C. CHOI
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath,
FRP-reinforced concrete structures suffer from serviceability problems due
to the flexibility of the FRP. In order to 'remove' much of the strain
capacity from FRP reinforcing bars, it is sensible to pre- or post-tension
such bars. In this way, the serviceability conditions of the concrete beam
are improved considerably, as well as a higher ultimate strength attained.
However, near the ends of the beam where these FRP tendons are
anchored, bursting stresses are induced into the concrete. These bursting
stresses need to be resisted and this paper describes a design approach for
reinforcement of both the primary anchorage zone (where the individual
tendon forces are applied) as well as the secondary anchorage zone
(regions which tie primary zones together). In particular, this paper
considers post-tensioned anchorage zones.
INTRODUCTION
In order to 'remove' much of the strain capacity of FRP bars for the
reinforcement of concrete, it seems sensible to prestress the bars. This has
the effect not only of improving the serviceability of the concrete structure,
but also of enhancing the ultimate capacity1'2. Such prestressing would
sensibly be carried out as pre-tensioning, in order to prevent prolonged
anchorage of the tendons in a mechanical grip, which would otherwise lead
to creep rupture problems.
Further, the use of Kevlar rope as a post-tensioning tendon for concrete
structures has been investigated, with great success3. Therefore, it is clear
that both pre- and post-tensioning of concrete structures are possible and
beneficial.
However, any tendons need to be anchored at their ends. Such
anchorage over limited area causes bursting or splitting tensile stresses to be
developed in the concrete4'5. These stresses need to be resisted by using
some form of reinforcement. Clearly, it is beneficial that such reinforcement
be FRP if the tendon is also non-metallic, in order that any form of metal be
eliminated from the overall design.

The anchorage zones of interest are those for pre-tensioning, covered
elsewhere5, and post-tensioning, covered here. Further, there are two
distinct regions within any post-tensioned anchorage zone, namely the
primary zones and the secondary zones, defined in Figure 1.
| Primary zones
'^ ; Secondary zones
Figure 1. Definition of primary and secondary anchorage zones
BACKGROUND
Over the past four years, research has been conducted at the University of
Bath in an attempt to produce a rational approach to the design of FRPreinforced anchorage zones. This research has resulted in the establishment
of a plasticity-based analysis procedure for both primary and secondary
post-tensioned anchorage zones6'7.
Further, specific design recommendations have been formulated and,
together with the analysis procedures, are presented here.
TEST PROGRAMMES
Two test programmes were conducted, one for primary anchorage zones and
one for secondary anchorage zones. Specific details of these tests are
available elsewhere7, but the most important aspects are presented here.
TEST RESULTS
Primary Anchorage Zones
Over 50 patch-loaded concrete prisms (circular and rectangular) were tested
to look at the feasibility of reinforcing primary anchorage zones with
Aramid FRP. Specimens were loaded vertically through various sizes of
circular bearing plate to simulate the post-tensioning action. Laboratorymade AFRP (Kevlar 49 and epoxy resin) was used in a circular helical
form, so that sharp bends were avoided to prevent stress concentrations.
Anchorage Zones for FRP-Prestressed Concrete 957
Failure of all specimens was Initiated by vertical surface cracking. This

was followed by the formation of a wedge-shaped shear cone beneath the
bearing plate. Ingression of the cone caused lateral expansion of the
surrounding concrete and this action was then resisted by the helical FRP
reinforcement. Substantial ductility and capacity enhancement were
achieved, particularly when a double-helix system combined with mat
reinforcement was adopted, as shown in Figure 2.
This test programme clearly demonstrated the feasibility of using elastic
FRP material to reinforce anchorage zones, In order to achieve genuine
ductility and strength enhancement.
1 ^"^*N^^
Combine system
Double Heiiv
Urrcinforced
i^^TT^
f\
fc7
t\
X
f ^
0 00
_JL
2 00
4 00
6.00
Cone penetration (mm)
Figure 2. FRP reinforcement cage and typical load-displacement behaviour
Secondary Anchorage Zones

Over 50 specimens, measuring ImxlmxO.lm, loaded In-plane through two
concentrated loads, were tested to destruction In this programme. Figure 3
shows a photograph of one of the specimens following failure.
Figure 3. Typical specimen after failure under two concentrated loads

These secondary-zone tests showed that the presence of FRP bars
increases capacity by around 10 to 20%, but failure was always brittle.
Substantial primary-zone reinforcement, in the form of helices, appeared to
improve the situation somewhat7.
THEORETICAL ANALYSES
The solution here is based on the plasticity-based lower-bound equilibrium
theory developed by Ibell and Burgoyne8 for steel-reinforced anchorage
zones. Equilibrium is considered along the interface between the shear cone
and the surrounding concrete at the ultimate limit state. Figure 4 shows the
equilibrium model under consideration. Note that the frictional force on the
base of the specimen is considered. The Modified Coulomb failure criterion
with non-zero tension cut-off is assumed for sliding failure, so that
T
= cc. + a tan (f>
(1)
where r and a are the shear and normal stresses respectively along the
shear-failure plane, cc is the cohesion and <j> is the internal angle of friction
for concrete, typically taken as 37 8.
\P/2
IT
II
"
Figure 4. Equilibrium model for cylindrical or rectangular primary anchorage zones

By considering vertical, horizontal and rotational equilibrium of the
shear cone, it may be shown that, as //tends to infinity,
2c c 4sin/? + 0.57,r
2At cos / ? - 2Aj sin/? tan ^
(2)
where At is the interfacial area of the shear failure plane, and all other
symbols are explained in Figure 4. From this, rmay be found from equation
(1), followed by the overall load capacity, P.
The term TT is the only term that accounts for the reinforcement
contribution. It is the total force exerted by the entire helix under different
levels of lateral displacement. A bond-slip relationship according to
Cosenza et al9 is used to determine the average bond stress, rR, developed
around the perimeter of the AFRP reinforcement. Any relative horizontal
displacement between rigid blocks corresponds to slippage of the
reinforcement across the relevant discontinuity (assuming no local overstress), shown as dh in Figure 4. This slippage is directly related to cone
ingression via geometry, so that full plastic load-displacement behaviour
may be predicted.
In order to additionally predict the elastic portion of the loaddisplacement behaviour, an elastic Finite Element (FE) analysis is used.
Figure 5 shows a typical final predicted load-displacement plot (for both the
elastic and plastic ranges) versus reality. It is clear that this approach
realistically models the behaviour of FRP-reinforced primary anchorage
zones.
Load-displacement plots
500 n , _
^ Predicted
Actual
\*<
\
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Cone ingression (mm)

Figure 5. Predicted versus actual load-displacement plot

It was decided to investigate both an elastic and plastic model for the
secondary zones. This would enable predictions for both serviceability and
ultimate limit criteria. As secondary zones generally occur over wide areas
in relatively thin members (webs and flanges), a 2D approach is adopted.
Elastic Model
The solution to 2D elastic problems can be determined through the use of
the Airy stress function <f>. The corresponding stress components are thus of
the form
d2d>
d2(j>
dy
ox
d2d>
'
dxdy
Hence, the stresses in both the x and y directions can be determined by

selecting an appropriate stress function which satisfies all boundary
conditions. There are numerous methods for obtaining a suitable form for
the stress function, but here dynamic relaxation (DR) incorporated into a
finite difference grid is used10. Using DR, the form of the stress function
</>(x, y) can be found for the various loading conditions, essentially by using
numerical partial differentiation, so that the stresses in both the x and y
directions can be calculated and hence the cracking load predicted. Figure 6
shows a typical stress plot for a specimen loaded under two distant
concentrated anchorage locations.
Figure 6. Elastic stress distribution in secondary anchorage zones

Figure 7 shows correlation between predicted and actual cracking loads
for all secondary zone specimens. Agreement is reasonably good.
Correlation between predicted and actual cracking loads
ouu
z"
.*
-~
500-
n
o
-a) 400-
o 300ra
y/
\s* *
* S
l<\
t yf
*u
TJ 200
a
t>
=5 1000.
U .
n
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Actual cracking load (kN)
Figure 7. Cracking load predictions for all secondary zone specimens

Plastic Model
In order to predict the ultimate failure load of the specimens, it was decided
to use plasticity theory once again, as had been used for the primary zones,
as it was noticed during testing that the final collapse state in every case
always involved wedging beneath the load plates. The level at which this
wedging occurred was found to be related to the quantity of secondary
reinforcement.
Further, in every case, the secondary reinforcement was inspected
following failure of the overall specimen, and it seemed that rather than the
FRP being mainly stretched (as one might expect from steel bars crossing a
shear discontinuity), there was substantial transverse shear damage where
the wedge action had attempted to guillotine the FRP bars.
Therefore, the model shown in Figure 8 has been adopted for the
ultimate capacity analysis of the secondary zones. In tandem with this
model, the same plastic assumptions as were made for the primary zone
situation are made here, with the only exception being that stretching of the
FRP bars does not occur. Instead, the guillotine shear strength of the bars

was measured and used in the analysis. Figure 9 shows correlation between
the actual ultimate collapse capacities and the predicted values using this
plasticity-based approach. Correlation is reasonably good for specimens in
which the anchorage loads are spaced far apart, but less good for specimens
in which the anchorage loads are closer together.
Figure 8. Isometric and elevation of the assumed failure planes
Correlation between predicted and actual test loads

_
16001
z
. 1400
<$ 1200
IB
1000
o
O 800
re
o
- o
S
0.
O
600
200
400
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Actual load capacity (kN)
Figure 9. Ultimate load predictions for all secondary zone specimens

DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS
For the design of FRP-reinforced post-tensioned anchorage zones, the
following design recommendations are made, based on experimental and
analytical work conducted here.

Primary anchorage zones should be designed for serviceability according to
elastic methods, possibly using elastic FE analysis. For the ultimate collapse
condition, a rational approach to their design has been found to be a plasticbased approach, in which equilibrium of the failing wedge is considered.
However, specifically, it is recommended that the ultimate capacity of
the primary zone be calculated assuming that TT is zero in equation (2). This
is conservative, but provides a reasonably accurate prediction nonetheless.
Thereafter, to design the helical requirements, it is suggested that the full
helical loops be considered free to slip at constant frictional bond stress7'10.
This provides the ultimate displacement of the wedge, as well as the
ultimate load capacity. The ductility requirement for the anchorage zone is
thus fully controllable.
Secondary anchorage zones should also be designed at the serviceability
and ultimate limit states. For determination of initial cracking, an Airy
Stress Function approach has been shown to be relatively accurate, although
it is highly likely that an elastic FE analysis would be just as accurate.
To predict the ultimate strength of anchorage zones containing multiple
anchorages, reasonable accuracy has been achieved by assuming that all
secondary reinforcement undergoes guillotine shear during wedging,
leading to some enhancement in strength. Such an equilibrium approach
could rather easily be adopted in design guidelines for such zones.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results of this research, it is concluded that the use of FRP to
reinforce the post-tensioned anchorage zones of wholly non-metallic
concrete structures is both feasible and practical. Further, the behaviour of
such anchorage zones is predictable, both at the serviceability and ultimate
limit states. A design approach for such zones has been suggested, in which
the cracking behaviour can be predicted using elastic techniques, while the
ultimate strength and deformability can be predicted using plasticity-based
models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge financial support for this research from
the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council of the U.K.,
technical assistance from the Department of Architecture and Civil
Engineering at the University of Bath, and Sireg, who supplied generous
discounts on the Arapree materials.
REFERENCES
1. Burgoyne C.J. Rational use of advanced composites in concrete,
Keynote Lecture, Procs 3rd Int. Symp. on Non-Metallic (FRP)
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, FRPRCS-3, Vol 1, Sapporo,
Japan, October 1997, pp 75-88.
2. Whitehead P. and Ibell T.J. Shear behaviour of FRP-prestressed
concrete beams. Proceedings of the 5,h International Conference on The
Use of FRPs in Reinforced Concrete Structures, Cambridge, U.K.,
August 2001, pp959-968.
3. Leung H.Y. Aramidfibre spirals to confine concrete in compression.
Cambridge University Engineering Dept, Ph.D. Thesis, 2001.
4. Ibell T.J. and Burgoyne C.J. An experimental investigation of the
behaviour of anchorage zones. Mag. Concr. Res. Dec. 1993, Vol.45,
pp.281-292.
5. Nanni A., Utsunomiya T., Yonekura H., Tanigaki M. Transmission of
prestressing force to concrete by bonded FRP tendons. ACI Structural
Journal, Vol.89, No.3, May-June, 1992, pp.335-344.
6. Choi M.C. and Ibell T.J. Anchorage zones for FRP-prestressed
concrete. Proc. of the 3rd International Conf. on Advanced Composite
Materials in Bridges and Structures, Aug. 2000, Ottawa, pp.111-118.
7. Choi M.C, Gale L. and Ibell T.J. The design of anchorage zones
containing FRP reinforcement. Proceedings of the 5th International
Conference on The Use of FRPs in Reinforced Concrete Structures,
August 2001, Cambridge, UK, pp.629-638.
8. Ibell T.J. and Burgoyne C.J. A plasticity analysis of anchorage zones.
Mag. Concr. Res. March 1994, Vol.46, pp.39-48.
9. Cosenza, Manfredi and Realfonzo. Behaviour and modelling of bond of
FRP rebars to concrete. Journal of Composites for Construction, Vol. 1,
No.2, 1997, pp.40-51.
10. Nsugbe, E. and Williams, C. The generation of bone-like forms using
analytic functions of complex variable, J. Eng. Str., Vol.23, No.l, 2000.

A SIMPLE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM OF SHEAR

REINFORCEMENT WITH POLYACETAL FIBER
R. TULADHAR, Y. UTSUNOMIYA, Y. SATO AND T. UEDA
Kita 8 NishiS, Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0808, Japan
A simple continuous system of shear reinforcement which needs no in-situ
resin injection yet strong enough to avoid rupture failure of fiber even at
ultimate deformation is realized. The FRP utilized was Poly Acetal Fiber
(PAF). It is shown that PAF as additional continuous shear reinforcement
could confine the core concrete and enhance strength and deformability
under repeated cyclic displacements. It is also shown that the PAF could
replace large amount of steel shear reinforcement. PAF shear reinforcement
can avoid anchorage failure and maintain the confinement action. PAF can
provide the good contact between main bar and itself as continuous shear
reinforcement, which has long been considered practically impossible to
acquire with steel stirrups in actual construction. As a proof for it, at initial
state it is seen that the development of strain in PAF is relatively higher
compared to steel stirrup in the same pier. Characteristics of maximum
strain development in PAF with the applied displacement level are
presented.
INTRODUCTION
FRP stirrups as new hybrid construction technology are rare both in
research and practice. Stress concentration at the bent-portions can compel
to underutilize the high strength of FRP. Conversely, aseismic design of
reinforced concrete requires congested arrangement of stirrups and
intermediate stirrups around the potential plastic hinge regions. Such a
detailing is difficult to acquire with acute angled hooks in construction
practice for steel stirrups. Poor workmanship and deprived precautions for
anchorage of lateral reinforcement has been mentioned as one of the causes
of 1995 Kobe earthquake disaster1. An efficient way of utilizing carbon
fiber as flexible continuous shear reinforcement has been demonstrated as a
substitute for steel shear reinforcement in large-scale piers2. It was reported
that terminal loss of load carrying capacity of the pier occurs due to rupture
of FRP at a bent-portion. It is very important to avoid brittle failure of the

concrete pier. This led authors to consider high strength and high fracturing
strain FRP than high strength and high stiffness FRP3.
PAF is a new FRP with fracturing strain of 6-9% that counts 2-6 times
that of conventional FRP - carbon, aramid and glass. PAF is thermoplastic
resin so it does not need resin injection. PAF is dimensionally stable and it
can be shaped to desirable forms of shear reinforcement by meandering
around the main bars like ropes. In this research, PAF has been shown as an
element of flexible shear reinforcement for aseismic design. Possibility of
future replacement of steel stirrup had been explored with good
deformability and strength characteristics. No FRP fracture was a target.
TEST PROGRAM
Test program is divided into two types namely SI and S2. In the former,
seismic worthiness of PAF as continuous shear reinforcement is
demonstrated with repeated displacement reversals. In the S2 series, PAF
has been demonstrated as a substitute for steel shear reinforcement. Five
reinforced concrete piers of 250 X250 X 1000 mm cast monolithically with
a 1000 X600 X500 mm footing were prepared. Concrete and
reinforcement properties are shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Concrete Strength and Reinforcement Ratios
a
Pier
f'c
Sl-1
Sl-2
Sl-3
S2-1
S2-2
MPa
23.7
29.3
32.3
27.4
29.8
Main Bar
Ratio
%
M
2200 2.70
2200 2.70
2200 2.70
2050 2.04
2050 2.04
Steel Stirrup
Ratio
Sy
%
M
1785 0.51
1785 0.51
1785 0.51
1825 0.68
1825 0.17
PAFc Stirrup
Ratio
^rupture
%
%
0
0
0.52
6-9
6-9
0.79
0
0
6-9
0.58
" :f'c= Concrete compressive strength.b: ey= Yielding Strain.

' : PAF shows material nonlinearity. Initial stiffness is 40GPa.4 (See Ref. 4)
Experimental setup is shown in Figure 1 along with positions for
attachment of strain gauges and linear variable displacement transducers
(LVDT). The winding pattern of PAF for Sl-2 is shown in Figure 1. PAF
was used as 12.5 mm wide strips in 4 layers formed by interweaving 30
fibers. The two extremities of the PAF were located near the column top
Simple Continuous System of Shear Reinforcement 967
and were securely anchored. In between two consecutive bent-portions of

PAF a strain gauge was attached. In both series of testing5 cyclic
displacements were advanced at multiples of yielding displacement
consistently. Lateral loads were applied at shear span to depth ratio of 2.97.
1150 mm
Reaction Frame
Strain Gauge
* Pre-stress'
*
LVDT
Laboratory Strong Floor
Figure 1. Experimental Setup and Arrangement of PAF for SI-2

Confining with Hybrid PAF Shear Reinforcement
The properties of reference Pier S1-1 and Piers SI-2 and SI-3 are shown in
Table 1. Pier Sl-1 failed in shear after the yielding of main reinforcement.
Its steel shear reinforcement showed a maximum strain of 0.0173 when the
main bar yielded with strain of 0.00253 at the very first cycle of loading.
Piers SI-2 and SI-3 were tested under three times repeated reversed cyclic
loading. Envelope curves (first cycles) of all the three piers are shown in
Figure 2. The additional PAF shear reinforcement could confine core
concrete and prevent diagonal shear failure. Crack openings are progressive
with additional PAF shear reinforcement. With the increase in amount of
PAF, the' responses of PAF reinforced specimens were dominated by
flexural effects. PAF did not rupture at bent portions under repeated cyclic
displacement reversals. Displacement ductility of 4 or more was obtained.
968 FRPRCS-6: Presiressed FRP Reinforcement and Tendons
Figure 2. Envelope Curve for Sl-1, Sl-2 and Sl-3
Substituting Steel Stirrups with PAF Shear Reinfarcememt

Pier S2-2 replaced 3/4th of Its steel stirrups of pier S2-1 with PAF forming a
network of outer and inner core. The outer PAF of S2-2 had the similar
pitch as S2-1. Figure 3 shows the load displacement envelope curve. S2-1
showed early development of strength with less deformability whereas S2-2
showed gradual development of strength with deformability. The axial
rigidity (modulus of elasticity multiplied by the cross sectional area) of
shear reinforcements at a certain pitch is greater for S2-1 than S2-2. The
strength enhancement is earlier in S2-1. Despite this, for the same attained
displacement level, the cracking characteristics are improved in the case of
S2-2. The hook anchorage of steel reinforced pier is insufficient for high
displacement. The contact between main bar and steel stirrup can be clearly
seen to be not at the bent- portion in Figure 3.
PAF as shear reinforcement is continuous and directly wound around
the main bar. Anchorage failure at high displacement does not happen. It
was shaped to form additional inner core, which is highly restraint against
dilation. It supports the main bars against buckling. PAF was tightly
wound around the main bar, so there is good contact with main bar at the
bent-portion. It is difficult to acquire good contact and good hook anchorage
with steel stirrup. Such a possibility of good contact with main bar can lead
to higher strain development of PAF in the earlier stage of dilation as
discussed later. Utilizing the flexibility and very high rapture strain of PAF9
could mean the enhancement of constructional efficiency and workmanship.
Figure 3. Load Displacement Envelope Curve for 82-1 and S2-2
Characteristics of Strum in PAF

PAP as shear reinforcement confines dilating core concrete and enhances
resistance against shear force and improves deformability of the pier as
shown earlier. Since PAF is flexible, the major force transfer occurs from
dilating in core concrete to the PAF shear reinforcement at the bent-portions
as corner confined action (Figure 4).Strains in the PAF were recorded at the
center of the leg between two consecutive bends. The maximum possible
strain developed in the PAF has been represented by the bigger of the
recorded PAF strains.lt is normalized by yielding strain of steel stirrup:
Sm=Sm/%-The strain of shear reinforcement increases with increase in
applied displacement; therefore, maximum strain developed in PAF can be
considered as a function of normalized displacement: sm=^(d/dy). The strain
development in PAF is first considered without the effect of repeated cyclic
loading.
- 4 - 3 - 2 - 1
0
d/dy
PAF mainly at the
Figure 4 PAF Strain Displacement Relation for Sl-2, Sl-3 and S2-2
Figure 4 shows the development of generalized maximum strain in PAF

in the envelope curve without considering the effect of repeated cyclic
loading. Development of strain in PAF is seen higher in the first loading
cycle than in the steel stirrup (Figure 5). The reason why such a high strain
is seen in PAF at the initial yielding displacement is explained by the fact
that PAF as shear reinforcement was continuous and having good contact
with main bar at each bent portions as marked in Figure 5.
With such a direct contact between the stirrup and main bar, which is
difficult to achieve with steel stirrup5, the stirrups can provide the confining
reactions to the longitudinal bars without any need of movement of the
longitudinal bars to bring them into effective contact. If there is no perfect
contact between the steel stirrup and the main bar, there exist porous
concrete between the steel stirrup and the main bar. The porous concrete
can easily be deformed under tensile load at the stirrup leg; especially after
the formation of diagonal crack, and there can be additional movement of
bend. This might lead to late development of strain in steel stirrup, an
indication of reduction in efficiency of confinement.
Relatively lower strain is developed in the PAF for the same
displacement level of the first cycle but displacement reversal. After the
crushing of porous concrete at the bent-portion between main bar and steel
stirrup, the contact condition might have been improved and for the
displacement reversal, relatively greater strain started to develop in steel too
(Figure 5). Therefore, the strain in PAF is relatively lower than that before
displacement reversal.

-m-mm,m"
81
\
"'
--PAFS2-2
- B - Steel S2-2
-A-PAFS1-3
-A-SteelS 1-3
to
~4
-3
-2
l#J
d/dy
4^>^
Figure 5. Maximum PAF Strain Displacement Relation for SI-3 and S2-2
Development of PAF strain with different steel stirrup

Figure 5 shows the linear increment of maximum PAF strain with the
increase in displacement and greater strain in the case of 82-2 where there is
smaller amount of steel stirrup. Maximum strain in steel stirrup is relatively
smaller during the initial phase of loading. Between the piers SI-3 and S2-2
there is a major difference in amount of steel shear reinforcements.
Figure 6 shows the experimental average strain in PAF and the average
stain in steel stirrups crossing the diagonal crack plane for the first flexural
yielding for the piers SI-3 and S2-2. It can be seen that the average strain
development in PAF is also greater than that in the steel stirrups for both
piers. If a unique relation of the average strain in PAF and steel stirrups can
be specified, then average strain in PAF can be predicted using the
conventional truss analogy after the formation of diagonal cracking for the
first yielding displacement.
The shear contribution of concrete can be estimated using the standard
code formula. Then in order to predict the maximum strain development in
the PAF, one more unique relation between the average strain in PAF and
the maximum strain in the PAF is needed. The greater strain development in
PAF at the first yielding displacement is the typical of the PAF. The
maximum strains in the PAF at the subsequent displacement levels after the
first yielding displacement are relatively smaller. The increment in strain
after the first yielding displacement is approximately linear. Further
investigation on the bilinear nature of maximum PAF strain will be reported
in future.

2000
2000
- - A vgPAF
AvgSteel
1800
1800
1600
1600
1400
^ 1400
' 1200
~je 1200
1000
J1 800
600
600
400
400
200
200
-200
-150
-100
-50
Load(kN)
AvgPAF
-m-
AvgSteel
X "N >
X
v\
1000
800
^_
0
-150
*k
-100
-50
Load(kN)
Figure 6. Average strain in PAF and steel
Development of PAF strain with different PAF ratios

10
d/dy
Figure 7. Maximum strain development in PAF with different amount of PAF
Figure 7 shows the effect of amount of PAF on the maximum strain of PAF
(of both inner and outer PAF). The strain development at the first yielding
displacement is greater in SI-2 where there is smaller amount of PAF. Also,
after the flexural yielding, the strain development is greater in the pier with
smaller amount of PAF and it is approximately linear. The strain
Simple Continuous System of Shear Reinforcement
973
development in steel is relatively smaller at the initial phase until it yields in

both the piers.
Effect of repeated cyclic displacement on PAF strain
The increment in maximum strain of PAF with increment in repeated load
reversals at constant displacement in addition to the non repeated
displacement reversals is shown in Figure 8. The effect is more pronounced
when the amount of PAF is smaller. The increment in strain reduces
decrease as the number of repeated cycles at the same displacement level
increases. There is no specific trend in increment in strain with increase in
displacement level. The mean value of available non-negative and non-zero
data from Figure 8 shows 0.78 and 0.56 times yielding strain of steel stirrup
for the first repeated cycles of pier SI-2 and SI-3 respectively. The mean
values are 0.29 and 0.17 times yielding strain of steel stirrup for the second
repeated cycles of the piers SI-2 and SI-3 respectively. Conservatively, it
can be concluded that the increment in strain in PAF for the second repeated
cycle, excluding non repeated cycle, is half that of the first repeated cycle.
1.5
1.5
Sl-2
1.2
DCycle3
Cycle2
Sl-3
1.2
DCycle3
Cycle2
^0.9
0.9
<0.6 ,-
r1
0.3
d/dy
r.i
!, ,i i
r1
<0.6
r]
[
1II i
-2
0.3
0
-3
B]
Od/d,
Figure 8. Increment in maximum strain of PAF for repeated cyclic load
CONCLUSIONS
The following are listed as main conclusions of this study:
(a) PAF can be used as hybrid continuous shear reinforcement in the
aseismic design of RC piers where severe lateral displacement occurs.
(b) The high rupture strain of PAF can be utilized in shear reinforcement
and rupture of PAF at bent portions can be avoided.
(c) When used as shear reinforcement, PAF can show strength development
with deformability.
(d) At high displacement steel stirrups can lose contact with main bar but
PAF does not due to absence of hook anchorage.
(e) Higher strain can be developed in the PAF at early state of damage in
the piers compared to that of steel stirrups, indicating existence of good
contact between PAF and main bar.
(f) The maximum strain development in PAF is higher at the first yielding
displacement of the first cycle. After that, the strain development in
PAF is approximately linear.
(g) The maximum strain development in PAF is greater when the amount of
PAF is smaller or when the amount of steel stirrup is smaller.
(h) The increment in maximum strain in PAF for repeated cyclic load is
greater when the amount of PAF is smaller. It decreases as the number
of repeated cycle increases.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Poly Acetal Fibers had been provided by Asahi Chemicals and it is also
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Tanabe, T., "Comparative Performances of Seismic Design Codes for
Concrete Structures Vol. land 2", concrete committee ofJSCE, 1999.
2. Tuladhar, R., Okubo, S., Sato, Y. and Kobayashi, A., "Deformational
Characteristics of RC Columns with Continuous Fiber Flexible
Reinforcement", The 8th East Asia-Pacific Conference on Struct. Engrg.
and Const. (EASEC-8), Singapore, 2001, paper no. 1298, (in CD).
3. Ueda, T. and Sato, Y., "New Approach for Usage of Continuous Fiber
as Non-Metallic Reinforcement of Concrete", Structural Engineering
International, 12(2), 2002, pp.111-116.
4. Matsumoto Y., Iihoshi C, Motohashi K., and Inukai T., Study on
strengthening of structures with Polyoxymethlylene Drawn Fibre,
Summaries of Technical Papers of Annual Meeting Architechtural
Institute of Japan, 1999, C2-2, Structures IV, pp. 71-80. (in Japanese)
5. Park, R. and Paulay, T., Reinforced Concrete Structures, John Wiley &
Sons, 1975.

ANALYTICAL MODELING OF SPLITTING BOND FAILURE

FOR NSM FRP REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE
L. DE LORENZIS AND A. LA TEGOLA
Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell 'Innovazione, Universita degli Studi di Lecce
Via per Monteroni, 73100 Lecce
Among strengthening techniques for reinforced concrete structures based
on fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites, near-surface mounted
(NSM) FRP rods are one of the most recent and promising acquisitions,
and the bond performance is a critical aspect of this technology. Analytical
modeling of bond of NSM FRP bars to concrete was conducted in two
phases. In the first phase, the distribution of bond stresses along the axis of
the reinforcement was studied. In the second phase, which is the focus of
this paper, an approximate bi-dimensional analysis in the elastic range and
a limit analysis assuming plastic behavior of concrete are carried out in the
plane perpendicular to the axis of the reinforcement. The value of bond
stress leading to cracking of the bar cover and upper and lower bounds to
the local splitting bond strength are computed as functions of geometrical
parameters and of the concrete and groove-filling material tensile strengths,
and compared to the experimental results.
INTRODUCTION
Near-surface mounted (NSM) fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement
(Fig. 1) has recently proved effective for flexural and shear strengthening of
reinforced concrete members', and due to its importance for the structural
performance of the strengthened element, the issue of bond has been
investigated. Experimental tests2'3 enucleated the effect on the bond
performance of some of the most relevant variables, such as groove-filling
material (epoxy paste or cement mortar), bonded length, groove size, bar
surface configuration and groove surface condition.
Analytical modeling has been conducted in two phases. In the first phase
(modeling in the "longitudinal plane", i.e. along the reinforcement), the
experimental local bond stress - slip curves have been modeled analytically
with appropriate functions. The numerical solution of the differential
equation of bond made it possible to compute the bond failure load as a
function of the bonded length, and the anchorage length of NSM FRP rods
required in design3. However, each design curve is valid for the set of values
of the significant geometric and material parameters pertaining to the
respective bond-slip curve, i.e. in particular for a given value of the groovedepth-to-bar-diameter ratio and of the concrete and groove-filling material
tensile strength. The effect of such parameters on the local bond-slip
relationship, in particular on the local bond strength, can only be studied by
analyzing the "transverse plane" (perpendicular to the axis of the
reinforcement). Such analysis is the focus of this paper. Of the possible bond
failure modes2'3, reference will be made to splitting, which is the controlling
mechanism in the majority of practical cases.
An approximate bi-dimensional analysis in the elastic range and a limit
analysis assuming plastic behavior of concrete are carried out as follows.
The value of bond stress leading to cracking of the bar cover and upper and
lower bounds to the local bond strength are thus computed as functions of
geometrical parameters and of the concrete and groove-filling material
tensile strengths, and compared to the experimental results.
Conc^tfstibsti lin
, FKPsod |
* "'> '
- '-jioov-e
Ojoov-fillsn
material i epu::y >JJ
cement mortarl
Figure 1. NSM rods

MODELING OF BOND OF NSM RODS IN THE "TRANSVERSE"
PLANE
Introduction
The bond forces can be divided into tangential and radial components. The
value of radial pressure, p, is related to the tangential bond stress, r, as
follows:
p = rtana
(1)
Eq. (1), written at the ultimate (splitting) stage, corresponds to assuming

a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, with a zero value of cohesion and a
coefficient of friction equal to 1/tan a. Modeling of the bond mechanism in
Splitting Bond Failure for NSM FRP Reinforcement 977
the "transverse" plane can be conducted by connecting, through eq. (1), the
bond stress at the interface between rod and groove-filling material to the
inner pressure that arises at the same interface. The original problem is then
converted into a bidimensional problem, where the state of stress in the
material surrounding the reinforcement can be evaluated by means of the
appropriate simplifying assumptions.
Modeling in the elastic range
The system "groove + surrounding concrete" subjected to the inner pressure
of the reinforcement can be thought of as the superposition of the groovefilling material alone, and of the grooved concrete, with mutual stresses per
unit thickness Xt and X2 (Fig. 2). In order to compute such stresses, two
equations are needed, ensuring compatibility of displacements along the
perimeter of the groove.
For the groove-filling material, displacements were computed by using
the superposition principle as shown in Fig. 2. A simplifying assumption
was to eliminate the "hole" in schemes (a) and (b). This is not unreasonable
as the hole depicted in Fig. 2 is actually occupied by the rod, and the inner
pressure arises from its interaction with the groove-filling material. Under
compression loading, the rod contributes to carrying the load; moreover, its
transverse modulus of elasticity (controlled by the resin properties) is
comparable with that of the groove-filling material. Scheme (b) corresponds
to a simply supported plate subjected to uniform in-plane loading on the
upper face, whose solution is well known. Scheme (c) can be simplified by
approximating the behavior of the square block subjected to inner pressure
to that of the cylinder inscribed in it (Fig. 2). Under the internal pressure, the
cylinder expands axisymmetrically. It is then assumed that the block sides
remain straight and tangent to the deformed cylinder.
Displacements in the concrete surrounding the groove can be reasonably
expected to be much smaller than those of the groove-filling material, as the
dimensions of the concrete region on which the static unknowns X: and X2
act are larger than those of the groove, and the modulus of elasticity of
concrete is one order of magnitude larger than that of either epoxy or cement
mortar. Hence, the global compatibility conditions can be expressed based
on displacements in the epoxy (or mortar) as follows:
1
d0
\ux\-2-,ycfy = 0
_dJ_
2
1 2f (
j
g j^_
2
U *-A=0
)
(2)
uiur
Xj/2
'
4 " * %* +
T1
5*
11
Tl
> T
?
Scheme (a)
Scheme (b)
Scheme (c)
Figure 2. Schematic of the computation of stresses in the groove-filling material in
the linearly-elastic range.
where dg is the size of the (square) groove, and ux and uy are displacements
along x and y, respectively. Once the system is solved for the unknowns X,
and X2, it is possible to compute the stresses in the epoxy. Based on
phenomenology, stresses whose computation is more relevant are the
"hoop" stresses on the x and y axes. Particularly important is to determine
the "hoop" tensile stress on the positive y axis, i.e., in the cover of the bar
where initiation of longitudinal cracking in the epoxy can thus be predicted.
The maximum in-plane principal stresses on the two locations are as
follows:
ai(0,y) = -kW
<TIW>) =
9y + 1 + + kjiv-) 4^
3 +
~ ~l0do
4
l-{*l("')-J*2("') + {. -ki(.v') + -k2(v')-
(3a)
/
2xl
+ 9kj(v')-
k2-\
(3b)
2x
1
, 1 2 * .
valid for -1 < < and < < 1, and for [ < < and - < < 1,
d
k
k da
respectively. In the previous equations, k is the groove-size-to-bar-diameter
ratio, vis the Poisson's coefficient of the groove-filling material, v'=v/(l-v)
(to account for plane strain conditions) and:
16 40 V 2
32 80 V 4
Stresses given by Eqs. (3) are plotted in Fig. 3 for different values of k.
As expectable, lower k values and higher v values result in higher principal
tensile stresses. It is also interesting to note that, for low k values, stresses
are maximum for y=d/2, i.e., in the external fiber of the cover, whereas for
higher k values they are maximum in the internal fiber of the cover as would
be predicted by the "thick cylinder" theory.
-/
-0,5
0
2x/d,
0,5
(a)
(b)
Figure 3. Elastic stresses in epoxy on they (a) andx (b) axis as predicted by
analytical and FEM models for different A: values, v=0.3.
Results of the model presented above were compared with predictions
of a finite element analysis in the elastic range. Different ratios of elastic
moduli of epoxy and concrete (Ee and Ec) were analyzed, whereas the
Poisson's coefficient for epoxy and concrete was taken as 0.3 and 0.2,
respectively. In Fig. 3, results of the analyses are indicated as ranges
between minimum and maximum values of the different ratios of moduli.
The predicted state of stress in the cover is in good agreement between the
two models, and especially so for higher values of k. Also the shift in
location of the maximum tensile stress with increasing k, from the external
to the internal fiber of the cover, is reproduced by the finite element model.
Less good is the agreement in the stress prediction on the x axis. However,
the maximum values are rather close.
Based on results of the finite element analyses, predictions of the
analytical model could be used with more confidence. Fig. 4 reports the
pressure producing cracking of the external and "internal" cover, nondimensionalized with respect to the epoxy tensile strength, as a function of
k. The cracking pressure increases with k, but its rate of increase becomes
lower at higher k values, the "knee" in the curve being for a k value ranging
from 1.5 to 2.0. This conclusion is consistent with test results2,3. Also, the
first to crack is generally the external cover. It should be noted that, among
the two pressures producing cracking of external and internal cover, the
highest value looses significance: once cracking starts in the controlling
location, the stress distribution changes and the elastic solution no longer
applies.
1.4
1.4
1.2
t-1 external cover

t=l internal cover
1=2 external cover
t=2 internal cover
0.8
' /
0.8
t=I external cover

t=1 internal cover
t = 2 external cover
t=2 internal cover
1.2
&-0.6
^ 0.6
0.4
/
/
/
'.
/ '/
0.4
'
'
0.2
0.2
0
0
1.5
2.5
(a)
<^-^~~-
1.5
2
k
2.5
(b)
Figure 4. Cracking pressure as a function of A; for v=0.2 (a) and v=0.3 (b) as
predicted by the analytical model (t is the groove width-to-depth ratio).
Failure patterns
For computation of an upper and lower bound to the ultimate pressure of the
NSM system, the possible failure patterns were analyzed, as shown in Fig.
5. An approach similar to that followed by Tepfers4 was adopted, assuming
uniform distribution of stresses along the fracture lines. This implies a stress
redistribution in tension analogous to that assumed for ductile materials in
compression. Such an assumption is justified by the existence of cohesive
stresses between the crack faces: provided that the crack opening is small
enough, cracked surfaces can still carry significant tensile stresses. Besides,
test calculations performed for the analogous case of bond of steel
reinforcement in concrete showed that assuming an elastic distribution of
stresses predicts too low values of bond resistance in comparison to the
measured ones .
Pattern 2-a:
P
fpt
fc,
fpt
Splitting Bond Failure for NSM FRP Reinforcement
981
Pattern 2-b: fcl
(=10)
cotgV + 1
COtg^-1
P
Jpt
fct
Jpt
fct
l + rc,cotg x
\ + rrf
l + rc(cotgy
*(! + >*)
(sen/-cosy)
Figure 5. Failure patterns and corresponding values of the ultimate pressure./,, and
fp, are tensile strength of concrete and epoxy, respectively;/^ is the concrete
compressive strength.
Pattern 1 refers to a situation where the epoxy cover has not cracked yet,
and failure is reached either in the concrete (la) or in the epoxy internal
cover (lb). The angle formed by the cracking line in the concrete with the
horizontal line, y, was assumed to be 30 based upon visual observation of
nearly all tested specimens. To be meaningful, the corresponding ultimate
pressure must be lower than that producing cracking of the epoxy cover.
This ultimate pressure can be considered a lower bound because, when the
cover is not cracked, the normal pressure between bar and epoxy has not
fully developed. A certain pressure develops already in the first stage of the
bond action as a result of the inclined rib surfaces (for ribbed bars) or bar
surfaces (for spirally wound bars). However, if these "geometric" effects are
neglected, the normal stress will develop as soon as the maximum tensile
stress generated by the bond action exceeds the epoxy tensile strength, i.e.,
when the cover starts cracking.
Pattern 2 refers to a situation where the epoxy cover has cracked, and
failure is reached by formation of inclined cracks in the concrete. Of the two
sub-patterns a and b, only the second one allows to satisfy equilibrium while
sub-patterns a and b, only the second one allows to satisfy equilibrium while
determining the ultimate pressure: with the three equilibrium equations the
three unknowns p, rc and a are computed. However, the values of ultimate
pressure obtained are always lower than the experimental ones. The same
result was found by Tepfers4 and explained as due to the simplifying
assumptions made in this type of failure analysis. This value of ultimate
pressure is not a theoretical lower bound to the experimental value,
however, it has been reported in Fig. 6 for comparison with the other curves.
It is only meaningful when higher than the pressure which cracks the cover.
Sub-pattern 2a satisfies equilibrium of forces, whereas it does not
necessarily satisfy equilibrium of moments. However, it was found to
provide a reasonable upper bound to the experimental results.
The local bond strength is related to the ultimate pressure by means of
eq. (1). On the value of angle a, limited information is available already for
bond of internal reinforcement in concrete. For simplicity, a value of 45 is
generally assumed. However, this value is expected to increase as the coverto-diameter-ratio decreases, and to decrease for FRP bars compared to steel.
As no information is available on which of these two effects prevails, the
assumption of a equal to 45 has been maintained. Fig. 6 shows the local
bond strength, non-dimensionalized with respect to the epoxy tensile
strength, as a function of the k value. The three diagrams refer to different
concrete-to-epoxy tensile strength ratios used in the bond tests. In all cases,
patterns 2-a and 1-a provide a reasonable estimate of the range in which
experimental results are situated. As the k value increases and the fc/fP, ratio
decreases, it becomes more likely that concrete tensile failure precedes
cracking of the epoxy cover, which is physically reasonable.
Effect of Groove Width-to-Depth Ratio
All test results and modeling presented thus far have been based on a groove
width-to-depth ratio equal to 1.0. Nevertheless, the influence on cracking
pressure and local bond strength of a different width-to-depth ratio is of
interest for practical applications.
Fig. 4 shows the pressure which cracks the "internal" and "external"
covers versus k, for two different values of the width-to-depth ratio t and for
Poisson's ratio equal to 0.2 and 0.3. The computation has been made by
extending the previous analytical model to the case of rectangular grooves.
It is evident that, as.t increases, the cracking pressures decrease, except that
of the internal cover for v equal to 0.2 and large k values. In any case, as the
lowest value is significant, widening the groove results in a lower cracking
pressure. This result is reasonable considering the way in which the system

in the "external" cover due to bending (scheme b) become more prevalent
with respect to the compressive stresses due to the static unknown X!
(scheme a).
As far as the ultimate pattern is concerned, the previous model can be
easily extended to the case of rectangular grooves, with results shown for
example in Fig. 6d. While the curves pertaining to patterns l-a and 2-a
remain unchanged, that relative to pattern 2-b becomes lower. Also the
extension of patterns l-a and 2-b as lower bounds is modified, due to the
different first cracking curve. However, these changes are minor.
i 2.5 2
} J/\
")r\ \
. GR3
CR3
\M,'0MO \
a SW
pattern 2-a
pattern 2-b
cover crackm%
;""
'|
\M'0.179
> GR4
CRI
CSS
CS4
pattern l-a
pattern 2-a
pattern 2-b
ewer cracking
SSI-
---
...l!..'..L...
0.5
J-"C' - - - - - :
1.2
1.6
2.2
2.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
(a)
3
2.5
2
!
GR3
CM
u SW
pattern l-a
pattern 2-a
pattern 2-b
cover cracking
(b)
,
\Ufô.076
)
---pattern
\:
2.5
l-a
)
; \fct/fPt
,
=0.076 |
p a t t e r n 2-a
p a t t e r n 2-b
cover
cracking
L5
I
0.5
0.5
i
0
1.2
1.4
1.6
l.t
k
(d)
(c)
Figure 6. Lower and upper bounds to the local bond strength for t=\ andfc/fp,=0340 (a),
0.179 (b) and 0.076 (c), and for t=2 and/ c ^,=0.076 (d). Experimental results are
taken from Refs 2-3.
CONCLUSIONS
A simple analytical model was proposed to model the state of stress in the
cover of the NSM bar at the elastic stage. An approximate analysis based on
ultimate cracking patterns was then carried out to estimate upper and lower
bounds to the local bond strength of NSM bars as a function of k and of the
ratio of concrete to epoxy tensile strength.
Modeling in the "transverse" plane allowed to compute the principal
tensile stresses responsible for cracking of the cover of NSM rods, which
compared well with predictions of finite element analysis, and confirmed for
square grooves an "optimum" groove-size-to-bar-diameter ratio between
1.50 and 2.00, as found in the experiments. It also provided a reasonable
estimate of the range in which experimental local bond strengths are
situated.
The bond problem in its three-dimensional nature is treated elsewhere5
by means of finite element analysis.
REFERENCES
1. De Lorenzis, L., and Nanni, A. (2001), "Shear Strengthening of RC
Beams with Near Surface Mounted FRP Rods," ACI Structural Journal,
Vol. 98, No. 1, January 2001.
2. De Lorenzis, L., and Nanni, A. (2002), "Bond of Near-Surface Mounted
FRP Rods to Concrete in Structural Strengthening", ACI Structural
Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2, pp. 123-132.
3. De Lorenzis, L., Rizzo, A., and La Tegola, A. (2002) "A modified pullout test for bond of near-surface mounted reinforcement in concrete",
Composites PartB: Engineering, Elsevier Ed., Vol. 33, No. 8, December
2002, pp. 589-603.
4. Tepfers, R. (1973), "A Theory of Bond Applied to Overlapped Tensile
Reinforcement Splices for Deformed Bars", Publication 73:2, Chalmers
University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 328 pp.
5. De Lorenzis, L., and Lundgren, K. (2002), "Finite element modelling of
bond of near-surface mounted FRP reinforcement in concrete",
Proceedings International fib Symposium "Bond in concrete", Budapest,
november 2002.

STRENGTHENING OF RC BEAMS WITH EXTERNAL

FRP TENDONS: TENDON STRESS AT ULTIMATE
R. A. TJANDRA AND K. H. TAN
Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore,
FRP tendons exhibit a wide range of elastic modulus, with most of them
less than that of steel prestressing tendons. In this paper, an attempt is
made to incorporate the elastic modulus of FRP tendons in the predictive
equation for unbonded tendon stress specified in ACI Building Code. This
is followed by a parametric study on the flexural strengthening of a
deficient continuous beam with different types of FRP tendons. In general,
a lower elastic modulus of the tendon results in lower tendon stress
increment, especially when a larger effective tendon depth is used, thereby
reducing the ultimate load-carrying capacity and strengthening ratio for the
beam.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, many reinforced concrete structures have been strengthened
using external tendons to enhance their performance under loads. This
strengthening method offers the advantages of quick installation and
possibility of monitoring as well as future replacement of the tendons.
Normal steel tendons are susceptible to corrosion, and where the tendons
are installed outside a structural element, additional protective measures
would be required. To overcome this, numerous investigations have been
carried out to study the use of non-metallic (FRP) prestressing tendons as an
alternative to steel tendons in concrete structures.1
For a beam strengthened with external tendons, the strengthening effect
can be quantified by the "strengthening ratio", SR, defined as the ratio of
ultimate load-carrying capacity of the beam after strengthening, PUiS, to that
before strengthening, PUi0, or
S R = ^
P
(1)
u,o
The ultimate load, Pus, of a strengthened beam can be written as

r -
- ^
(2a)
for a simply-supported beam under two-point loading, and

12(A/
+1/3M \
K,s ~
(2b)
for a continuous beam under third-point loading, in which x is distance from

the support to the point load; L = length of span; and M,0, MKS, M,m =
ultimate moment capacity of midspan section, interior-support section and
section under the outer point load, respectively, all of which can be
calculated from:
K = ApJps (dps - 0.5p,c) + AJy (d, - 0.5piC) + 4 7 , {d,'- 0.5(3,c)
(3)
where Aps, As and As' = area of external tendons, internal tension and
compression steel reinforcement, respectively; dps, ds, ds' = corresponding
effective depths;^ = external tendon stress at ultimate limit state; fy = yield
stress of internal steel reinforcement; c = neutral axis depth; 0.5Pic = depth
to centroid of concrete compression block; and Pi = concrete compression
block reduction factor.
To evaluate Mu from Eq. (3), the tendon stress,^, at ultimate limit state
is required. The simplest approach to calculating the tendon stress is based
on:
fps=fpe + Afpi.
(4)
where fpe is the effective prestress and Afps is the stress increase due to
additional loads.
Several investigators have proposed equations for Afps.2'5 However, most
of those equations were derived from tests on beams using external or
internal unbonded steel tendons with elastic modulus of around 190-205
GPa. Therefore, their applications are limited to beams with steel or FRP
tendons having elastic modulus lying within that range.
Unlike steel, FRP tendons exhibit a large range in modulus of elasticity,
from one-tenth to more than twice that of steel.6 The modulus of elasticity
affects the stress increase in the tendons, and thus the ultimate load-carrying
capacity. Figure 1 compares the observed stress increase in external steel
and carbon FRP tendons in two otherwise similar 2-span continuous beams
under third-point loading, tested earlier by the authors.7 Due to a lower
modulus of elasticity of carbon FRP (139 GPa) compared to that of steel
(200 GPa) tendons, the carbon FRP tendons exhibited smaller increase in
stress. Clearly, the effect of a lower modulus of elasticity of FRP tendons
needs to be accounted for in the design.
Strengthening ofRC Beams with External FRP Tendons 987

600
iMCBC-3
1
500
MCBS-3
i//>~~'^
400
/j/..
300
L...A.J.
/ /
jf
3 200
U
100 S
'
lj
I iL
MCIJ5C-3: beam with exterasi] carbon FKfP tendons,

f/j/.= 139 Gpa,^^ 1)1.4 mm2 :
MClj$S-3:T>earhyvitri external steel teridpns,
Ej,, = 200 Gpa, Ap, = 11 CI .0 mm2 ;
100
200
300
400
500
Stress increase in positive moment tendons (MPa)

Figure 1. Stress increase in external steel (Beam MCBS-3) and carbon FRP tendons
(Beam MCBC-3).7
This paper is therefore aimed at developing a predictive equation for the

stress increase in external FRP tendons, taking into account the elastic
modulus of the tendons. A parametric study is presented to illustrate the use
of various types of FRP tendons in strengthening deficient continuous
beams. A design example is presented at the end of the paper.
TENDON STRESS AT ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE
ACI Code8 specifies the stress in unbonded tendons at ultimate limit state,
fps, as
Jps
= //,, +70 + ^ M M P a )
WP
(5)
where
[lOOforZ/^. <35
-\ 300 for L / ^ >35
n_ = <
bd ps
(6)
(7)
in which L = beam span, dps = effective tendon depth, Aps = tendon area, b =
beam width, and 7^. should not be taken greater than (fpe+200) orfpy for Lldps
<35, and (^,e+400) or^, for L/dps>35.
Since Eq. (5) is intended for steel tendons having an almost constant
elastic modulus, it does not account for the effect of different elastic moduli.
Considering that for a given deformation, the stress is proportional to the
elastic modulus, the effect of elastic modulus is incorporated by adding a
parameter, EFRPIES, in which EFRP is the elastic modulus of the FRP tendons,
and Es is the elastic modulus of steel tendons. Using existing experimental
results of simply-supported9"12 and two-span continuous beams7 with internal
unbonded or external FRP tendons, Af
Af
pss is correlated with the
.Jc
EFRP
Only results from twelve beams were available from

parameterP E
the literature. The beams had span to tendon depth ratios of 7 to 22, and
were strengthened with FRP tendons having elastic modulus between 82 and
161 GPa, and subjected to two-point loading.
Umetal. (1999):
Bakisetal. (2001)
^lutsuyoshi and âchida (1993)
A Tan ctal. (2001):
20000
10000
tjandra and Tan (2001)
30000
40000
50000
fc7pp x EpRp/Es (MPa)

Figure 2. Influence of parameter
P,
on stress increase in FRP tendons.

E,
As shown in Figure 2, regression analysis gives:

Jc
/ = / + 7 1 . 2 + 0.01;
^FRP
(MPa)
(8)
The coefficient 71.2 is very close to 70 and the coefficient 0.01 is the same
as that in ACI code equation for span to depth ratio less than 35 [see Eq.
(5)]. Hence, in the case ofEFRF= Es, Eq. (8) becomes almost identical to Eq.
(5).
Strengthening ofRC Beams with External FRP Tendons
989
Figure 3 compares the test results with the predictions using Eq. (8).
Comparison with Afps predicted using equation proposed by Naaman et al.6
is also shown. It can be seen that Eq. (8) yields a better correlation for the
stress increase in the FRP tendons.
800
700
600
|
: .'
;..i::!i... 3-
500
d- 400
<U
X 300
< 200
>
100
0
,''
0
D D
' >*
iV "
f
;
a
a
predicted usinjg:
Nadman e( al.6 Ed (15)
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Af (predicted), MPa
Figure 3. Comparison between tests and predicted tendon stress increase.

Eq. (8) does not consider the presence of non-prestressed reinforcement
and internal bonded tendons, type of loading, and pattern of loading.
Further refinement of the equation to incorporate these parameters can be
carried out when more test results become available.
EFFECT OF ELASTIC MODULUS ON STRENGTHENING RATIO
Eq. (8) is used in a parametric study to investigate the effect of various
tendon types (with different elastic modulus) on the strengthening ratio for
typical reinforced concrete beams. The beam considered is continuous over
two spans, has a T section, and is internally reinforced and strengthened with
external tendons as shown in Figure 4. The concrete strength,/.', is 30 MPa.
The internal longitudinal steel ratio, ps or AJ(b ds), is 0.75% for the positive
moment section. The internal steel ratio for the negative moment section is
varied from one to two times that of the positive moment section,
corresponding to the normal range for the ratio of maximum negative to
positive moments of between 1 and 2.
The effective tendon depth, dps, is varied in steps of 0.2 from 0.6 to 1.0
times the overall beam depth. The elastic modulus of the tendons is varied
from 60 GPa (as for aramid FRP tendons), to 140 GPa (as for carbon FRP
tendons) and 200 GPa (steel tendons). The effective prestress, fpe, is set to
950 MPa and the beam is subjected to symmetrical third-point loads on each
span to simulate uniformly distributed load.
r r
i "\ +,
T
B*
HI
4/2
tt E T 3 W\
h dp'
JELi
A, (+ve)
4.'
Section A-A
'- , - - r | A ( - v e )
+ J
U
\-t
'
4w
Section B-B
Figure 4. Continuous beam in the parametric study.

Global prestressing index
For each critical section at the interior support (negative moment region) and
under the outer point load (positive moment region), the tendon area to be
provided can be quantified by a relative prestressing index %, defined as
1
Ppfpy
P.fy
(9)
where pp = ApJ(b dps); ps = AJ{b ds); wAfpy &n&fy are the yield strength of
the tendons and internal steel reinforcement, respectively. For FRP tendon,
fpy may be taken as 80% of its breaking strength, fpu.
For a two-span continuous beam, the ultimate load-carrying capacity,
Pus, is obtained when plastic hinges form at the interior support and under
the outer load. Hence, it is proportional to the sum of the moment capacity
of the critical section under the outer point load and 1/3 that of the interior
support section, as implied by Eq. (2b). Assuming that the moment capacity
is proportional to the prestressing index, the strengthening ratio SR may be
related to a global prestressing index, %c, taken simply as
Xc = Xm + 1/3 X*
(10)
where the subscripts m and s denote the critical sections in the positive
moment region and at the interior support, respectively.
Charts for flexural strengthening ratio of strengthened beams
Figures 5(a), (b) and (c) show the charts for continuous beams strengthened
using external tendons with elastic modulus of 200 GPa, 140 GPa, and 60
GPa, respectively.
It can be seen that in general, the strengthening ratio, SR, increases with
an increase in the global prestressing index, %c, but at a decreasing rate. The
strengthening ratio is higher when the effective tendon depth, dps, increases.
It can also be observed that the elastic modulus of the tendons, Eps, affects
the strengthening ratio. Lower elastic modulus Eps leads to lower value of
SR, and the effect is more significant at higher dpJh ratio. The effect of the
elastic modulus on the strengthening ratio is further illustrated using the
following example.
Work example
A two-span continuous T-beam had dimensions and reinforcement details as
follows: L = 10 m, b = 800 mm, bw = 350 mm, h = 800 mm, hf= 150 mm, ds
= 700 mm, A(+ve) = 4200 mm2 [p/+ve) = 0.75%], As(-\e) = 5600 mm2
[p,(-ve) = 1.00%],/c' = 30 MPa,^= 460 MPa. It is to be strengthened in
flexure by 30% (that is, SR = 1.3). The required area of external tendons is
computed as follows.
From the beam cross section, it is seen that the eccentricity of the
tendons at the interior support must be less than Qi-hj) or 650 mm. Try dps =
640 mm, giving the ratio dpJh = 0.8. If aramid FRP tendons (Eps = 60 GPa,
fpu = 1500 MPa) are to be adopted, then from Figure 5(c), for/c' = 30 MPa,
ps(+ve) = 0.75%), pj(-ve) = 1.00%, the required global prestressing index %c
is approximately 0.86 for the specified value of SR = 1.3.
The required tendon area can then be calculated from Eqs. (9) and (10).
The area of aramid FRP tendons, Aps, can be obtained as 1012 mm2. If
carbon FRP tendons (Eps = 140 GPa,^, = 1800 MPa) are to be adopted, then
the required %c may be obtained from Figure 5(b) as approximately 0.7 for
the specified value of SR = 1.3. The area of carbon FRP tendons can be
computed as 688 mm2, which is less than the required area for aramid FRP
tendons.
(a)
2.4
2.2
2
i
Eps = 200 GPa
-A#"d.T+^y=0".75%|
----
A,/bd s (:ve)=0.75% \
Balanced
\'"\"^
A,-/trd,i(.ve)-*e.-75%i
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.5
1.5
2.5
Figure 5. Strengthening ratio of beams with external tendons having

elastic modulus of (a) 200 GPa, (b) 140 GPa, and (c) 60 GPa.

For comparison, if steel tendons (with higher Eps of 200 GPa and similar^
of 1900 MPa) are adopted, the required %c is approximately 0.6 from Figure
5(a), which gives the required tendon area as 475 mm2. The tendons are
stressed to 950 MPa, and the layout for one span is shown in Figure 6.
.350
640
3300
3400
640
3300
Figure 6. External tendon layout (dimensions in mm).

CONCLUSIONS
The effect of different elastic moduli of external FRP tendons on tendon
stress at ultimate limit state of beams was examined. The lower elastic
modulus leads to reduced tendon stress increment due to the applied load,
and hence a lower ultimate load-carrying capacity.
The stress increase in external FRP tendons can be calculated using Eq.
(8). Based on Eq. (8), a parametric study was carried out to derive charts for
the strengthening of beams using FRP tendons, which was illustrated by an
example. Further refinement to incorporate parameters such as the presence
of internal bonded and non-prestressed reinforcement, as well as the type
and pattern of loading may be carried out.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The study was supported by Research Grant RP 3992699 provided by The
National University of Singapore.
REFERENCES
1. Burgoyne, C. J. (Ed.), "Fibre-reinforced Plastics for Reinforced
Concrete Structures - Volume 2", 5th International conference on fibrereinforced plastics for reinforced concrete structures (FRPRCS-5),
Cambridge, UK, July 16-18, 2001, pp. 661-708.
2. Harajli, M. H. and Kanj, M. Y., "Ultimate Flexural Strength of Concrete

Members Prestressed with Unbonded Tendons", ACI Structural Journal,
Vol. 88, No. 6, 1991, pp. 663-673.
3. Aparicio, A. C. and Ramos, G., "Flexural Strength of Externally
Prestressed Concrete Bridges", ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 93, No. 5,
1996, pp. 512-523.
4. Lee, L. H., Moon, J. H. and Lim, J. H., "Proposed Methodology for
Computing of Unbonded Tendon Stress at Flexural Failure", ACI
Structural Journal, Vol. 96, No. 6, 1999, pp. 1040-1048.
5. Allouche, E. N., Campbell, T. I., Green, M. F. and Soudki, K. A.,
"Tendon Stress in Continuous Unbonded Prestressed Concrete Members
- Part 2: Parametric Study", PCI Journal, Vol. 44, No. 7, 1999, pp. 6073.
6. Naaman, A. E., Burns, N., French, C, Gamble, W. L., and Mattock, A.
H., "Stresses in Unbonded Prestressing Tendons at Ultimate:
Recommendation", ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 99, No. 4, 2002, pp.
518-529.
7. Tjandra, R. A. and Tan, K. H., "Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Continuous Beams with External Tendons", 5th International conference
on fibre-reinforced plastics for reinforced concrete structures
(FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, July 16-18, 2001, Vol. 2, pp. 661-670.
8. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (ACI 318-99) and Commentary (ACI 318R-99), American
Concrete Institute, 1999, 319 pp.
9. Mutsuyoshi, H. and Machida, A., "Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete
Beams Using FRP as External Cable", International Symposium on FRP
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures (SP-138), USA, 1993, pp. 401417.
10. Lim, W. V., Tan, K. H. and Abdullah-Al Farooq, M., "Externally
Prestressed Beams using Steel and CFRP Tendons, UROP Report, Dept.
of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, 1999.
11. Tan, K. H, Abdullah-Al Farooq, M., and Ng, C. K., "Behavior of
Simple-Span Reinforced Concrete Beams Locally Strengthened with
External Tendons", ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 98, No. 2, 2001,
pp. 174-183.
12. Bakis, C. E., Bhat, B. B., Schokker, A. J., and Boothby, T. E., "Flexure
of Concrete Beams Prestressed with FRP Tendons", 5lh International
conference on fibre-reinforced plastics for reinforced concrete
structures (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, July 16-18, 2001, Vol. 2, pp. 689697.

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS ON STRESS CALCULATION

METHODS FOR EXTERNAL FRP CABLES
L. AN, T. YAMAMOTO, A. HATTORI AND T. MIYAGAWA

Department of Civil Engineering, Kyoto University
Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
The ultimate stress of external FRP cables and the flexural strength of
beams are evaluated using 3 existing equations derived for unbonded steel
cables and compared with the experimental results of 2 groups of
specimens with external FRP cables. It shows that the existing equations
can not be used effectively for the case of FRP cables without considering
the influence of the equations' limitation conditions carefully. Also, the
secondary effect along the entire tendon profile should be considered
because of the unfavorable initial failure.
INTRODUCTION
Externally prestressed cables for concrete structures is a promising system, not
only for strengthening structures by increasing the ultimate capacity and
improving the serviceability at the same time, but also for constructing slender
lightweight structures by reasonable large eccentricity arrangement. To
understand the behavior of concrete beams with externally prestressed cables,
the ultimate stress increment in the cables beyond the effective initial prestress
is an important factor to be considered but also a difficult issue for investigation,
because of its member-dependency instead of section-dependency and existence
of secondary effect.
In this paper, the ultimate stress increment in external FRP cables and the
flexural strength of beams are evaluated using existing equations for unbonded
steel cables, i.e., Naaman's Equation1, Harajli's Equation2 and Mutsuyoshi's
Equation3, and compared with the experimental results of 2 groups of 8
specimens. The primary objectives of current analysis are twofold. One is to
look at the possibility and validity of the ultimate stress in external FRP cables
and flexural strength calculated by the existing equations meant for unbonded
steel cables. The other is to investigate the influence of secondary effect on the
failure mechanism of externally prestressed members and on the evaluation of
ultimate stress increment in external cables.

COMPARISON OF EXISTING EQUATIONS
Basing on the deformation relationship of the entire structure and the
equilibrium of the critical section, the ultimate stress in the unbonded cables can
be calculated by using nonlinear analysis and numerical solution techniques.
However, simplified method is needed for design purposes, and numerous
investigations have been carried out to predict the stress in unbonded steel
cables at ultimate.
Among the first is a study by Baker who expressed the strain in the
prestressing steel as follows,
s =s +A(Ae )
(1)
pa
pe
cps'm
where e pe is the effective strain in the prestressing steel, (As cps)m is the
maximum strain increase in the concrete at the level of an equivalent amount of
bonded prestressing steel beyond effective prestress, Z is a ratio of average
concrete stress adjacent to the steel to the maximum concrete stress adjacent to
the steel. Baker suggested a value of Z equal to 0.1 for the ultimate state.
Gifford5 defined a strain compatibility factor 1 as the ratio of the average
effective concrete strain at the level of the prestressing steel to the concrete
strain at the section of maximum moment and suggested an empirical safe
limiting value of X as 0.2. Janney6 suggested a value for 1 equal to the ratio of
neutral axis at ultimate to the prestressing steel depth.
In the past decade, three most popular existing equations for evaluating the
ultimate stress fps in unbonded steel cables are presented on basis of the above
predecessor's studies. Before using them in the case of external FRP cables, the
modeling processes and relationship for each other are firstly reviewed in the
following.
Naaman 's Equation
fP,=fpe + EpsnueJ^-l),
( / < 0.94/ )
(2)
in which
_
-BUB2-A*A*C
2A
A = 0.S5fXfi[
B = ^ ( V " . ( L > /L2)-fp,) + AX ~ AJy + - 8 5 /> " K)hf
C = -ApsEpsecuaudps{L,IL1)
where, Qu=2.6 dps/L (one-point loading) ,QU =5.4 dps/L (third-point or
uniform loading), L, is the sum of lengths of loaded spans containing cables
considered, L2 is the total length of cables between anchorages.
Stress Calculation Methods for External FRP Cables 997
Essentially, Eq.(2) integrated the strain reduction coefficient Qu which accounts

for two variables, i.e., loading condition and span-depth ratio, into a strain
compatibility analysis and the equilibrium of the section. The value of i?u is
determined through data correlation analysis between experimental results of
143 beams and analytical results. The span-depth ratios of these beams range
from 7.8 to 45, the cable's effective prestress is over 50% of its ultimate
strength, and all of them are prestressed by inner unbonded steel cables.
Harajli's Equation
fP.=fP.+r.fPK(l-l*i;)Zf
(3)
Y.=(0.1 + ^ ) ( n 0 / n )
in which, n0/n is the ratio between number of loaded spans and total spans, s/dp
is span-depth ratio. The level of cu is between 0.0022 and 0.0035, the spandepth ratio range is 5-, and the effective prestress is also over 50% of the
ultimate strength.
Eq.(3) is proposed as an approximate lower bound (S/dp=) linear fit to
the predicted results of nonlinear parametric analysis and the effect of spandepth ratio is automatically included in Eq.(3) through lp, by assuming a linear
proportional relation between Afps and/Â, that is,
IJ S = 0.95/f + 0.05 + d J S
(3a)
p
where, lp is the total equivalent plastic region length, and / is a ratio of span
length to distance between loading points.
In view of the major difference between bonded and unbonded cables
being its member-dependency instead of section-dependency, Qu (<1.0) is
defined to reflect the strain reduction in Eq.(2). On the other hand, Eq.(3) shows
that the member-dependent deformation is strongly affected by the total
equivalent plastic region length lp. From whatever point of view, the total
deformation of the member is related to span-depth ratio (S/dp) in addition to the
concrete compressive depth c since both Qu and ys are functions of span-depth
ratio. So, Eq.(2) and Eq.(3) are essentially the same.
Mutsuyoshi's Equation
fps = / +Epsnuescu{dpsM/c-l)<fpy
(fps
< 0.94fpy )
(4)
dps,u = Rddps
R, =\.0-0.022*(L/dps-5)*(SJL-0.2)
0.0m*L/dps*Pm
Que =(1.47 + 10.3* Md I L)l{Lldps)-0.29Md IL* Sd IL

In which, Md is the distance between the loading points, Sd is taken as the
distance between the deviators when two deviators existed and zero when over

two existed or are arranged at the midspan, Pm is the percentage of nonprestressing steel, dps and dpSiU are respectively the initial external tendon
position and the ultimate tendon position at the critical section, e is assumed
to be 0.0035 and span-depth ratio varies from 8 to 24.
External cables can be treated as inner unbonded cables provided the
secondary effect and factional forces at deviators are neglected. But practically,
the secondary effect has much more significant influence on the stress
increment in external cables than expected, as will be discussed later.
Mutsuyoshi has modified Naaman's equation to cope with second-order effects
in external cables by using dpStU instead of dps and Que instead of Qu
considering the effects ofMd/L and Sd/L.
COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND PREDICTED RESULTS

In this section, experimental results of 2 groups of FRP externally
prestressed beams reported in the literature are compared with the predicted
results of Eqs.(2-4), followed by rational analysis of ultimate stress
increment in external FRP cables and flexural strength of the beams.
Various experimental parameters used for the calculation of the predicted
results are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Experimental variables used for the predicted values' calculation
External prestressing
cablesb(MPa)
E-modulus
Jpu
Jpe
1722 738
2.1 X105
1255 457
0.8X105
No. 1" (steel)

No. 2 (AFRP)
No. 3 (CFRP)
1870
No.4(CFRP)
No. 5 (AFRP)
1255
PPCB1-2 (CFRP)
PPCB2-2 (CFRP) 2040
PPCB3-2 (CFRP)
903
1.25 X105
392
0.8X105
993
1.35X10
Concrete and bonded steel

or tendon
As-142.7mm , ^-294Mpa
/c=36.3Mpa, ecu=0.0035
^s=200mm2, ^=400Mpa
Aps= 110mm2,fpu= 1860Mpa
/c=35Mpa, ecu=0.0035
a) No.l~No.5 are from Mutsuyoshi's experiment; the others are from EL-Hacha's
experiment.
b) fpm fpe ar)d E-modulus are nominal tensile strength, introduced prestress and
elastic modulus of the external prestressing cables .

Outline of the Experiments
In Mutsuyoshi's experiment7 (Fig.l), the span-depth ratio of 5 T beams was
7.1, and three kinds of materials were used as external cables; steel cables
in Beam No.l, AFRP cables in Beams No.2 and No.5 and CFRP cables in
Beams No. 3 and No.4. In all cables, the initial prestress values were less
than 50% of the respective tensile strength.
In EL-Hacha's experiment8 (Fig.2), the span-depth ratio of 3 beams
with similar external CFRP cables and bonded prestressing steel cables was
varied as 10.7(PPCBl-2), 17.9(PPCB2-2) and 25.0(PPCB3-2).
P/2
P/2
1050
400
1050
1
'
300
100
'
300
X
IF
TT saddles
100
Fig.l Schematic of test beams in Mutsuyoshi's experiment (unitmm)
280
T-pe
de viator
Fig.2
150
Schematic of test beams in EL-Hacha's experiment (unit:mm)
Influence of Equations' Limitation Conditions

All the predicted ultimate stresses^, using Naaman's equation (Table 2) are
over 0.94 fpy (for safety reasons, fpy of FRP is taken as 70% fpu), and

recalculations have to be carried out considering the equation's limitation
requirement. This phenomenon may have resulted from the lower spandepth ratio (7.1) of Mutsuyoshi's beams, which is less than the lower limit
(7.8) of Eq. (2). It is not a problem for Eq. (3), because its lower limit for
span-depth ratio is 5. Hence, the standard deviation of Eq.(3) is better than
Eq.(2).
Although Eq.(4) can predict the ultimate flexural strength of external
steel cables with better accuracy3 than Eq.(2), it seems to be unsuitable for
the case of FRP cables. Here, Qu in Eq.(2) is almost the same as Ove in
Eq.(4), and Rd is recalculated has to be taken as 1.0 because of the small Sd
/L and L/dp ratio, both of which are less than the lower limits stipulated by
the equation. But, if Rd is recalculated using the experimental results of fps
by Eq.(4), Rd of 0.51, 0.44, 0.55, 0.60, and 0.47 are separately obtained for
No.l~No.5 which are much smaller than 1.0. The smaller initial prestress
values being less than the limit (0.5fpu) might be another factor resulting in
large errors for external FRP cables. The selection of characteristic values
of FRP materials is also an important factor, which makes the extension of
the formulas to FRP materials difficult, since steel is the only reinforcement
used in the equations.
Table 2 Analytical and experimental results of Mutsuyoshi's beams

Exp. Value
Afps
(MPa)
fps
(MPa)
M
(Kn.m)
No.l
No.2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No.l
No.2
No. 3
No. 4
NO. 5
No.l
No.2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
575
229
555
620
271
1.31 X 103
6.86 X102
1.46X103
1.52X103
6.64 X102
114
97.8
103
108
96.2
Naatnan ((?=0.42)
Eva. Value (err.) sir
638(1.11)
368(1.61)
0.47
328 (0.59)
328 (0.53)
432(1.59)
1.38X103(1.05)
8.26X102(1.20)
0.18
1.23X103(0.84)
1.23X103(0.81)
8.26X102(1.24)
97.9(0.85)
95.2(0.97)
0.19
75.8(0.74)
75.8(0.70)
95.4(0.99)
Harqjli
Eva. Value
SD
524(0.91)
381(1.67)
0.36
583(1.05)
583(0.94)
386(1.42)
1.26X103(0.96)
8.39X102(1.22)
0.13
1.49X103(1.02)
1.49X103(0.98)
7.78X 102(1 17)
91.1(0.80)
96.7(0.99)
0.14
88.4(0.86)
88.4(0.82)
90.8(0.94)
Mutsuyoshi
Rj=\.0
PUie=0A0
a) err. = Eva. Value/ Exp. Value , SD is the standard deviation of the errors.
Influence of the Secondary Effect

According to Mattock's modification9 on Corley's formula for plastic hinge
length lp, and if it is reasonable to assume that the magnitude of Afps depends
on the spread of plasticity along the member, then it is clear that the stress
in the cable decreases with an increase in the span-depth ratio of the beam.
But, contradictory results were reported in EL-Hacha's experiments, where
the stress increments in external CFRPs are larger for higher span-depth
ratio (Table 3). This phenomenon indicates the importance of the influence
of secondary effect along the entire cable profile.
The secondary or second-order effect usually means eccentricity loss in
between the deviators. Since the external CFRPs in PPCB1-2-PPCB3-2
specimens in EL-Hacha's experiments were draped only at mid-span (Fig.2),
the eccentricity of the cable from the beam axis decreases between the
deviator and the end anchorages, and continues to decrease with the
increase of the applied load and downward deflection. According to the
description of the failure mode, this secondary effect causes an initial
flexural failure near either one of the loading points and it propagate with a
longitudinal crack directed toward the constant moment regions. As
indicated in the experiment, PPCB1-2 and PPCB2-2 failed finally in shear
resulting in smaller stress increments in cables. Hence, the secondary effect
along the entire tendon should be carefully considered while using the
existing equations. Comparison of the predicted values with experiment
values is not possible in Table 3 because the experiment results show
reversed trend compared to the analytical results.
Table 3 Analytical and experimental results of EL-Hacha's beams
Exp. Value"
Afp.
(MPa)
Jps
(MPa)
PPCB1-2
PPCB2-2
PPCB3-2
PPCB1-2
PPCB2-2
PPCB3-2
100
290
440
1.13X103
1.32X103
1.47 X103
a) the Exp.Values are obtained from Fig.7 of Ref.8.
Naaman 's
Eva. Value
329
203
147
1.36 X103
1.23 X103
1.17X103
Harajli 's
Eva. Value
262
194
166
1.29 X103
1.02 X103
1.20X103
CONCLUSION
It can be seen that the proposed equations in the literature for unbonded
steel cables cannot be used effectively for external FRP cables before the
limitation conditions are modified. Secondary effect along the whole tendon
profile should be considered because unfavorable premature failure could
occur before the plastic region develop fully. More experimental data are
needed to calibrate existing equations for external FRP cables.
REFERENCES
1. Naaman, A.E. and Alkhairi, F.M. "Stress at Ultimate in Unbonded PostTensioning Tendons: Part2 - Proposed Methodology", ACI Structural
Journal, 88(6), 1991, pp.683-692.
2. Harajli, M.H. and Hijazi, S.A. "Evaluation of the Ultimate Steel Stress
in Partially Prestressed Concrete Members", PCI Journal, 36(1), 1991,
pp.62-82.
3. Mutsuyoshi, H., et al. "Flexural Behavior and Proposal of Design
Equation for Flexural Strength of Externally Prestressed Concrete
Members", Concrete Library ofJSCE, No. 28, pp65-77.
4. Baker, A.L.L., "Plastic Theory of Design for Ordinary Reinforced and
Prestressed Concrete Including Moment Redistribution in Continuous
Memebers," Magazine of Concrete Research (London), 1(2), 1949,
pp.57-66.
5. Gifford, F.W., "Design of Simply Supported Prestressed Conrete Beams
for Ultimate Loads," Proceedings, Institution of Civil Engineers
(London), Part III, 3(1), 1954, pp. 125-143.
6. Janney, Jack R., ect, "Ultimate Flexural Strength of Prestressed and
Conventionally Reinforced Concrete Beams," ACI Journal, Proceedings
52(6), 1956, pp.601-620.
7. Mutsuyoshi, H., and Machida, A. "Behavior of Prestressed Concrete
Beams Using FRP as External Cable", ACI SP-138-25, 1993, pp.401417.
8. EL-Hacha, R. and Elbadry, M. "Strengthening Concrete Beams with
Externally Prestressed Carbon Fiber Composite Cables", FRPRCS-5,
Thomas Telford, London, 2001, pp.699-708.
9. Mattock, A.H. Discussion of "Rotational Capacity of Concrete Beams"
by Corley, W., Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, V.93, No.ST2,
April, 1967, pp.519-522.

MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION IN CONTINUOUS

MONOLITHIC AND SEGMENTAL CONCRETE BEAMS
PRESTRESSED WITH EXTERNAL ARAMID TENDONS
A. F. ARAUJO AND G. B. GUIMARAES
Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro - Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Rua Marques de Sao Vicente, 225, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
An experimental investigation on the behavior of continuous segmental
concrete beams, prestressed with external aramid tendons, was carried out.
The main objective was to study the moment redistribution in the postcracking stage. Two beams were tested; one was monolithic and the other
was constructed in precast segments with no adhesive in the joints. Both
beams had the same overall dimensions, with two 4.5 m spans and an I
section 30 cm high, flange width of 30 cm and web thickness of 10 cm.
The beams were post-tensioned with two external aramid tendons. Test
results have shown that, in spite of the linear stress-strain relationship of the
tendons, the moment redistribution also occurs in beams prestressed with
these tendons, and that the moment redistribution in segmental beams can
be higher than in monolithic ones.
INTRODUCTION
Moment redistribution in continuous concrete beams is mainly caused by
yielding of the tension reinforcement at some section, as the beam is loaded
beyond the service loads. With further loading, this section deforms as a
plastic hinge and, since the moment cannot increase at this hinge, the
exceeding moment is distributed to other sections which are still elastic.
Moment redistribution is observed either in beams reinforced with steel bars
or in beams prestressed with steel tendons1.
Continuous concrete beams prestressed with synthetic tendons,
however, have some peculiar characteristics because of the linear stressstrain relationship of the tendons; since the tendons do not yield, the
moment redistribution can be affected.
The focus of the current work is to investigate the moment
redistribution in continuous concrete beams prestressed with aramid
tendons. With this purpose, an experimental investigation was carried out
on two beams with identical dimensions, cross-section and type of loading.
One beam was monolithic and the other was constructed in precast
segments. Both beams were post-tensioned with two external tendons. The
present work is part of a major research program on the behavior of

concrete beams prestressed with aramid tendons ' to5 .
DESCRIPTION OF THE BEAMS AND TEST PROCEDURE
Two beams with identical dimensions, cross-section and type of loading
were tested (Fig. 1). One beam was monolithic and the other consisted of
dry-jointed match-cast segments with multiple shear keys. The beams were
supported over two spans 450 cm long. They were post-tensioned with two
external aramid tendons, with a polygonal profile, and were subjected to
concentrated loads applied at the points indicated in Figure 2. The
nonprestressing bonded reinforcement consisted of four steel bars with
nominal diameter of 6.3 mm placed along the tension and the compression
chords.
The prestressing tendons consisted of 30 ton Type G Parafil ropes,
which have a linear stress-strain relationship up to failure, with ultimate
elongation gu = 1.5%, tensile strength fu = 1926 MPa, elastic modulus E =
126500 MPa and cross-section area (of yarns in core) of 153 mm2. The
tensile yielding strength of the nonprestressing steel reinforcement was 510
MPa (The stress-strain curve of the steel bars can be found elsewhere2).
The concrete cylinder strength was 45.3 MPa and 48.9 MPa for the
monolithic and segmental beams, respectively.
The only difference between the two beams was the continuity of the
nonprestressing bonded reinforcement bars which were interrupted at the
joint in the segmental beam.
Loads, strains, joint opening and displacements were measured
electronically by means of load cells, strain gauges and displacement
transducers (LVDT). Force in tendons was measured with loads cells
positioned at the anchorages. The instrumentation details are shown in
Figure 2.
The prestress was applied to the beams 24 hours before testing. This
procedure was adopted in order to minimize the loss in the prestressing
force due to shrinkage and creep of concrete and tendon stress relaxation,
that might occur during the test of the beam, which took 2 hours. At the
occasion of prestressing force application, the hydraulic jacks (by means of
which the load P/2 in Figure 2 were applied) were already in contact with the
top surface of the beams. The resulting load in the jacks, induced by
prestressing, was P/2 = 7.5 kN. The test was then initiated with the load
applied in four cycles. In the first one the load was increased up to a value close
Beams Prestressed with External Aramid Tendons 1005
t>A
4,5 m
,,,-stirrups
<>
) 6,3 at 10 cm 30
tendon
44.6,3
tendon
stirrups
(|) 6,3 at 10 cm
4<|>6,3
Section B-B
3"
30
8
3"
3:
50
r"""^
TTH
10
~~~~i
1
10 10
Typical segment
Figure 1. General arrangement of the beams (dimensions in cm)
to the decompression load (load corresponding to zero stress at the bottom or at

the top of a section) and then decreased to the initial value P/2 = 7.5 kN. In the
second cycle, the load reached a value slightly higher than the value
corresponding to the cracking initiation, in the monolithic beam, or joint
opening, in the segmental beam. The maximum load in the third load cycle
reached an arbitrary value lower than the ultimate load. Finally, in the fourth
cycle the load was increased up to failure.

region 2
LVDT1
150
LVDT2
LVDT3
I 75 I 75 I
region 3
LVDT4
150
150
LVDT5
I 75 I
LVDT6
75 I
150
Figure 2. Instrumentation (Dimensions in cm)
GENERAL TEST RESULTS

General test results are given in Table 1. The monolithic beam failed by
concrete crushing in region 3 (Figure 3a). For safety reasons, the test of the
segmental beam was interrupted when signs of concrete crushing at joints 2 and
5 (Figure 3b) were observed. At this stage, concrete strain at these joints were
higher than 0.003 (Figure 7).
Table 1. General test results

Monolithic
beam
Initial prestressing force, F0 (kN), at live anchorage
313,9
Initial prestressing force, F0 (kN), at dead anchorage
357,7
315,1
Prestressing force in the beginning of load cycle 4, F4
(kN), at live anchorage
Prestressing force in the beginning of load cycle 4, F4
357,6
(kN), at dead anchorage
415,6
Prestressing force at ultimate, Fu (kN), at live
anchorage
Prestressing force at ultimate, Fu (kN), at dead
482,8
anchorage
210,0
Ultimate applied load, Pu (kN)
49,1
Maximum deflection at ultimate (mm)
Results
Segmental
beam
323,3
364,7
326,0
364,0
408,1
465,5
167,7
34,6
The cracks in the monolithic beam were well distributed in regions 1, 2

and 3, as shown in Figure 3a, due to the presence of the nonprestressing
steel reinforcement. In the segmental beam, the joints began to open in
regions 1, 2 and 3. At higher loads, some inclined cracks formed in these
regions, starting at the joints and progressing in the direction of the load
points (regions 1 and 3) and in the direction of the central support (region
2).
Region 3
Region 3
a) Monolithic beam
b) Segmental beam
Figure 3. Views of regions 1, 2 and 3 of the beams

Deflections
The load-deflection responses along the length of the beams, at several load
levels, are shown in Figure 4. In this figure, the full lines represent the
deflections at the end of each load cycle, while the dashed lines represent
the deflections at intermediary load levels in the last load cycle. The results
show that before cracking or joint opening (Load cycle 1), the deflections
are small and practically the same in both beams. After cracking or joint
opening (Load cycles 2 to 4), the deflections tend to be higher in the
segmental beam.
Figure 5 shows the moment-deflection curves at the span and at the central
support. The curves indicate that the behavior of the beams was linear up to the
beginning of the test (P=15kN)

Load cycle 1 (P=95 kN)
Load cycle 2 (P=120kN)
Load Cycle 3 (P=140kN)
beginning of the test (P=15kN)

Load Cycle 3 (P-150kN)
Deflection (mm)
10
P/21
P/2|
P/2|
-?
E o -j
1
\\\
E
" -10 J N
c
: \
o
g - 2 0 ^ \
0 i
-10 -
\\ o - c
-20-
\ o-
"301
Vis.
166kN & /
-<f,
p/2l
P/2|
5i
\
"
p/2|
-
/
P=150kN /
|- 1
-40-50-
P/2l
10-
P/21
-40-n
i
-50
111111,1111111 n 1111111
1111111
p M 1 | I 1 I I | 1
I " " ! '
1 1
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8
Distancefromleft support (m)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8
Distancefromleft support (m)
a) Monolithic beam
b) Segmental beam
Figure 4. Deflections along the beams at several load levels
120 -
s
60 -
.H
a.
40
<
20 -i
0
"
?100
/^
1 80^
o
B
^ -
-*\
-^ ^' ^ ^ ^
100 -
120
Yielding of
reinforcing steel
&
n
li
a
I 60 ^
Region 1
~
M
" I "
Segmental
"3.
< 20
l""l
"
l " " l " " i
10 20 30 40
Deflection (mm)
50
Region 3
Monolithic
Segmental
4 0
Monolithic
il
-10
80
i-rp-TTT-p T-rrp-TTTrTT-r-q
-10
10 20 30 40
Deflection (mm)
50
Figure 5. Applied moment-deflections curves in regions 1 and 3 (LVDT's 1 and 6)
decompression load. Beyond this point, the cracks initiate or the joints open, the
stiffness of the beams decreases and a departure of the curves from linearity is
observed.
Strains
Concrete strains, measured at several sections in regions 1 to 3 of the beams
are shown in Figures 6 and 7 (In these figures, the small circles indicate the
locations where the strain values were measured). Concrete strains were

measured on the top (in the spans) and bottom (central support) surfaces of
the beams. The figures show that before cracking (load cycle 1), the strain
values are small and vary smoothly in the three regions. After cracking
(load cycles 2 to 4) however, they tend to concentrate at the critical sections
(sections at the load point in the spans and at central support), increasing
significantly after yielding of the steel reinforcement.
In the segmental beam, concrete strains concentration was observed at
the joints in regions 1 and 3 (spans) but not at the joints in region 2 (central
support) as indicated in Figure 7.
-0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50

Distancefromload point (m)
-0.50
a) Region 1 - Top chord
-0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50

Distancefromload point (m)
b) Region 3 - Top chord
-9-
beginning of the test (P=T 5kN)

-0.50 -0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50

Distancefromcentral support (m)
c) Region 2 - Bottom chord
Figure 6. Concrete strains in the monolithic beam at several load levels

1
-1 -:
"
-2 -:
?;
Joint 6
L
i
z^t=*
x>
^ / ^ ~~~-^^T
1^X
11 // P = 1 5 0 k N
-3 ~
b -3
P/2 1
Join t 5
SO
-4
-4 -:
Region 1
-5
' ' i i ' ' ' '"i ' ' ' ' i ' '
0.50
I _
-0.25
0
0.25
0.50
Distance from load point (m)
Joint 3
-5 ~\
-0.50
Region 3
1
-0.25
0
0.25
0.50
Joint 4
I"
P=150kN
1-3
Central support
CO
-4
beginning of the test (P=l 5kN)

Loadcycle4(P=166kN)
Region 2
-5
-0.50
-0.25
0
0.25
0.50
Figure 7. Concrete strains in the segmental beam at several load levels
Moment redistribution
The relationship between applied load and bending moments measured in
the span and at the central support of the beams is shown in Figures 8 and 9.
For applied loads lower than the cracking or joint opening loads, the
measured moments coincide with the theoretical moments obtained from an
elastic analysis. For increasing loads, a decrease of the measured negative
moments and an increase of the measured positive moments in relation to
the elastic moments are observed, which indicates the occurrence of
moment redistribution.

240 "
240
-120
-80
-40
20
20
Negative moment (kN.m)
40
60
80
100
120
Positive moment (kN.m)

Figure 8. Positive and negative moments in the monolithic beam
240
240
-120
-80
-40
20
Negative moment (kN.m)
60
80
100
120
Positive moment (kN.m)
Figure 9. Positive and negative moments in the segmental beam
Expressing the degree of moment redistribution as
/i = 100 1-
M.
(1)
where Mu is the ultimate moment and Me is the elastic moment, the values
found for fi were 10% and 18% for the monolithic and the segmental beams
respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
The results presented in the current work have demonstrated that moment
redistribution also occurs in continuos concrete beams prestressed with aramid
tendons, in spite of the brittleness of the material of the tendons characterized by
its linear stress-strain relationship. The experimental results also showed that
the moment redistribution was 10% in the monolithic beam and 18% in the
segmental beam.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by CNPq Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico - Brazil and
the material support provided by Linear Composites Ltd., UK.
REFERENCES
1. Campos C, Guimaraes, G. B. & Burgoyne, C.J., "Rotation capacity of
beams prestressed with synthetic external tendons", 5th International
Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures (FRPRCS5), Cambridge, UK, 16 - 18 July, 2001, Thomas Telford, Vol. 2, pp 711720.
2. Guimaraes, G.B. & Araujo, A.F. "Strain concentration at dry-joins of
segmental concrete beams prestressed with external aramid tendons",
5lh International Symposium on FRP Reinforcement for Concrete
Structures (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, 16 - 18 July, 2001, Thomas
Telford, Vol. 2, pp 681-688.
3. Formagini, S., "Influencia da resistencia do concreto sobre a resistencia
de vigas protendidas com cabos sinteticos externos", Tese de Mestrado
-PUC-Rio, 1999.
4. Araujo, A. F., "Estudo experimental da resistencia a flexao de vigas
protendidas com cabos sinteticos externos", Dissertacao de Mestrado,
PUC-RIO, 1997.
5. Guimaraes, G. B. and Burgoyne, C.J., "Creep behaviour of a parallellay aramid rope". Journal of Materials Science, Vol 27, p. 24732489,1992.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON THE DUCTILITY

OF BEAMS PRESTRESSED WITH FRP
M. M. MORAIS AND C. J. BURGOYNE
Cambridge University Engineering Department,
Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
A perceived problem with the use of FRP materials for prestressing beams
is their linear elastic behaviour; this results in a brittle structural failure.
However, by using the plastic capacity of concrete and by enhancing it, the
ductility of structures can be increased. To test this idea, an experimental
programme was conducted that included simply supported rectangular
prestressed concrete beams. Some beams were prestressed using steel
tendons and others using Aramid Fibre Reinforced Plastics (AFRP)
tendons. For the compression zone of the AFRP beams three types of
concrete were used: normal concrete, steel-fibre reinforced concrete (FRC)
and concrete confined using an AFRP spiral. The beams were loaded and
unloaded at regular intervals to determine the energy dissipation taking
place. The results show that ductile behaviour can be achieved using FRP
prestressed concrete sections, provided that over-reinforced beams with
confined concrete are used.
INTRODUCTION
FRP reinforcement exhibits elastic behaviour up to failure, without the
typical yield plateau of steel. The behaviour of concrete beams prestressed
by FRP tendons is non-linearly elastic up to failure. As a result there have
been questions concerning the ductility of such structures.
As far as the ductility of FRP structures is concerned, much research has
been concentrated on finding ductility measures equivalent to the ones
existing for steel. It is, however, important to focus on what ductility means
and what are the requirements for a structure to behave in a ductile manner.
When designing a structure, two issues are of concern:
(a) To make sure the design model is safe.
(b) To ensure that the structure should give warning of failure and should
not fail explosively or catastrophically.
The first requirement means that the structure should have enough
rotation capacity to allow the use of the plasticity theorems. In seismic
regions it should also be able to dissipate energy. The second requirement
means that the structure at failure should exhibit strain hardening behaviour
and only a small amount of elastic energy can be released suddenly.
In order to improve the ductility of FRP reinforced and prestressed
beams, the following measures have been suggested:
(a) The use of partially bonded FRP;
(b) The use of hybrid FRP with a bilinear stress strain curve;
(c) The use of compression reinforcement;
(d) The step layering of the FRP's to have a progressive failure;
(e) Improvements in the strain capacity of the concrete.
This paper looks at how the improved strain capacity of concrete can be
used and how it influences the beam behaviour.
TEST PROGRAMME
The experimental programme consisted of tests on beams in flexure. Single
span beams were tested by applying a load at each of the third-span points
(Figure 1).
100
600/300
<
><
100
600/300
600/300
><
>
Figure 1 Beam loading arrangement
These beams were used to study the ductility behaviour and the
localisation effects due to the different reinforcement and concrete
properties. The beams were under-or over-reinforced and were of different
beam sizes.
By changing the percentage of reinforcement the beam can be forced to
fail in an under- or over-reinforced manner.
Two different sizes of beams were tested. The properties of the beams
are described in Table 1, in which fcu is the cube strength at the day of
testing. Figure 2 shows the beam cross section.
Ductility of Beams Prestressed with FRP 1015

Table 1 Details of test beams
Beam Name
b (mm) h (mm) As (mm2) Prestress (kN)
Oc-St-UR-L
106
200
58.9
68.3
128
Oc-St-UR-S
63
19.6
22.3
137.4
Oc-St-OR-L
106
200
155.5
Oc-St-OR-S
63
128
39.3
47.9
41.1
Oc-Ar-UR-L
200
25.2
106
Oc-Ar-OR-L
200
120.7
105.7
106
Cc-Ar-OR-L
200
120.7
106
107.7
FRc-Ar-OR-L
200
120.7
106
106.3
b
- Beam width; h - beam depth; As - Area of prestressing tendons
fa, (MPa)
57.0
50.9
52.4
50.9
56.7
48.5
51.7
49.3
Note: Each beam is identified by a series of letters. The first set of letters indicates the
concrete type, the second set represents the tendon material, the third set of letters identifies
the type of failure, and the final the size of the beam. The key is as follows:
Oc-ordinary concrete
Cc-Spirally confined concrete FRc -Fibre reinforced concrete
St - Steel tendon
Ar - AFRP tendon
UR - Under-reinforced
OR - Over-reinforced
S - Small beam
L - Large beam
106mm
106/63mm,
AFRP Spiral
o
o
V
Figure 2 Beam cross section
The tendons were made from two materials, steel and Aramid FRP.
Two types of steel tendons were used. For the small beams and for the
under reinforced large beam, 5mm prestressing wire was used. For the
over-reinforced large beam, a seven-wire 15mm strand was used (Table 2).
T-facilitate prestressing, the AFRP tendons, were connected to a
threaded mild steel bar by means of a coupler made from a mild steel tube.
The AFRP rod was placed inside the coupler tube and the gap filled with
expansive cement. The inside of the tube was threaded on one side. This
technique has successfully been used to stress FRP rods by Harada1 and
Less2,3.
Table 2 Material properties of the tendons
As (mm2)
E,(MPa)
<f>(mm)
5
19.6
200,000
15
137.4
4
12.6
54,000
AFRP
14
122.7
E,
- Modulus of elasticity of tendon
<>
t
- Tendon diameter
Pui, - Manufacturer's assured load for tendon
Material
Steel wire
Steel 7 wire strand
Pi, (kN)
34.4
245.0
22.7
227.0
The concrete mix was designed so it was possible to transfer the

prestress at day 3 and for a cube strength of 50 MPa at testing at day 5.
To confine the concrete, Aramid FRP spirals developed by Leung4 were
used. These spirals are made of aramid fibres with an epoxy resin.
Following Leung4 experiments, a spiral pitch of 20 mm was used.
For the Fibre Reinforced Concrete (FRC), a percentage of 0.5% of
fibres by volume was used. The fibres used were hooked-end steel fibre
with a 30mm length and a 0.50mm diameter. With this percentage of fibres
a similar behaviour to the confined concrete was expected.
All beams were designed not to fail in shear. The over-reinforced
section had a high flexural strength, so shear failure could occur before the
flexural capacity was reached. Because the flexural capacity was close to
the shear capacity, the over-reinforced AFRP beams were reinforced with
stirrups in the shear span. Closed stirrups made of 8mm bars at 150 mm
spacing were used. No stirrups were used in the constant moment region in
order not to further confine the concrete.
TEST RESULTS
During testing, the load was measured using a load-cell and deflections
using displacement transducers.
Load deflection Response
The load deflection curves for the steel prestressed beams are shown in
Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the load-deflection curves for the AFRP
prestressed beam and also that for the under-reinforced steel prestressed
beam which is deemed to illustrate the desired beam behaviour.
All the beams behaved in essentially the same way up to failure. The
behaviour was linear elastic up to cracking, followed by elastic behaviour
with reduced stiffness.
The over-reinforced beams had a higher cracked stiffness due to the
larger area of reinforcement. The AFRP beams had a smaller cracked
stiffness as the reinforcement had a lower Young's modulus.
For the steel under-reinforced beams, the cracked behaviour was
followed by a plateau as a result of the yielding of the steel. The AFRP
under-reinforced beam did not have this plateau, as the tendon material was
elastic up to failure; the tendon snapped leading to the collapse of the beam.
Large Under-reinforced
Large Over-reinforced
Small Under-reinforced
Small Over-reinforced
20
30
40
Mid-span displacements (mm)
Figure 3 Load-deflection for Steel prestressed beams
50
Mid-span displacements (mm)
Figure 4 Load-deflection for steel under-reinforced beam and for AFRP overreinforced concrete with FRC and spirally confined concrete
Apart from the under-reinforced AFRP beam and the over-reinforced

AFRP beam with confinement, the final collapse was normally governed by
the crushing of the concrete. In the under-reinforced beam failure was
sudden due to snapping of the tendon. In the over-reinforced beam with
confinement, final failure was quite explosive due to the snapping of the
confining spiral. This failure was preceded by a drop in load capacity that
resulted from spalling of the unconfined concrete that surrounded the spiral.
The use of the Steel Fibre Reinforced concrete did not change the beam
behaviour up to the peak. The failure however was very gentle by crushing
of the concrete, which allowed the post peak descending branch to be
logged.
Crack Pattern
The governing cracks were mainly flexural and evenly distributed along the
beam. Only for the large steel over-reinforced beam did a flexural-shear
crack determine collapse.
For the beams with FRC, there were further, more closely spaced
cracks. The number of cracks in the constant moment region and their
spacing are represented in Table 3.
Table 3 Crack behaviour
Beam Name
Oc-St-UR-L
Oc-St-UR-S
Oc-St-OR-L
Oc-St-OR-S
Oc-Ar-UR-L
Oc-Ar-OR-L
Cc-Ar-OR-L
FRc-Ar-OR-L
No. of Cracks in
constant moment
region
3
2
4
2
3
4
4
5
Average crack
spacing (mm)
Maximum crack
spacing (mm)
188
115
218
149
257
228
192
138
213
115
231
149
276
248
203
147
Ductility Measures
To measure ductility, two different indexes were be used. The first was
proposed by Mufti5 and relates to the rotation capacity of the beam. This
factor takes into account the increase in moment as well as the increase in
curvature or deflection, since unlimited increase in curvature is more
beneficial if the moment of resistance also increases. The authors assumed
that the beam behaved elastically if the concrete had a compressive strain
lower than 0.001. This J-factor can be defined as:
P
8
J- factor = 1 ^ ^ x ^
0.001
(1)
'0.001
where:
Pui, = Ultimate load capacity;
P0.001 = Load for a concrete compressive strain of 0.001;
Suit = Ultimate deflection at mid-point; and
80.001 = Mid-point deflection for a concrete comp. strain of 0.001
The second index was proposed by Naaman and Jeong6 and takes into
account the elastic and inelastic energies. They argued that large deflection

prior to failure does not necessarily imply good ductility as an explosive
behaviour can occur. The following measure of ductility was proposed:
2\
(2)
elastic
where
Em
= Total energy stored in the beam; and
Eehtics = Elastic energy stored in the beam;
In Table 4, the values of these two indexes are presented.
Table 4 Ductility indexes and failure modes for the beams tested
J-factor
Beam Name P0.0001 Oo.OOI Pull
Failure
Suit
<?
Yielding/
Oc-St-UR-L 23.6 1.3 46.4 30.9
46.7 2.15
Compression
Yielding/
8.5
73.9 2.39
0.5 16.2 19.4
Oc-St-UR-S
Compression
16.2
Oc-St-OR-L 38.4 2.4 70.0 21.3
1.38 Flexural / Shear
Concrete
1.32
28.1
9.5
Oc-St-OR-S 12.7 0.7 26.3
Compression
1.49
Tendon
43.5
Oc-Ar-UR-L 13.5 1.2 23.9 29.5
Concrete
1.33
31.5
Oc-Ar-OR-L 35.3 2.1 76.4 30.6
Compression
1.66 Confining spiral
48.2
Cc-Ar-OR-L 34.0 1.8 58.7 50.3
Concrete
1.34
23.4
FRc-Ar-OR-L 36.6 2.1 73.5 23.4
Compression
DISCUSSION
The beams prestressed with AFRP had lower energy dissipation ratios, ,,
than the ones prestressed with steel. Among the AFRP prestressed beams,
the beam with spirally confined concrete had a higher energy dissipation
ratio and a higher J-factor; it is also the one with the most explosive
behaviour. The energy dissipation ratio, therefore did not measure the
explosiveness of failure.
The over-reinforced beams all have roughly the same energy dissipation
ratio, however they have quite different J-factor values and hence
redistribution capacities (Figure 5). Energy dissipation therefore is not a

measure of the redistribution capacity.
2.6
2.4
]-
- " - ' -
2.2
JJLP
1.8
1.6
:
1.4
1.2
20
40
J - Factor
60
80
Figure 5 Energy dissipation ratio Vs. J-factor
From the results, the smaller beams have a higher redistribution

capacity than the larger ones. Among the over-reinforced beams, the AFRP
prestressed beams have higher redistribution capacity. The under-reinforced
AFRP beam and the beam with confined concrete both have a similar Jfactor to the large under-reinforced steel beam.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this study:
(a) Failure of under-reinforced AFRP prestressed beams is sudden but with
a large deflection capacity;
(b) The use of confinement in the compression zone of AFRP prestressed
beams enhances the ductility behaviour but final failure is explosive;
and
(c) Energy dissipation is a requirement for the structure only in seismic

regions. It says nothing about the redistribution capacity of the beam nor
the explosiveness of collapse.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The first author would like to thank the "Fundacao da Ciencia e Tecnologia"
for supporting his research.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Harada, T., Idemitsu, T., Watanabe,A., Khim, M. And Soeda, K.,

"New FRP tendon anchorage system using highly expansive
material for anchoring", Modern Prestressing Techniques and Their
Applications, Proceedings Volume II, FIP '93 Symposium, Japan
Prestressed Concrete Engineering Association, 1993, pp.711-718
Lees, J. M., Gruffydd-Jones, B. and Burgoyne, C. J., "Expansive
cement couplers - A means of pre-tensioning fibre-reinforced
plastic tendons", Construction and Building Materials V. 9, N6,
1995, pp. 413-423.
Lees, J. M., "Flexure of Concrete Beams Pre-Tensioned With
Aramid FRPs", PhD thesis, Department of Engineering, University
of Cambridge, UK, 1995, 279 pp.
Leung, H. Y., "Aramid Fibre Spirals to Confine Concrete in the
Compression Zone", PhD thesis, Department of Engineering,
University of Cambridge, UK, 2000, 200 pp.
Mufti, A. A., Newhook, J. P. and Tadros, G., "Deformability versus
ductility in concrete beams with FRP reinforcement", Advanced
Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures - 2nd International
Conference, The Canadian Society of Civil Engineering, 1996, pp.
189-199
Naaman, A. E. and Jeong, S. M., "Structural ductility of concrete
beams prestressed with FRP tendons", Non-Metallic (FRP)
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures - Proceedings of the Second
International RILEM Symposium (FRPRCS-2), Rilem Proceedings
29, E & FN Spon., 1995, pp. 379-386.

TIME-DEPENDENT FLEXURAL CRACK WD3TH

PREDICTION OF CONCRETE BEAMS PRESTRESSED WITH
CFRP TENDONS
P.X.W. ZOU ' AND S.T. SMITH 2
1
School of Built Environment, 2School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of New South Wales, UNSW, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
Fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) are non-corrosive, lighter and stronger
than their steel counterparts, however, they usually possess a lower
modulus of elasticity than steel. Substantial research has been conducted
on concrete beams prestressed with steel strands, but considerably less
research has been conducted on concrete beams prestressed with FRP
tendons. The limited research on concrete beams prestressed with FRP
tendons has mainly been confined to ultimate limit state behaviour with a
significant void therefore existing in their serviceability limit state
behaviour. This paper presents experimental and analytical results of the
time-dependent cracking behaviour of concrete beams prestressed with
carbon FRP (CFRP) tendons or steel strands, under sustained service loads.
Six full-scale beams were tested and the variables considered in the
experimental program were the level of prestress, level of sustained service
load, and concrete strength. The results of three existing models to predict
crack widths of concrete beams reinforced with steel bars, following a brief
review of each of the models, are compared with the measured
instantaneous and time-dependent crack widths. Shortcomings in these
existing crack width models are identified and important parameters to be
included in a new time-dependent crack width model are suggested.
INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, cold drawn steel wires and strands have been used to prestress
concrete beams but more recently FRP tendons have been investigated as a
possible material to replace steel wires and strands. Studies have been
conducted on concrete beams prestressed with aramid FRP (AFRP) (e.g.
Reference 1), and CFRP tendons (e.g. References 2-4) (glass FRP (GFRP) is
not commonly used as prestressing tendons due to its inferior strength
properties). All of these studies considered the ultimate limit state behaviour
although brief comments were made on the serviceability limit state
behaviour. Limited studies have been found in the literature that specifically
considers cracking in concrete beams prestressed with FRP tendons as well
as attempting to predict the crack width5'6. Currier et al.5 measured crack

widths in concrete beams prestressed with FRP tendons for up to one year
while Balazs and Borosnyoi6 considered short-term cracking behaviour.
In this paper a review of existing crack width models in ACI 4407, ACI
s
318 and EC29, is firstly given, followed by the experimental results, and
finally a comparison between the experimental crack widths and theoretical
predictions. The test parameters include the level of prestress, level of
sustained load and concrete strength. Shortcomings of crack width models
are finally identified and the basis of a new model described. It should be
pointed out that the term prestressed will be used throughout this paper
although it is important to note that the CFRP tendons or steel strands are
tensioned prior to the pouring of the concrete (pre-tensioned beams), and the
beams were cracked under the service load resulting in a partially
prestressed effect.
REVIEW OF EXISTING CRACK WIDTH MODELS
Several crack width models have been developed to date for concrete beams
reinforced with steel bars and the models considered in this paper are those
recommended by the American8, and European9 codes of practice for the
design and construction of concrete structures and ACI Committee 440 for
concrete beams reinforced with FRP bars7. It should be noted that only the
European code9 specifically states that its crack width model can be used for
both reinforced and prestressed concrete structural elements although in this
study we will use all three models to predict crack widths in prestressed
beams. Each of the three crack width models is summarised in the following
sections. Note that all models presented here use consistent notation to
facilitate direct comparison, and each notation is defined only where it first
appears. In some cases the notation used here is different from that used in
the original source. All models are based on SI units.
ACI 318s
Crack widths, w (mm), can be calculated from the following expression
w = 0.0Ufs\[a\A D-x xl(T3
(1)
dwhere/; (MPa) is the stress in the reinforcing bar based on a cracked section
analysis, dc (mm) is the distance from extreme tensile face of the beam to
the centroid of the tension reinforcement, D (mm) is the depth of the beam,
d (mm) is the distance from the beam compression face to the tension
reinforcement, x (mm) is the distance from the compression face to the
Time-Dependent Flexural Crack Width Prediction 1025
neutral axis of the cross-section based on a cracked sectional analysis, and A

(mm) is the effective area of concrete in the tension zone that is associated
with each reinforcing bar. The effective area has the same centroid as all the
reinforcing bars and is bounded by the surfaces of the cross-section and a
straight line parallel to the neutral axis.
ACI4407
The crack width model given in ACI 3188 has been modified for use in FRP
reinforced concrete members. The modifications take into account
differences in the properties between steel and FRP bars, such as lower
stiffness, and the effect of surface deformations on the bars on bond strength.
The crack width can be calculated from
D-x
2.2
(2)
w=kbJfrP igj
{d-x)
Ef'p
where Efrp (MPa) is the modulus of elasticity of the FRP reinforcing bar, and
ffrp (MPa) is the stress in the FRP bar based on a cracked section analysis.
The degree of bond between the FRP and surrounding concrete is
represented by kb. If the value of kb is not known then a value of 1.2 is
suggested for deformed FRP bars.
EC29
Determination of crack widths according to EC29 can be calculated from
^ = j3srmesm
(3)
where /? is a coefficient that is related to the cause of the cracking and equals
1.7 for load induced cracking (as opposed to 1.3 for support induced
cracking), and srm is the average final crack spacing. The strain in the
reinforcement, ssm, allows for tension stiffening, and shrinkage etc and can
be calculated as follows
._
1-flfl f.
(4)
where Es (MPa) is the modulus of elasticity of the tension reinforcement, fsr

(MPa) is the stress in the tension reinforcement based on a cracked section
under the load to cause first cracking, P, is a coefficient which takes into
account the bond properties of the bars and is 1.0 for high bond bars and 0.5
for plain bars, and fi2 is a coefficient which takes into account the duration
of the load and equals 1.0 for a single short term loading and 0.5 for
sustained load.
The average final crack spacing can be calculated as follows:

srm=50 + 0.25k1k2^/pr
(5)
where k, is a constant that takes into account the bond properties of the bar
(k, = 0.8 and 1.6 for high bond and plain bond bars respectively, and 2.0 for
prestressing strands. In this paper kt equal to 2.0 will be used for the steel
strands and 0.8 for the CFRP tendons), k2 is a coefficient that considers the
strain distribution (k2 = 0.5 for bending), ^ (mm) is the diameter of the
tension reinforcement bar, and p, is the effective reinforcement ratio, AJAceg.
The area of tension reinforcement is represented by As and the depth of the
effective tension area of concrete is equal to 2.5 times the distance from the
centroid of the tension reinforcement to the base of the beam, but not greater
than one third of (D-x).
Six full-scale beams, 300 mm deep, 150 mm wide and 6400 mm long, were
cast and tested in a simply supported manner, under four point bending with
a span of 6000 mm (Figure 1). No stirrups or additional longitudinal
reinforcement were used in any of the beams. Five of the beams were
prestressed with 8 mm CFRP tendons, while the remaining one was
prestressed with 9.3 mm 7-wire steel strands. All CFRP tendons and steel
strands were stressed in the range of 40% to 60% of the manufacturers
guaranteed tensile strength to achieve a total jacking force in the range of 80
to 120 kN with the eccentricity of the tendons being a constant 85 mm. Load
cells were used to monitor the prestress in the tendon from the time of
prestressing until the transfer of prestress. Two different nominal concrete
strengths were used, namely 40 MPa and 80 MPa. Table 1 gives the beam
identification, whether CFRP tendons or steel strands were used, target
concrete strength and prestressing force, and the tested concrete strength and
its modulus of elasticity at application of load. Also contained in Table 1 is
the actual level of prestress achieved in the CFRP tendons or steel strands as
well as the ratio of this total prestressing force to the manufactures
guaranteed tensile strength.
The manufacturers guaranteed and the experimentally determined
properties of both the CFRP tendons and steel strands, which consist of
tensile strength, tensile elastic modulus, and tensile rupture strain are given
in Table 2. It can be seen that for CFRP the test results of both tensile
strength and elastic modulus are higher than the manufacturer guaranteed
values, while the tensile strain at rupture is slightly less. For steel strands,
the test results are similar to the manufacturer's specifications. A complete
description of the method of testing the CFRP tendons and steel strands,

which includes a unique method of gripping by embedding the ends of the
tendons or strands in steel tubes that have been filled with an expansive
cementacious material, is fully described by Smith and Zou10. Also included
in this reference is a description of the procedures used to obtain the
concrete properties.
(a)
3000-0.5L.
3000-OJSU
LT
6000
200
200
(b)
2 x <(>8 mm CFRP tendons or

2 x <j>9.3 mm steel strands
300
150
Figure 1. Beam details: (a) elevation, (b) cross-section
Table 1. Concrete properties and prestressing force prior to transfer
Beam
Bl
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
Tendon
Type
CFRP
Steel
CFRP
CFRP
CFRP
CFRP
Jtarget
(MPa)
40
40
80
40
40
80
target
(kN)
120
120
80
80
120
120
fc
(MPa)
52.5
52.5
77.8
37.5
37.5
73.6
Ec
(GPa)
37.9
37.9
48.7
27.3
27.3
40.5
Pj
(kN)
123.1
124.5
74.9
79.3
121.9
122.3
PIF
j ' 1 nip
(%)
59
61
36
38
58
58
fiargei- nominal design concrete cylinder compressive strength, Piarge,: nominal design
pre-tensioning force, f'c: average 56 day concrete cylinder compressive strength, Ec:
average modulus of elasticity of concrete at 56 days, Pf prestressing force in tendon
before transfer, Fmp: manufacturers guaranteed tensile strength.
Zou11 experimentally measured the creep and relaxation losses of CFRP
tendons that were loaded at a sustained stress levels of up to 60% of the
manufacturer guaranteed tensile strength. It was found that both creep and

relaxation losses were practically zero. Low relaxation steel strand was used
that had a specified relaxation of 3%.
Table 2. Manufacturers guaranteed and tested tensile strength, tensile elastic
modulus, and tensile strain at rupture for both the CFRP tendon and steel strand
Material
CFRP
Tendon
Steel
Strand
Tensile Strength
(MPa)
Manufacturer Tested
2250
2945
1860
1820
Tensile Elastic
Modulus (GPa)
Manufacturer Tested
147
172
195
200
Tensile Strain
(%)
Manufacturer Tested
1.7
1.6
>4
>4
When the concrete was nine days of age the prestressing force was
transferred to the concrete by cutting the CFRP tendons or steel strands
using a circular saw. The beams were then lifted out of the prestressing bed,
placed in their simply supported position, and subjected only to self weight
loading for the next 47 days. When the beams were 56 days old (except for
Beam B3 which was loaded at 100 days) they were loaded with two
concentrated loads symmetrically positioned about the centre of the beam
(Figures 1 and 2). The bending moment at midspan induced by the beam's
self weight, Msw, was 4.86 kNm (based on a density of concrete of 24 kN/m3
and span of 6000 mm) and the applied concentrated service loads ranged
from 84% to 146% of the theoretical cracking moment, Mcr. This sustained
service load was maintained for at least 250 days. It should be noted that
Beams Bl and B2 were subjected to two stages of loading where (1) the first
applications of concentrated loads, which was maintained for a period of
259 days, left the beams in an uncracked state, (2) an additional load was
added that caused the beams to crack and this total load was maintained for
a period of approximately 260 days (Figure 2). It should also be pointed out
that Beam B4 was quite heavily loaded (1.46 times the cracking moment)
for experimental purposes, and this level of loading may not be appropriate
in real structural applications at service load level. A summary of all applied
loads, cracking moments, and distances between the applied loads is given
in Table 3.
Crack patterns were recorded at regular time intervals as well as crack
widths at the base of the beams which were measured using a microscope
with a magnification factor of 40. In this paper the crack width and crack
pattern results will only be given but a more complete summary of beam
deflections and strains is given in Smith and Zou10. Note that the crack
widths at the base of Beam B3 were not directly measured, but were
Indirectly determined from the measured crack widths at the tendon level
and the height of each crack.
Figure 2. Loading arrangement for Beams Bl and B2

Table 3. Cracking moment and history of sustained load
Beam
Bl
B2
B3
B4
B5
B6
Mcr
(kNm)
26.4
26.6
22.0
19.0
24.7
28.1
La
(m)
1
1
1
1
1
2
First Application of Load

Mj
MmldJ
Mmjdjl
(kNm)
18.5
18.5
23.8
22.9
24.1
18.8
(kNm)
23.4
23.4
28.7
27.8
29.0
23.7
Mcr
0.89
0.88
1.30
1.46
1.17
0.84
Second Application of
Load
M2
Mmid>2
KudJ
(kNm) (kNm)
Mcr
1.17
7.5
30.9
7.5
30.9
1.16
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Mcy: flexural cracking bending moment based on the 56 day concrete strength, La:
distance between applied concentrated loads that are symmetrically positioned
about the centre of the beam (refer Figure 1),M/: midspan bending moment induced
by addition of load at 56 days of age (100 days of age for Beam B3)5 Mmldj:
addition of Mj and Msm M2: midspan bending moment induced by addition of load
at 259 days of age5 Mmi:dJ: addition of Mh M2 and Msw.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The overall cracking behaviour of the tested beams is shown in Figures 3
and 4 (note that Figure 3 is the stabilised crack patterns/spacings after at
least 250 days of application of final load). In all tests, flexural cracking first
appeared in the maximum constant moment region after the external load
was applied to the beams and cracking did not extend too far into the shear
span region. The number of cracks and the crack height magnitude increased
with time as well as the crack width in most cases. This is due to the timedependent loss of prestress in the tendons. For example, the crack width of
Beam Bl increased from 0.5 mm to 0.65 mm and for Beam B2 the increase
was from 0.38 mm 0.5 mm. These increases were as much as 25% and 33%
respectively over the 260 days. For Beam B5, the crack width was 0.63 mm
immediately after the application of external load and it increased to more
than 1.25 mm at 238 days, which is a two-fold increase. Since the applied
load was much greater than the cracking load for Beam B4, the number of
cracks and the size of the crack width as well as the crack height was much
greater than other beams and exceeded the serviceability range limit. A
similar situation existed for Beam B3. It should be pointed out that the load
applied to Beam B6 was less than the theoretical cracking moment but three
minor cracks appeared three weeks after the loading and another two
appeared five weeks after loading and the crack width was as small as 0.13
mm but still visible.
Beams with CFRP Tendons versus Beams with Steel Strands
Both Beams Bl (prestressed with CFRP) and B2 (prestressed with steel),
having the same concrete strengths, did not crack after the first load was
applied, because the ratios of the total applied moment to the theoretical
cracking moment were only 0.89 and 0.88. When these ratios increased to
1.17 and 1.16 respectively, after the second application of load at age 259
days, the beams did experience cracking. As shown in Figures 3a (Beam Bl)
and 3b (Beam B2), there appears to be no noticeable difference in the crack
patterns of these two beams, in that both beams had 7 cracks with a similar
height of approximately 200 mm. However, the maximum crack widths of
the beam prestressed with CFRP tendons (0.5 mm) (Figure 4a) are slightly
greater than the beam prestressed with steel strands (0.35 mm) (Figure 4b),
due to the lower elastic modulus of the CFRP tendon. The loading of both
beams ensured that they were still within the serviceability range.
Effect of Level ofPrestress
Beams B4 and B5, prestressed with CFRP tendons, had the same concrete
strength and loading arrangement, but the levels of prestress were different.
The different prestress therefore leads to a different theoretical bending
moment to cause first cracking. The ratio of the maximum bending moment
induced from the applied load to the theoretical cracking bending moment
for Beams B4 and B5 are 1.46 and 1.17 respectively. It can be seen that with
a 50% increase of prestress, the crack widths reduced from 1.75 mm to 0.6
mm, and the total number of cracks also reduced from ten to six. As
expected, cracking in a beam with less prestress is much more severe.
Effect of Concrete Strength

The comparison of the test results of Beams B3 and B4 show that the effect
of concrete strength on the long-term behaviour of the prestressed concrete
beams is significant. With an increase of nominal concrete strength from 40
MPa to 80 MPa the cracking moment of the beam increased from 19.0 kNm
to 22.0 kNm, and the number of cracks decreased from 10 to 7. The crack
widths also decreased from 1.75 mm to 1.3 mm. This is because with an
increase of concrete strength, the cracking moment increases and at the
same time the long-term creep strain of concrete reduces.
i
x r,.
a) B l
+
\ I / \ \)
* = crack of maximum width
1 \ if \ \ \
b)B2
_*
iITT / I T
c)B3
JX
d)B4
.A.
i i ( f Y ~TX^T
T ^
*
i
i
1 YV V Y \
e)B5
i
i
TV
f) B6
i
/
Figure 3.
/
i
* crack patterns
Stabilised
TEST RESULTS VERSUS THEORECTICAL PREDICTIONS

The following theoretical predictions are compared with the maximum
measured soffit face crack width for each of the beams. The crack producing
the largest opening in each beam is shown in Figure 3.
The measured crack widths generally increase with time as can be seen
in Figures 4a to 4e. Creep and shrinkage of the concrete causes a loss of
prestress in the CFRP tendons and steel strands and this can enlarge crack
widths over time. Relaxation in the steel strand will also lead to larger crack
widths with time. In Beams B3 and B4 (Figures 4c and 4d) the crack widths
even reduce slightly after a long period of time. Such a decrease, which goes
against expectations, is attributed to changes in environmental conditions
(i.e. change in temperature and humidity).
259
279
307
417
Age of concrete (days)
259
519
279
307
417
519
b) Beam B2
a) Beam B1
2.5
2
1.5
D test result 13 ACI 440

BACI318
BEC2
1
0.5 -
100
125
193
220
57
368
73
103
167
238
d) Beam B4
c) Beam B3
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
D test result
B ACI 318
0.6,
B ACI 440
EC 2
0.4
0.2
0
57
73
103
167
238
e) Beam B5
Figure 4. Comparison of theoretical and experimental maximum soffit crack widths
The predicted crack widths compare reasonably well for Beam Bl
(Figure 4a) while the correlation is not as good for Beam B2 (Figure 4b)
over time but it is still acceptable. The correlation between predicted and
actual crack widths for Beams B1 and B2 can be considered to lie within the
general range of scatter for which these models were intended for. The
measured crack widths for Beams B3 to B5 (Figures 4c to 4e) are grossly

underestimated by the models and this gives cause for alarm. Such a large
discrepancy may be due to the applied loads lying above the serviceability
load limit (especially for Beams B3 and B4). Cracking should theoretically
not have occurred in Beam B6 as the applied moment was less than the
theoretical cracking moment. Cracking did in fact occur due to concrete
creep and shrinkage, albeit very fine cracking, with a maximum width of
0.13 mm. Again the models have failed to adequately capture the behaviour
of the concrete. ACI 4407 appears to give the closest prediction to the actual
results, particularly for Beam Bl although it is too unconservative for
Beams B3 to B5.
Both ACI7'8 procedures are time-independent, while for EC29 a time
effect is taken into account via a sustained load factor, J32 (i.e. p2 = 0.5).
These three models, however, predict a constant crack width over time and
fail to capture time-dependent changes. A logical starting place in
developing a time-dependent crack width model is one that considers the
time-dependent loss of prestress due to creep and shrinkage of the concrete
as well as tendon relaxation. Complete details of a new time-dependent
crack width model are in Smith and Zou10.
CONCLUSIONS
The time-dependent crack widths of five concrete beams prestressed with
CFRP tendons and one concrete beam prestressed with steel strands,
subjected to sustained service loads, was reported in this study. The level of
prestress, level of sustained service load, and concrete strength were varied
and their effect on the distribution of cracks and the magnitude of crack
widths was discussed. Three models were used to predict the maximum
crack widths and these predictions were compared with experimental results.
Such models were generally found to be too unconservative and important
factors in the development of a new crack width model were finally
identified.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, at The University of New South Wales in
Australia for providing the facilities to carry out the experiments.
REFERENCES
1. Toutanji, H. and Saafi, M., "Performance of concrete beams prestressed
with aramid fiber-reinforced polymer tendons", Composite Structures,
44, 1999, pp. 63-70.
2. Abdelrahman, A.A. and Rizkalla, S.H., "Serviceability of concrete
beams prestressed by carbon fibre plastic rods", Proceedings of the
Second International RILEM Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP)
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, FRPRCS-2, Ghent, Belgium,
edited by L. Taerwe, 1995 pp. 403-412.
3. Stoll, F., Saliba, J.E. and Casper, L.E., "Experimental study of CFRPprestressed high-strength concrete bridge beams", Composite Structures,
49, 2000, pp. 191-200.
4. Dolan, C.W. and Swanson, D., "Development of flexural capacity of a
FRP prestressed beam with vertically distributed tendons", Composites:
Part B, 36, 2002, pp. 1-6.
5. Currier, J., Dolan, C. and O'Neil, E., "Deflection control of fiber
reinforced plastic pretensioned concrete beams", Proceedings of the
Second International RILEM Symposium on Non-Metallic (FRP)
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, FRPRCS-2, Ghent, Belgium,
edited by L. Taerwe, 1995, pp. 413-420.
6. Balazs, G. and Borosnyoi, A., "Cracking in CFRP prestressed members",
Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Fibre-Reinforced
Plastics for Reinforced Concrete Structures, FRPRCS-5, Cambridge,
UK, edited by C.J. Burgoyne, 2001, pp. 609-618.
7. ACI 440.1R-01, Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete
Reinforced with FRP Bars, American Concrete Institute (ACI),
Committee 440, Michigan, USA, 2001, 41 pp.
8. ACI 318-95, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (31895) and Commentary (318R-95), American Concrete Institute (ACI),
Fifth Printing, Michigan, USA, 1999.
9. ENV 1992-1-1, Eurocode 2: Design of Concrete Structures - Part 1:
General Rules and Rules for Buildings, European Committee for
Standardisation (CEN), Brussels, Belgium, 1991.
10. Smith, S.T. and Zou, P.X.W., "Time-dependent flexural cracking
behaviour of concrete beams prestressed with CFRP tendons", to be
published.
11. Zou, P.X.W., "Long-term properties and transfer length of fibre
reinforced polymers", Journal of Composites for Construction, ASCE,
7(1), 2003, pp. 10-19.
Structural Strengthening

MULTISCALE REINFORCEMENT CONCEPT FOR

EMPLOYMENT OF CARBON FIBER WOVEN MESH
K. YAMADA AND S. ISHIYAMA
Department ofArchitecture and Environmental Engrg, Akita Prefecture University
84-4 Ebinokuchi, Tsuchiya, Honjo, 015-0055, Japan
H. MIHASHI AND K. KIRIKOSHI
Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Japan
06 Aza-Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
The concept of multiscale reinforcement was proposed for employing twodimensional carbon fiber woven mesh. The mortar specimens reinforced
by mesh with an addition of chopped carbon fiber as micro fiber and
stainless steel fiber as meso fiber were examined. Assuming the mesh as
macro fiber, the concept may be named "a three-phase reinforcing
scheme". The experimental results showed that the three phase reinforcing
scheme was useful for enhancement of both flexural strength and work of
fracture of the specimens.
INTRODUCTION
Advantages of Woven Mesh

Woven mesh is one of the most fruitful ways of utilizing carbon fiber to
overcome its disadvantages of poor bond strength with cementitious matrix
because of the anchor effect of the knots of mesh. It also has the advantages
of two-directional reinforcement at a layer and the pre-fabricated
reinforcement for cementitious materials. For high-quality, thin reinforcing
materials, woven mesh impregnated with resin has a great potential.
Some Developments in Mesh
Because the woven mesh is ordinarily stretched only in the direction of
warp, warp strands becomes straight while weft strands tend to be distorted
by the pinching effect of warp strands, which induces a non-linearity of the
tensile behavior. Such non-linearity causes weaker tensile strength than the
ideal fiber strength.
There are two types of newly developed meshes which avoid such nonlinearity and weakness. One type is an unevenly twined mesh1 and the other
1038 FRPRCS-6: Structural Strengthening

is a mechanically laid-up mesh2. The mechanical properties of these meshes
are enhanced due to the improved linearity of their strands3. However, twodirectional reinforcement has an intrinsic problem of developing splitting
force in the matrix, which would spall the cover layer of the mesh.
The greatest contribution to avoiding such spalling is the development
of three-dimensional mesh4, which was successfully applied to curtain walls
in some buildings. Due to its nature, however, the three-dimensional
product, is manufactured on an order-made basis, which leads to high cost.
To stick to two-dimensional meshes, it is more important to enhance the
matrix properties than to improve the mesh itself to avoid spalling.
MULTISCALE REINFORCEMENT
The Concept
It has become clear that two types of fibers are necessary for the improvement
of the total performance of the cementitious composites5. One is the short
fiber to bridge enormous numbers of microcracks that randomly occurs, at the
early stage of loading. The other is the long fiber that stitches macrocrack that
propagates in perpendicular to the principal tensile stress near the maximum
load. The former stage delays the onset of localization of the crack that leads
to high strength and ductility at the material level, and the latter stage
provides high strength and ductility for the structure5.
Three-Phase Reinforcement Scheme
The concept of multiscale reinforcement employing two-dimensional mesh
is described in Table 1. The idea is termed "a three-phase reinforcement is
employing two-dimensional mesh scheme" that consists of micro, meso and
macro stages. High strength and high ductility would be achieved by
distributing cracks at all three stages. Because the expected performance of
fiber at every stage is different, the cement composites should be reinforced
by different kinds of short fibers and continuous fiber, which inevitably
leads to the hybrid use of fibers.
Stages Fracture procedure

Reinforcement
Micro Generation of microcracks
Short and thin fiber
Meso Accumulation of microcracks Lons and thick fiber
Macro Proeress of macrocracks
Continuous fiber
Table 1 Three-phase reinforcement scheme
Multiscale Reinforcement for Fiber Woven Mesh 1039

Development and Propagation of Crack
The propagation of cracks in a beam is illustrated in Figure 1; Phase A
shows the first initiation of microcracks before primary crack and there is a
linear relation in the load-deflection response, Phase B shows the situation
where microcracks join to form macrocracks after primary crack have
occurred. Phase C shows the situation where the macrocracks continue to
propagate and the bending modulus becomes smaller and smaller, and
finally the spalling of the cover mortar occurs, causing a sudden decrease of
load.
Usually the spalling will limit the maximum load by invalidating the
effect of mesh due to loss of bond with matrix. Hence, the crack along the
layer of mesh should be mainly targeted in enhancing strength and ductility.
The matrix near the layer of mesh should deter the propagation of crack or
disperse the active crack into small ones during Phase B and Phase C.
Matrix
f^-t
A: Initiation of micro cracks
Mesh
Matrix
B: Joining of micro cracks
1 2
Deflection (mm)
3
C: Propagation of macro cracks
D: Spalling
(a) Load-deflection diagram
(b) Corresponding situations
Figure 1. Load-deflection diagram and crack propagation in material

Application of Three Phase Reinforcement
The micro level reinforcement scheme consists of short fibers to disperse
microcracks upon initiation. The long and thick fibers mainly scattered
perpendicular to the mesh, constitute the meso level reinforcement. These
fibers also act like a dowel that transmits shear stress between mesh and
surrounding matrix. The remaining reinforcement is a mesh that would
forms the macro level reinforcement. (See Figure 2.)
EXPERIMENT
Reinforcing Materials for Specimen
As the micro-fiber, PAN based chopped carbon fiber (CF) was used. It
length is 6mm and the diameter is about 0.007mm. Tensile strength and
modulus are 4.3GPa and 240GPa, respectively.
As the meso-fiber, stainless steel (SUS) fiber, cut from thin round bars
that were processed by a drawing procedure, was used. The diameter is
0.25mm and the length is 15mm, which is almost the same as the thickness
of specimens. Tensile strength and modulus are 0.21GPa and 204GPa,
respectively. The material is ferrite type stainless steel and the grade follows
SUS430.
As macro fiber, carbon fiber woven mesh1 impregnated with resin
afterwards, was employed. The spacing between strands was 7.5mm in two
directions and each strand is about 2mm in width and 0.5mm in thickness.
The tensile strength is 1,030N for each warp strand and 795N for each weft
strand. Each strand consists of 12,000 pieces of carbon fiber and the tensile
modulus of original fiber is 240GPa. The structure of mesh is depicted in
Figure 3.
7.5
Mesh (Macro level
reinforcement)
Meso level
reinforcement
Micro level
reinforcement
Figure 2 Three-phase reinforcement
7.5
Carbon
fiber
Aramid
fiber
Figure 3 Structure of mesh (unit: mm)

Mix Proportion of Mortar
The mix proportion is listed in Table 2, width, 30% of cement replaced by
silica fume by weight. Early setting type cement was used. As fine
aggregate, dried silica sand, with cumulative residual ratio at the sieve size
of 0.053mm of over 80%, was used. An admixture was used to make the
mixture more flowable. Total surface area of silica fume was about 20m2/g.
Fabrication of Specimens
After the mortar was mixed with chopped carbon fiber as microfibe, it was
poured into the steel mold to form a thin layer of cover mortar before a layer
of mesh was placed. Repeating the same procedure, three layers of mesh
were placed and surrounded by thin layers of mortar.
After all layers of mortar and mesh were placed, they were vibrated for
30seconds by a bar-type vibrator and compressed by a test machine at
lOMPa. Because the mold has small holes at the bottom plate at grids of
10mm and a layer of cotton sheet was placed at the very bottom, excessive
water was pressed out of the cast mortar.
Finally, the designed numbers of stainless fibers were stabbed into the
mold between the strands of mesh. After 24hours of curing in wet
atmosphere, the formed mortar was cured in water at 20C for 2 weeks. The
final dimension of the specimen is 15mm (thickness) x 50mm (width) x
200mm (length). The cross section of the specimen is depicted in Figure 4.
All plate specimens were listed in Table 3.
At the same time, the rectangular specimens for standard test to measure
bending strength and compressive strength of plain mortar with dimensions
of 40mm x 40mm x 160mm were manufactured.
Table 2 Mix Proportion of Mortar
S/C
Fiber
Fluidizer
W/C
Weight %
Volume %
Weight %
Weisht %
50
30
Mesh (3 layers)
N
\ ^Carbon
fiber
Stainless fiber
Figure 4. Cross section of plate type specimen

Table 3 Plate type specimens for bending test
Name
Micro fiber
of
CF Length
specime n " %
mm
COOO 1 0
2
3
C100 1 3
3
2
3
6
C300 1 3
2
3
C003 1 0
2
3
6
C303 1 3
2
3
6
C333 1 3
2
3
6
C353 1 3
2
3
6
C383 1 3
2
3
Reinforcement
Meso fiber
SUS fiber
%
Dimensions
Macro
fiber
CFMesh
Layers
0
0.262
0.436
0.785
Width Depth
mm
53.2
52.8
53.5
51.3
53.5
52.8
52.7
53.0
51.3
52.8
52.5
52.3
53.2
52.9
50.7
54.5
54.0
53.9
53.6
52.5
51.5
51.0
52.8
52.0
mm
14.2
14.6
14.9
13.6
14.0
14.1
13.4
13.8
13.4
15.9
16.3
15.0
15.9
15.5
15.1
16.2
16.2
16.3
16.2
16.6
16.9
13.9
17.6
16.1
Bending and Compression Test

After curing, the plate specimens were loaded at the center over a span of
150mm. Measured load-deflection response are depicted in Figure 5. Using
half of the rectangular specimen, compression test was conducted by
applying load at the center of the specimen. The bending test results and
compression test results are listed in Table 4.
In the case of C003, all specimens split at the boundary layer of the
mesh and mortar, and their layer of mortar spalled gradually with increasing
deflection. (See Figure 6 for the split.) In the case of C303, a similar
fracture was observed but the fracture progressed more slowly and steadily.
In the cases of C003 and C303, the mesh did not fracture.

6000
CO 13
4000
55
2000
1k
hY
*-
2 4 6
8
Deflection (mm)
6000
10
12
6UUU
C3<)3
4000
4000
55
5.
.3 2000
->
2 4
6
8
Deflection (mm)
10
12
6000
6UUU
4000
4000
/
.3 2000
2 4
6
8
Deflection (mm)
10
12
12
C3! 3
5?
*-;
2 4 6
8 10
Deflection (mm)
?t
C3 53
>3 2000
1\
1
11
f
/
2000
o 1 -^
0
C3 13
o 1 -^
0
1
=K
2 4 6 8
Deflection (mm)
Figurer 5 Load deflection diagram of plate type specimens
10
12
COOO 1
2
3
CI 00 1
2
3
C300 1
2
3
C003 1
2
3
C303 1
2
3
C333 1
2
3
C353 1
2
3
C383 1
2
3
Table 4 Experimental results

Flexural test result
Compressive
Max.
Flexural strength
Strength
load
Each Average Average
N
MPa
MPa
MPa
488 7
10.25 10.65
77.08
11.83
591 8
9.87
521 0
12.97 12.79
83.07
547 0
12.07
562 5
13.33
621 8
13.99 14.09
90.21
588 5
14.69
659 3
13.57
555 7
47.81 44.49
- ~
2836 6
43.09
2671 1
42.56
2225 9
52.76 52.56
3153 6
54.21
3061 8
50.71
2605 3
76.18 75.60
4843 0
76.90
4843 3
73.72
4691 9
69.18 74.89
4325 0
78.53
5049 3
76.96
5030 8
90.50 90.32
3963 2
82.82
6020 2
97.64
5849 2
Figure 6 Delamination between mesh and

mortar (C003-1 specimen)
Work of Fracture
Until 7.5mm
Each
Average
N/mm
N/mm
0.036
0.040
0.049
0.034
0.058
0.057
0.051
0.062
0.068
0.069
0.075
0.064
13.579
14 453
14 431
11 852
18.727
21 855
20 217
14 108
23.307
27 099
21 246
21 577
23.403
22 594
23 825
23 790
21.661
21 277
21 208
22 498
Figure 7 Fracture of mesh without

delamination (C383-1 specimen)

On the contrary, in the cases of C333, C353 and C383, the mesh fractured.
But some slight spalling of cover mortar preceded in the cases of C333 and
C353. (See Figure 7 for the case of fracture of the mesh in specimen without
spalling.)
From the measured load-deflection curve, the work of fracture was
calculated by integrating the enclosed area of the curve until the deflection
reaches 7.5mm (5% of the span). Also, the flexural strength was calculated.
The tendency of the flexural strength and the work of fracture was plotted
against volume content of micro and meso fibers in Figure 8.
DISCUSSION
Role of Micro and Meso Fiber
From Figure 8(a), it can be noted that the flexural strength becomes higher
with to the addition of micro (CF) or meso (SUS) fiber, and is proportional
to the volume fraction of the meso fiber content. The effect of smaller
amount of meso fiber is greater than the effect of larger amount of micro
fiber, because the SUS fiber has contributes to dowel effect as well as the
better ductility and the higher bond strength than CF.
In Figure 8(b), there is a different effect of meso fiber shown. Work of
fracture saturated with the minimum addition of meso fiber, and on the
contrary a larger amount of meso fiber led to decrease in the work of
fracture. This derives from the brittle fracture caused by the break of the
100
<ti
30
[I
i i
i3
W
M
fci: S3
c
i
C33
6Q
1
.
g.
PL,
cm
C3: 3
I..C3J )3
, c:103
ID
o
C003
coc 3
M 20
&2Q
<yy
!i
Average
Average
Data
1 .
(a) Flexural Strength
Q Data
.
(b) Work of Fracture
Figure 8. Effect of Micro Fiber and Meso Fiber Reinforcement
mesh in the reinforced cases by meso fiber. In the cases of C333 and C353,
some effect of spalling in the small region of cover layer was slightly
beneficial in increasing the work of fracture. The addition of 3% of micro
fiber was as beneficial as the further addition of 0.262% of meso fiber for
the enhancement of work of fracture.
CONCLUSIONS
The concept of multiscale reinforcement was proposed for employing twodimensional carbon fiber woven mesh. The specimens reinforced by mesh
with chopped carbon fiber as micro fiber and stainless steel fiber as meso
fiber were examined. The experimental result showed:
(a) The addition of micro fiber increased both flexural strength and work of
fracture by ameliorating the spalling of cover layer of the mesh.
(b) The further addition of small amount of meso fiber could also increase
both flexural strength and work of fracture by avoiding the spalling of
cover layer of the mesh.
(c) Flexural strength increase became high until the meso fiber content
reached 0.785% with a coexistence of 3% of micro fiber. But work of
fracture saturated when the meso fiber content was 0.262% and slightly
decreased when the meso fiber content was 0.785%.
REFERENCES
1. Hayashi, R, Yamada, K., Kimura, H, and Inaba, S, "Tensile strength of
mortar reinforced with several types of woven carbon fiber meshes",
Proceedings of the JCI, Vol.12-1, 1990, pp.1043-1048.
2. Machida, A. ed., "Guideline for design and construction of concrete
structure employing continuous fiber reinforcement materials", JSCE,
Sept. 1996, 361 pages.
3. Hayashi, R, Yamada, K., Kimura, H, and Inaba, S, "Flexural strength of
mortar reinforced with several types of woven carbon fiber meshes",
Proceedings of the JCI, Vol. 13-1, 1991, pp.785-788.
4. Nakagawa, H., Kobayashi, M., Suenaga, T., Ouchi, T., Watanabe, S.,
Satoyama, K., "Application of three-dimensional fabric reinforced
concrete to building panels", SP 138-14, ACI, 1993, pp.211-232 ,
5. Rossi, P., "Ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concretes",
Concrete international, Dec. 2001, pp.46-52
6. JIS R5201-1997, "Physical testing methods for cement".

WOVEN COMPOSITE FABRIC TO STRENGTHEN

STRUCTURALLY DEFICIENT RC BEAMS
H. Y. LEUNG, R. V. BALENDRAN AND T. MAQSOOD
Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong
Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China
Use of solid FRP and steel plates to strengthen old and damaged structural
members has been widely adopted all over the world. It is generally
accepted that the high rigidity of soffit plate, in particular a thick one,
initiates peeling force and thus cracking to the concrete flexural members.
The present research uses flexible woven composite fabric, in lieu of solid
plate, as the external strengthening material. It is believed that this fabric is
more conformable to the irregularities of concrete surface, especially the
curved cross section. Some structurally deficient RC beams, in terms of the
flexural and shear capacity, were designed and cast, and subsequently
strengthened with woven composite fabric. Four-point bending tests were
conducted. According to the experimental results, effects of flexural
strengthening and shear strengthening were prominent and beneficial.
However, simultaneous shear and flexural strengthening did not show any
further enhancement.
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion of steel reinforcement in conventional reinforced concrete (RC)
structures has long been a major issue to building engineers. It may cause a
lot of problems ranging from minor unsightly cracks to major structural
collapse. In addition to corrosion, various extent of structural deficiency
may be the result of bad workmanship, material ageing and deterioration,
environmental attack, change of usage of building, and overloading of
structures. Also, old structural design accepted in the past may not comply
with current design practices, building codes and safety guidelines. All
these factors contribute to an urgent need for an easy-to-apply, non-metallic,
high strength and durable material. Recently, fibre reinforced polymer
(FRP) which consists of fibres embedded in a polymeric matrix has been
found to be of low density, non-corrosive and to possess a high strength-toweight ratio, and thus it has been widely suggested to be used in RC design
by many researchers and engineers1. In practice, FRP can be incorporated

into concrete structures in different forms, like embedded bars, meshes,
gratings and external plates2. Among them, external use of FRP sheet or
plate appears to be the most convenient, fast, effective and promising way
of rehabilitation and strengthening.
Strengthening of old and damaged RC beams is normally much more
economical than demolition or reconstruction. This is particularly true to
historical buildings because the change in size and shape of structural
member can be kept to a minimum. With regard to the previously
mentioned reasons, defective RC beams are largely considered to be
deficient in both flexural and shear. The present investigation deals with
these deficiencies and investigates the behaviour of flexural and shear
deficient beams strengthened with externally bonded FRP plates.
EXPERIMENT DETAILS
Beam Design
For the flexural design of RC beams, two possible failure modes of flexural
member are considered: (1) yielding of steel reinforcement, together with
extensive cracking, before concrete crushing; and (2) concrete crushing
before yielding of steel reinforcement. It is clear that Case (1) occurs for
under-reinforced RC beams and Case (2) is for over-reinforced sections.
These two cases were considered in design of current flexural members.
Besides, the shear capacity of the RC beams is designed to be in excess of
the flexural capacity. By using less number of steel stirrups (deficient in
shear), occurrence of shear failure can be accurately predicted.
In the current study, the structurally deficient RC members in terms of
flexure and shear are strengthened by plating woven composite fabric.
When the RC beam is designed to be flexurally deficient, woven composite
fabric is applied to the beam's soffit. When it is shear deficient, side plates
are added. However, when the RC member is deficient in both flexure and
shear, both side and bottom plates are then applied.
Materials and Programme
A total of 10 RC beams, sized 180 mm wide, 250 mm high and 2.5 m long,
were prepared and tested. They included 1 over-reinforced RC beam (Bl),
3 beams under-reinforced in flexure (Fl, F2, F3), 3 beams under-reinforced
in shear (SI, S2, S3) and 3 beams under-reinforced in both flexure and shear
(FS1, FS2, FS3). It should be noted that the names of the specimens, except
Woven Composite Fabric to Strengthen RC Beams 1049
Bl, are assigned according to their types of structural deficiency. F

represents the flexure-deficient beam series, S denotes the shear deficient
specimens while FS is for both flexure and shear deficient RC members.
Table 1. Concrete Mix
Materials
3
Quantity (kg/m )
Cement
Water
10 mm aggregate
Sand
350
210
1000
820
The designed compressive strength of concrete was 30 MPa. To

achieve this, ordinary Portland cement concrete mix, with a water/cement
ratio of 0.6 and aggregate/cement ratio of 2.63, was adopted. No coarse
aggregate was used, but only fine aggregates of size 10 mm were
incorporated. Details of the concrete mix can be found in Table 1. Several
concrete cubes of size 100 mm were cast together with the beam specimens.
At the day of test, the compressive strengths of plain concrete cubes were
determined to be varied between 28.2 MPa and 35.3 MPa.
High strength deformed steel bars of yield strength 420 MPa, elastic
modulus 205 GPa and diameters 20 mm and 12 mm were used as main
longitudinal reinforcement. The rectangular stirrups, was made of 6 mm
diameter mild steel round bar of yield strength 235 MPa and elastic modulus
205 GPa.
Woven composite fabric was used to strengthen structurally-deficient
RC beams. The woven fabric consists of glass fibre yarns in its longitudinal
direction and a mix of glass fibre yarns and aramid yarns in transverse
direction. The longitudinal (main) and transverse tensile strengths are 450
MPa and 41 MPa respectively. Along the main glass fibre direction, the
elastic modulus is 22.46 GPa and the ultimate strain is 0.02. To facilitate
external strengthening, the woven composite fabric was tailored to small
straps of two different dimensions, namely 140 mm x 2100 mm for bottom
plating and 80 mm x 210 mm for side plating. For perfect bonding, the
woven composite fabric was saturated with epoxy, and then applied on the
pre-roughened concrete surface. The epoxy used was a general purpose one
with an equal amount of resin and hardener. It had a working time of 2
hours and a curing time of 24 hours. The tensile strength of epoxy is 20
MPa and its tensile elastic modulus is 4 GPa. One day was allowed for
setting and hardening.
In each of the F, S and FS series, there were 3 specimens. One of the 3
specimens was prepared without any kind of external strengthening. The
remaining 2 specimens were strengthened by FRP plates before testing.

Bottom plates were applied to F series, sides plates were used in S series,
and both bottom and side plates were adopted in FS series. The detailed test
programme is listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Beam Reinforcement Details
Beam no.
Main
reinforcement
Shear
reinforcement
Strengthening system
Bl
2T20
R6-150
Nil.
Fl
2T12
R6-150
Nil.
F2
2T12
R6-150
Bottom FRP plate
F3
2T12
R6-150
Bottom FRP plate
SI
2T20
R6-375
Nil.
S2
2T20
R6-375
Side FRP plate
S3
2T20
R6-375
Side FRP plate
FS1
2T12
R6-375
Nil.
FS2
2T12
R6-375
Bottom & side FRP plates
FS3
2T12
R6-375
Bottom & side FRP plates
Test Setup
Testing of beam specimens was conducted under four-point bending
condition. A 250 kN actuator, which was connected to a steel spreader, was
used to load all the beam specimens. To better capture the failure point, the
actuator was adjusted to displacement-controlled mode. Each specimen was
tested over a span of 2214 mm with a shear span of 707 mm at both ends,
leaving a constant bending region of 800 mm. To monitor the performance
of specimens, linear variable displacement transducers were used to
measure the transverse displacement at midspan. Electronic strain gauges
of gauge length 90 mm were installed on surfaces of concrete and FRP
plate.

Failure Patterns
Control beam B1 was failed by a diagonal shear crack. As B1 was designed
properly in terms of shear and flexure, present failure mode indicates that
the shear capacity of the beam is lower than its flexural capacity and thus
shear type of failure occurs first.
Figure 1. Failure of F2
Figure 2. Failure of S3
i itj-. i , j
-v
t.
Figure j . Failure ol FSl
As expected, failures of under-reinforced beam Fl was due to excessive

vertical cracks at the beam's soffit. The cracks were distinct and large
spacing was observed. This is a typical flexural beam failure. However,
when bottom FRP plates were added, the failure mode was changed to a
shear type with extensive cracking pattern. Bottom FRP plate debonding
was observed just before the development of the diagonal shear crack. The
major diagonal shear crack originated at the tip of FRP debonding region
and reached the loading point eventually. All other cracks, with small crack
spacing, propagated up to about 4/5 of the beam depth. Figure 1 shows the
failure of beam F2.
Beam SI was under-designed in terms of shear and its failure is a
standard shear type with diagonal cracking. It should be noted the depth of
crack, apart from the major diagonal cracking, is about one-half of the beam
depth. When side FRP plates were bonded, the development of diagonal
shear cracks was suppressed3 and flexural failure type by crushing of
compression concrete became dominant (see Figure 2). The side FRP plates
remained virtually intact after test. It is thought that, without any
improvement on concrete compressive capacity, additional shear capacity
provided to the beams in light of side plates increases the likelihood of
beam failure by concrete crushing. The failure occurred suddenly without

any sign of warning. Similar results were obtained by Spadea et al4. It was
also found that the beam specimens with shear strengthening exhibited a
larger deflection than the unplated one.
For the FS series of beam specimens, FS1 was deficient in terms of
shear and flexure. After test, the beam failed in a shear type with a diagonal
shear crack. The crack spacing and crack width observed inside the
constant bending region were very large. It was very difficult to predict the
failure mode before the failure of the beam. Based on the observations of
beam before and after failure, it is suggested that the shear capacity of FS 1
is just marginally smaller than its flexural capacity. With the presence of
side and bottom FRP plates, the beam can sustain more loading and the
failure mode was changed. Results from FS2 and FS3 show that, just before
failure, very large vertical cracks existed in the constant bending region.
The previous diagonal crack was inhibited by the side plates, only minor
concrete cracks were found in the shear regions. At failure, partial
debonding of bottom plate happened as indicated in Figure 3. The failure
was sudden and explosive. After examination of the debonded plate, a
small piece of concrete in the constant bending region was attached to the
bottom plate and very minimal concrete debris was found elsewhere. The
side FRP plates remained intact again.
Load Deflection Curves
In order to investigate the deformation capacity of strengthened beam
specimens, the load-deflection curves are plotted in Figures 4 to 7. In
Figure 4, the beams B1 and S1 show virtually no ductility whereas F1 and
FS 1 give large deformation before failure. This is largely dependent upon
their failure modes, shear failure mode is normally sudden and thus brittle
whereas flexural failure mode is usually gradual and exhibits a displacement
plateau. FS 1 shows larger deformation than F1 at the same ultimate load.
This reflects that using a smaller stirrup spacing inside a flexurally deficient
beam may enhance the deformation capacity. On the other hand, among all
unstrengthened beam specimens, Bl shows the highest ultimate load (120
kN) and shear-deficient beam SI (105 kN) gives higher load than flexuredeficient beam F1 (73 kN). It is interesting to note that the load capacities
of F1 and FS 1 (73 kN) and their failure modes are the same. This indicates
that the increase in stirrup spacing from 150 mm to 375 mm is insignificant,
and the flexural deficiency still dictates the failure mode.
All control b e a m s
B1,F1,S1,FS1
-B1
-F1
-S1
-FS1
10
20
30
40
mid span deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Load deflection curves for control beams

Figure 5 shows the load-deflection curves for F series specimens. It is noted
that F2 and F3 show both increase in maximum load and ductility. It is thus
evident that bottom FRP plate contributes to the beam's capacity by
inhibiting the opening of vertical cracks at constant bending region. When
the load and deformation are further increased, the developed interfacial
shear stress at the concrete-FRP interface exceeds its capacity and then
separation of FRP plate occurs. The minor cracks at the shear span may
interact with the plate separation and generate a diagonal crack failure.
Therefore, this kind of failure mode is always speedy and explosive. The
recorded increase in ductility contradicts with the past experimental data by
Ramana et al5. This can be explained by the fact that the two ends of the
bottom plate were securely anchored in Ramana's experiment in order to
inhibit peeling failure of plate while no anchoring was used in current
experiment.
Flexural strengthening
F1.F2, F3
10
20
30
40
Figure 5. Load deflection curves for F-series beams
In Figure 6, S2 and S3 provide a peak load and subsequent large postpeak deformation curve. This shows that beam S1 after side plates bonding
alter the beam's performance. The strengthened beams become more
deformable as they are no more governed by shear failure but concrete
crushing instead. Nevertheless, improvements in both maximum load and
ductility are again noted and it is consistent with past experimental data6.
Shear strengthening
S1,S2,S3
jjij^WWê^^.
150 -
y*"^
_*_S2
~~*-~S3
load
3?
/
/
()
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 6. Load deflection curves for S-series beams
Comparing the numerical values, it is noted that only side application of

FRP plates on shear-deficient beams S2 and S3 (165 kN) can promote the
load capacity to more than that of Bl (120 kN). The result suggests that use
of side plates on shear-deficient beam appears to be more effective than
using bottom plate on flexural-deficient one under current experimental
settings7. However, simultaneous use of side and bottom plates appears to
cause reduction in beam's deformation capacity although an enhancement in
strength is noted. As shown in Figure 7, fully plated beam shows a slight
increase in stiffness before a deflection value of 10 mm. With further
deflections, the increase in stiffness for FS2 and FS3 retards but the
deflection curve for FS1 is almost flat. At failure, FS2 and FS3 indicate
smaller deflections as compared to that of F1. This suggests that if the
deformation capacity is the prime factor to be improved in the process of
structurally strengthening, one should note that simultaneous application of
side and bottom plates may be detrimental.
When the results for F series and FS series are compared, the
contributions from the external plates are found to be 33.25 kN (mean
value) for F series and 27.5 kN (mean value) for FS series. The reduced
contribution from full external plate strengthening indicates that the

addition of side FRP plates so as to enhance shear capacity may cause
adverse effect to the beam's performance when bottom plates have been
used. Results also imply that when the beam is under-designed or the load
requirement is increased, the selection in using external plate strengthening
method must be very careful. For the flexural-deficient beams, addition of
one layer of FRP plate at the beam's soffit may not be able to compensate
the reduction in beam's flexural capacity from an over-design to underdesign condition; and the shear capacity of flexural strengthened beam may
govern the beam behaviour. Likewise, when the beam is deficient in both
shear and flexure, simultaneous use of side and bottom FRP plates may not
necessarily recover the loss in beam's capacity. The weakest failure mode
will dictate the performance. In the present case, side plates promote the
capacity of shear-deficient beam simply because (1) side FRP plates
contribute to the shear capacity of the beam; and (2) concrete crushing
failure mode displays the lowest load capacity after side plating.
Flexural & Shear strengthening

FS1,FS2, FS3
-FS1
-FS2
-FS3
10
20
30
40
50
Figure 7. Load deflection curves for FS-series beams

Therefore, one must note that the using plate bonding to recover or
rehabilitate structurally deficient beams should be accompanied with
detailed calculations. The anticipated failure mode is not always with the
lowest capacity, in particular when external strengthening has been carried
out. Plate bonding alters the beam's failure mode and this new mode may
possibly occur when the load is just marginally greater than the original
beam's capacity.

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the test results of the structurally deficient RC beams, the
following conclusions are drawn.
(a) Application of external plate alters failure mode of deficient beams.
(b) The anticipated failure mode of structurally deficient beam may not
always come with the lowest capacity when strengthening is done.
(c) The effect of using side plates on shear deficient beams appear to be
more effective than using bottom plates on flexure deficient beams.
(d) Use of side plates on shear deficient beams increase the likelihood of
beam failure by concrete crushing if no improvement on concrete
compressive capacity is attained.
(e) Addition of side FRP plates may cause adverse effect to the beam's
performance when bottom plates have been used.
(f) Simultaneous plating appears to reduce deformation capacity of beam.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Clarke, J.L., Alternative Materials for the Reinforcement and

Prestressing of Concrete, Chapman & Hall Inc., Chapter 7, 1993, 151171.
Uomoto, T., et al., "Use of fiber reinforced polymer composites as
reinforcing material for concrete." J. Mat. Civil Engrg., ASCE, 2002,
14(3), 191-209.
Leung, H.Y. and Balendran, R.V., "The Effect of Woven Fabric on
Shear Capacity of RC Beams." Proc. of the Second World Engineering
Congress- WEC2002, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, 2002, 22-25 July.
Spadea, G., et al., "Optimizing the performance characteristics of
beams strengthened with bonded CFRP laminates." Mat. & Struct.,
2000,33,119-126.
Ramana, V.P.V., et al, "Behavior of CFRPC strengthened reinforced
concrete beams with varying degrees of strengthening." Composites:
Part 5,2000,31,461-470.
Li, A., et al, "Shear strengthening effect by bonded composite fabrics
on RC beams." Composites: Part B, 2002, 33, 225-239.
Kachlakev, D. and McCurry, D.D., "Behavior of full-scale reinforced
concrete beams retrofitted for shear and flexural with FRP laminates."
Composites: Part B, 2000, 31, 445-452.

CALIBRATION OF PARTIAL SAFETY COEFFICIENTS

FOR FRP STRENGTHENING
G. MONTI
Dip. di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica, Universita di Roma "La Sapienza'
Via Antonio Gramsci 53, Roma 00197, Italy
S. SANTINI
Dipartimento di Scienze dell 'Ingegneria Civile, Universita di Roma Tre
Via Vito Volterra 62, Roma 00147, Italy
In the paper a possible methodology for the calibration of partial safety
factors (PSF) for the design of strengthening measures of RC members
using FRP is presented. The methodology is general and can be used for
any type of strengthening measure, e.g., in flexure, shear, ductility or for
the design of anchorage zones. The approach considers the problem of
strengthening an RC member from a current unsafe situation, where all
involved quantities are known from assessment, though only in
probabilistic terms, to a target safe one, of which only the desired reliability
is known. All relevant random variables are attributed a predefined
probability distribution, based on a statistical survey separately conducted
on geometrical and mechanical characteristics of old-style components. A
FORM-based optimization procedure is used to seek solution of such a
problem so that the target reliability is attained with the optimal FRP
quantity, the proper collapse mechanism of the strengthened member, and
the FRP design strength, with the associated partial safety factor. From
Monte Carlo design simulations, the PSF is probabilistically characterized,
thus allowing to select an appropriate fractile value for it.
INTRODUCTION
In this work a coherent framework is presented in which any available or
under development design equation for FRP-strengthening can be easily
included, and the relevant safety factors calibrated accordingly. The format
adopted, as described in this paper, takes advantage of this fact: all
strengthening cases consider a known unsafe state, whose current reliability
can be assessed in terms of collapse probability, and aim at a safe
(strengthened) state, which should meet a predefined target notional
reliability with respect to a predefined performance level. Knowing both the
initial (current) and the final (target) state, the equation used for designing
the strengthening measure can be cast in dimensionless form (capacity ratio
versus demand ratio), where some quantities are cancelled out and can be
discarded from the probabilistic analysis. The probability that the
strengthening measure fails to reach its objective is expressed in terms of
both the current (assessed) and the target (notional, codified) failure
probabilities. Having thus formulated the reliability problem, solution of a
series of parametrized random design problems coupled with the
optimization of a Eurocode-type design format, finally yields the pdf of the
sought partial safety factors.
DESIGN FORMAT AND TARGET RELIABILITY
The general reliability format is expressed by comparing a scalar 'capacity'
function C with its corresponding 'demand' function D as:
C(E,Y)-)(G,Q,L)<0
(1)
where C is a function of the random vector E of the material properties and
of the vector Y of the local (sectional) geometry (e.g., width, steel
reinforcement ratio, neutral axis depth); D is a function of the random
vectors G and Q, of the permanent and the applied variable loads,
respectively, and of the vector L of the global (member) geometry (e.g.,
span). The random Eq. (1) must be satisfied within a given notional target
annual probability of exceedance, whose value starts now being suggested
in the most advanced codes (see, for ex., Eurocodel').
For design purposes, Eq. (1) is expressed in a deterministic form, often
referred to as "checking equation" or "design format", where "design
values" are used that ensure that the target reliability is actually attained
within a specified probability2'3. Design values are obtained by calibrating
the partial safety factors y that appear in the deterministic equation:
yR-C(yE-Ek,Y)-D{yG-Gk,yQ-Qk,h)>0
(2)
where the distinction should be noted between 'internal' (yE, yG, Yg) and
'external' (yR) safety factors, and where subscripts d and k denote design
and characteristic value of the variable, respectively.
Calibrating design equations for new structures is generally a
formidable task, because all random variables involved in the problem
should be considered. When dealing with strengthening of existing
structures, the problem is even more complicated by the fact that both a
Partial Safety Coefficients for FRP Strengthening 1059
current (subscript C) and a target (subscript 7) situation with strengthening

(subscript 5) should be considered, for which:
Pr{Cc(Ec,Yc)-Z)c(Gc,Qc,Lc)<0}=^c
?r{CT ( E c , E 5 , \
) - DT (G T ,QT, hT )< O} = pT
where the current failure probability pc can be directly computed from a

fully probabilistic assessment procedure, and the target failure probability
Pi should match that given by the code. Incidentally, it should be
observed, along with Melchers4, that the notional failure probability pT for
assessment situations is not necessarily the same used in design codes. Note
also that, as traditionally assumed in design, a global value of pT is
considered, with no distinction among different modes of failure.
It comes all too natural to render the problem dimensionless by
introducing the following ratios:
K(V
v \ _ C7-(EcEsYr)
tf(Ec,Es,Yc,ys)-
~rr
S
Cc(Ec)Yc)
\_ D(GT,QT,L)
^s^s)-D{GcQc>h)
. .
(4)
where (informally): Gs = GT/GC and Qs = Qr/Qc a n d where it is seen that

the capacity depends on the (mechanical and geometrical) quantities
pertaining to the current state and on the corresponding quantities pertaining
to the strengthening elements. The two equations in (3) can be collected in a
single one where the new variables in Eq. (4) are used 5 :
Pr{R(Ec,Es,Yc,ys)-S{Gs,Qs)<0}=Ps(pc,pT)
(5)
The problem is now posed in the following terms: given a current
situation, described by a set of random mechanical ( E c ) and geometrical
( Y c ) properties, find the geometrical properties (ys) of the strengthening
measure, having random mechanical properties ( E 5 ) , so that there is a
probability ps that the increase in capacity R is lower than the increase in
demand S. After having found ys, the design values of the FRP material
properties E*s are found, and consequently the corresponding safety factors.
The final design format is:
YR-R^CdXS =YS-Esk,Yc,Y*s)-Sd>0
(6)
where the unknown y^ is determined from the characteristic value of Es
and y ^ is found by satisfying the equality in Eq. (6); all other r.v.'s are
parametrized as \ECd, Y c , Sd, pc). A simulation procedure spanning all the
parameters values yields the pdf of the two partial safety factors.
Again, yR and ys
are random due to the randomness of
\ECd,Yc,Sd,pc)The task is to select fixed (calibrated) values of yR and
ys so that, for specific values of the parameters \ECd, Y c , Sd, pc )i, each
design equation is satisfied with a predefined probability pca! of yielding
an exceedance probability higher than ps. A problem faced in this work is
in fact also to set a value for the probability pcai, and determine the
corresponding partial safety factors.
RELIABILITY OF THE STRENGTHENING MEASURE
In order to express the probability ps in terms of pc and pT, the
capacities Cc and CT are assumed as independent log-normal variates. For
the sake of notation simplicity, they will be denoted in the following as:
CC=C
CT=T
(7)
It follows that R = T/C is also log-normal distributed, with parameters:
*-R =V\nR =^T ~^C
>R=c!\nR=>T
>C
00
For as regards the design values of the demands, Dc and DT, as

explained in the previous section they are assumed as random parameters
representing the design values, Dcd and DTd, given by the adopted code. It
follows that the demand increase ratio Sd = DTd /DCd is also a parameter.
Eq. (3) can be rewritten, using standard FORM, as:
i % l ^ = 0>->(pc)=-pc
'n(^)-^0-V)=_pr
(9)
where O is the standard normal distribution function, p the reliability

index, and:
A.c=lnnc-iofnC=lnnc-iKc2
%2C =a, 2 n C = ln(Fc2 +l)= Fc2
Xr=lnnr-J_a2nr=lnnr-iFr2
= a 2 n r = ln(F r 2 +l)= Fr2
(10)
(11)
Eq. (5) can be expressed in a form analogous to (9), where it can be

shown through simple manipulations, that 0 -1 (/7 5 ) can be expressed in
terms of both P c and p r and of the coefficients of variation Vc =CT C /(I C
and VT =<JT l\iT
:0-'(p s ) = Vc-Vc-VT-fo
(12)
therefore, noting that "kR = XT - Xc and ^R = VR, the reliability problem is

finally cast in the following form:
f
Info)-In
Mr
He
-Pr
(13)
Hr
In the next section the methodology will be applied to the case of
flexural strengthening. In this case, it should be noted that, in line with the
Eurocodes, the partial safety factor yR for the flexural capacity is taken as
1, so the calibration only involves ys. The purpose of the next section is to
illustrate the application to a simple case of the concepts hitherto exposed in
a general way, and to exemplify how the methodology specializes in the
case of flexural strengthening.
nr
He
He
EXAMPLE: DESIGN OF FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING

It is important to notice that, when calibrating the material factor for FRP, it
is necessary to consider an FRP-flexural-strengthening that produces FRP
failure. In fact, failure mechanisms that do not involve FRP, apart from
being anti-economical, convey no information in the calibration procedure.
Therefore, only failure modes will be considered where FRP fails, steel
yields, and concrete either fails (balanced failure) or does not.
The starting point is the definition of the (normalized) current and target
moment capacity of a RC section having width b, depth d, cover-to-depth
ratio 8 = d'/d , and made from concrete of design strength fcd and steel of
design yield strength fsa-:
mc=Mc/(fcdbd2)
2
mT =MT/(fcdbd )
where kc = psfsd/afcd
= akT(\ +
akc(l-vkc)
8-vkT)+pfff5
, kT = (psfsd +pfff)/afcd
, are the current and
target normalized neutral axis depth, respectively, with p^ being the steel
ratio, and:
e <er
3s
cc(sc) = 0.851--
>s
E.
3s CO
v(e c ) = - + 0.0472-^- (15)

3
e,
where e c is the concrete strain and s e o is the strain at peak strength.

The design value ffd
of the random FRP strength fj- is the objective
of the optimization procedure, along with the FRP reinforcement ratio py

and the concrete strain zn.
The strengthening ratio R = T/C is written:
T| + 25n-vA: c r| 2 - 5
akT ( l + 5 - v A r ) + p / / / 5
R =
T
=
akc{l-vkc)
l-vkc
(16)
In simplifying expression (16), equilibrium of the strengthened section

has been considered with: r| = kT jkc = 1 + P/ff lpsfsd
Note that, for the case of flexural strengthening the set of random
parameters is: ( E C d , Y c , S r f , p c ) = ( / ^ > / ^ , * c , 8 , S d , p c ) . Thus, with
reference to (13), the distribution parameters are approximated as:
\2
(17)
< S dkdcr Qkr
^C=C = 1 - v ^ r
v-J
VT = Ti
=^n+2^^6-^T|v^c
~5
7- =
dT
dkr
lc =
dkc
dPs
0^(18)
V-)
where denotes evaluation at the mean point, and:

In
1+5
VpsVfsd
V-kr
8T_
(19)
Vr\
^/
\2
^2
dkr
QfsdP-J
V
\2
dn
8ff
ar +
Jsd
dkr
dfcd
c
(20)
V-J
\2
2
CT ,
Jf
V-J
\2
dn
dkr
(21)
V-J
where E s is the deterministic FRP modulus and the partial derivatives are:
dC
dT
dkc
dkf
dkc
dPs
Vful
dkC
'Pfa,
dT
(22)
dk,
-Pi,
(23)
dfcd
f*d
an fed
The above equations allow to specialize the reliability problem (13) for
the case of flexural strengthening, complemented both with the
compatibility condition in the strengthened section (section planarity):
T)
fcd
Psfsd
,, _- - afcd
Kj
Psfsd
ff/Ef
1+5
dff
V-kc f
(24)
(1 + 8)
1+5
(?c+Vff/Ef)
dkc
-\iff/Ef
(25)
and with the design equation (6), which is the design equation of (16),
where yR =1 for flexure:
R
_T\d + 2?>T]d-v{zc)kCdr)d-d> _r
l-v(Ec)kCd
(26)
with: r\d =1 + Pfffd and kcd = Psfsd

Psfsd
a(zc)fcd
Solving the system of equations (13), (24) and (26), the three unknowns
Pf, ffd and e c are determined. From the design value of the FRP
ls
strength fjd, the appropriate partial safety factor: yy = f^jffd
finally
found for the current outcome of the random parameters
(fed >fsd'kc,Sd>$c)- Repeating the above procedure for all outcomes of
the parameters through a simulation process, the probability distribution of
Yy is obtained. The next section contains the description of the simulations
performed to arrive at the pdf'of Yy.
MONTE CARLO SIMULATIONS AND SELECTION OF yy
Monte Carlo simulations were performed on the set of parameters
[fcd, fsd, kc, Sd, (3C). In table 1, for each random parameter, the chosen
distribution type with the corresponding distribution parameters is
indicated.

Table 1.
Distributions and parameters of the r.v. considered in the simulations.

Random Parameter
Mean Co. V. Min
Max
Pdf
Design concrete strength fccj (MPa)
Beta
0.2
16.7
10
26.7
Design steel yield strength fsc/
(MPa)
Beta
250
0.15
180
360
Normalized neutral axis depth RQ
Beta
0.37
0.2
0.259
0.666
Load increment
Beta
1.2
0.1
1.0
1.5
Sj
Current reliability index P ^
Uniform
Table 2. Fixed parameters considered in different sets of Monte Carlo simulations.

Parameter
Values
CFRP sheet modulus Ef (GPa)
234,402
1 ^ = 4 4 9 0 , 0 ^ = 277, / ^ = 4036
CFRP sheet strength fj-
(MPa)
H / / r = 4 2 1 5 , a / / r = 348, 7 0 = 3644
0.05,0.10
Cover-to-depth ratio 8
Target (50 yrs) reliability P ^
3.72 (pT
= \0~4),4.26(pT
=10"5)
Some parameters were considered as fixed throughout the simulation. In

particular, it was considered to perform a Monte Carlo analysis for
different: FRP types (characterized by modulus Ey and strength fy pdf),
cover-to-depth ratio 8 , and target annual reliability $T. Table 2 reports the
selected values for these parameters.
For each outcome of the parameters set, the system of equations (13),
(24) and (26) is solved and the three unknowns py, 7/a an<^ 8 c a r e
determined. From the design value of the FRP strength fyd > the appropriate
partial safety factor y t determining a design that has a probability ps of
exceeding the target limit state is found. The probability density function
(pdf) of the partial safety factor y y obtained from the Monte Carlo
analyses is shown in Figure 1.
The selection of the partial safety factor yy to be suggested for use in
design can be based on the choice of an appropriate fractile. For the sake of
discussion, as an example, a possible choice could be to select a 50%
fractile (pcal = 0.5). Such choice would result in yy = 1.33. This implies

that an FRP-strengthening design performed with this value of jf has a
50% probability of having a reliability lower than (3r .
0.2 -
0.15 -
l!
0.1 -
- ~ -
0.05
i
1
DJID L -_.
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
gamma
Figure 1. Probability (mass) density function (pdf) of yy .

CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive reliability-based framework has been presented that aims
at calibrating the value of the partial safety coefficient of FRP to be used in
the design of strengthening measures of RC members. Although the
methodology presented has been applied, in the first phase of the calibration
campaign presented in this paper, to the case of flexural strengthening, the
approach is quite general and can be applied to cases of strengthening other
resisting mechanisms.
The proposed methodology, cast according to the Eurocode format with
'internal' and 'external' safety factors, takes advantage of the fact that the
strengthening problem is posed in incremental terms from a current
situation, of which all quantities are known, though only probabilistically,
to a target situation, of which only the reliability is known. The problem is
to find the appropriate values of: FRP quantity to apply, corresponding
concrete strain, and design value for FRP that produce the target reliability.
It has been shown how this problem can be rendered more computationally
treatable, by identifying a set of parameters that can be extracted in a
procedure that randomly produces strengthening design problems, in which
the three above quantities are determined to match the target reliability.
From such simulation procedure the pdf of the safety factor is obtained.
This raises the question of which value should be selected to assure that the
design equation yields a 'safe' design. This brings in the discussion basic
issues regarding the safety level obtainable with a calibration procedure.
For the sake of discussion, through a set of Monte Carlo simulations of
FRP-flexural-strengthening designs, a distribution of the partial safety
coefficient for the FRP strength was obtained and the value yy=1.33
corresponding to a 50% fractile was selected. This implies that 50% of the
strengthening designs with FRP that use this value would have a lower
reliability than the target one. As always, the problem is to decide how safe
is enough6, but discussion on this debated issue would require to introduce
economic considerations. This clearly goes beyond the scope of this paper
and shall be the object of further studies.
Moreover, given that the same 'material' partial safety factor should be
used for FRP regardless of the particular strengthening measure to design,
the scope of subsequent works shall be to extend the methodology to
include other strengthening measures, such as in shear, for confinement, for
anchorage zones, etc., where the 'internal' Y/ and 'external' partial safety
factors yR , are simultaneously calibrated.
REFERENCES
1. Eurocodel: ENV 1991-1, Basis of design and actions on structures, 1996.
2. Madsen, H.O., Krenk, S., and Lind, N.C., Methods of structural safety,
Prentice Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1986.
3. Melchers, R.E., Structural reliability analysis and prediction, 2nd Ed., Wiley,
Chichester, England, 1999.
4. Melchers, R.E., "Assessment of existing structures - Approaches and research
needs", J. of Structural Engineering, ASCE, 127(4), 2001.
5. Monti, G., Santini, S., "Reliability-based calibration of partial safety
coefficients for FRP", J. of Composites for Construction, ASCE, 6(3), 2002.
6. Rackwitz, R., "Optimization - the basis of code-making and reliability
verification", Structural Safety, 22,27-60,2000.

COMPARISON BETWEEN FRP REBAR, FRP GRID AND

STEEL REBAR REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
M. OZEL, L.C. BANK, D. ARORA AND O. GONENC
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Wisconsin - Madison
1415 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI53706, USA
D. GREMEL
Hughes Brothers, Inc.
Seward, NE 68434, USA
B. NELSON AND D. McMONIGAL
Strongwell
Chatfield, MN 55923, USA
A series of tests were conducted on concrete beams that were designed to
have the same load carrying capacity and have the same geometry but
different types of reinforcement. All beams were 101 in (2565 mm) long
and had a rectangular cross-section measuring 8 in by 12 in (203 mm by
305 mm). All beams were designed using current American Concrete
Institute (ACI) codes or design guides to develop a nominal moment
capacity of 750 kip-in (85 kN-m) corresponding to a ultimate failure load
of 50 kips (222.5 kN). Concrete design strength was 5000 psi (34.5 MPa).
The beams were tested in four-point bending with 1/3 point loads. Three
different types of reinforcement systems were used: (a) commercially
manufactured GFRP main bars, GFRP U-shaped stirrups and GFRP top
bars; (b) commercially manufactured pultruded GFRP grids consisting of Ishaped main bars, flat vertical and top bars, and round interlocking
transverse cross-bars; (c) commercially produced grade 60 deformed steel
reinforcing bars and closed-loop stirrups. Beams were tested to failure in
displacement control. The methods used to design the different
reinforcement systems are reviewed. The results of the tests are compared
with the code predicted capacities. The failure modes and load-deflection
responses of the beams are discussed. The behavior of the three types of
beams are compared in terms of failure mode, ductility and serviceability.
The results should enable designers to make a one-to-one comparison
between FRP reinforced beams and steel beams, designed for the same
nominal load carrying capacity.
INTRODUCTION
A total of seven beams reinforced with steel, GFRP rebars or GFRP grid
were manufactured and tested. The beams were designed according to the
current design codes: ACI 318-99' for the steel reinforced beams and ACI
440.1R-012 for the GFRP rebar reinforced beams. The design moment and
total load capacity for the beams were 750 kip-in and 50 kips, respectively.
In this paper, design and fabrication as well as comparisons of these beams
in terms of reinforcement ratio, axial stiffness and failure modes is
presented.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
Initially, one GFRP grid reinforced (SD3-90), two identical GFRP rebar
reinforced (FRP 1 and FRP 2) and two identical conventional steel rebar
reinforced (Steel 1 and Steel 2) beams were designed and fabricated. When
the beams were tested, it was observed that the steel rebar reinforced beams
carried approximately 20 kips more load than they were actually designed
for. Therefore, two additional steel rebar reinforced beams (Steel 3 and
Steel 4) with a lower reinforcement ratio were designed, fabricated and
tested.
All the beams had an 8 in by 12 in cross-section. They were 101 in
long. SD3-90 was reinforced with four 2 in high T-bars for longitudinal
reinforcement and three 1.5 in by 0.2 in rectangular strips for vertical
reinforcement placed 6 in on-center along the length of the beam. Threepart proprietary connecting bars called crossbars with a combined diameter
of 0.5 in were used as the transverse components of the grids3'4'5. FRP 1 and
FRP 2 were reinforced with three #7 glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP)
rebar and #3 open stirrups spaced at 4 in on-center along the length of the
beam. Steel 1 and Steel 2 were reinforced with three #6 rebars, whereas,
Steel 3 and Steel 4 had three #5 rebars. The steel reinforced beams had #3
stirrups at 5 in on-center along the length of the beams. All the beams had
#3 top bars to tie the reinforcing cages together and to provide stability.
The properties of the FRP reinforcements used in the design calculations are
summarized in Table 1.
Design
The beams were designed for a nominal moment capacity of 750 kip-in.
The concrete design strength, fc' was 5000 psi. SD3-90 was designed as
part of a prior set of experiments on FRP grid reinforced beams. The details
FRP Rebar, FRP Grid and Steel Rebar RC Beams 1069

Table 1. Properties of GFRP grid and GFRP rebar
Bar Size
Bar Diameter
(in)
Af
(in2)
ffii
(ksi)
(ksi)
MIX
2"T
N/A
0.542
85.8
#3
0.375
0.131
110
5920
#7
0.875
0.593
85
5920
1 ksi = 6.9MPa, 1 in2 == 645mm 2, 1 in = 25.4 mm
of the design are reported elsewhere4'5. The FRP reinforcement ratio, pf,
and balanced reinforcement ratio, pft,, for FRP1 and FRP 2 were calculated
using equations ACI440.1R-012. The balanced reinforcement ratio, Pf, for
the steel beams was calculated using ACI 318-991. The nominal moment
capacities for the FRP beams were calculated using ACI440.1R-01. The
details of the flexural design are provided in Table 2.
Table 2. Flexural Design
p
Pf
Pfi
M
(kip-in)
10
0.022
0.007
692
(in2)
B
(in)
d
(in)
Pb
(kip-in)
Steel 1/Steel 2
1.32
10
0.017
0.034
699
(kip)
46
Steel 3/Steel 4
0.93
10
0.012
0.034
512
34
(in )
b
(in)
FRP1/FRP2
1.78
Beam Name
Beam Name
Mi
max
(kip)
46
p
1
max
1 kip = 4.45 kN, 1 kip-in = 0.113 kN-m
The nominal shear capacity of the FRP beams was determined from,
r.=Kj + vf
(i)
where, Vn = nominal shear capacity, Vcf = shear capacity of the concrete
when FRP bars are used, and Vf = shear capacity provided by the FRP
stirrups.. The shear capacity provided by concrete, Vc>f, was obtained as 2.3
kips from,
K,f=~fVc
(2)
The strength of the bent portion of the stirrups, f^, was calculated using the
following equation from ACI440.1R-01,
f
A
r
0
.
0
5
^
+
0.3
UÛ
(3)
/ ,fi>
V
where, rb is the radius of the bend (in) and db is diameter of reinforcing bar
(in). The inside radius of the bent portion of the stirrup was assumed to be
rb = 3db where db is the diameter of the stirrups. In reality, rb = 5.7db, the
design was conservative and fn, was calculated as 49.5 ksi. The
manufacturer's data stated that the strength of the bent portion of the
stirrups was generally 38% of the ultimate tensile strength of the unbent
bars, that is fa, = 41.8 ksi which was lower than the calculated value. When
the strain in the stirrups was limited to 0.002, the tensile strength of the FRP
stirrups for shear design, ffv, was calculated as 11.8 ksi, which was
approximately 10% of the actual tensile strength of the #3 bars. This value
was felt to be extremely conservative and the tensile strength of the FRP
stirrups for shear design, fjv, was taken as 41.8 ksi, according to the
manufacturer's recommendation. The shear resistance provided by the
stirrups was calculated as Vf = 27.4 kips and the shear capacity of the cross
section was calculated as Vn = 29.7 kips. This was greater than the nominal
design requirement of V = 25 kips corresponding to the desired loadcarrying capacity of P = 50 kips.
Fabrication, Casting and Test Method
The beams were cast using ready mix concrete. The measured 28 day
compressive strength of the concrete, fc', was 5880 psi. The beams were
tested in a 1000 kip servo-hydraulic testing machine in displacement control
at a rate of 0.03 in/min. They were tested under four point bending on
simply supported spans of 90 inches. The moment span was 30 in. in all
tests. Fig.l shows beam SD3-90 during testing and Fig. 2 shows the same
beam at failure. Load and the crosshead deflection data were recorded
continuously using a HP 3852 data acquisition unit and Labview software.
TEST RESULTS
The maximum total load, Pmx, carried by each beam and the deflection, 8max,
corresponding to the maximum load are presented in Table 3. Load versus
crosshead deflection graphs are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. In Fig. 3, load
deflection graphs of all FRP rebar and steel reinforced beams are provided.
In Fig. 4, the load deflection graph of SD3-90 Is compared with one FRP
and one steel beam.
Fig. 1. Test setup and typical crack pattern for SD3-90
Fig. 2. Failure mode, 8D3-90
Faiiure Modes
All the beams except FRP 1 and SD3-90 failed In flexure. SD3-90 failed in
shear/compression followed by splitting failure of the longitudinal
reinforcement. FRP 1 also failed in shear/compression, whereas FRP 2
failed in flexure/compression. All steel reinforced beams failed In
flexure/tension. The ultimate failure of the steel reinforced beams occurred
after the tensile reinforcement yielded.

Table 3. Experimental test results
5max ( @ P i r x)
Beam Name
(in)
H2Eh
FRP 1
FRP2
Steel 1
Steel 2
Steel 3
Steel 4
SD3-9Q
1,59
1.53
1.74
1.71
3.02
3.02
1.57
47.5
57.1
71.7
66.3
49.1
49.7
49.6
Beam Failure Mode

shear/compression
flexure/compression
flexure/tension
flexure/tension
flexure/tension
flexure/tension
shear/compression
1 kip = 4.45 kN; 1 in = 25.4 mm

80
1
',
if
- js-Fji'^Hj^fHf^*^
60
40 "jj
TOJ"
; p?r
' ' " jj$P " " " ;
20
:
1 JjF
\M
iJjL
0.0
'
j.
0.5
FRP1
* steel 2
_,
#FRP2
x steel 3
,
a steel
A steel 4
1
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Crosshead Displacement (in)
3.0
3,5
Fig. 3. Load deflection plots of steel and FRP rebar reinforced beams
Fig. 5 shows FRP 1 at failure. The failure of this beam was much like
the failure mode observed in most of the FRP grid reinforced beams5.
Uniformly distributed shear cracking was observed, followed by flexural
shear cracking in the shear spans. The load deflection behavior was almost
linear until the major shear crack that caused the failure of the beam reached
the load point and the concrete, in the vicinity of the load point started
crashing. The beam held the maximum load while deflecting an additional
0.7 in. The catastrophic drop in the load was due to the failure of the stirrup

50
^^#TOHi
^ * i
: I FRP 1
40
1
s
\ \
\ .-< steel 3
30
"Hi 1
]- --- JFI - -
|20
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Crossfaead Displacement (in)

Fig. 4. Load deflection plots of FRP 1, SD3-90 and Steel 3 compared
Fig. 5 Failure of FRP 1 in shear/compression
at the lower bend. This failure mode was undesirable and unexpected since
the beam was designed to ultimately fail in flexure/compression.
Fig. 6 shows FRP 2 at failure. This beam failed in flexural
compression. Major flexural and shear cracking was observed prior to the
failure of the beam. When the maximum load was attained, the concrete
under both of the load points started crushing. These local cracks lead to
horizontal cracks that propagated towards the midspan that joined together
in the middle resulting in compressive crashing in the entire moment span.
Fig. 6 Failure of FRP 2 in flexure/compression
The ultimate strength of FRP 1 was 47.5 kips, whereas the ultimate
strength of FRP 2 was 57.1 kips. The 10' kip difference between the beam
capacities was due to the premature failure of FRP 1 in shear due to the
failure of the stirrup at the bend. All the steel reinforced beams failed in the
same manner. The steel reinforced beams displayed elastic-plastic load
displacement behavior. The tensile reinforcement started yielding at about
65 kips for Steel 1 and Steel 2 and at about 45 kips for Steel 3 and Steel 4.
The beams ultimately failed due to secondary concrete compression failure
after yielding.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
FRP 1 did not fail in flexure as expected. FRP 2, which was identical to
FRP 1, failed in this mode. As mentioned earlier, the strength of the stirrups
at the bends was determined according to the manufacturers data. The
strain in the' stirrups was not limited to 0.002 as recommended by AC1
440.1R-01. However, the strength of the stirrups at the bends is
unpredictable? as they are greatly influenced by the manufacturing process.
As observed during the testing of FRP 1 and FRP 29 the stirrups did fail in
FRP 1 causing the beam to fail in flexure, whereas they were intact
throughout the testing of FRP 2 and this beam failed in flexure/compression.
These results show that it is reasonable to limit the strain in the stirrups in
the design to 0.002 even though it appears to be a conservative value.
In Table 4 the FRP reinforced and steel reinforced beams are compared
in terms of area and axial stiffness (AE) of the reinforcement, and load
capacity at a deflection of //240 (service conditions.)
Table 4. Experimental Test Results

Beam
Name
As,Af
(in2)
AE
(kip)
P @8V240
Map
(kip)
(kip-in)
FRP 1
1.780
10538
19.7
726
FRP 2
1.780
10538
20.5
857
Steel 1
1.320
38280
36.5
1076
Steel 2
1.320
38320
44.8
995
Steel 3
0.930
26970
31.1
737
Steel 4
0.930
26970
31.6
746
SD3-90
2.216
10572
18.2
744
1 kip = 4.45 k t t, 1 in2 =645 mm2, 1 kip-in == 0.113 kN-m
The FRP grid reinforced beam and FRP rebar reinforced beams are
comparable in terms of axial stiffness, and the load the beams can carry
under service conditions. FRP 1 and FRP 2 had an axial stiffness of 10538
kips, whereas, SD3-90 had an axial stiffness of 10572 kips. These beams
had an average ultimate load carrying capacity of approximately 50 kips.
Steel 3 and Steel 4 also had the same ultimate capacities as these beams.
The average load carried by the FRP reinforced beams (SD3-90, FRP 1 and
FRP 2) under permissible deflections was approximately 60% of the steel
reinforced beams (Steel 3 and Steel 4). On the other hand the average axial
stiffness of the FRP reinforced beams was only 40% of steel reinforced
beams.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Support for this work was provided by the US National Science Foundation
under grant no. CMS 9896074. The donation of FRP materials by
Strongwell (manufacturers of the FRP grid), and Hughes Brothers
(manufacturers of the FRP rebar) is acknowledged. William Lang and John
Dreger of the Wisconsin Structures and Materials Testing Laboratory are

thanked for their assistance and support.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 318, Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete (318-99) and Commentary (318R-99), American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 1999.
2. ACI Committee 440, Guide for the Design and Specification of
Concrete Structures Reinforced with FRP Bars, American Concrete
Institute, ACI 440.1R-01, Farmington Hills, Michigan, 2001.
3. Bank, L. C. and Ozel, M. "Shear Failure of Concrete Beams Reinforced
with 3-D FRP Grids," Fiber Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement for
Reinforced Concrete Structures, Fourth International Symposium, SP188, C. W. Dolan, S. H. Rizkalla and A. Nanni, eds., American
Concrete Institute, 1999, pp. 145-156.
4. Ozel, M., "Behavior of Concrete Beams Reinforced with 3-D Fiber
Reinforced Plastic Grids," PhD Dissertation, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, 2002, 180 pp.
5. Ozel, M. and Bank, L.C., "Behavior of Concrete Beams Reinforced
with 3-D Composite Grids", American Society for Composites, 16th
Annual Technical Conference, Virginia, September 9-12, 2001, CDROM.

CONCRETE BEAMS STRENGTHENED WITH PRESTRESSED NEAR SURFACE MOUNTED REINFORCEMENT
H. NORDIN
Dept of Civil Engineering, Lulea University of Technology, 971 87 Lulea, SWEDEN
B. T AUSTEN
Dept of Civil Engineering, Lulea University of Technology, 971 87 Lulea, SWEDEN
Skanska TeknikAB, 169 83 Solna, SWEDEN
The need for concrete repair and rehabilitation is well known and many
countries in the world are researching in this field. New technical solutions
and methods that can effectively bring forth more economical ways of
upgrading structures are most welcome. In recent years the use of CFRP
plate bonding has shown to be such a method. This technology implies that
a thin carbon fibre laminate or fabric is bonded to the surface of the
structure and then acts as an outer reinforcement layer. Most of the
applications world-wide have been with no pre-stressing of the laminates or
sheets, even though there have been investigations presented where CFRP
laminates have been pre-stressed before they have been bonded to the
concrete surface. However, the risk of damage by for example vehicle
impact can be disastrous to such a structure. At Lulea University of
Technology, research is taking place in the field of CFRP - plate bonding.
Recently, extensive research has been undertaken to investigate the
possibilities of using CFRP laminates as Near Surface Mounted
Reinforcement (NSMR). This method may be defined as a method where
FRP rods are bonded in slots in a concrete cover. By pre-stressing the
reinforcement a compressive force is transferred into the concrete structure
at the same time as they are protected in the slot. This paper presents
laboratory tests for concrete beams strengthened with pre-stressed near
surface mounted CFRP bars.
INTRODUCTION
It is no doubt that there is a great potential for, and considerable economic
advantages in, FRP strengthening. However, if the technique is to be used
effectively, a sound understanding of both the short-term and long-term
behaviour of the bonding system is required. It also requires reliable
information concerning the adhesion to concrete and composite. The
execution of the bonding work is also of great importance in order to
achieve a composite action between the adherents. Of utmost importance is

the knowledge regarding the limits of the strengthening method.
At Lulea University of Technology, Sweden, research has been carried
out in the area of plate bonding. The research work started in 1988 with
steel plate bonding and is still continuing, now with FRP materials. Both
comprehensive experimental work and theoretical work have been carried
out. The laboratory tests have included strengthening for bending as well as
for shear1 and torsion2. Full-scale tests3'4'5 on strengthened bridges have also
been performed. For theoretical work, the peeling stresses in the adhesive
layer at the end of the strengthening plate have been studied in particular,
and the theory of fracture mechanics introducing non-linear behaviour in the
joint3'6'7 has also been investigated. In Sweden, FRP strengthening methods
have been used in the field for almost 10 years now and both laminates and
wrap systems are used. Sweden is also one of the countries around the world
where a national code1'5'8 exists for FRP strengthening.
There are several reasons why a pre-stressing force should be applied to
a concrete structure. One reason to pre-stress is that the applied axial load
induces a bending moment that opposes the self-weight of a concrete
structure9. Another reason is that the first crack load is considerably
increased compared to non pre-stressed strengthened beams and beams
without strengthening; this can increase the durability of the concrete
structure. However, the ultimate load is approximately the same as non prestressed strengthened concrete structures10. Tests on concrete beams prestressed with CFRP sheets at room and low temperatures11 has also been
carried out. One of the most important advantages when strengthening a
structure with pre-stressing members is the reduction of stress in existing
tensile steel reinforcement. This should indicate an increase in the fatigue
behaviour of the members in the structure912.
STRENGTHENING WITH PRE-STRESSED NSMR
As opposed to external strengthening techniques, the use of NSMR will, in
a better way, protect the strengthening material from external damage. It
may also be easier to work with in some cases compared to the use of
traditional CFRP laminates. Another advantage is that the concrete surface
will not be completely covered, thus preventing the formation of built-in
moisture in the structure and possible freeze-thaw problems. However, it
has to be remembered that this technique can only be used on structures
with sufficient concrete cover since the rods are mounted in this cover. In
Figure 1, the principles for NSMR are shown. It can be seen that it is
Beams with Pre-stressed NSM Reinforcement 1079
possible to achieve increased bond surface with NSMR compared to

traditional laminate Plate Bonding. Instead of a normal concrete surface
failure as with laminate Plate Bonding a larger volume of the concrete will
fracture at failure, or more energy is needed to fracture a NSMR
strengthened concrete structure than a laminate strengthened structure.
Figure 1. Schematic sketch of NSMR

THEORY
The theory presented here is based on the linear equilibrium equation. The
theoretical stress and strain distribution of a rectangular pre-stressed beam
with NSMR is shown in Figure 2. Here, Figure 2b) shows the strain
distribution where it has been assumed that plain sections remain plain
during loading. In Figures 2c) and 2d), the stress distribution due to the
bending moment and the pre-stressing force is shown.
Figure 2. Stresses and strains acting on a pre-stressed cross-section

From figure 2c, the stress at level z from the bending moment is:
M
n\
M= Z
(1)
Correspondingly, the stress from the compressive force at level z is:
P
Pe
crP =
z
A
(2)
The combination of these stresses gives the total stress at level z:

az=(af
+ <jM
M
IVI
Pe
(3)
where the bending moment, M, acts on a cross section together with a prestress force P. Here, e is the level arm from the centre of gravity to the prestress force, z is the distance from the centre of gravity to the NSMR, and A
and / are the cross sectional area and moment of inertia for an uncracked
section respectively.
LABORATORY TESTS
Not many tests with NSMR have been reported in the literature. However,
tests with circular and rectangular rods4'14 have been performed. In addition
even fewer tests have been made with pre-stressed NSMR bars.
The beams were subjected to a four-point bending as shown in Figure 3
with a free span of 3600 mm. The beams were 4 meters long with a cross
section of 200 x 300 mm. Three type of beams were tested, a reference
beam [RefJ, a beam strengthened without pre-stress [NP] and beams
strengthened with pre-stress [P]. The beams that were strengthened had a
slot in the soffit, which had been sawed with a cross section 15x15 mm.
The beams were reinforced for shear with 010 steel stirrups at 75 mm
spacing and with a 30 mm concrete cover. The longitudinal steel
reinforcement was 016, two at the top and two at the bottom.
F/2
Concrete
///////
NSMR (Near Surface
Mounted
Reinforcement)-^
Beam
JZ
Stg No. x,
1
2
J
Strain gouges
Figure 3. Beam test set-up and placement of guages
[mm]
20
200
400
2000
Material data of the concrete and CFRP rods are recorded in Table 1.
The NSMR rods had a cross-section of 10 x 10 mm. For the steel
reinforcement, the characteristic value is fy(j = 500 MPa and Es = 205 GPa.
The adhesive had the following material properties: Young's modulus, Ea =
7.0 GPa, compressive strength, fca = 103 MPa and tensile strength, fct = 31
MPa with a viscosity of 28 Pas.
Table 1. Data of the CFRP materials used in test
Ref
NP
P
fee
fct
Ef
8fu
[MPa/
[MPa]
[GPa]
rQ,
61
64
68
fj
_ [MPa]
3.5""' -T"
3.6 160 17.5 2 800
3.8 160 17.5 2 800
FEE-STRESSING
The pre-stressing was made with the beams on the floor with the bottom
face up. The slots were cleaned from all contaminations such as dust and
small particles and were then filled with sufficiently amount of adhesive.
The rods were then positioned in the adhesive filled slots. Each of the rods
had 5 strain gauges bonded to its outer surface with the first just outside the
end of the beam, three at the last 400 mm at one end of the beam and one in
the middle. The placement of the strain gauges are shown in Figure 3. The
rods were then subjected to a pre-stressing force until the strain of
approximately 0.002 was achieved, this correspond approximately to a
stress of 320 MPa.
Figure 4. Pre-stressing set-up
After the adhesive in the slots had cured for five days the pre-stressing
force was released. The force was then transferred to shear force in the
adhesive bond. A compressive force is then introduced to the lower part of
the beam and a tensile force to the upper part, see Figure 5.
300-i
250-
1? 200f
150-
E
<8
ioo-
50-
0-70 -60 -SO -40 -30 -20 -10 0

Compression and tension
10 20
[fj,str]
30 40
Figure 5. Strain changed over the height of the beam when releasing the prestressing force
In Figure 5 the change in strain for three points can be studied for the
release of the pre-stressing force at the middle of the beam span. The three
points that were measured were the top of the beam, the lower steel
reinforcement and the CFRP. The theoretical strain is calculated using
Equation (3).
BENDING
The strengthened beams give an increase in ultimate load of almost 70 %
compared with the reference beam. Beams strengthened with pre-stressed
CFRP had a 37 % increase in load before the steel yielded compared with
the unstressed beam NP and an increase in the cracking load of about 80 %
compared with the reference beam but the same ultimate load as NP.

Pre-stressed [P]
Not pre-stressed [NP]
Reference [Ref]
140
120 -
100
"o
ra
80
60
40 -
20
-i
10
20
30
40
50
60
Midspan. displacement [mm]
Figure 6. Results from bending test

From Figure 6, it can be noted that the stiffness of the beam was about
the same for non pre-stressed and pre-stressed beams but the pre-stressing
force has helped in delaying concrete cracking and yielding of the steel
reinforcement. It can also be noted that the non pre-stressed beam (NP) had
a larger deflection than the pre-stressed beams P. All strengthened beams
failed by fibre failure in the NSMR rod.
The strain distribution at midpoint of the beam can be seen in Figure 7.
The theoretical strain is calculated with Equation (3). The measurements are
taken just before the steel reinforcements started yielding and the theoretical
calculations are computed using that load.
CONCLUSIONS
The tests show a large increase in crack and steel yielding loads. The
increase in load for steel yielding can be very important for the service life.
The fatigue behaviour will improve and as a consequence the crack widths
will be smaller, which can result in increased durability.
The performed tests show promising results worthwhile to continue
work with in the future. The tests have shown that pre-stressing in slots

gives a very good bond for retaining the pre-stressing forces. However, for
better utilization of the pre-stress mechanical anchorage must be used.
300-1
Test
Theory
250-
200
*5j
I
i'r
-2000 -1000
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Compression and tension [fJ-str]
Figure 7. Strain changed over the height of the beam just before the steel
reinforcement yields
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support that has been provided by
SKANSKA AB, BPE Systems AB and The Development Fund of the
Swedish Construction Industry. Also Hakan Johansson and Georg
Danielsson at Testlab, Lulea University of Technology shall be
acknowledged for their help and support.
REFERENCES
1. Taljsten B., (2001), "Design guidelines - a Scandinavian approach",
International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering
CICE 2001 Ed. J.G. Teng, Hong Kong, ISBN: 0-08-043945-4
2. Taljsten B., (1998), Forstarkning av betongkonstruktioner med stalplat

och
avancerade
kompositmaterial
utsatta
for
vridning,
Forskningsrapport, Lulea tekniska universitet, Avdelningen for
konstruktionsteknik, Institutionen for Vag- och vattenbyggnad, 1998:01,
ISSN 1402-1528 (In Swedish)
3. Taljsten B., (1994), "Plate Bonding, Strengthening of Existing Concrete
Structures with Epoxy Bonded Plates of Steel or Fibre reinforced
Plastics" Doctoral Thesis 1994:152D, Div. of Structural Engineering,
Lulea University of Technology, ISSN 0348 - 8373, 308 pp.
4. Taljsten, B. and Carolin, A., (1999), "Strengthening of a concrete
railway bridge in Lulea with carbon fibre reinforced polymers - CFRP:
load bearing capacity before and after strengthening", Technical Report
1999:18, Lulea: Lulea University of Technology, Structural
Engineering. 61 pp
5. Taljsten B., (2000), "Forstarkning av befintliga betongkonstruktioner
med kolfibervav eller kolfiberlaminat, Dimensionering, material och
utfOrande", Teknisk Rapport, Lulea tekniska universitet, Avdelningen
for Konstruktionsteknik, 1999:12, ISSN 1402-1536, 1999, p 122 (In
Swedish).
6. Taljsten B., (1996), "Strengthening of concrete prisms using the platebonding technique", International Journal of Fracture 82: 253-266,
1996, 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in the Netherlands.
7. Taljsten B., (1997), "Strengthening of Beams by Plate Bonding",
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, November 1997, pp. 206212.
8. Taljsten, B., (2002): "Strengthening of existing concrete structures with
externally bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymers - design and execution".
Technical report. Lulea University of Technology, Division of structural
engineering
9. Garden H.N. and Hollaway L.C., (1998), "An experimental study of the
failure modes of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with prestressed carbon composite plates" Composites Part B, 411-424.
10. Wight R.G., Green M.F., Erki M.A., (1995), "Post-strengthening
concrete beams with pre-stressed FRP sheets" Non-metallic (FRP)
Reinforcement for Concrete Structures 1995, ISBN 0 419 20540
11. El-Hacha R., Wight G. and Green M., (2001), "Long-term behaviour of
concrete beams strengthened with pre-stressed CFRP sheets at room and
low temperatures", Conf. Proceedings: Concrete Under Severe
Conditions - Environment and Loading, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver June 18-20, 2001, Edt. Banthia N., Sakai K. and
Gjorv O.E., ISBN 0-88865-782-X, pp 1817 - 1826.
12. Wight G. and Erki M.A., (2001), "Pre-stressed CFRP for strengthening
concrete slabs in fatigue", International Conference on FRP
Composites in Civil Engineering CICE 2001 Ed. J.G. Teng, Hong Kong,
ISBN: 0-08-043945-4
13. De Lorenzis L., Nanni A. and La Tegola, A., (2000), "Flexural and
Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures with Near
Surface Mounted FRP Rods" Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges
and Structures, Proc. of 3rd Int. Conf, Ed. Humar, J.L. and Razaqpur,
A.G. Ottawa, ISBN: 0-7709-0447-5, pp. 521-528.
14. Carolin A., Nordin H. and Taljsten B., (2001), "Concrete beams
strengthened with pre-stressed near surface mounted reinforcement
(NSMR)" International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil
Engineering CICE 2001 Ed. J.G. Teng, Hong Kong, ISBN: 0-08043945-4, pp 1059-1066

STRENGTHENING OF ONE-WAY RC SLABS WITH

OPENINGS USING CFRP SYSTEMS
H. D. ZHAO AND K. H. TAN
Prototype one-way RC slabs with openings were strengthened with
externally bonded carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) systems and
tested to failure under concentrated line loads. Three failure modes, that is,
non-orthogonal flexural failure with CFRP debonding, interfacial CFRP
debonding and shear failure, were observed. The CFRP system effectively
restored the stiffness and loading-carrying capacity to those of the solid
slab provided that premature failure due to FRP debonding is excluded.
INTRODUCTION
Holes or openings are frequently found in floors because of stairs, elevators,
ducts, pipes, and the like. Previous investigations on the influence of
openings were generally analytical studies based on elastic or plastic
theories [Fluhr 1960; Prescott 1961; Lash and Banerjee 1967; Zaslavsky
1967; Islam and Park 1971; Bhatti and Lin 1996]. Only limited test results
were available to validate the design based on these theories [Armer 1968].
In many cases, openings are needed after construction to cater for a
change in utility, rehabilitation, or other reasons. These openings do not
only reduce the strength and stiffness of the floors, but they also transform
the original failure mode of the slab to some other failure patterns. Several
techniques including plate bonding and fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
systems that have been rapidly developed during the last decade [ACI 440R
1996] may be used to restore the original strength and stiffness of the floors.
In this study, tests were carried on one-way slabs with openings that are
strengthened with carbon FRP (CFRP) systems. The slabs were designed
for the same load carrying capacity as the solid slab. Test results are
presented and the effectiveness of the FRP system is discussed.

TEST PROGRAM
Test Slabs
Seven test slabs, each measuring 2700 mm by 2400 mm on plan and 150
mm in thickness as shown in Fig. 1, were prepared. Two support edge beams
were cast together with each slab, resulting in a net span length of 2300 mm.
A cylinder compressive strength/^ of 30 MPa is targeted for all slabs.
2700
r
- 111
_+
-- t-o -
i>8@
-~* ~
RAl (Internal Reinft.)
RA2 (w/o FRP), AS1
AS2
o-I55Dtl00
4,J
100g
1
TvuiPhc
ICFRrShisl 1
yb
>
550
r * MH 180
ItKj
550
J.l
100
480 I
i!
o
<N.
CFRP Stnps
AS3
AS5
AS6
Figure 1. Specimens, CFRP Strengthening Details and Strain-Gage
Instrumentation (All Dimensions in mm)
Each slab was internally reinforced with welded steel mesh at the
bottom, with 10 mm-diameter bars spaced at 100 mm in the span direction,
and 8 mm-diameter bars at 200 mm spacing in the transverse direction. The
mesh was placed at an average depth of 135 mm. For slabs with an opening,
the net distance between the opening edge and the adjacent parallel bars
was 50 mm, while the perpendicular bars were cut along the opening edge.
Each slab thus had a uniform longitudinal reinforcement ratio, psx, of 0.58%
and a transverse reinforcement ratio, psy, of 0.20%. The 0.2 per cent yield
strength for longitudinal and transverse steel bars were 600 and 640 MPa
respectively.
The detail geometry of test slabs is presented in Table 1. Slab RAl was
a solid slab while RA2 had an opening measuring 1100 mm by 1000 mm at
RC Slabs with Openings using CFRP Systems
1089
its center. Slabs AS 1 and AS5 were identical to RA2 except that they were
strengthened using CFRP sheets (wet lay-up laminate) and strips (procured
laminates) respectively. Slabs AS3 and AS6 also had an opening with the
same length of 1100 mm as AS1, but with different widths of 1400 mm and
600 mm, respectively. Slab AS2 had an opening measuring 700 mm by 600
mm at the center. The material properties of the CFRP systems are given in
Table 2.
Table 1.
Slabs Properties
Opening Size
Slab*
Length
cx mm
RA1
NA
RA2
1100
1100
AS1
AS2
AS3
AS5
AS6
WidthCy
mm
=cx/L0
NA
0.44
0.44
700
1100
1100
028
0.44
0.44
1100
0.44
Nominal Area of CFRP

~~Cy 1 Liy
Long.
Apx mm2
NA
NA
NA
1000
0.42
0.42
NA
0.16x1400
025
0.58
0.16x800
0.16x1000x2
0.42
025
12x200
0.16x800
1000
600
1400
1000
600
Py
Trans.
Apy mm2
NA
CFRP
System
NA
NA
NA
0.16x600
0.16x400"
0.16x400x2
Sheet
12x200
Sheet
Sheet
Ship
0.16x400
Sheet
Note: * Length Lx = 2700 mm, Width Ly = 2400 mm, Span L = 2500 mm, Slab thickness ft = 150 mm,
Effective Depth de = 135 mm; ** Diagonally Reinforced.
Table 2. Material Properties of CFRP Systems

System
1
2
Type
Nominal
Thickness
(mm/ply)
Ultimate
Strength
(MPa)
Design
Strength
(MPa)
Elastic
Modulus
(MPa)
Ultimate
Elong.
(%)
0.16
4275
3790
228,000
1.7
1.2
3050
2800
165,000
1.7
Wet lay-up
laminate
Procured
laminate
Strengthening Schemes
The strengthening schemes for Slabs AS 1 to AS6 are shown in Fig. 1.
CFRP sheets were used to strengthen the slabs, except Slab AS5 for which
CFRP strips were utilized. All the strengthened slabs were designed to carry
a total load equal to the load-carrying capacity of the solid slab RA1. The
preliminary design was based on Hillerborg's strip method [Hillerborg 1996]

in which the transverse reinforcement were assumed to transfer the loads to
the longitudinal reinforcement and thence to the supporting beams. A
design strength equal to 0.5 times the rupture strength of the FRP
composites was assumed and no special anchorage was considered in this
study.
All slabs were loaded by two line loads, with a pure bending zone of
1400 mm and a shear span of 550 mm on each side, as shown in Fig. 2.
"W
LVDT
Rockei/
550
o
n
L
J.
PJL
11'00
(|)10@100
Roller
550 l
8@200_
n
Ul
j20Q[
[
2300
Figure 2. Loading Scheme

General Behavior And Failure Modes
All strengthened slabs attained higher load capacity than unstrengthened
RA2, and some even achieved a higher load carrying capacity than the solid
slab RA1. A summary of test results is given in Table 3. Three failure
modes were observed.
Non-orthogonal flexural failure accompanied by FRP sheet debonding
This failure is characterized by critical flexural cracks that propagated from
the opening corners to the free edge of the slabs near the support, as
indicated by "AB" in Fig. 3(a). They are accompanied by shear cracks at
"CD" near the support, the occurrence of which is coupled with CFRP sheet
debonding. This failure mode occurs in slabs with a large opening to slab
width ratio,fiy,that is, in Slabs AS1 and AS3.
RC Slabs with Openings using CFRP Systems 1091

Table 3. Summary of Test Results
RA1
"a "S -
cea
imi
S it
^
3
Rei)
3
Peak
>-4
eak
AS3
AS5
AS6
106
64
66
106
46
72
104
1.89
1.86
1.76
1.75
0.91
1.39
1.58
24
375
25
227
26
419
32
393
25
342
28
282
32
391
20.05
20.04
19.98
20.02
19.99
16.48
20.02
86
89
165
120
188
111
198
3891
4255
N.A
463
N.A
250
2871
3245
3466
4315
3274
4809
3173
3108
3715
5474
452
496
27.67
22.44
28.53
29.28
106
98
178
152
5627
5480
N.A
513
N.A
307
5594
5455
5696
6494
477
558
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
371
324
537
44.83
53.68
27.71
39.48
22.68
37.94
40.81
118
121
188
170
204
127
164
>1500
0
11823
4969
9084
3805
6093
6758
CFRP(xlff )
N.A
N.A
5165
8680
5441
3350
8717
Load(kN)
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
255
359
299
28.69
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
484
65.39
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
N.A
Load(kN)
A (mm)
M. (kNm/m)
6
Rein. (xlO )
CFRPz(xl(f)
A (mm)
M. (kNm/m)
" Rein.(xl(T6)
CFRP(xl(f)
A (mm)
M. (kNm/m)
Rein.(xl(f)
6
2-
AS2
A (mm)
M. (kNm/m)
Load(kN)
a
AS1
LoadfkN)
Load(kN)
RA2
A (mm)
141
21.93
307
480
26.88
28.88
121
147
5394
3304
5651
6727
42.34
148
164
100
M. (kNm/m)
12055 8229
Rein.(xl(I6)
8670
4196
N.A
CFRP(xl06)
9876
4748
4249
* Corresponds to a deflection limit of about 20 mm as observed at 70% ultimate loads of
RA1 and RA2, except Slab AS5, for which it corresponds to a deflection at 70% of its
ultimate load.
(Note: A was measured at the mid-span of the slab; was the maximum measured value at
the mid-span section along the longitudinal direction.)
o
End interfacial debonding of CFRP reinforcement

The failure is characterized by debonding that initiated at or near one end of
the CFRP laminate, as indicated in Fig. 3(b). It occurs due to the high
interfacial shear and normal stresses near the end of CFRP reinforcement
and manifests in the case where a larger amount and hence a higher stiffness
of FRP reinforcement is used, as in Slabs ASS and AS6.
Slab shear failure
Shear failure will control when the flexural resistance exceeds the shear
resistance. As shown in Fig. 3(c), Slab AS2 failed in shear across the slab
width near one support. The FRP system was so effective that the slab
attained the highest load-carrying capacity among all the test specimens.
Bottom View
(a) failure Mode i CAS1, ASS)
Figure 3 Failure Modes
Load-deflection Characteristics
The load-deflection characteristics of the slabs are shown in Fig. 4. Each
slab exhibited linear behavior up to the cracking load. Beyond cracking, a
rapid change in the slope in the load-deflection curve was observed. With
further loading, yielding of internal reinforcement occurred in
unstrengthened slabs, at which point a plateau in the load-deflection curve
was observed, whereas the strengthened slabs exhibited drastic drop soon
after that.
Slab RA1 exhibited a stiffer response compared to RA2 as it did not
contain an opening. In both slabs RA1 and RA2, flexural cracks first
appeared in the pure bending region. Compared to RA1, the cracking load
of RA2 was reduced by approximately the ratio of opening width to slab
width, py With further loading, the cracks developed upward quickly and
RC Slabs with Openings using CFRP Systems 1093

new cracks occurred at a relative uniform spacing within the pure bending
region, and subsequently extended to the shear-span regions. After the crack
development had stabilized, the internal steel reinforcement started to yield
and deflection, as well as the crack width, increased rapidly at an
approximately constant load level. A ductile type of failure has occurred for
both slabs. RA2 reached a much lower failure load than RA1, the ratio of
which was again approximately equal to fiy.
Slabs strengthened using CFRP systems, especially AS1, AS2 and AS6,
exhibited similar stiffness as the solid slab RA1, indicating the slab stiffness
has been restored. Moreover, AS2 and AS6 attained a maximum load
comparable to solid slab RA1, while AS1 achieved a smaller ultimate load.
However, the strengthened slabs failed in a brittle manner, in contrast to a
more ductile behavior of the solid slab. Slabs AS3 and AS5 had slightly
lower cracking loads, due to a larger opening in the former, and the less
effective CFRP strips in the latter. Both AS3 and AS5, similar to AS1,
failed at a much lesser load than the solid slab.
Deflections measured along the transverse direction were basically
same, with the difference being less than 1.5 mm at the ultimate state.
20
30
40
50
Mid-Span Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Load vs. Mid-span Deflection Characteristics
Load-strain Characteristics
The load-strain diagrams for all slabs are similar in characteristics to the
respective load-deflection diagrams during the prior and post crack stage.
Once cracking occurred, there was a sudden strain increase in both internal
steel and external CFRP reinforcement. The increase was more obvious for
slabs strengthened with CFRP sheets concentrated near the opening (AS2,
AS6) than for slabs with FRP sheets spread over the remaining slab width
(AS1, AS3) or slabs strengthened with CFRP strips (AS5). Thereafter, the
strains increased steadily up to about 70 to 75 per cent of peak load. The
strains in the CFRP reinforcement were approximately the same as those in
the internal steel reinforcement at the same location.
After that, obvious divergence was observed due to local deformation
and stress concentration. For slabs where the internal steel reinforcement
has yielded (AS 1, AS2, AS6), a gradually ascending trend was observed for
the strains in the reinforcements. The remaining slabs, AS3 and AS5,
attained the peak load before the steel reinforcement yielded and no plateau
was observed. The maximum measured strains at peak load ranged between
0.7 to 0.9 per cent for Slabs AS2 and AS6, between 0.5 to 0.6 per cent for
Slabs AS1 and AS3, and between 0.3 and 0.4 per cent for Slab AS5.
The typical strain distributions are illustrated using the results for Slab
AS1, as shown in Fig. 5. The strains across the mid-span developed the
same pattern for both reinforcements, as shown by Figs. 5 (a) and (d). No
significant difference was observed between strains at the opening edge and
at the center of the remaining section. Comparatively, the strains in the
CFRP reinforcement increased slightly faster than the strains in the steel
reinforcement. Near failure of the slab, the strains in the CFRP
reinforcement increased rapidly, due to the yielding of steel reinforcement.
The strains along the section just ahead of opening are shown in Figs. 5
(b) and (e). Again, the strains in the steel bars were similar to those in the
CFRP reinforcement, and the values were slightly smaller than those at the
mid-span sections. The strains in the steel bars disturbed by the opening
increased much slower, while the strain at the opening corner (location Ci)
displayed an abrupt change at a load about 250 kN, and reached 0.1 per cent
at ultimate. The strains at the center of transverse edge of opening (location
di and d2) were low, being less than 0.02 per cent at failure.
The strains in the transverse reinforcement ahead of opening were
shown in Figs. 5 (c) and (f). The ultimate strain at the corner reached 0.15
to 0.2 per cent, while no significant strains were observed at the center.
R C Slabs with Openings using CFRP Systems 1095

600
(a) Steel Strain
500
_
z
400
&
300
100
200
4
6
Strain (xlo~ J )
600
500 5
400
(b) Steel Strain

1
4 P
/fl2
I. 300
o
ro
2 200
100
2
4
6
Strain (X10"1)
4
6
Strain (x10"a)
(f) CFRP Stra in
4
P/\ A
Ell's
'
2
4
6
Strain ( x 1 0 3 )
4
Strain (x10 3 )
Figure 5. Load-Strain Diagrams for Slab AS1

CONCLUSIONS
The behavior of one-way RC slabs with openings strengthened by CFRP
systems was investigated and the following conclusions are drawn:
(a) CFRP systems enhanced effectively the stiffness and load-carrying
capacity of RC slabs with an opening. All strengthened slabs exhibited
a higher load-carrying capacity than the unstrengthened slab RA2, with
some achieving a higher capacity than the solid slab RA1.
(b) When the opening size was small, normal flexural failure occurred. For
slabs with larger opening size, non-orthogonal flexural failure, initiated
by CFRP debonding from a critical crack was observed.
(c) Strengthening of openings using orthogonal CFRP reinforcement at the

transverse free edge is not as effective as placing the CFRP
reinforcement diagonally to the opening corners.
(d) CFRP sheets appear to provide a more effective strengthening system
than CFRP strips due to premature debonding failure associated with
the higher stiffness of the latter.
(e) CFRP debonding was observed as a premature failure mode, and
effective anchorage measures would be required to improve the
strengthening system.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 440, "State-of-the Art Report on Fiber Reinforced
Plastic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures", American
Concrete Institute, 1996, 66 pp.
2. Armer G. S. T., "Ultinate Load Tests of Slabs Designed by the Strip
Method", Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., Vol. 41, Oct. 1968, pp. 313-331.
3. Bhatti, M. A. and Lin B., "Effect of Openings on Deflections and
Strength of Reinforced Concrete Slabs". Recent developments in
deflection evaluation of concrete, ACI-SP161, 1996, pp. 149-164.
4. Fluhr, W. E. "Theoretical Analysis of Effects of Openings on the
Bending Moments in Square Plates with Fixed edges", Ph.D. thesis,
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 1960, 148 pp.
5. Hillerborg, A. "Strip Method Design Handbook", E & FN Spon, London,
1996,302 pp.
6. Islam, S. and Park R. "Yield-line Analysis of Two-Way Reinforced
Concrete Slabs with Openings", J. Inst. Struc. Eng., Vol. 49, No. 6,
1971, pp. 269-276.
7. Lash, S. D. and Banejee, A. "Strength of Simply Supported Square
Plates with Central Square Openings", Trans. Eng. Inst. Can., 10(A-5),
1967, pp. 3-11.
8. Prescott, W. S. "Analysis of Square Clamped Plates Containing
Openings with Stiffened Edges", Ph.D. thesis, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champign, 1961.
9. Zaslavsky, A., "Yield-line Analysis of Rectangular Slabs with Central
Openings", Proc. ACI, Vol.64, No.6, 1967, pp. 838-844.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS OF ONE-WAY SLABS WITH

OPENINGS STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP LAMINATES
P. CASADEI, T. IBELL AND A. NANNI
Engineering Research Laboratory, University of Missouri,
Rolla, MO 65409-0710, USA
One-way RC slabs are very common as a floor system in US structures. It
often happens that structures need to be renovated due to many factors,
such as placing new staircases, elevators, additional skylights or (more
often) wiring and ducts through the existing floor slabs. In these instances,
openings usually need to be created, weakening the existing floor system.
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) matrix composites can provide an efficient
method for strengthening slabs after installation of cut-outs, but it is
important to define guidelines for the designer, particularly when the
openings are created in the negative moment region. This paper presents
the results of an experimental program that investigated the behavior of RC
one-way continuous flat slabs with openings in both the positive and
negative moment regions, strengthened with externally-bonded CFRP
laminates following two different schemes of strengthening.
The
significance of this work is that instead of testing specimens manufactured
in the laboratory, the authors had the possibility of using as a research test
bed, an old parking garage scheduled for demolition. Experimental results
revealed that externally-bonded CFRP sheets can significantly increase the
flexural capacity of the system for those specimens containing an opening
in the positive moment region. For specimens with an opening in the
negative moment region and strengthened using top-surface CFRP
laminates, shear failure occurred at a lower load capacity than the original
unstrengthened specimen. This has considerable implications for the design
of such negative-moment strengthening schemes, and reasons for this
behavior are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening of existing reinforced concrete (RC) structures can arise for
many different reasons: upgrading the load-carrying capacity, the necessity
to make changes in the structure or the need to solve problems that have
occurred during construction. Holes in slabs are one of the most common
problems encountered. In these cases, installation of escalators, elevators or
utilities such as air conditioning, heating or wiring ducts is often required.
Depending on the type of upgrade, the position of the opening could be

either in the positive or negative moment region of the slab, creating
differing problems that cannot be addressed using the same philosophy.
To date, most research in this field has been conducted to understand
behavior of slabs containing openings placed in the positive moment region
to address the design issues that may rise when cutouts are created
(Zaslvasky 1967, Lash and Banerjee 1967, Islam and Park 1971). Over
the past ten years, the problem of strengthening slabs using FRP has been
addressed by researchers by substituting the previously commonly-used
steel plates, thereby overcoming many problems encountered using this
technique, such as weight and difficulty in handling (especially in areas
where access is limited), potential corrosion, length limitations and
difficulties associated with joints (Ichimasu et al. 1993, Arockiasamy et al.
1995, Karbhari et al. 1999, Takahashi and Sato 2001, Teng et al. 2002).
Another important aspect that seems to have been neglected in such
research is the role that boundary conditions play in a continuous flat RC
slab. Enhancement in flexural strength of RC slabs due to horizontal
restraint at the boundaries has been amply demonstrated through both
theoretical and experimental work, showing that increase in strength due to
compressive membrane forces induced at the boundary restraints can be
substantial (Andreasen and Nielsen 1986, Lahlouh and Waldron 1992).
The research described in this paper is part of an ongoing effort to
investigate the use of FRP as a means of strengthening and repairing
concrete slabs containing cutouts. The uniqueness of this work is related to
the use as a test bed of an existing parking garage, which had been
scheduled for demolition. The results of tests on this structure are described.
Building characteristics
The parking garage used for the tests was located in St. Louis, Missouri,
and was scheduled for demolition in July 2002. The structure was
constructed in the 1950s, consisting of a concrete-encased steel frame,
supporting a one-way RC floor system (see Figure la and lb). Due to the
old age of the structure, no construction or maintenance records were
available from the owner. For this reason, a field investigation to evaluate
geometry and material properties of the structure was carried out.
RC Slabs with Openings with CFRP Composites 1099
\ ~ T" "1
1111
m
Ym.
vil ...
mzZ^&M
mm
11
^
1
4\
4L
-ilk
(b) Slab Detail
(c) Plan View and Test Matrix Outline

Figure 1-Parking Garage
Based on the survey, it was determined that the typical RC slab was 5.5
in (14 cm) thick, 16.8 ft (512 cm) long and 8.38 ft (255 cm) wide. The main
reinforcement consisted of one layer of #4 (12 mm) steel bars spaced 12 in
(30 cm) center-to-center at mid span, and #4 steel bars spaced 12 in (30 cm)
center-to-center at the support in the E-W direction. In the N-S direction,
#4 steel bars, spaced 18 in (45.7 cm) center-to-center were used as
temperature and shrinkage reinforcement. All steel bars tested showed an
average yield strength of fy = 60 ksi (fy = 415N/mm2). Concrete properties
were evaluated using six cores taken from different locations in the slab
prior to testing and an average concrete cylinder strength of f c = 4500 psi
(f c = 31 N/mm2) was found.
Test mmtrm
A total of six one-way square slab specimens were available to be tested
within the deck of the garage (see Figure lc), by saw-cutting the deck (Ml
depth) along carefully defined lines. Two different series of tests are
described in this paper.
In the first, three slabs (SI to S3, see Figure 2a) were tested to failure to
investigate the effectiveness of CFRP-strengthening schemes for slabs with
cutouts centered at mid span. All test slabs were of the same dimensions of
102 in x 97 in x 5.5 in (259 cm x 246 cm x 14 cm). Each slab had
approximately eight #4 bars as bottom reinforcement at mid span and the
same amount as top reinforcement at the support, spanning one third of the
span in each direction. Specimen SI served as the control specimen with

opening of dimensions 35 in x 20 in (89 cm x 51 cm) but with no
strengthening, while the other two slabs (S2 - S3) were both strengthened
using CFRP laminates in a wet lay-up application. The sheets had ultimate
strength of 550 ksi (3790 MPa), tensile elastic modulus of 33,000 ksi
(228,000 MPa), and each had a nominal thickness of 0.0065 in (0.16 mm).
The concrete surface was first sandblasted to assure good bond. The
external reinforcement was applied in two ways, namely strengthening only
on the bottom side (slab S2) and on both top and bottom sides (slab S3).
Slab S2 contained two strips of two plies, each 12 in (30 cm) wide and 91 in
(231 cm) long. Slab S3 had the same quantity of fiber on the bottom face
but also contained four strips on the top surface.
Bottom Strengthening
CFRP Laminates
S3
Steeleirder
(a) SI-S3
(b)S4-S6
Figure 2- Geometry and Detail of Strengthening of Slabs
In the second series of tests, three slabs (S4 to S6, see Figure 2b) with
openings cut in the negative moment region were tested to failure. Isolation
cuts were performed as in the first series of slabs. Slab S4 served as control
specimen and slabs S5 and S6 were prepared using the same philosophy
followed for the first series of specimens. The dimensions of the openings
were the same as for slabs SI-S3 with the only difference being that for this
series, the opening was cut very close to the support (~ 2 in (5 cm) from the
edge of the steel joist). The external reinforcement was applied in a similar
fashion to slabs S2 and S3: slab S5 was strengthened only on the top
surface, centered over the support, by applying a total of two strips with two
plies each, each of them 12 in (30 cm) wide and 70 in (178 cm) long; slab
S6 had the same amount of strengthening on the top face as slab S5, but also
had four strips on the underside, positioned as for specimen S2.

Test setup
Two different, but conceptually identical, setups were used to test the two
series of specimens. A closed loop scheme was chosen for both test series,
as shown in Figure 3.
m
m
m
Section View
Top View
Figure 3-Test Set Up
The slabs SI-S3 were loaded at four concentrated points in order to
engage the entire cross section and to simulate a distributed load around the
opening. Slabs S4-S6 were loaded over eight points to achieve maximum
moment over the support where the opening had been cut. The load was
applied in cycles in both cases through hydraulic jacks connected to the
same pump, and measured using a 200-Mp (900 kN) load cell.
Displacements were measured at eleven significant points using linear
variable differential transformers (LVDTs). The strains in the external
reinforcement were measured using strain gages (see Figure 4).
L9. *
ZZ3
3ZZ3
Strain gages
LVDT's
Figure 4 - LVDTs and Strain Gage Positions

Specimens
S1-S3
The slabs tested with an opening at midspan experienced flexural failure.

Table 1 reports the test results.
Slab
SI
S2
S3
Table 1. Test Results for SI-S3

MaxFRP
Failure load,
Load capacity
elongation
as
kip (kN)
(%)
% of ultimate
69 (307)
90 (400)
76 (337)
N/A
20.6%
17.6%
100
130
110
Failure mode
Flexure (crash)
Flexure (delam.)
Flexure (delam.)
(aj LieDoncimg of Laminates

(b) Laminate-Concrete Bond
Figure 5- Failure Modes for SI-S3
Flexural cracks started first at midspan, then deeloped diagonally from
the comers of the opening. The slab failed by crashing of the concrete on
the top surface with extensive cracking on the bottom face and, where
strengthening was present, by FRP debonding (see Figure 5a) immediately
afterwards. The debonding was caused by flexural cracks developed
diagonally from the comers and crossing the strips of laminates. Parts of
the concrete cover remained attached to the laminate, showing good bond
between laminate and concrete substrate (see Figure 5b).
Figure 6 shows the Load vs Deflection curves for series SI-S3. It n a y
be observed that the capacity of the strengthened slab S2 was increased by
approximately 30% with respect to the unstrengthened SI. Unexpectedly,
slab S3 failed at a lower load than slab S29 achieving only a 10% increase
with respect to SI. Reasons for this behavior are discussed when specimens
S5 and S6 are considered, next.

FRP debonding was experienced in both strengthened specimens. In
slab S3, only 2 1 % of the ultimate strain capacity of the CFRP was reached
due to premature debonding caused by extensive cracking. All three slabs
exhibited wide cracks, propagating radially from the corners of the opening
towards the supports.
This crack pattern confirms the high stress
concentration near the corners of openings. On the top face, cracks
developed circularly around the opening.
Central Deflection (cm)
0
6
i
40000
Central Deflection (in)
Figure 6- Load vs Deflection Curves for SI-S3

Specimens S4-S6
The slabs tested with an opening near to the support line all experienced
shear failure in the concrete near the support, with no positive contribution
from the FRP. Table 2 shows the test results.
Slab
S4
S5
S6
Table 2. Test Results for S4-S6

Max FRP
Load capacity
Failure load,
elongation as %
kip (kN)
(%)
of ultimate
52 (231)
N/A
100
41 (182)
19.8%
79
48 (214)
20.6%
92
Failure mode
Shear
Shear
Shear
1104 FRPRCS-6; Structural Strengthening
On the side of the opening, a shear plane was initiated, developing

diagonally from the upper face of the slab towards the steel joist (Figure 7a
and 7b). Failure was sudden.
(a) Shear Plane Failure

(b) Shear Failure
Figure 7- Failure Modes for S4-S6
Figure 8 shows the Load vs Deflection curves for series S4-S6. All
slabs failed in shear. Clearly, the strengthening scheme adopted here could
not return the slab to its original strength prior to the hole having been cut.
In fact, the 'strengthening5 seems to have precipitated premature failure at a
load well below the unstrengthened specimen S4. Specimen S5, with only
top-surface laminates, seems to have been particularly weakened by the
presence of the FRP.
Central Deflection (em)
1
PU
-4
T
0.2
0.4
Central Deflection (in)
Figure 8- Load vs Deflection Curves for S4-S6
In specimen S5, the presence of the top-surface laminates would have

extended the elastic range of the section at maximum negative (hogging)
moment. This would have 'attracted' bending moment from the more
compliant positive (sagging) moment region, increasing the shear at the
internal support. Given the reduction in available shear contribution from
the concrete (due to the cutout), premature shear failure occurred. The
presence of the soffit laminates in specimen S6 increased the capacity over
that of specimen S5, presumably by restricting the wholesale concentration
of bending moment at the internal support through increasing the elastic
range of the positive moment region.
Specimen S3, previously, failed at a lower capacity than S2. Specimen
S3 contained top-surface laminates and it is likely that this reduction in
strength occurred for similar reasons to those outlined above for specimens
S5 and S6. Note that specimen S3 did not fail in shear, but flexure, as the
ability of specimen S3 to resist shear was rather good all round the support
lines. It is the additional elastic bending moment demand at the internal
supports that caused flexural failure in specimen S3.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this experimental program:
a) Application of strips of CFRP laminates to strengthen slabs with cutouts
in the positive moment region shows that the method is effective, with
an increase in load of approximately 30% being achieved.
b) Shear failure was found to be the controlling mechanism when cutouts
were placed in the negative moment region of one-way slabs. It has
been shown that externally-applied CFRP laminates are not effective
under such conditions, as they tend to increase the shear demand on the
concrete, possibly leading to catastrophic premature failure if the shear
strength is insufficient.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge financial support from the National
Science Foundation Industry/University Cooperative Research Center at the
University of Missouri-Rolla. Thanks are due to the Western Group for the
cutting of the deck and sandblasting, and to Master Contractors for the
installation of the FRP laminates. St Louis County provided the
opportunity for testing of the structure.
REFERENCES
1. ACI (2002) Guide for The Design and Construction of Externally
Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Structures, ACI
440.2R-02, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
2. Arockiasamy, M., Sowrirajan, R., Shahawy, M. and Beitelman, T.E.
(1995) "Concrete beams and slabs retrofitted with CFRP laminates."
Proc. of the 11th Conf on Eng. Meek, ASCE, New York, 776-779.
3. Casadei, P., Nanni, A., and Ibell, T. (2003). "Experiments on Two-Way
RC Slabs with Openings Strengthened with CFRP Laminates,"
Proceedings ofAdvancing with Composites 2003, on occasion of "Plast
2003, May 7-9, Milano, Italy.
4. Ichimasu, H., Maruyama, M, Watanabe, H., and Hirose, T. (1993). "RC
slabs strengthened by bonded carbon FRP plates: Part 1-Laboratory
Study." FRPRCS, ACISP-138, A. Nanni, and C. W. Dolan, 933-955.
5. Islam, S. and Park., R. (1971). "Yield-Line Analysis of Two Way RC
Slabs with Openings." J. Inst. Struct. Eng., Vol. 49, No. 6, 269-276.
6. Karbhari, V. M., Seible, F., Seim, W., and Vasquez, A. (1999). "Poststrengthening of concrete slabs." FRPRCS4, ACI SP-188, C. W. Dolan,
S. H. Rizkalla and A. Nanni, American Concrete Institute, 1163-1173.
7. Lahlouh, E.-H., and Waldron, P. (1992). "Membrane action in one-way
slab strip." Proc. ICE-Structures & Buildings, 94(4), 419-428.
8. Lash, S.D., Banerjee, A. (1967). "Strength of Simply Supported Square
Plates with Central Square Openings." Trans. Eng. Inst. Can., Vol. 10,
No.A-5,3-11.
9. Takahashi, Y., and Sato, Y. (2001). "Experimental study on the
strengthening effect of a CFRP sheet for RC slabs." FRPRCS5, Thomas
Telford, Cambridge, UK, 989-996.
10. Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T., and Lam, L. (2002) "Flexural
Strengthening of Slabs." FRP Strengthened RC Structures, John Wiley
&Sons, 135-146.
11. Zaslvasky, A. (1967). "Yield-Line Analysis of Rectangular Slabs with
Central Openings." Proceedings ACI, Vol. 64, 838-844.
12. Zhang, J. W., Teng, J. G., Wong, Y. L., and Lu, Z. T. (2001). "Behavior
of two-way RC slabs externally bonded with steel plate." Journal of
Structural Engineering, ASCE, 127(4), 390-397.

SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

BEAM-COLUMN JOINT STRENGTHENED WITH GFRP
Y. OUYANG AND X. L. GU
Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University,
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
Y. H. HUANG
Department of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University,
Quanzhou, Fujian 362011, P. R. China
Z. Z. QIAN
College of Building Engineering, Zhejiang University,
Yuquan, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310027, P. R. China
In this paper, six full-scale concrete beam-column joints externally
strengthened with GFRP jacket under the cyclic reversed loading are tested
for seismic strengthening. The experiment results indicate that this kind of
strengthening technique is highly effective. Both shear capacity and
deforming capability of the joint strengthened with GFRP jacket are
improved obviously. Based on the testing results, a method to calculate
ultimate shear capacity of the beam-column joint core region, which takes
into account the action of concrete, steel hoop and GFRP jacket, is proposed.
Theoretical results have good match with that acquired in the test.
INTRODUCTION
There are many existing reinforced concrete frame structures that do not meet the
current seismic design code provisions now in China. The development of a
reliable and effective strengthening system is very important in reducing the risk
of damage or collapse of these structures. Many methods, such as concrete and
steel jacketing, can be employed to strengthen the reinforced concrete
beam-column joint1. But the FRP jacket is competitive due to its high tensile
strength, good corrosion resistance, non-magnetic properties and high
strength-to-weight ratio2"4.
In this study, the results of an experimental program aimed at investigating
the behavior of beam-column joints strengthened by GFRP jacketing is described.
Based on the results of tests conducted on six reinforced concrete beam-column
joints with different shear reinforcement ratios in the joint area, a calculation
method was proposed for joints without floor slab and transverse beams. This
analytical method considers the actions of the concrete, the steel hoop and the
GFRP jacket.
Specimen Details
Six full-scale reinforced concrete beam-column joints were constructed. All
specimens are of identical dimension, as shown in Figure 1. The longitudinal
steel bars in beams and columns of six specimens are identical. The only
difference was the shear reinforcement in the joint, as shown in Table 1. The
GFRP jacket is shown in Figure 2. The strengthening methods and the
amounts of GFRP jacket for all of specimens are identical.
Table 1. Shear stirrups and strengthening status of joints
Specimen
Shear stirrups
Ratio of shear
reinforcement
Strengthening
status
Al-1
Al-2
A2-1
A2-2
A3-1
A3-1R
A3-2
408
408
5010
5010
5012
5012
5012
0.75%
0.75%
1.47%
1.47%
2.12%
2.12%
2.12%
Not
GFRP
Not
GFRP
Not
GFRP
GFRP
Material Properties
Table 2 presents the main mechanical properties of the reinforcing steel bar
and the GFRP jacket. The average concrete compressive strength is 23.6 MPa,
the tensile strength is 2.1 MPa, and the elastic modulus is 25500 MPa.
Table 2. Material properties of the steel bar and the GFRP jacket
/,(MPa)
E (MPa)
08
302
/.(MPa)
420
010
258
422
2.1xl0 5
012
390
548
2.1xl0 5
018
357
582
2.1xl0 5
022
363
566
2.1xl0 5
l.lxlO4
GV^P jacket
230
2.1xl0 5
Seismic Behaviour ofRC Beam-Column Joint 1109
1050
4*18
1
1
400
2500
11
11
*4=L
4*18
$8-100 J250|
1-1
12*22
#8-100 I
1050
' 1
400
2-2
1700
1700
1400
3800
Figure 1. Details of joints
noo
600
1400
600
HOP
3800
Figure 2. GFRP jacket
Test Set-up
The test set-up is shown in Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5. The specimen was
subjected to a cyclic loading pattern using two jacks in the end of the beam.
Data from load cells, displacement transducers, and strain gauges were
recorded using a computer controlled data acquisition system.
Specimen A3-1 was tested to crack in the joint area, and then
strengthened with GFRP jacket, and designated as A3-1R. Specimens Al-2,
A2-2, and A3-2 were strengthened with GFRP jacket before tests.

Reaction
frame
Jack
Load cell
Displacement
traHsSucer"
(h
tSr-=
rkuire 4. Photo of Tost set-up
Xtt
32=3,
lp
16
Loading
cycles
10 ESSE
Figure 5. Arrangement of strain

gauges in GFRP jacket
Figure 6. Loading routine

The axial load for all specimens is 300kN, which was applied by a jack on
the top of the column (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The loading system at the ends
of beams was initially force-controlled, followed by displacement controlled
after yielding of longitudinal steel bars in beams. The loading sequence is
shown in Figure 6. Testing was continued until the specimen lost its ability to
resist an applied load of approximately 85 percent of the ultimate load.
Load-displacement Relationship
The load-displacement relationship curves acquired from the test are shown
in Figure 7. Table 3 shows the cracking load, Pa, yielding load, Py,
displacement at yielding load, A y, ultimate load, Pu, and ultimate
displacement, Aa, for all the specimens.
Table 3. Result of tests
Joint
AM
A1-2
A2-1
A2-2
A3-1
A3-1R
A3-2
0.164
0.211
0.185
0.214
Per
(kN)
40.3
43.5
(kN)
70.85
94.76
82.30
91.88
(kN)
81.8
104.5
91.9
106.3
(mm)
16.01
20.64
17.60
23.03
(mm)
45.80
57.30
38.11
55.16
88.23
90.70
109.5
108.0
25.02
19.83
62.14
55.22
44.8
0.221
0.218
Note: j=the ratio of shear and compression of the joint,
1, in which
Kj=the shear force carried by the joint area, bj =the width of the joint area, b^=bc,
6c=the width of the column, Aj=the depth of the joint area, hj=hb, /zb=the depth of the
beam.
Specimens A1-2 and A2-2 showed better deforming capability (6Ay) than
non-strengthened specimens, Al-1 (5Ay) and A2-1 (4Ay). Pre-cracked
specimen A3-1R showed almost the same deforming capability as the
specimen A3-2.
During the loading cycle Ay, strengthened specimen A1-2 had the
stiffness equivalent to the non-strengthened specimen Al -1. After the loading
cycle Ay, the GFRP jacket carried the shear force in the joint, and improved
the flexural behavior of the beam by confining the concrete. So the/stiffness

of A1-2 was improved obviously. The yield load and ultimate load of A1-2
was higher than Al-1, as shown in Figure 8.
-80
-40
0
40 80
Displacement / mm
(a) Al-1
(b)Al-2
-80
-40 0
40 80
Displacement / mm
(c)A2-l
(d)A2-2
-80
-40
40
80
Displacement / mm
(e)A3-lR
(f)A3-2
Z
-80
-40
0
40
80
Displacement / mm
-40
-80
40 80
Displacement / mm
-80
-40
0
40 80
Displacement / mm
I3U
3 75
^
0
S1 -75
- -150
1
-80
^r
-40
0
40 80
Displacement / mm
(g)A3-l
igure 7. Loid-displacem ent relations hips

The shear reinforcements of specimen A2-1 and A2-2 are more than Al-1
and A1-2. After the loading cycle 2Ay, the load-displacement envelope of
non-strengthened specimen A2-1 begin to go down, but that of strengthened
specimen A2-2 was still going up, as shown in Figure 8.

The behavior of the pre-cracked specimen A3-1R is same as the specimen
A3-1 during the loading cycle Ay, as shown in Figure 7. During the loading
cycle 2Ay to 3 Ay, the stiffness of the specimen A3-1R was higher than A 3 - 1 ,
but lower than specimen A3-2. After the loading cycle 4Ay, the behavior of
A3-1R was equivalent to A3-2.
150
75
0
-75
150
150
75
0
-75
150
-/=^>
-80
-.40, 0
,40
Displacement / mm
(a)Al-l andAl-2
150
75
X<^>
s
-80
80
-.40, 0
,40
Displacement / mm
80
(b)A2-landA2-2
y 2P ""~'^
B)
o -75
-150
-A3-1
-Ai-IR
~a-7
-80
-40
0
40
Displacement / mm
80
(c)A3-l,A3-lRandA3-2
Figure 8. Load-displacement envelopes
Typical Failure Modes

Specimen Al-1, with low shear reinforcement in the joint, showed concrete
peeling off in the joint, flexural and shear cracks in the beam, and the mode of
failure was shear failure in the joint. Specimen A2-1, with the medium shear
reinforcement in the joint, showed many intersecting diagonal cracks in the
joint, more flexural and shear cracks in the beam than Al-1, but the concrete
did not peel off. The mode of failure was shear failure in the joint and plastic
hinge in the beam.
Specimen A1-2 showed a large flexural crack in the beam at the face of
column, and many cracks in the joint area. When the GFRP jacket was
removed, it was found that the concrete at the top and the bottom surface of
the beam was crushed. That showed, for the low shear reinforced joint
strengthened with GFRP jacket, the mode of failure changed from shear
failure in the joint (Al-1) to shear failure in the joint and plastic hinge in the
beam (A 1-2), and the deformation behavior was improved.

The failure mode of A2-2 was the same as A2-1 that was not been
strengthened by the GFRP jacket. But the GFRP jacket carried the shear force,
delayed the shear failure in the joint, and improved the ultimate capacity and
deformation ability of the joint.
The failure modes of specimen A3-1R and A3-2, designed to fail with a
plastic hinge in the beam, were not changed after strengthening with GFRP
jacket, but the plastic hinge in the beam was concentrated on the section at the
face of the column.
SHEAR CAPACITY OF THE JOINT
The shear ultimate capacity of the joint, Vu can be conservatively estimated
as:
v=vc + vs + vF
(i)
in which, Kc=the shear carried by the concrete in the joint area, Ks=the shear
carried by the shear reinforcement in the joint, and KF=the shear carried by the
GFRP jacket.
Based on the Chinese Code (GBJ10-89)5, the concrete contribution, Vc,
and the shear steel contribution, Vs, can be estimated as:
Vc= 0.1(1+ -^-)fcbjhj
(2)
Ve=^{hbQ-a;)
(3)
in which,/ c =the concrete compressive strength, &c=the width of the column,

/zc=the depth of the column, by = the width of the joint area, /zj=the depth of the
joint area,^ y =the yield strength of shear reinforcement in the joint, ;4sv=the
area of shear reinforcement in the joint, and 5=the spacing of transverse
reinforcement in the joint.
The shear strength enhancement provided by the GFRP jackets can be
conservatively estimated by considering the jacket to act as a series of
independent hoops. As shown in the test, although the GFRP is elastic
material, no GFRP was found to reach the ultimate strain and break. When
calculating the shear strength enhancement by the GFRP jacket in the joint
area, the ultimate strength and ultimate strain of GFRP could not be used.
Just as normal shear reinforcement, the shear strength enhancement, V,

provided by the GFRP jacket can be written as:
VF=2tFEFeFe(h0-a-)
(4)
in which, fF=the thickness of GFRP jacket, F =the elastic modulus of GFRP

jacket, -Fe=the effective strain of GFRP jacket when joint reach ultimate
stage, in this study, fF,e changes from 0.313% to 0.734%.
The calculated results agree with the test results well, as shown in Table 4,
in which the test results Vt are obtained from the applied load value
considering equilibrium condition. Because of the load history, the error of
the pre-cracked specimen A3-1R is bigger.
Table 4. Comparison of test results Vt and calculated results Vu
Specimen
(us)
FF
(kN)
(kN)
(kN)
0.850
196.2
529.6
714.4
622.7
7430
795.5
0.898
610.1
699.5
0.872
^F.e
(kN)
(kN)
Al-1
407.6
122.0
Al-2
407.6
122.0
A2-1
407.6
202.5
A2-2
407.6
202.5
3126
82.5
692.6
809.3
0.856
A3-1R
407.6
440.7
4865
128.4
976.7
822.2
1.188
A3-2
407.6
440.7
1667
44.0
892.3
833.6
1.070
CONCLUSIONS
An experimental program was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the
reinforced beam-column joint strengthened with GFRP jacket. Results of the
test showed that GFRP jacket enhanced the reinforced concrete joint both in
the ultimate shear capacity and the deformation ability, and changed the
failure mode of a joint from shear failure in the joint to shear failure in the
joint and plastic hinge in the beam. The GFRP jacket enhanced shear ultimate
shear capacity and deformation ability of the joint in the same manner as
shear reinforcement. The effectiveness of GFRP jacket depended on the
effective strain. The GFRP jacket acted as an extremely efficient form of
lateral confinement, enhancing the ultimate concrete compressive strength
and strain, and improved the flexural bearing capacity and deformation ability
of the beam and the column. A method for calculating the shear ultimate
capacity of the joint strengthened with GFRP jacket was proposed.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Ghobarah A., Tarek S. Aziz, and Ashraf Biddah, "Rehabilitation of

Reinforced Concrete Frame Connections Using Corrugated Steel
Jacketing", ACIStructural Journal, V.94, No.3, 1997, pp283-293.
Prota A., Nanni A., Manfredi G., and Cosenza E., "Selective Upgrade of
Beam-column Joints with Composites", FRP Composites in Civil
Engineering, Vol.1, 2001, pp919-926.
Antonopoulos
C.P.and
Triantafillou
T.C.,
"Analysis
of
FRP-strengthened RC Beam-column Joints", FRP Composites in Civil
Engineering, Vol.1, 2001, pp927-936.
Gergely, J., Pantelides, C.P. and Reaveley, L.D., "Shear Strengthening
of RC T-Joints Using CFRP Composites", Journal of Composites for
Construction, ASCE, 4:2, 2001, pp56-64.
"Design Code of Concrete Structures (GBJ10-89)", China Construction
Industry Press, Beijing, 1989

FRP SEISMIC STRENGTHENING OF

COLUMNS IN FRAMES
M. A. CIUPALA, K. PILAKOUTAS AND N. TARANU
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, The University of Sheffield
Mappin Street, Sheffield SJ 3JD, UK
The paper presents some of the existing models for concrete confinement of
rectangular columns using FRP and shows how these can be implemented
in the strengthening design of columns. Different types and amounts of FRP
materials (CFRP, GFRP and AFRP) are examined to improve the inelastic
deformation capacity of flexural plastic hinge regions in columns. The
results show that the models differ in their predictions significantly and that
more experimental work is required.
INTRODUCTION
Seismic strengthening of RC frames represents an important challenge for
engineers in countries with seismic risk. Currently, FRP systems are being
used in many such countries, despite the fact that there are concerns
regarding the ability of FRP to dissipate energy. This concern is misguided
since FRP is normally used to confine concrete columns rather than provide
flexural reinforcement. For a confinement material, the objective is to
prevent the lateral dilation of concrete and, hence, the lack of ductility of
FRP is not necessarily an issue.
The problems with the use of FRP wrapping for confinement are: (a)
most existing models for confined concrete and strengthening design
guidelines are based on steel confinement, (b) confinement of rectangular
sections is not well understood and (c) the confinement needs to be
extended into the joints and that creates practical difficulties. This paper
aims to address some of the issues associated with the first two problems.
This work forms part of a wider research program undertaken at the
Centre of Cement and Concrete at The University of Sheffield, UK, in
collaboration with the EU TMR Network ConFibreCrete and the EU
Ecoleader research project. Within this project three full scale 3D - two
storey RC frames will be constructed, damaged on the earthquake simulator
and repaired at the Tamaris Laboratory, CEA Saclay, France.

The paper will present the preliminary design of the FRP strengthening for
the columns of the frame which aims to achieve an enhanced seismic behaviour.
RC FRAME DESCRIPTION
The frame is made of RC with 4 m square floors and four corner columns as
shown in Figure 1(a). The beams of the frame have dimensions 260x400
mm and the columns of the frame have dimensions 260x260 mm. Column
details are shown in Figure 1(b).
LJ
3.3 m
3.3 m
4.0 m ,
K
30 O6/200O14
d=260
f
/4.0 m
b=260
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. RC frame details: (a) Frame view; (b) Columns cross-section
The frame is designed using old standards and has relatively poor
detailing and limited ductility, failing in a sway mechanism. Pushover
analysis of the frame was carried out to determine the failure mechanism,
shown in Figure 2, and later on to assess the effect of strengthening
interventions.
I,
Z100
80
60
40
20
0
Tp2f
"Y
collapse
First yielding
0.1
0.2
0.3
Top displacement (m)
Figure 2. Pushover analysis results for the frame
Seismic Strengthening of Columns in Frames 1119
DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR PLASTIC HINGE CONFINEMENT

During the shaking table testing, the columns of the frames are expected to
experience large inelastic rotations in plastic hinges at a relatively low seismic
excitation. The aim of the strengthening is to enable the frame to sustain a prespecified higher level of seismic excitation through enhancing the ductility
capacity of the columns and preferably through a different mechanism. The
curvature ductility factor, ju , = <f>u I' </>y, and the displacement ductility factor,
MA = Aw Iky, are commonly used to quantify the ductility of the seismic
performance of sections and structural elements1'2. The curvatures <j> and </>u
are the curvatures atfirstyield and at ultimate limit state and can be calculated
from sectional curvature analysis. The displacements Ay and Au are the
displacements atfirstyield and ultimate limit state, respectively.
The relationship between curvature ductility and displacement ductility
factors is given by1:
MA - 1
^=1+
3(Lp/L)\^-0.5Lp/L)
where L is the distance from the critical section of the plastic hinge to the
point of contraflexure and Lp is the length of the plastic hinge region1
which is calculated based on the yield stress, fy ,and the diameter of the
longitudinal rebars, dg,(L = 0.08Z + 0.022 fyd,
f.
The design procedure of the required thickness of the FRP for plastic
hinge confinement has been described by numerous authors2'3'4'5. In general,
for a target displacement ductility//, , the required curvature ductility //,
is calculated from Eq. (1). The required ultimate compressive strain of FRPconfined concrete is then given by:
cu=0u-x = Mt-0y-x
(2)
where x is the neutral axis depth. The yield curvature t/>y can be found by a
moment-curvature analysis. The required thickness of the FRP for the
plastic hinge confinement can then be calculated using an appropriate
confinement model as presented in the next section.

MODELS FOR FRP-CONFINED RECTANGULAR COLUMNS
Numerous stress-strain models exist for FRP-confined circular columns.
However, these are not directly applicable to rectangular RC columns where
the concrete is not uniformly confined by the FRP jacket.
This section presents selected stress-strain models for FRP-confined
rectangular columns. These will be used in the next section in which
different types of FRP jacket (CFRP, AFRP, GFRP) will be examined so
that a target displacement ductility is achieved.
Mander's Model and Modifications
A model initially proposed by Mander et al.6for steel-confined concrete
has been extended to circular and rectangular FRP-confined RC columns by
several researchers7'8'9. The confined concrete strength fcc
developed for
circular section is given by :

fcc = fco\ 2.254J1 + 7.94/, I fco - 2 / , I fco - 1.254
where fco
(3)
is the unconfined concrete compressive strength and / , is the
effective lateral confining pressure induced by the FRP jacket. For rectangular
sections the lateral confining pressure differs in the two orthogonal axes of the
column. In this case the confined concrete strength is given by9:
fee ~
a a
(4)
\ 2Jco
where the coefficients a, and a 2 are defined as
ax =1.25 1.8,11 + 7.94-^fc

f
fly
a2 = 1.4-0.6
f 'A
fliy
yfhj
-0.8
-\.6-r--\
(5a)
'A. + 1
J co
(5b)
The effective confining pressures In the two orthogonal directions, /&

and ffy induced by FRP jacket (fix>fiy%
fl9x
=k
^Ppfj
and
fi9y
=k
where
ePjyfj,
can be calculated as
ke is the effective coninement
ratio, pjx and pjy are confinement volumetricratiosin the * and y directions
and fj is the stress in the FRP jacket.
The effective confinement ratio ke for rectangular sections is given by
the ratio of effectively confined concrete core, Ae, to the area of concrete
enclosed by the FRP jacket, Ac, as follows (see Figure 3):
h
kg
,2
+d
ghPsc
'K)l
(6)
~Psc
v/here Ag =bd-(4-7r)r
Is the gross area of the column section with
rounded comers and psc is the longitudinal reinforcement ratio.

FRP
jacket
Effectively
confined
concrete core
Unconfined
concrete
h__bM>2r_H
Figure 3. Effectively confined concrete core for rectangular sections
Confinement volumetric ratios In the x and y directions, pjx and pjy3

and the stress in the jacket,/y, are defined as pjX=2tj/d
and
pjx = 2tj lb, where t} is the thickness of the FRP jacket, Ej and ej are
the Young's modulus and the strain In the FRP jacket, respectively.

i
In the case of square columns / , = / , = / , and the confinement

volumetrici ratio, pj = Pjx + Pjy =2(2tj Ib)\ In this case a 2 = 1 an<i //
becomes f{ = kePjfj = ke(4tj I b)fj .
Spoelstra and Monti Model
Spoelstra and Monti8 developed a model to deal with FRP confinement
taking into account increasing confining action. Predictive equations were
derived to determine the ultimate compressive strength and strain of FRPconfmed concrete. The model combines the basic cr e equation, also used
by Mander, with a model expressing the circumferential strain as a function
of the axial strain. The ultimate compressive strength and strain can be known
directly from the maximum confinement pressure,fju , that can be exerted by
i
the jacket. For a square column,/, = ke(4tj/b)fju.

t
The confined concrete

I
strength, fcc, can be calculated using Eq. (3) by replacing // with f\u .
The ultimate compressive strain and strength are given by:
mi
~ CC
(
Yi1" s e
Ec
^secv^c ~Esec,u)
Esec,u\Ec -^sec)
/,
^Jsec,ucu
(')
where s e c is the secant modulus of elasticity, sec, is the secant

modulus of elasticity at ultimate limit state and c is the initial tangent
modulus of unconfined concrete8.
Lam and Teng Model
Lam and Teng10 proposed a stress-stain model for FRP confined concrete
which is more or less bilinear and takes into account the effect of FRP type.
For design use, a conservative prediction of the ultimate axial strain scc for
FRP-confmed concrete is given by Eq. (8) for both static and seismic loads,
where m is 10 for CFRP wrapped concrete and 22 for GFRP tube-confined
concrete.
cc ' co =
\.15 + m(filfco)
(8)

For rectangular columns, the effective confining pressure / / can be
defined as / / = ksf,
ks = {dlb)ke
and / ,
where
the
shape
factor,^,
is
defined
as
is the confining pressure provided by an FRP jacket.
Once parameters ks and / ,
are calculated, the strength of FRP confined
concrete in rectangular columns can be predicted using the compressive

strength model for FRP confined concrete developed for circular specimens
by using the effective confining pressure10 / ; , as fcc I fc0 = 1 + 2 / , / fco.
Model Code 1990
According to Model Code 199011, the ultimate concrete strain, ec^
, can be
obtained by the following equation:
4,85 = - 0035 + -l aa> wd
(9)
where acowci is the effective confinement index and the global confinement
effectiveness, a', has the same significance as the effective confinement ratio
ke given by Eq. (6). This equation was developed for steel confined sections
and, as a result, gives conservative predictions for FRP confinement.
All the above models are used in the last section to design the column
strengthening for the frame described in the first section.
STRENGTHENING DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR COLUMNS
The confinement of the plastic hinge region is designed using three types of
fibres (CFRP, GFRP and AFRP). The jacket thicknesses considered include
one, two and three layers of fibre sheets (1L, 2L, 3L). Table 1 gives a
description of the fibres used in the analysis.
Table 1. Fibre properties

Fibre type
t (mm)
Ej (MPa)
/ ; (MPa)
ju
(%)
CFRP
GFRP
0.117
0.068
240000
65000
3900
1700
1.55
2.80
AFRP
0.280
120000
2000
1.55

The strengthening objective is to retrofit the column to achieve a target
displacement ductility of /u^ = 8. The effective column length is 1.65 m and the
expected plastic hinge length is L =30 lmm. The required curvature ductility
based on Eq. (1) is / ^ = 15 resulting in a required ultimate concrete strain of
scu = 0.01. Figure 4 shows the axial stress for one layer of CFRP confinement
using the models described in the previous section.
1 Layer CFRP
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
r'"
--Spoelstra&Monti
Lam&Teng
-EC8
Unconfined concrete
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.045
0.05
Axial strain
Figure 4. Axial stress for one layer of CFRP confinement

Tables 2, 3 and 4 show comparisons of strength, ultimate strain and
ductility between various stress-strain models for different types of FRP
jacket and number of layers.
Table 2. Normalised strength enhancement
CFRP
(fcc/fco)
AGRP
GFRP
IL
2L
3L
IL
2L
3L
IL
2L
3L
Mander et.al.
1.6
2.1
2.4
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.5
2.9
Spoelstra & Monti
1.6
2.1
2.4
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.5
2.9
Lam & Teng
1.2
1.5
1.7
1.1
1.2
1.3
MCI 990
1.1
1.3
1.6
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.9
1.4

Table 3. Ultimate strain Scu (%)
1L
CFRP
21
3L
IL
GFRP
2L
3L
IL
AGRP
2L
Mander et.al.
0.8
1.3
1.6
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
1.7
2.1
Spoelstra & Monti
3.0
4.0
4.7
3.1
4.1
4.8
3.8
4.9
5.8
Lam &Teng
0.6
0.8
1.1
0.4
0.5
0.6
MCI 990
0.7
1.6
2.8
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.9
2.0
3.7
3L
Table 4. Estimated displacement ductility // A

CFRP
GFRP
AGRP
IL
2L
3L
IL
2L
3L
IL
2L
3L
Mander et.al.
11
14
15
19
Spoelstra et.al.
28
38
45
29
39
46
36
47
56
Lam et.al.
MCI 990
14
26
18
35
DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

From the above tables, it is clear that there are large differences between the
models, both in strength (up to 73%) and ultimate strain (up to 960%). This
resulted not only from the way each model deals with lateral pressure, but
also from the way each model calculates the efficiency of lateral
confinement.
As far as the estimated ductility is concerned, again the differences
between the models are very large, with the Spoeltra and Monti's model
giving the most optimistic in predictions and Lam and Teng's model the
most conservative predictions.
Judging from the above, it is very difficult to arrive easily to a
conclusion on these design procedures. Hence, results from testing of
flexural elements, strengthened with FRP are of paramount importance and
more research needs to be done in this direction. The proposed shaking table
experiments will provide invaluable information that can lead to validated
design recommendations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research has been supported by a Marie Curie Fellowship of the
European Community programme Human Potential under contract number
HPMF-CT-2001-01279. The financial support of EU TMR Network
ConFibreCrete and EU Ecoleader project is also gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Park, R. and Paulay, T., Reinforced Concrete Structures, 1975, Wiley,
New York
2. Priestley, M.J.N., Seible, F. and Calvi, M., Seismic design and retrofit
of bridges, 1996, Wiley, New York
3. Mutsuyoshi, H., Ishibashi, T., Okano,M. and Katsuki, F., "New design
method for seismic retrofit of bridge columns with continuous fibre
sheet-performance-based design", Proceedings of the Fourth
International Symposium on Fibre Reinforced Polymer Reinforcement
for Reinforced Concrete Structures, Baltimore, 1999, pp. 229-241
4. Monti, G., Nistico, N. and Santini, S., "Design of FRP jackets for
upgrade of circular bridge piers", Journal of Composites for
Construction, 5(2), 2001, pp. 94-101
5. Fib CEB-FIP, Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC structures,
Bulletin 14, Task Group 9.3 FRP reinforcement for concrete structures,
July 2001
6. Mander, J.B., Priestley, M.J.N, and Park, R., "Theoretical stress-strain
model for confined concrete", Journal of Structural Engineering,
114(8), 1988, pp. 1804-1826
7. Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M.R. and Li, M.W., "Strength and ductility
of concrete columns externally reinforced with fiber composite straps",
ACIStructural Journal, 91(4), 1994, pp. 434-447
8. Spoelsa, M.R. and Monti, G., "FRP-confined concrete model", Journal
of Composites for Construction, 3(3), 1999, pp. 143-150
9. Wang, Y.C. and Restrepo, J.I., "Investigation of concentrically loaded
reinforced concrete columns confined with glass fiber-reinforced
polymer jackets", ACI Structural Journal, 98(3), 2001, pp. 377-385
10. Teng, J.G., Chen, J.F., Smith, S.T. and Lam, L., FRP strengthened RC
structures, 2002, Wiley, New York
11. Cominte Euro-Interantional du Beton, CEB-FIB Model Code 1990,
Design Code, Lausanne, 1993

RETROFITTING OF SHEAR WALLS DESIGNED TO

BS 8110 FOR SEISMIC LOADS USING FRP
K. H. KONG, K. H. TAN AND T. BALENDRA
J Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576
High rise RC shear wall frame buildings in Singapore are not designed for
seismic loads. However, they possess significant overstrength and nominal
ductility at ultimate state. Finite element analyses have shown that the
failure mode of such buildings under lateral load is brittle with shear
failure at the base of shear wall. In this study, a retrofitting scheme is
proposed to enhance the shear capacity at this region of the shear wall
using FRP reinforcement. Scaled models of the lower critical regions of the
shear wall of a 25 story RC shear wall frame building with and without
FRP, were tested in the laboratory and modelled analytically. The ultimate
load and failure mode from the experiment verified the finite element
studies carried out. Results show that shear strengthening of wall using
unidirectional GFRP could increase the ultimate load capacity and lateral
displacement of the wall by 1.45 and 1.66 times respectively.
INTRODUCTION
An earlier study1 has shown that a high rise RC shear wall frame building
designed according to BS 81102 and subjected to a pushover lateral load,
exhibits significant overstength and nominal ductility. The failure mode of
the building is brittle with shear failure at the base of shear wall. To enhance
the shear capacity, a retrofitting scheme using unidirectional FRP
reinforcement is proposed. Scaled models of the lower critical regions of the
shear wall of a 25 story RC shear wall frame point building with and
without FRP were tested in the laboratory and modelled analytically to
determine the behaviour under seismic load.
OVERVIEW OF SHEAR WALL
Figure 1 shows the plan view of a typical 25 story point block in Singapore
built in the 1980s with a height of 64.77 m. The plan dimension is 24.4 m by
19.81 m and each story height is 2.59 m. The wall has a concrete cube
compressive strength, fcu, of 30 MPa and is subjected to a common vertical
load (1.0 times dead load plus 0.4 times live load). In addition, it is designed
1128
FRPRCS-6:
Structural
Strengthening
for wind load only, according to BS 8110. The steel reinforcements (rebar)
have yield strength of 460 MPa (longitudinal rebars in beams, vertical rebars
in walls and columns) and 250 MPa (horizontal rebars and transverse links
in walls, shear links in beams and columns).
24.4 m
Z direction of
lateral load
19.81m
Shear
wall
testdd
Centre Wall
V
Typical portion
Typical dimensions:
TT~I
Column 300 mm x 1200 mm
^ ^
Beam
i >
230 mm x 450 mm
Shear wall 230 mm thick

Masonary wall 120 mm thick
Shear wall
Full height masonary wall
Half height masonary wall

Column
Beam
Figure 1. 25 story point block showing the shear wall tested.
Retrofitting of Shear WallsfarSeismic Loads 1129

SCALED MODEL OF SHEAE WALL
A scaled model of the lower 2.59 stories (each story Is 2.591 m in height) of
the shear wall In Figure 1 Is fabricated and subjected to a pushover lateral
load to simulate Inertia forces due to seismic load. The scale factor Is 5. Hie
shear ratio of the test wall is 2, which simulates the actual situation of the
lower shear wall In the building. In scale modelling, the wall geometry ratio,
steel rebar ratio (area of rebar per unit concrete area), shear ratio (M/VL\
and axial compression ratio (N/[0.85A]fm) is kept constant, and as far as
possible, the material properties similitude (fcm ECf ES} fy>
sstJ are also
maintained for the model and the prototype, where M = base moment in
shear wall, V = base shear in +Z direction, L = length of side wall, N = axial
load, A = cross section area of shear wall, Ec = elastic modulus of concrete,
Es = elastic modulus of rebar, fy= rebar yield stress, Sy = rebar yield strain,
Co,= ultimate compressive strain in concrete, em = rupture strain of rebar
Two specimens are built, one act as a control. (Specimen S5) and the
other as the FRP retrofitted wall (Specimen S4). The average concrete cube
compressive strength at 28 days for S5 and S4 were 31 and 25 MPa
respectively. The model wall height was 1036 mm and Its built up height
after installing loading beams was 1314 mm (each story level was thus 508
mm), the side wall length was 657 mm, the centre wall length was 955 mm
and wall thickness was 45 mm throughout (see Figure 2a and 2b).
t ^ssv^^^
Figure 2. Shear wall (a) Control (Specimen 85) (b) FRP retrofitted (Specimen S4)
For the FRP strengthened shear wall, a layer of unidirectional glass FRP
fabric (see Table 1) was used to wrap the shear wall FRP bolts were placed
at the joint area between the side and centre walls. They were used to
connect the side wall FRP wrap through the centre wall and also used to
anchor the centre wall FRP wrap to the side wall. The average spacing of the
FRP bolts in the model was 85 mm, which correspond to a spacing of 425
mm in the prototype. Vertical FRP strips were then place over the
protruding fibre ends of all FRP bolts.
Table 1 Property of Glass FRP.
915 g/m2
Density
Thickness
0.353 mm
Fibre orientation
Uni directional
Young's modulus, E
69.65 GPa
Ultimate tensile strength
1667.7 MPa
Ultimate tensile strain
0.02
A uniformly distributed axial load (to simulate axial loadings from

upper stories) is applied at top of wall using post tensioning tendons to
produce an average axial compression ratio of 0.24. Lateral supports were
placed at two-thirds the wall height to prevent out of plane bending of the
side walls A lateral pushover point load was transferred to the wall through
loading beams placed at wall top. The wall was pushed at a slow rate of
0.006 mm/s using displacement control until failure (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Overall 3-D view of test setup.
Retrofitting of Shear Walls for Seismic Loads 1131
TEST RESULTS
Figure 4 compares the top lateral force versus top lateral displacement
relation of the control specimen and FRP retrofitted shear wall. The control
shear wall (Specimen S5) showed a brittle failure mode. At a load level of
90 kN load, there was a deviation of load-deformation curve of the control
wall from the FRP retrofitted wall due to initiation of inclined shear cracks.
A 5 mm wide diagonal shear tension crack was observed to originate from
the compression bottom edge of the side wall to 2nd story level at the
ultimate load of 148.4 kN, as shown in Figure 5a. First yield of steel
reinforcement occurred just before shear failure, with a ductility index of
(11.8/10.8=1.09) indicating non ductile behaviour.
For FRP retrofitted wall (Specimen S4), the failure mode was more
ductile with FRP debonding, followed by concrete crushing and FRP rupture
at the compressive base of side wall at the ultimate load of 214.7 kN, as
shown in Figure 5b. First yielding in steel reinforcement occurs at load level
of 60.6 % of the ultimate load; the ductility factor was 19.6/14 or 1.4.
Stiffness of the FRP wrapped and control shear wall was the same until a
load of 90 kN.
Shear strengthening of the wall using unidirectional GFRP did not
therefore increase the stiffness of the wall but it increased the ultimate load
capacity of the wall by 1.45 times and the ultimate lateral displacement by
1.66 times. The corresponding increase in ductility of the structure is
(1.4/1.09=1.28) times and the increase in overstrength is 1.5 times.
FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF SHEAR WALLS TESTED
A general purpose finite element software ABAQUS3 was used to model the
structure. Similar modelling approach (element type, grouping and aspect
ratio and material parameters) as reported by Balendra et al1 is adopted for
the shear walls. The concrete wall is modelled using 3-D, 8-node linear solid
brick elements (type C3D8R) with a Gaussian integration point. Each node
has 3 translational degrees of freedom. A total of 140 and 80 elements form
the side and center walls respectively. Steel reinforcing bars are modelled as
1-D strain theory REBAR elements (rods) and superimposed in the C3D8R
elements (with 6 vertical REBAR elements into 1 C3D8R element). To
simulate tension stiffening in RC wall, a linear reduction of concrete tensile
strength to zero after cracking is assumed to occur at 25 times the cracking
strain. This low value takes into account the bond slip between the rebar and
concrete due to cyclic load.
1132 PRPRCS-6: Structural Strengthening
The FRP reinforcement is modelled using 3-D, 4-node shell elements of

type S4R with one Gaussian integration point. Each node of the shell
element has three translational and three rotational degrees of freedom. The
1 2 3
4 5
6 7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
Top lateral displacement '(mm)
Figure 4. Observed force-deformation curves of control (S5) and FRP retrofitted

(S4) shear wall.
(a)
(b)
Figure 5. Failure mode of shear wall at ultimate load (a) shear failure at side wall
(control, S5) (b) FRP debonding followed by FRP rupture (FRP retrofitted, S4)
S4R element was superimposed on exposed faces of C3D8R element, with

150 and 160 elements form the side wall and canter wall FRP respectively.
Perfect bond between the FRP and concrete wall was assumed. The shell
thickness was 0.353 mm and Simpson's rule was used for integration across
the five section points along the shell thickness.
The FRP material behaviour is taken as linearly elastic. As
unidirectional glass FRP is used, "ELASTIC, LAMINA" option was
adopted to define orthotropic elastic material properties in plane stress. The
elastic modulus perpendicular to fibre is modulus of saturant. The elastic
modulus along the fibre is the modulus of glass fibre, that is 69.651 GPa.
The Poisson ratio is 0.20 to 0.22 for the FRP material. To specify failure of
the FRP material, "FAIL STRESS" option using in-plane stress based failure
theory was adopted. The maximum allowable stress of the material in the
local coordinate axis of each shell element was specified forming a failure
envelope. The tensile and compressive stress limit in fibre direction follows
the strength of fibre and saturant respectively. The tensile and compressive
stress limits in the transverse direction were based on strength of saturant
alone.
Vertical load was simulated as a vertical pressure load on the top
elements of the side and centre walls and applied using the "STATIC"
option. Lateral load was simulated as lateral concentrated point loads acting
on every top node of the side walls only. The nonlinear response of the
structure was analysed using the Newton's iterative technique. The program
iterates to obtain the equilibrium condition for the initial load increment and
the subsequent increment amplitudes are automatically adjusted by using the
Riks method.
COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH ANALYSIS
Figure 6 and Table 2 compare the load-displacement characteristics of the
control and FRP retrofitted walls predicted by ABAQUS with test results.
The equation for shear capacity of RC is derived based on ACI4 code with
strength reduction factor equal to provision 1 and considers axial load
effects on side wall only. The shear capacity of FRP wrapped shear wall was
derived based on shear capacity equations of full FRP wrapped rectangular
sections without any partial safety factor. Figure 7 shows the predicted shear
failure contours in FRP and RC side wall at ultimate load. The
corresponding effective strain in FRP is 0.0025. At initiation of RC shear
failure, the FRP strain increases at that region as remaining lateral load is

taken by FRP. As the load increases., the strain in FRP increases until 0.0025
denoting shear failure in that region.
230
220
pw
- Final shear failure
210
- FRP and concrete
200
190
- 54
180
/
170
160
^
*"*
^ ^
f
150
K:
140
\
Drastic final
1st shear
130 I
shear failure in S^
120 -L failure in
m^^r
110 1 FRPinS4
*^/^
100
90
/
80
\
1st mok and
- Specimen S4 (FRP
70
4 ^ jf
j initiation drastic
w rapped)
60
j
^f
S5
50
Specimen S5
i
/
\
40
(Control)
/ /
\
30
1st crack and shear failure in con
20
10
0
0
0,5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
WS
Top lateral displacement (mm)
Figure 6. Force-deformation curves predicted by finite element analysis for control

(S5) and FRP retrofitted (84) shear wall
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 7. Ultimate load condition in FRP retrofitted wall (S4). Biggest shaded
region (as shown by arrow) shows (a) FRP shear failure (b) RC shear failure (c)
Region with effective FRP strain > 0.0025

Table 2. Comparison experiment and finite element study for (a) control
wall (Specimen S5) and (b) FRP wrapped shear wall (Specimen S4)
Ratio
(FEA/
Expt.)
1.290.
1.018
4.01
(a)S5
Experiment
(Expt)
Finite element analysis

(FEA)
Is' crack load

Is'yield load
Ultimate load
Stiffness at
ultimate load
Failure mode
70 kN
130 kN
148.4 kN
148.4/11.8 =
12.58 kN/mm
Diagonal shear failure
along side wall
90.6 kN
151 kN
151/2.99 = 50.5 kN/mm
Diagonal shear failure
along side wall
(b)S4
Experiment
(Expt)
Finite element analysis

(FEA)
Is' crack load

f yield load
Ultimate load
Stiffness at
ultimate load
Failure mode
not available
160 kN
214.7 kN
214.7/19.6=10.95
kN/mm
FRP debonding
followed by FRP
rupture
66 kN
218 kN
218/5.58 = 39.07
kN/mm
FRP debonding followed
by FRP rupture
Ratio
(FEA/Ex
pt.)
1.015
3.57
There was size effect due to micro cracking during shrinkage and curing in
this experiment due to thinness of concrete wall, which only affected the
stiffness6"9, but not the load. The actual stiffness of the model should be 4
times higher than that observed in experiment. The specimens were loaded
within the elastic range with yielding in rebar occurring only at the bottom
edges of side wall near the ultimate load. Hence, the observed displacement
can be divided by a factor of 4 to correlate to finite element analysis.
CONCLUSION
Lateral pushover load tests on a scaled model of shear wall designed
according to BS 8110 confirmed earlier finite element study1 that the RC
shear wall has significant overstrength but nominal ductility. The adopted
finite element model predicts the ultimate load and failure mode of control
and FRP retrofitted scaled shear wall model accurately. Shear strengthening
on a scaled model of shear wall using a layer of unidirectional GFRP has
indicated an increase in ductility and overstrength of 1.28 and 1.5

respectively.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their gratitude and gratefulness to all the
Structural Engineering Laboratory staff at NUS who had made this project
possible. Special thanks are dedicated to Mr. Choo Peng Kin who had
contributed enormously in the fabrication and test set up of the shear walls.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Balendra, T., Tan, K.H. and K.H. Kong, "Ultimate Strength Of A

Reinforced Concrete Frame-Wall Structure Designed According to BS
8110", ICCMC/IBST International Conference on Advanced
Technologies in Design, Construction and Maintenance of Concrete
Structures, 2001.
British Standards Institution; BS8110: "Structural use of concrete.
Parts 1,2 and 3", 1985.
ABAQUS / Standard user's manual (Version 6.2), Hibbit, Karlsson and
Sorensen, Inc., Pawtucket, RI, 2001.
ACI 318 Building code requirements for structural concrete and
commentary. 1983, 1995.
Elnashai, A.S., Pilakoutas, K. and Ambraseys, N.N., "Experimental
Behaviour of Reinforced Concrete Walls Under Earthquake Loading",
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 1990, Vol. 19, pp.
389-407.
Lopes, M.S., "Experimental shear-dominated response of RC walls.
Part II: Discussion of results and design implications", Engineering
Structures, Vol. 23, 2001, pp. 564-574.
Hirosawa, M, "Past experimental Results on Reinforced Concrete
Shear Walls and Analysis on Them", Report No. 6, Building Research
Institute, Ministry of Construction, Tsukuba, Japan (Kenchiku Kenkyu
Shiryo), March 1975.
Kenneally, R.M. and Burns Jr, J.J., "Experimental investigation into
seismic behaviour of nuclear power plant shear wall structures",
Nucl.engdes. 107, 1988, pp 95-107
Working Group on the Stiffness of Concrete Shear Wall Structures of
the ASCE Dynamic Analysis Committee, "Stiffness of Low Rise
Reinforced Concrete Shear Walls", 1994.

STRENGTHENING OF INTERIOR SLAB-COLUMN

CONNECTIONS WITH CFRP STRIPS
K. SOUDKI AND T. VAN ZWOL
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo
200 University Avenue West, ON,, N2L 3G1, Canada
R. SHERPING
Sika Canada Inc., 970 Verbena Road, Mississauga, ONL5T1T6, Canada
The results of an experimental study to investigate the ability of carbon
fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) strips to enhance the behaviour of flat
slab-column connections are presented. A total of six square slabs with a
concentric column were constructed with overall dimensions of 1220 mm
by 1220 mm and 100 mm thick slab and 150x150mm column. The slabs
were designed to fail by punching without strengthening. The primary test
parameters were the orientation (orthogonal or skewed) and configuration
(adjacent to and/or offset to column face) of CFRP strips externally bonded
to the tension face of the slab. In the orthogonal orientation, the CFRP
strips were placed in perpendicular directions parallel to the internal
ordinary steel reinforcement while in the skew orientation, the strips were
laid in a 45-degree angle relative to the internal reinforcement. Following
strengthening, the specimens were tested in punching with vertical load
applied through the central column. The test results clearly showed that
CFRP strengthening leads to significant improvements in the structural
behaviour of slab-column connections. Depending on the configuration and
orientation of CFRP strips, the strength increased between 8% and 28%
over the unstrengthened specimen.
INTRODUCTION
Flat concrete slabs are a typical form of flooring systems used in a wide
range of buildings such as offices, warehouses and parking garages.
Punching or two-way shear failure generally occurs at column-slab
connections or near a highly concentrated load on a slab. Punching strength
in slabs can become insufficient due to several reasons such as change of
building use, need of installing new services which requires openings in the
slabs, corrosion of reinforcement, and construction or design errors.
Punching shear is characterized by cracking within the slab around the
column with a truncated cone-shaped element being displaced. In general,
the predicted punching failure load is governed largely by the flexural
characteristics of the slab. Punching shear failures are very brittle in nature
and take place within small deflections.
Over the past decade, a significant amount of research has dealt with
various strengthening techniques for concrete slab-column connections in
order to prevent sudden punching shear failure. Several researchers have
investigated different methods to strengthen interior slab-column
connections against punching including use of steel plates and bolts
(Marzouk and Jiang 1997, Zhang, et al. 2001, Ebead and Marzouk 2002),
transverse prestressed reinforcement (Ghali et al., 1974) and more recently
the use of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composites externally bonded to
the slab tension face (Tan 1996, Harajli and Soudki 2001). Some of the
above strengthening methods do provide enough additional strength to the
slab, however they are elaborate, difficult to install, expensive and
aesthetically not pleasing. Strengthening slabs with FRPs is simple, does
not require excessive labour and does not change the appearance of the
slab. However, there is limited literature on the effectiveness of externally
bonded FRP strips in increasing the two-way shear capacity of interior slabcolumn connections.
This study was undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of using
Carbon FRP (CFRP) strips to strengthen reinforced concrete slabs against
punching shear failure. This paper will present the experimental results of
the study on the behaviour of CFRP strengthened slabs.
TEST PROGRAM
Table 1 summarizes the experimental program. The primary test variable
was the configuration and layout of the CFRP reinforcement.
Table 1. Test Matrix
Slab Specimen
Number of
CFRP Strips
Slabl
Description of Strengthening
Configuration
Control; no strengthening
Slab 2
Slab 3
Slab 4
Slab 5
4
4
4
4
Slab 6
Orthogonal; offset column face

Orthogonal; adjacent to column face
Skewed; offset column face
Skewed; adjacent to column edge
Orthogonal; adjacent to and offset
column face
Strengthening of Interior Slab-Column Connections 1139
Specimen Details
Six identical reinforced concrete interior slab-column connections were
constructed. Figure 1 shows the typical dimensions and steel reinforcement
layout of the test specimens. Each specimen was constructed using the
same concrete design mix and percentage of reinforcement. The overall slab
dimensions were 1220 mm by 1220 mm and 100 mm thick. Each slab was
reinforced by one layer of No. 10M bars (diameter = 11.3 mm), spaced 100
mm on-centers (o/c), in each direction. A central column stub (150 mm x
150 mm) was cast monolithically with the slab and extended from both the
compression and tension faces of the slab to simulate as close as possible
conditions and construction limitations that would exist in strengthening
actual interior slab-column connection. No. 10M vertical bars were placed
in each corner of the column stub. During the testing stage, an axial load
would be applied to the top of the column stub. Along the sides, an average
concrete cover of 40 mm was ensured. Clear concrete cover from the
bottom layer of reinforcement to the underside of the slab measured 20 mm.
4M10
1
s/
12M10
(each direction)
^
\
1
I
220
Figure 1. Test specimen dimensions and reinforcement layout (in mm)

Material Properties
The concrete was supplied by a local ready-mix concrete producer and the
28-day (cylinder) compressive strength was 25.8 MPa. The yield strength
of the reinforcing No. 10 rebars were 440 MPa. The CFRP strips used were
100 mm wide and 1.2 mm in thickness, with a cross-sectional area of 120
mm2. At a density of only 1.6 g/cm3, the material has a very high strength
to weight ratio. The strips have a specified tensile strength of 2400 MPa, a
modulus of elasticity 155 GPa, and rupture strain of 1.9%.
CFRP Repair Scheme

Figure 2 shows the CFRP repair scheme used in this study. Five out of the
six specimens were strengthened with CFRP strips. The CFRP strips were
placed in an orthogonal or skew orientation. The strips were bonded at the
column face or offset by a distance "d" from column face (d= distance from
compression fibre to tension steel). One slab (Slab #6) was strengthened
with two rows of CFRP strips placed in two perpendicular directions.
Special consideration was given to the surface preparation before bonding
the CFRP strips to the concrete surface. Sandblasting was employed to
remove the weak surface layer from the concrete slabs and then the surface
was cleaned with a high-pressure air jet and the CFRP strips was bonded to
the concrete surface using an epoxy adhesive.
SLAB # 4
SLAB # 2
CONTROL SLAB
IU-D
m
2=2.
H S ^
w
TTT]
Tin
SLAB # 3
tnrl
-itn
l i J TT!
SLAB # 5
SLAB # 6
5/
cz
7^rt5
^
Z]
Z] 1
.LLUJ .y. I I O
-IllvJl'ioUL
Figure 2. CFRP repair scheme
Test Set-Up
Figure 3 shows the test set-up. The specimen was mounted on a steel frame
and was simply supported along all four edges. The specimen was loaded
centrally through the column stub with monotonically increasing load until
failure. The load was applied in stroke control at a rate of 15 kN/min using
a servo-controlled hydraulic actuator. Test measurements included the
magnitude of the applied load, deflection of the slab at the column location,
and strains in the CFRP strips. Deflection was measured using a Linear
Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT). The strains in the CFRP were
measured using electric resistance strain gages attached at mid width of the
strips at the maximum negative moment region of the slab. Four to eight
strain measurements were taken for each slab along two perpendicular
directions. All instrumentation measurements were recorded during testing
using a computer-based data acquisition system. At the end of each test, the
angle at which the shear cracks propagated away from the column faces was
measured and the mode of failure for each specimen were examined.

Failure Modes
Slab 1 (control) exhibited flexural cracks that originated near the centre of
the column slab and propagated towards the edges of the slab. Punching
shear was the primary reason for failure within this slab. Once the slab
reached its ultimate load capacity, it failed suddenly due to punching shear.
Distances from the face of the column to the punching shear failure plane
ranged from 130 mm to 420 mm. This is significantly greater than 170 mm
calculated if the shear failure plane is assumed to act at a 30 angle.
For the CFRP strengthened specimens, the strips at failure load
debonded transversally near the shear crack as a result of the transverse
movement of concrete on either sides of the crack due to punching failure.
The mode of failure of Slabs 2 to 5 were characterized first by yielding of
the internal steel reinforcement. Concurrently, some of the CFRP strips
debonded from the concrete surface. As the strips pulled away from the
specimen, the top layer of concrete was also removed with the strengthening
strips; this was a result of tension failure within the concrete. Therefore,
although the strips were pulled away from the underside of the concrete
slab, it was not a result of epoxy or concrete-epoxy bond failure. Finally,
punching shear failure was experienced at the ultimate load of the
specimen. Strips debonded from the slab as the truncated concrete cone
was pushed through the slab. The shear cracking appeared to be an average
of 200 to 300mm from column face, that is, similar to control specimen.
Slab 6 experienced the same modes of failure as the previous four
strengthened slabs. However, due to the large amount of strengthening,
most of the punching shear cracks were concealed under the CFRP strips.
Some of the visible punching shear cracks were measured at an average
distance of 150mm from the column face.
Load-deflection Behaviour
Figure 4 compares the load vs. deflection plots for all slab specimens. From
the graphs, it can be seen that the overall stiffness of the CFRP strengthened
slabs are considerably greater than the control slab. The control slab
supported 160.3 kN. Slab 4 (strengthened) supported the highest load of
206.9 kN. Vertical deflections of all strengthened slabs were considerably
lower than the control slab.

250
Slab 4
Slab 2
200
Slab-6^^
//J
^%r^
-.150
Slab 3
1100
Jr* /
Jr^*
Slabl
(Control)
*/
j ^ ^
\ Slab 5
50-
8
10
12
14
16
Central Deflection (mm)
Figure 4. Load vs. deflection behaviour
18
20
Table 2 gives a summary of critical measured values for all six slab
specimens. The increase in punching shear capacity was compared with the
control slab. The elastic stiffness values were calculated by dividing the
ultimate load by the measured deflection at ultimate load.
Slab specimen
Slab 1 Control
Slab 2
Slab 3
Slab 4
Slab 5
Slab 5
Table 2 Comparison of test results

Ultimate
Ratio
% increase
Deflection@
Load
above
ult.load (mm)
"u'Pu( control)
Pu(kN)
control
1.000
0.0%
160.3
14.4
1.129
181.0
10.3
12.9%
1.022
163.8
8.1
2.2%
206.9
1.291
29.1%
10.7
173.7
1.084
8.4%
9
192.9
1.203
8.9
20.3%
Stiffness
(kN/rnm)
11.1
17.6
20.2
19.3
19.3
21.7
Overall, Slab 4 had the greatest increase in punching shear capacity;

29.1% increase over the control slab. Slab 6 also exhibited a significant
increase in punching shear capacity with a 20.3% increase. Therefore, the
most effective configuration was the skewed strip arrangement offsetting
the column face or multiple rows of strips placed in an orthogonal direction.
Slab 6, containing the most amount of strengthening, material produced the
highest stiffness of 21.7 kN/mm which was almost double that of control
specimen. All of the strengthened material slabs exhibited approximately

the same stiffness values.
Comparing the different orthogonal strengthening arrangements, it is
evident that slabs with orthogonal strengthening strips have a greater
stiffness over the control slab. Slabs 3 and 6, with strengthening strips
located adjacent to the column face, showed a slightly greater stiffness
compared to Slab 2 (strengthening offset the column face). However, Slabs
2 and 6 supported a significant higher ultimate load than Slab 3. These
results indicate that strengthening placed near the column face produce
relatively higher stiffness values than strengthening offset from the column.
Strengthening offset from the column face increased the load carrying
capacity, compared to the control specimen, from 12.9% to 29.1% for
orthogonal and skewed CFRP strips, respectively.
With the different skewed strengthening arrangements, Slabs 4 and 5
exhibited very similar stiffness characteristics; however, Slab 4 supported a
significantly greater load. The placement of strengthening strips will not
affect the overall stiffness of the slab. However, when the strips are offset
from the column face, the punching shear capacity is increased. For
specimens with CFRP strengthening applied adjacent to the column face, it
is seen that the stiffness characteristics for Slabs 3 and 5 were very similar.
However, Slab 5 supported approximately 6% more load than Slab 3. The
skewed strengthening may be more effective than orthogonal reinforcement
when both placed directly adjacent to the column. The different
strengthening arrangements offset the column face, reveal that Slab 4
(skewed strengthening) was capable of supporting approximately 14.3%
more than Slab 2 (with orthogonal strengthening). Also, Slab 4 showed
slightly higher stiffness characteristics.
Strain Behaviour
In general the load vs. strain relationship was linear for all slab specimens
until punching shear failure occured. Table 3 summarizes maximum strain
measured. In the table, all the strain gage locations are listed in addition to
the maximum strains measured at the ultimate load capacities. From Table
3, it is clear that the top overlapping CFRP strips experienced a higher
strain than the bottom strips. These top strips were also located further
away from the slab surface. In Slab 3, however, the bottom strips (closer to
the slab surface) experienced higher strains. Since the strips in this
specimen were spaced closer together, they would lead to more load sharing
between the strips and thus higher strains in these lower strips. Also,
evident from Table 3 is that the strain decreases away from the centre of the
slab. Strains in the strips of Slab 4 were very similar with the highest strains
measured compared to all of the other strengthened specimens. The
maximum measured strain was 0.0355% which represents 18.7% from
capacity of CFRP strip (1.9%). Although the strips overlapped, the strain
values were almost identical because the centre of all 4 strips may have
been located approximately at the same distance from the slab surface as the
strips were spaced far apart from one another. Similar to Slab 2, the top
strips in Slab 5 exhibited slightly higher strains compared to the bottom
strips. The maximum measured strain was 0.0285% which corresponds to
15% of rupture strain. The strain measurements for Slab 6 indicated that the
strain decreased in the strip away from the centre of the slab.
Slab Specimen
Slab 2
Slab 3
Slab 4
Slab 5
Slab 6
Table 3 Measured Strains

Location
centre - top strips
centre - bottom strips
centre - top strips
250 mm offset - top strip
250 mm offset - bottom strip
centre - top strips
centre - top strips
centre - top / outer strips
centre - top / inner strips
centre - bottom / outer strips
centre - bottom / inner strips
250 mm offset - top / outer strips
250 mm offset - top / inner strips
250 mm offset - bottom / outer strips
250 mm offset - bottom / inner strips
Strain (x 10-6)
(ûltimate load
3062
2615
2481
2811
2017
1945
3554
3533
2851
2773
1803
2254
2984
2866
1330
1728
1865
2268
CONCLUSIONS
CFRP strengthening leads to significant improvements in the structural
behaviour of slab-column connections. Depending on the configuration and
orientation of CFRP strips, and ignoring test slab 3, the strength increased
between 8% and 28% over the unstrengthened specimen. The strengthened

specimens exhibited much stiffer responses and lower deflections than the
control slab. In the strengthened slabs, the punching shear crack was forced
away from the centre of the slab to the outside edge of the CFRP strips. The
most efficient configuration for CFRP strips appears to be the skew
orientation away from the centre of the slab. Strengthening placed near the
column produced higher stiffness values and strengthening offset from the
column face increased the load carrying capacity of the slab. Increasing the
amount of CFRP did not significantly increase the capacity of the slabs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Materials Manufacturing Ontario for their
financial support under Contract No. IP90099.
REFERENCES
1. Ghali, A., Sargious, M.A. and Huizer, A. (1974). "Vertical Prestressing
of Flat Plates Around Columns," Shear in Reinforced Concrete, ACI
Special Publication SP-42, Vol. 2, 1974, pp 905-920.
2. Tan, K.H. (1996). "Punching Shear Strength of RC Slabs Bonded with
FRP Systems," Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on
Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures, Montreal,
Quebec, August, pp 387-394.
3. Ebead, U., Marzouk, H. (2002). Strengthening of Two-Way Slabs Using
Steel Plates, ACI StructuralJournal, 99(1), 23-31.
4. Harajli, M.H., Soudki, K. A. (2003) Shear Strengthening of Interior
Slab-Column Connections Using CFRP Sheets. ASCE Journal of
Composites in Construction, Vol. 7, issue 2 (in press).
5. Marzouk, H., Jiang, D. (1997). Experimental Investigation on Shear
Enhancement Types for High-Strength Concrete Plates, ACI Structural
Journal, 94(1), 49-58.
6. Zhang, J. W., Teng, J. G., Wong, Y. L., Lu, Z. T. (2001). Behaviour of
Two-Way RC Slabs Externally Bonded with Steel Plate, Journal of
Structural Engineering, 127(4), 390-397.

EFFECTIVENESS OF FRP PLATE STRENGTHENING

ON CURVED SOFFITS
A. D. PORTER AND S. R. DENTON
Parsons Brinckerhoff, Victoria House, Redland Hill, Bristol,
BS6 6US, United Kingdom
A. NANNI
Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies, University of Missouri-Rolla,
223 Engineering Research Laboratory, Rolla, MO 65401, USA
T. J. IBELL
Department ofArchitecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath,
The use offibre-reinforcedpolymers (FRP) is becoming a widely accepted
solution for the strengthening of reinforced concrete structures. This paper
highlights the sensitivity of the strengthening scheme to the presence of
concave curvature on the surface of the concrete. The effectiveness of the
strengthening scheme is highly dependent on the bond between the
composite and the existing structure. The presence of curvature induces
tensile stress at the adhesive/concrete interface, which can lead to
premature failure by delamination of the plate. Current design guidelines
recognise this and offer limitations on the allowable curvature prior to
application of the composite. The findings of this paper suggest that further
work is needed to verify the suitability of these limits.
INTRODUCTION
In today's world, protection of the environment is becoming a major
consideration in any construction project. Sustainability is a key issue in all
its various forms from embodied energy of materials to energy associated
with transport, construction and operation. Strengthening of existing
structures avoids the need to demolish and replace, enabling the design life
of the current structure to be increased.
Extensive application examples and research exist on flexural
strengthening of RC sections using FRP. However, while curvature on the
soffit of structural elements is common to almost all strengthening
applications, it remains an area of limited study. Curvature can refer to the

profile of the entire element or to localised curvature due to an uneven
surface. This paper describes research to examine the effect of soffit
curvature on FRP-strengthened concrete structures.
SURFACE PREPARATION
The quality of installation has a significant impact on the effectiveness of
the strengthening scheme1"5. The overall performance of the strengthened
structure relies on a high-quality bond between composite and concrete.
The surface profile of the beam or element being strengthened, whether it is
local unevenness or curvature of the entire element, affects the bond
behaviour and hence the degree of strengthening achieved. The presence of
curvature results in development of normal tensile stress in addition to shear
stress, as the plate attempts to straighten under load. Recent work6 has
emphasised the sensitivity of the capacity of the strengthened section to the
presence of concave curvature on the concrete soffit.
In order to avoid failure by delamination due to a concave surface
profile, limitations are typically placed on the allowable curvature of the
concrete surface2'5'7 although these seem to be associated primarily with
local variations in curvature, rather than structures with a curved soffit
profile. Different types of composite material have variable sensitivity to
local deviations in the surface profile and this is reflected in the design
guidelines. Rigid FRP plate can span small deviations using the adhesive as
filler (Figure 1(a)). Sheets and fabrics are more flexible and follow the
surface of the concrete (Figure 1(b)). As a result, the implications of an
uneven surface are more serious for sheets and fabrics than for plates5. A
widely-accepted limit for unevenness is 5mm over a one metre (5mm/m)
length for rigid plates prior to application of the FRP2'5'7. A limit of 3mm
over a one metre length is offered in some cases for the application of sheets
and fabrics7 but can be as low as 2mm over a one metre length5.
Figure 1(a). Prefabricated plate
Figure 1(b). Sheet or fabric
FRP Plate Strengthening on Curved Soffits 1149
INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECT OF CONCAVITY

The presence of a concave surface profile induces normal stress at the
boundary between the FRP and the concrete. By considering a Mohr's
Circle analysis of the elastic stresses at the interface, the introduction of
curvature can be shown to increase both the principle tensile stress and the
maximum shear stress. A strengthened beam or element displaying
concavity would therefore be expected to exhibit a lower capacity than a
flat-soffit element where the governing mode of failure involves
delamination of the FRP. Current guidelines suggest 5mm/m is an
acceptable curvature when using pre-fabricated plate of the kind considered
in the present study. However, since current design guidelines have been
predominantly validated using laboratory cast specimens manufactured with
a high degree of straightness, the effect of such a curvature needs to be
better understood.
Experimental Programme
To explore the suitability of current design guidelines, the following test
programme was conducted. The tests consisted of three beams with varying
curvature imposed on the soffit. As described above, limitations on
curvature are commonly expressed in terms of a maximum deviation from
straight over a length of lm. Assuming the surface profile to be circular, an
associated radius of curvature, R, may be obtained. The maximum
deviation, Y, from horizontal, over any length, X, can then be determined
based on the radius, R (Figure 2). Details of the curvatures used are given
in Table 1.
By using a curvature of 5mm/m, evaluation of the results with respect to
current design philosophy was possible. A greater loss of strengthened
capacity was expected by using a more severe curvature (15mm/m). The
basic specimen dimensions are provided in Table 2 with reference to Figure
3. Specimens were designed with equal section dimensions at midspan, so
that the cross-sectional dimensions near the end of the beams were different
in each case. Table 2 also provides details of the sectional properties of each
beam. The CFRP laminate available was Sika 'Carbodur' of thickness
1.4mm, width 40mm and Elastic Modulus 165GPa. The design concrete
cube strength, fcu, was 50MPa (final cube strengths given in Table 3) and
the steel yield stress, fyi was approximately 500MPa. Curvature was
achieved by using a plywood former in the base of the formwork. Steel
reinforcement was bent to provide constant cover along the beam.
Radius, R
Figure 2. Specification of curvature
100
H h-
2800
2800
>JW
100
200
225
Figure 3. Test specimen details
Table 1. Specimen specification

BeamN0
1
2
3
Curvature
0
5mm/m
15mm/m
/? (mm)
25000
8340
X (mm)
2700
2700
Y (mm)
36
110
Table 2. Section properties

Beam
iv
1
2
3
ra/ Section
(mm)
D
b
225
100
261
100
335
100
Cover
Tension
steel
Comp.
steel
20
20
20
2T10
2T10
2T10
2R3
2R3
2R3
Testing arrangements
Identical testing equipment was used for the three tests and is shown in
Figure 4. Each specimen was simply supported with a pivot at one end and
a roller at the other. Loading was applied through a single point load at
midspan because the effects of primary interest were the combination of

longitudinal shear and tension near the interface between the concrete and
the FRP laminate. Bearings were located 100mm from the end of the beam
in all cases.
Load was applied using a displacement-controlled hydraulic hand pump
in increments of 5 or lOkN with the distribution of flexural cracking
recorded at each stage. A single strain gauge was located on the FRP plate
at mid-span to measure the plate strain.
Design Criteria
Various failure mechanisms were considered when designing the specimens.
Composite Action between FRP and Concrete:
a) Concrete crushing
b) FRP fracture
Loss of Composite Action:
a) End peeling/Anchorage failure
b) Delamination from within the span (flexural cracks)
c) Shear cracking induced delamination
d) Concave profile induced delamination
The experimental work aimed to investigate the effect of a concave surface

profile on the capacity of an FRP-strengthened beam. The risk of failure
due to some other mechanism was therefore minimised. The optimum
solution was found by considering the unstrengthened shear capacity, the

tensile flexural capacity, FRP peeling and concrete crushing. By plotting
the capacity of the section based on these various parameters, an appropriate
section could be selected. Detailed checks on the chosen section included
end anchorage, based on the equations derived by Neubauer and Rostasy8,
and longitudinal shear. Figure 5 shows the theoretical behaviour of the
chosen scheme, indicating that failure would be unlikely to result from
concrete crushing, FRP fracture or shear cracking induced delamination.
40
f 30
20
_Ll
/
_C
i
,_-1
FRP strengthened
unstrengthened capacity
shear capacity (no links)
concrete strain>0.0035
steel yield
._
0.006
FRP Strain
L
i
i
i
_,
0.008
0.012
Figure 5. Theoretical specimen behaviour

Table 3 shows a summary of all the test results. The 'load sustained' refers
to the load carried following delamination of the FRP plate. First cracking
was noted at around 5kN in all beams. Cracking was evenly distributed
along the beams and showed little indication of turning towards the load
point prior to failure. Beams 1 and 2 failed by delamination of the plate.
Inspection of the soffit suggests that peeling from a shear crack did not
occur. Beam 3 also failed by delamination of the plate but a large shear
crack also formed running along the reinforcement and up to the load point
(Figure 6). It was unclear whether the crack formed before or after
composite action was lost, although inspection of the soffit showed no shear
step, suggesting delamination did not initiate from the shear crack. Figure 7
shows the mid-span plate strain and indicates that for beams 2 and 3,
delamination of the plate occurred at a lower value of strain than beam 1.

Of course5 such strain measurements can be rather sensitive to the position
of the gauge In relation to cracks in the concrete.
Beam
,*,
N
1
Jcu
curvature
'"" ,
(MPa)7
0
5mm/m
15mm/m
37.5
32.5
39.8
Failure
load.
/7xn
(kN)
36.1
31.7
32.0
www
Load
sustained
/?7m
(kN)
22.5
20
20
.,
.
strain
0.0060
0.0045
0.004-1
Mid-span.
Deflection.
J
, x
(mm)
26
19
LJ!
Figure 6. Failure of beam 3
- Beam 1 - zero curvature

Beam 2 - 5mm/m
f"
Beam 3 - 15mm/m
/*"
1000
2000
3000
4000
Micros trains
Figure 7. Mid-span FRP strain
6000
7000
-Beam 1 - zero curvature

Beam 2 - 5mm/m
-Beam 3 - lSmnVm
10
15
20
Deflection (mm)
30
Figure 8. Mid-span load-deflection
The motivation for the experimental study was to gain further understanding
of the effect of a concave surface profile on the strengthening capacity.
Direct comparison of the results is made difficult due to the difference in
cube strengths for the three specimens. In order to make a valid
comparison, the results should be corrected to account for this variation. It
is reasonable to assume that the increase in capacity due to the FRP is a
function of the tensile capacity of the concrete, fct. The tensile strength of
concrete can be found from the following EC2 equation9
L = o.3/c:
(1)
where it is reasonable to take

/c'=0.8/m
(2)
The increase in capacity provided by the FRP can be estimated by

considering the failure load and the load sustained by the beam immediately
after delamination occurred. Plotting the increase in capacity divided by fct,
against the curvature gives a reasonably linear relationship (Figure 9). The
strengthened capacity of the beam decreases as the curvature increases,
confirming the original hypothesis.
5000
'"
-
4000
15.4% reduction in
effectiveness
=3000
strengthening
effectiveness
zero curvature
2000
5mm/m
1000
A 15mm/m
10
15
20
25
30
Curvature (measured as nim/m)

Figure 9. Curvature and associated reduction in
effectiveness of strengthening
The experimental program also aimed to provide results with which to

assess current design philosophy and codes of practice.
Design
guidelines2'5'7 offer limits for the allowable curvature on the concrete
surface. An unevenness of 5mm over a length of lm is commonly specified
as a limit to avoid loss in strength of the reinforced section. The results
obtained from this work would suggest this to be unsafe.
Current design guidelines also advise that limitation of the strain in the
FRP plate will decrease the likelihood of failure by delamination of the
plate. Limits are commonly in the range 0.006-0.0087'5. Failure occurred
when the strain in the FRP at midspan was 0.0060, 0.0045 and 0.0044 for
specimens 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Notwithstanding the fact that these may
not have been the maximum FRP strains for the reasons discussed above, it
is reasonable to conclude that some modification of these limits may be
required for curved elements.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental results outlined previously, the following
conclusions are drawn:
(a) The presence of a concave surface profile on the soffit of a beam
reduces the degree of flexural strengthening provided by an externally
bonded FRP composite.
(b) The limitations on surface straightness given in current design

guidelines are questionable based on the findings of this research.
Experimental results suggest that, contrary to some design guidelines,
5mm/m curvature will result in a loss in the degree of strengthening
provided by an externally bonded FRP laminate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and funding of the
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture at the University of Bath,
Parsons Brinckerhoff and Sika.
REFERENCES
1. Denton, S.R., Shave J. "Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using
FRP - A Review of Key Design Issues ", 2000.
2. TR55. Design Guidance for Strengthening Concrete Structures Using
Fibre Composite Materials. The Concrete Society, Crowthorn, UK,
2000
3. ACI 440-F. Guidelines for the Selection, Design, and Installation of
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Systems for External Strengthening of
Concrete Structures. ACI committee 440, 1999.
4. Japanese Society of Civil Engineers. Recommendations for Upgrading
of Concrete Structures with Use of Continuous Fibre sheets. Concrete
Engineering Series 41, March 2001
5. fib. Design and Use of Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for
Reinforced Concrete Structures.
EBR sub-group, federation
internationale du beton, 2001
6. Aiello M.A. et al. Bond Analysis of Curved Structural Concrete
Elements Strengthened using FRP Materials. Presented at FRPRCS-5,
Thomas Telford, London, 2001.
7. BD85 Strengthening of Concrete Highway Structures Using Externally
Bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymer. Currently in Progress, 2002.
8. Neubauer U., Rostasy F. S.
Design Aspects of Concrete
Structures Strengthened with Externally Bonded CFRP Plates.
Presented at the 7th International Conference on Structural Faults
and Repair, 2, 109-118, 1997
9. EC2 "Design of concrete structures, Part 1: General rules and rules for
buildings", 1992.

STRENGTHENING PERFORMANCE OF FRP SHEETS

BONDED TO CONCRETE TUNNEL LININGS
Z. WU AND W. HE
4-12-1 Nakanarusawa-cho Hitachi 316-8511, Japan
J.YIN
Research Organization for Information Science and Technology (RIST)
2-2-54 Naka-Meguro, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 153-0061, Japan.
Y. KOJIMA
Railway Technical Research Institute
8-38 Hikari-cho2 chome, Kokubunji-shi, Tokyo, Japan
T. ASAKURA
Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyoto University
Yosidahonmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto, Japan
The application of FRP bonding technique to concrete tunnel linings is
discussed through both experimental works and finite element analysis. In
the experimental work, 1/3 model of tunnel lining specimens that are
strengthened by several types of FRP sheets with different mechanical
features and strengthening amounts are tested. The FRP strengthening
performance is addressed in terms of structural response, interfacial
fracture along FRP-tunnel bond surface, and cracking behavior in tunnel
linings. A finite element analysis is performed to simulate the FRP
strengthening performance. From the numerical simulation, as well as the
experimental results, it is concluded that the FRP strengthening effect
basically depends on the comprehensive stiffness of FRP sheets, defined as
a product of Young's modulus and strengthening amount-thickness of FRP
sheets. Another finding from the simulation results is that the interfacial
concrete adjacent to bond surface shows tension-stiffening behavior, which
should be considered in modeling the interfacial debonding behavior along
interfacial concrete.
INTRODUCTION
In Japan, there are thousands of railway and road tunnels with a total length
of more than 8000 km. Many of them have been in service for decades of
years, and suffered from the aging and severe environmental conditions. It
has been a challenging task to efficiently upgrade these existing tunnels so
as to extend their service life. Application of FRP bonding technique
provides an applicable solution.
Because of the featured arch-shape, the concrete tunnel linings exhibit
different fracturing behaviors from normal concrete members such as beams
and slabs. To pursue an effective strengthening method for those damaged
concrete tunnel linings, a series of experimental work on 1/20 and 1/30
model tunnel lining strengthened with FRP sheets has been carried by
Railway Technical Institute of Japan1. Based on the investigations, an
experimental work of 1/3 model tunnel lining specimens was extensively
conducted. It was found that the externally bonded FRP sheets on the inner
side could enhance the structural load-carrying and deformational capacity.
However, the experimental study only gave a qualitative understanding.
Some fracture mechanisms and important factors have been not yet well
understood, such as cracking propagation and debonding along bond surface.
The objective of this paper is to discuss the strengthening performance
and fracturing behaviors of concrete tunnel lining strengthened by various
types of reinforcements. First, the fracturing propagation processes in
experiment2 are reviewed. Then, based on the experimental observations, a
finite element simulation with proper models of concrete cracking3 and
interfacial debonding is carried out. By comparing the results of
experiments and numerical simulations, some valuable findings are
obtained and considered to be instructive in improving the FRP
strengthening design method of concrete tunnel linings.
REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTS
Figure 1. 1/3 scale model specimens of concrete tunnel lining strengthened with
sheets
FRP Sheets Bonded to Concrete Tunnel Linings 1159

In the experiment, the 1/3 scale model of concrete tunnel lining, as shown in
Figure 1, is tested. The soil constraint from outside is not considered. The
reinforcing sheets are externally bonded circumferentially along the inner
side of the specimen. The types of reinforcing sheets used in experiments
are listed in Table 1, in which the steel plate is a limit case. The external
load is acted downward by an oil-pressure loading machine. The
displacement in the experimental load-displacement curves denotes the
vertical deformation of load point.
Table 1. Experimental cases with various reinforcements
Case
No.
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Exp. 3
Exp. 4
Type of Reinforcement
Carbon fiber sheet 1L*
Aramid fiber sheet
Carbon fiber sheet 2L*
Steel plate
Young's Modulus
(Kgf/cm2)
2.35 X106
1.20 X106
2.35 X106
2.10X106
Strength
(Kgf/cm2)
35500
21000
35500
7850
Amount
(g/m2)
150
200
300
3.2mm
L* denotes the layer of strengthening sheets

The loading procedure is preformed as follows. First, the vertical load
is acted on the non-FRP strengthened tunnel lining. When the initial crack is
observed at the inner crown, the loading is stopped and kept unchanged.
Simultaneously, the reinforcing sheets are externally bonded on the inner
side of tunnel lining through epoxy adhesive. After the adhesive dries
completely, the loading is continued until the final structural collapse.
During the experimental process, the cracking behavior and the
structural load basically follow the following stages: l)The concrete tunnel
lining is elastically loaded until the initiation of crack at the inner crown, as
shown in Figure 2(a). Almost simultaneously, a load drop can be observed,
which is due to the quick, brittle crack propagation in concrete; 2)After
bonding the FRP sheets to the inner side of tunnel lining, the strengthening
of reinforcing sheets take effect, and the crack propagation is slowed down,
see Figure 2(b); 3)The cracks occur at the inclined outer sidewall of both
sides. At the same time, the load reaches the maximum followed by an
obvious drop, in Figure2(c); 4)The cracks at outer sidewall of both sides
propagate continuously, while interfacial debonding occurs along the
interfacial concrete layer at inner crown, and starts to propagate along bond
surface. The load gradually decreases, and finally the structure collapses
when bonded reinforcing sheets are completely delaminated, [see Figure
2(d)]. In all the cases of different types of reinforcement, it is found that the
interfacial debonding that happens in interfacial concrete ultimately leads to

the ultimate collapse of the FRP-strengthened concrete tunnel lining.
Figure 2. Loading procedure and crack evolution in experiments
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
The strengthening effects of FRP sheets and steel plate are discussed
by comparing the load-deflection curves. Figure 3 gives the experimental
results. First, the comparison is made between cases without and with FRP
strengthening. As seen in Figure 3, the inclined angle 6 of load-deflection
curve after bonding FRP sheets or steel plate crack initiation at inner crown
enlarges. This illustrates that the bonded FRP sheet or steel plate enhances
the structural stiffness. In addition, the peak loads of FRP-strengthened
cases also increase against the non-FRP case. Second, among the cases
strengthened by FRP sheets or steel plate, the strengthening effect also
exhibits differently. In the case of Exp.3, 2 layers of carbon fiber sheets
shows higher load-carrying capacity than Exp.l. The special case of Exp.4
with 3.2mm thickness steel plate attains the highest peak load. This implies
that increasing the sheet layers or thickness improves the strengthening
performance. However, by comparing the cases Exp.2 and Exp. 1, it could
be found that even though the strengthening amount of aramid fiber sheet is

more than that of carbon fiber sheet, the strengthening enhancement,
reflected in load-carrying capacity, is still lower. It is noted that the
Young's modulus of aramid sheet is only about half of carbon sheet.
Therefore, it is implied that the enhancement in load-carrying capacity
might be comprehensively contributed by both Young's modulus and
amount of reinforcing FRP sheets.
Figure 3. Experimental load-deflection curves

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS
Material Properties
To perform finite element analysis on fracturing behaviors of a structure,
proper types of finite elements and fracture models need to be adopted.
Herein, the FRP-strengthened concrete tunnel lining is discretized by three
types of finite element. For concrete, a 4-node plane stress element is used.
The FRP-concrete interface is modeled by line-to-line interface element4'5,
and truss element is used to simulate the externally bonded FRP sheets. Due
to the symmetric geometry and load condition, only half of tunnel lining is
discretized with proper boundary conditions. The nonlinear behavior of
each part is specified saperately. The crack in concrete tunnel lining is
modeled by rotating smeared crack model. The debonding failure within the
adhesive layer is simulated by a cohesive crack model, implemented into the
interface element4. FRP sheet is assumed to remain elastic until the rupture.
The simulation cases with the material properties of reinforcing sheets and
steel plate are shown in Table 2, in which the thickness of different sheets
are converted from the strengthening amount in experiments based on the
Tonen's design manual5.

Table 2, Parameters of reinforcing sheets in finite element simulation
Case
No.
FE1
FE2
FE3
FE4
Type of
Reinforcement
Carbon fiber sheet 1L
Aramid fiber sheet
Carbon fiber sheet 2L
Steel plate
Young's Modulus
EFRP (Kgf/cm2)
2.35 X10 6
1.20 X10 6
2.35 X10 6
2.10X10 6
Strength
(Kgf/cm2)
35500
21000
35500
7850
Thickness
(cm)
0.008
0.010
0.016
0.32
The material properties of concrete are as follows : Young's modulus

C=1.4X 105kgf/cm2, Poisson ratio v=0.15, tensile strength /=15kgf/cm2,
mode I fracture energy G/=0.15kgf/cm. For interfacial bond, the properties
are as used in previous researches4'5: initial stiffness AT(,=16000kgf/cm3,
bond strength fb =30kgf/cm2 and interfacial fracture energy G/,=1.2kgf/cm.
Herein, it is assumed that good bond condition is ensured.
Numerical Simulations
Figure 4 gives the load-deflection curves for each case and comparison with
the non-FRP strengthened one. Similar to the experimental results, the
specimens of concrete tunnel lining strengthened with FRP sheets or steel
plate exhibit higher load-carrying capacity than the non-FRP
Figure 4. Simulation results of load-deflection curves

strengthened one. The reinforcing effect on load-carrying capacity is
enhanced in the order: steel plate, 2-layer carbon sheet, 1-layer carbon sheet
and aramid sheet. Note that the product of Young's modulus EFRP and
thickness t, also increases from steel plate to aramid sheet. This product is
defined as comprehensive stiffness of reinforcing sheets. It may imply that
the load-carrying capacity of FRP-strengthened tunnel lining is related to
the comprehensive stiffness of reinforcing sheets for the failure mode of

FRP debonding. Although in the simulation case 4, the comprehensive
stiffness of steel plate is much higher than that of FRP sheets in the other 3
cases, it is kept as a limit case and compared to the corresponding
experimental result.
It can be seen that crack propagation and crack pattern are basically
similar to the experiments. The crack initially occurs at inner crown, then in
the inclined outer sidewall, inner bottom, interfacial crack in concrete at
inner crown. In the simulation, interfacial debonding occurs at inner
crown as the cracks in concrete adjacent to the bond interface, but not the
Figure 5. Simulation results of cracking behaviors
fracture in the interface elements, as shown in Figure 5. Among the

simulation cases, the interfacial crack in concrete at inner crown is quite
different. It is found that with increase of the comprehensive stiffness of
strengthening sheets and plate, the cracking zone spreads widely.
P(to
10
Pfton
8
8
6
1T1<*\
I&U-*
-aFEl
Exp. 1
"
1 Ix
nr
P(ton)
Dis, (mm)
Dis, .(mm)
0i
P(ton)
A!
FE2
Exp. 2
o FE4
Exp.4
- o FE3
Exp. 3
Disp.(mm)
OCXXXKD
Eisp(mm)
Figure 6. Comparison of load-deflection curves between simulation and experiment
From Figure 6, it can be seen that that except for the case of aramid
sheet, the simulated peak load of other three cases are generally lower than
the experimental ones, and the difference becomes more distinct when
the comprehensive stiffness of reinforcing FRP sheet is higher (see Table
3).
Table 3. Comparison of peak load between simulation and experiment
Peak load (ton)
Case No.
Peak load (ton)
Case No.
FE 1
FE2
FE3
FE4
9.9
9.1
10.8
24.7
Exp. 1
Exp. 2
Exp. 3
Exp. 4
11.2
8.8
14.8
33.2
It is noted that tension stiffening of concrete adjacent to bond interface

is not considered in the simulation. But in reality, the bonded FRP sheets or
plate might result in such a tension stiffening effect due to the FRP-concrete
bonding behavior. To verify this hyperthesis, a tension stiffening model is
proposed for interfacial concrete. It assumes the concrete fracture energy is
enhanced and the concrete tensile strength is kept unchanged, with a
relationship as shown in Figure 7. With this model, the simulation results of
FE 1 and FE 3 were performed again, by increasing the fracture energy of
interfacial concrete from 0.15kgf/cm to 0.3 and 0.5kgf/cm, respectively.

The simulation results are compared with the old ones and the experiments,
presented in Figure 8. It can be seen that by considering the tension
stiffening of interfacial concrete, peak loads approach to the experimental
ones. However, more study is needed to obtain a quantitative relation
between the comprehensive stiffness of reinforcing composites and the
fracture energy increase G'slifffor tension stiffening of interfacial concrete.
Tension softening
fni normal concrete
\
"V* ^
*jf
,,/' h
Icii'iim sliffeniii'4
"*.hn iiiu-ri.ui.il iriiiluiieil concrete
Figure 7. Tension stiffening for interfacial concrete
P (ton)
P (ton)
vj\
te
x>
Disp.(mm)
E *>.i
&"
0 FE3
a FE3 (T.S. G-0.5kgf7cm)
Bqi. 3
o-^FEl
1
4
1
6
r isp.(mm)
10
Figure 8. Consideration of tension stiffening effect in numerical

By tracing the crack propagation process in the simulation, it was found
that after the peak load, the crack at inclined outer sidewall developed
rapidly across the thickness of tunnel lining. Although such a sudden load
drop maight be due to unstability of computation by applied crack model, it
exactly reflects the structural behavior of tunnel lining qualitatively in
reality. When the crack at inclined outer sidewall has formed, the structural
stability would be lost and the load-carrying capacity started to decrease.
The strengthening effect that FRP sheets provide is to slow down the crack
propagating at inner crown, while the occurrence of outer sidewall crack is
also related to crack propagation at inner crown. In addition, the interfacial
microcrack in concrete at inner crown should initiate before the peak load,
but not later as obversed in the experiments. The initiation of interfacial
crack in concrete allows the FRP strengthening to be transferred to more
interfacial concrete surrounding the inner crown until the complete

debonding occurs. During this process, the contribution to load-carrying
capacity from FRP sheets also delays the propagation at inclined outer
sidewall.
CONCLUSIONS
The structural and fracturing behavior of 1/3 model specimens of concrete
tunnel lining strengthened with FRP sheets and steel plate have been studied.
Focus was centered on the finite element analysis to provide a good
understanding of FRP strengthening process to concrete tunnel linings.
From the numerical simulations, also comparing with the experiments, it is
found that the comprehensive stiffness of FRP sheets is a determinative
property to the strengthening performance. The higher it is, the more the
load-carrying capacity of strengthened tunnel lining can be enhanced. The
interfacial debonding happens mainly in the interfacial concrete, and
localizes at inner crown. The tension-stiffening behavior of interfacial
concrete, adjacent to bond surface, does exist and is related to the
comprehensive stiffness of strengthening FRP sheets. The proposed tensionstiffening model is regarded applicable for predicting the load-carrying
capacity of FRP-strengthened tunnel linings.
The mechanism of
strengthening performance to concrete tunnel linings is finally addressed.
REFERENCES
1. Asakura, T., Ando, T., Omata, F., Wakana, K. and Matsuura, A.: Behavior
of structurally defective tunnel lining and effectiveness of inner
reinforcement, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, JSCE, No.493,
1994.6, pp.89-98.
2. Asakura, T., Ando, T. and Kojima, Y.: Experiments of inner reinforced
tunnel linings, QR ofRTRI, 1998.
3. Yin, J., Wu, Z.S., Asakura, T. and Ota, H.: Cracking and Failure Behavior
of Concrete Tunnel Lining Predicted by Smeared Crack Model, Journal of
Struc. Meek and Earthquake Eng., JSCE, Vol.18, No. 1, 2001.1, pp. 17-27.
4. Wu, Z.S. & Yin, J.: Numerical Analysis on Interfacial Fracture Mechanism
of Externally FRP-Strengthened Structural Members, Journal of Material,
Concrete Structures and Pavements, JSCE .
5. Yin, J. & Wu, Z.S.: Simulations on Crack Distribution in FRPStrengthened Concrete Beams with Interfacial Fictitious Crack Model,
Proceedings ofFraMCos-4, Cachan, France, 2001.5, Vol.2, pp. 1079-1086.

STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN

TORSION WITH FRP
B. TAUSTEN
Department of Civil & Mining Engineering, Lulea University of Technology
SE-971 87 Lulea, Sweden andSkanska AB, 169 83 Solna, Sweden
Repair or upgrading of existing concrete structures has become a large
portion of society's budget all over the world, and the amount is increasing.
The causes for this are several. Our cities are becoming larger with
increasing traffic flow, while the existing infrastructure was built for other
standards and traffic loads. Apart from this a large proportion of the
infrastructure has reached its design life and consequently will need to be
replaced. A further reason is that a large proportion of the buildings and
infrastructure deteriorate. Repair and strengthening methods that solve
some of these issues in a cost effective way are welcomed. One such
method is composite plate bonding, which may be defined as a method
where thin plates or fabrics are bonded to a structure's surface to enhance
its stiffness and strength. The most common way to strengthen structures
with advanced composites has been for bending but strengthening for
shear, torsion and axial loads is also often needed. However, there are very
few examples presented in the literature for concrete structures
strengthened with CFRP in torsion, which may indicate that this is a minor
problem. Nevertheless, the need still exists and therefore this paper
presents work conducted to strengthen concrete structures in torsion. The
paper presents mainly theory but also laboratory tests. It is shown that
strengthening a structure for torsion is possible, but theoretically
complicated and it is of utmost importance that the CFRP sheets or
laminate are anchored properly.
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening concrete structures in bending with external composite
reinforcement is relatively common around the world. The applications for
shear strengthening are fewer and only a few examples of strengthening for
torsion have so far been published1'2,3,4. Most likely, the needs for
strengthening a structure for torsion is not in great demand compared to
strengthening in bending or shear. Nevertheless, the need still exists and it
is important to investigate and verify whether strengthening for torsion is
possible.
Box girder bridges with uniform loading are one type of structure that is
subjected to torsional loading. These bridges are best suited for long spans
and are therefore not as prevalent as other bridge types. Other types of
structures that may be in need of strengthening in torsion are conventional
beams and columns. A concrete structure loaded in torsion may be
compared to a concrete structure affected by shear. One important
difference though, is that torsional crack forms a spiral pattern. The crack
opens where the principal strains exceed the tensile strength of the concrete.
This paper presents a suggestion how to design reinforcement for concrete
beams in need of strengthening using FRP materials; in addition a pilot test
on strengthening beams is presented.
BASIC DESIGN FOR TORSION
An extensive derivation of design for shear can be found in reference 5. The
design equations for RC structures loaded in torsion are based on regular
design for concrete structures. According to BBK 946 (Swedish concrete
codes) the torsion capacity of a concrete element can be written as:
Tsd=Zft=Z-0.4fcl
(1)
and for pre-stressed concrete:

Tsd=Zft=Z{0.4fct+0.2*cm)
(2)
where Z, f,, fc, and om are the plastic resistance, formal torsion strength,
concrete tensile strength and normal stress in concrete, respectively. The
amount of required steel reinforcement in torsion is found from:
= ^-tane
s
(3)
2Aeffsv
where Asl, s, Td, Aefmdfsv are steel reinforcement, distance between stirrups,
torsional moment, effective concrete area and tensile stress in steel
reinforcement, respectively. These equations are based on St. Venant's
principle; that is the shape of the cross-section remains unchanged after the
torque is being applied. Also, the deformation perpendicular to the crosssection is zero and the only stress present in the cross-section is the shear
flow, q (see Figure 1). The shear flow is the result of the shear stress over
the thickness of the walls in the studied cross-section. If a membrane
element, ABCD in Figure 2 is cut out, this element is only exposed to shear
Strengthening of Concrete Structures in Torsion 1169

forces, where tj is the shear stress on AD and t2 the shear stress on the
area BC.
Figure 1: Arbitrary cross-section exposed to a torsional moment and a cut-out

membranefromthe larger element
The thickness of the element is hj for the area AD and h2 for the area
BC. An equilibrium equation in the direction gives:
Tjhj = T2h2
(4)
Since the shear stress on opposite perpendicular planes must be equal,

the shear stress on side AB must be tl in point A and t2 in point B. It
follows from Equation (4) that rh on area AB must be the same in points A
and B, which by the definition of shear flow, q = th3 means that q is as
large in point A as B. The relation between the torsional moment, F, and the
shear flow, q, can be derived with a moment equilibrium equation around
axle t. The shear force over a length dt is qdt. The contribution of this
element to the total torsional capacity is qdt(r), where r is the distance from
the centre to the shear force. The total torsion capacity can thus be written
as:
T = qjrdt
(5)
Note that rdt in the integral corresponds to twice the area of the triangle
formed by r and dt in Figure 1. If this is summed around the entire crosssection, the following is obtained:
jrdt = 2A0
(6)
where A0 is the cross-section. Equations (5) and (6) give:

T
q = 2A
(7)
For a rectangular cross-section, it is possible to derive4:

T
T
q = 2- A.
2bh
ef
(8)
If we now apply the truss-model (see Figure 2), an equilibrium equation

can be established. A vertical equilibrium equation for the tensile steel
reinforcement and a vertical as well as horizontal equilibrium equation for
the compressed concrete element give:
F
F
V
-hcota = 0=> = qtana +tan
a
s
s
h
- -N + Fl-Dcosa = 0
Fe = N + qh cot a + V cot a
t V + qh- Dsinaa-0
t V + qh
(9)
(10)
In the case of pure torsion, N = 0 and V = 0 and Equations (9) and

(10), together with Equation (8), finally give:
F.
T
= qtanatan a
s
2bh
1
1
F,
h
tana 2bh tana
(11)
(12)
Figure 3: Truss-model for torsion

This can be compared with the expression in reference 6, where
Equations (11) and (12) are written as:
AstJ st
>
2A,ef
-tan 9
(13)

A
slfsl
T
1
uef ~ 2Aef tan9
(14)
These equations are in fact equal since for the two-dimensional case, uef
= h. For the three-dimensional case, uef corresponds to 2(b+h), which is the
perimeter for the cross-section. Stresses are taken in both concrete and
longitudinal steel reinforcement and stirrups, with the inclination 6 in the
concrete struts. For a given structure, the crack-angle under load will adjust
to the capacity of the tensile reinforcement as well in the stirrups. In an
under-reinforced concrete structure where both the bending and shear
reinforcement reach the yield stress before failure, the following relation for
the crack-angle is obtained:
Ifyv^st uef
tan0= -Z
J
V s
fyiAsi
....
(15)
DESIGN FOR STRENGTHENING IN TORSION

Cracks in concrete due to torsional loading usually follow the same
mechanism as concrete cracking under shear loading. However, it is
important to understand how a torsional fracture develops. This is shown
schematically in Figure 3. Here two beams have been folded out and
compared to each other. The first one is loaded in torsion and the second in
shear. In both cases, it is possible to follow the crack on both sides of the
beam, but in contrast to the beam loaded in shear, the crack for the beam
loaded in torsion follows a spiral pattern.
Beam
under
torsional
Beam
loading
Back
Top
under
shear
/
Front
Afl
loading
Bock
v^
Top
Front
Figure 3: The forming of a torsion crack in comparison with a shear crack

In Figure 4, three alternative methods of strengthening a rectangular
concrete structure with fibre composites are reviewed. When strengthening
a concrete structure for torsion with fibre composites, it is assumed that the
truss-model applies. However, the fibre composite is an anisotropic
material. The placement of the fibres in relation to the principal strain
direction must be considered. The truss-model is assumed applicable8 when

strengthening for torsion. Here, consideration is only given to the stress that
the fibres build-up perpendicular to the crack plane.
s
1
Figure 4: Main alternatives for strengthening a concrete beam for torsion using fibre
composites.
The following simplification may then be made: The composite only
takes up forces in the fibre direction and, it is assumed that the crack angle
is a = 45 and that the principal tensile stresses are perpendicular to this
crack-plane. Two strengthening cases are studied; strengthening with strips
and when the beam is completely covered with fabrics (see Figure 5).
Equilibrium gives:
>F\_ =
Sj-
*.
hcota + hcotfi .
I V + qh-Ff
sin p = 0
'/
1
1
+
(cot a + cot p)sin /? h (cot a + cot 0)sin ft
(16)
In the case of pure torsion

F,
jf
1
(cot a + cot p) sin ft
f,*Af
j ,
<!-.
(17)
The torsional moment as a function of shear flow becomes:

q
(18)
2bh
Substituting equation (18) into (17) yields:
a
f,eAf
V
T
1
2bh (cot a + cot 0)sin fi
(19)

with Af = 2tjbf, a= 45, a y e = ay cos 9 = / / cos # and 6= a + ft 90 where 45< P<90
Equation (19) can now be written in the form:
2t b E
ffff
T
1
2bh (cot a + cot p)sin P
(20)
It yields further that the strain distribution is uneven over the crosssection and that the ultimate limit strain needs to be reduced by a factor of
0.65. Therefore, Equation (20) can be written as:
1.2tfbfsfuEf
j
(21)
2bh (cot a + cot p)sin P
h/sin/?
Torsional
^C.
F\
crack
l>/2
-t
T
3
hcotfi ,
h/sinfi
Figure 5: Concrete beam with inclined reinforcement in the form offibrecomposites

Furthermore, the two alternatives yield:
br
sf
bf +r
and s f = -J
sin P
sin P
where r is the distance between the strips.
(22)
LABORATORY TESTS
The laboratory tests conducted, which are considered as pilot tests,
consisted both of concrete beams strengthened with steel plates and with
FRP materials. In this paper only beams strengthened with FRP are reported
(see also reference 1). As shown in Figure 6, one side of the beam was
clamped, the other side was free to rotate but not to move in the vertical and
horizontal plane. The ends were heavily reinforced to avoid unwanted
failures. The dimension of the test specimens was 150 x 600 x 6000 mm.
B*xMngnk*xcnrt
)2
*r-
Figure 6: Test set-up for torsion tests
The average concrete quality for all test specimens was 72.1 MPa for
the compressive strength and 4.5 MPa for the tensile strength, measured
from cube tests. Both composites of glass, EG = 20 GPa, So = 2.5 %, and
carbon, Ec = 65 GPa, sc = 1.6 %, were used for strengthening. The
strengthening material was applied by hand-lay up. Normal procedure for
strengthening was followed5.
* max-)
Beam
[kNm]
Table 1 Results from pilot test

Tc,
T
max
[kNm]
[rad]
T
1
RCRl
RCC4
RCC6
RCG7
RCC8
14.2
20.8
29.2
>38.4
>34.1
0.05
0.06
0.12
>0.33
>0.24
ref
1.0
1.5
2.1
>2.7
>2.4
3.5
6.8
13.0
13.5
T
* max
TC+Tref
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.2

In Figure 7, the different test beams are shown together with curves of
the torsional moment as a function of the angel 0 in radians. The results
from the pilot test are recorded in Table 1.
S n
8
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Radians
Reference beam. Crack development in unreinforced

section. Longitudinal steel reinforcement started to take
load
120
Carbon fibre unidirectional fabrics, 300 mm wide, 300

g/m2. Placed only on the sides of the beam. Well defined
crack pattern. Anchorage failure.
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

Radians
Carbon fibre fabrics 45, 300 g/m2. Placed only on the

side of the beam. Many and well defined cracks.
Reasonable rotations. Failure outside composite.
D
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
Radians
5 30
J 20
Glass fibre fabric, unidirectional 600 g/m . Fibre placed

vertically and wrapped around the beam. Very large
rotations at failure. Concrete crushed under composite.
olllll
Carbon fibre fabric, unidirectional, 300 g/m . Fibre

placed vertically and wrapped around the beam. Very
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.3i
large rotations at failure. Concrete crushed under
Radians
composite.
Figure 7: Loading curves and test beams for the pilot test

CONCLUSIONS
The pilot tests shows that it is possible to strengthen concrete beams for
torsion. The design equations are easy to use, but it seems like the
theoretical derivation underestimates the contribution from the composite.
However, the tests are pilot tests and it would have been desirable that more
measurements had been taken during testing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to acknowledge the Swedish Road Authorities and
SBUF (The Swedish Building and Development Fund) for financial support
for this study.
REFERENCES
1. Taljsten, B. (1998): "Forstarkning av betongkonstruktioner med stalplat och
avancerade kompositmaterial utsatta for vridning (Strengthening of
concrete structures with steel plates or advanced composite materials
affected by torsion)", Research Report, Lulea University of Technology,
February 1998, 1998:01, ISSN 1402-1528, p 42 (In Swedish)
2. Ghobarah A. (2001): "Torsional Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Beams", FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, Vol. 1, Ed J.G. Teng, Int.
Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, 12-15 December
2001, Hong Kong, China, pp 705-712.
3. Zhang J. W., Lu Z. T. and Zhu H , (2001): "Experimental Study on the
Behaviour of RC Torsional Members Externally Bonded with CFRP", FRP
Composites in Civil Engineering, Vol. 1, Ed J.G. Teng, Int. Conference on
FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, 12-15 December 2001, Hong Kong,
China, pp 713-722.
4. FIB, 2001, Bulletin 14, Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC
structures, Technical Report, Task Group 9.3 FRP (Fibre Reinforced
Polymer) reinforcement for concrete structures, ISBN 2-+88394-054-1, July
2001, p 130
5. Taljsten, B. (2002): "FRP Strengthening of Existing Concrete Structures.
Design Guidelines" Division of Structural Engineering, Lulea University of
Technology, Lulea 2002, 228 pp, ISBN 91-89580-03-6.
6. BBK 94, 1994, Boverkets handbok om betongkonstruktioner, Band 1,
Konstruktion, Utgiven av Boverket, Byggavdelningen, ISBN 91-7332-6860, 1994, p i 85 (In Swedish).

FE MODELLING OF FRP-REPAIRED RC PLANE STRESS

ELEMENTS
N. KHOMWAN AND S.J. FOSTER
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
The University of New South Wales, UNSW Sydney, 2052, Australia.
A non-linear finite element model is developed to study the behaviour of
rehabilitated concrete plane stress structures such as beams and membranes.
Structures that have suffered some damage due to severe loading or
environmental factors often require repair whilst remaining in service as the
repair is being affected. The contribution of the load shared between the
original and the newly constructed portions of the structure are dependent
on the state of residual stresses in the structure, at the time of repair. In the
models developed in this paper, a step-by-step solution procedure is
adopted to engage and disengage elements systematically at any point in the
loading history. The results of the FE model are compared with
experimental test data for CFRP strengthened shear walls and a
strengthened beam. The results of the numerical analyses show a good
correlation when compared with the experimental data.
INTRODUCTION
An increasing community environmental awareness and the cost of
replacement demand that society get the maximum life from its aging
capital infrastructure. This includes repair of damaged structural elements
and members that are assessed to be under-strength either due to a changing
use or design or construction deflects. Thus, the repair and strengthening of
existing structures has become a significant part of construction activity.
Traditionally, repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures
has been via mechanically connecting steel plates to the members. However,
these techniques can be cumbersome, requiring closing the facility for
prolonged periods of time and can prove costly. In the last decade, the use
of advanced composite materials for structural rehabilitation has shown
great promise. Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs) provide for an attractive
alternative as FRPs are non-corrosive, non-conductive, are generally
resistant to chemicals and have a high strength-to-weight ratio.
Most of the research in the area of rehabilitation and repair has been
experimental with little research on the development of numerical models.
In this paper a FE model is developed for the analysis of FRP repaired

concrete membranes.
FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FORMULATION
The modelling of repaired concrete structures can be undertaken by adding
a layer of repair elements over that of the parent material, similar to the
application in practice. For example, one-dimensional FRP bar elements can
be used to model unidirectional strengthening and bidirectional membrane
elements used to model fabric where stresses are limited to the orientation
of the fibres and where the elements are incapable of carrying shear. The
latter approach was used successfully by Vecchio and Bucci1.
For equilibrium at the cracks for the plane stress element shown in
Figure 1, it can be shown that
crx=acn cos2 er+crct sin2 6r+Tcntsm(26r) + (pa)sx+(pa)frpx
(la)
ay = <rcn sin2 8r +act cos26r -rcnt sin(2^) + (pa)sy+(pa)frpy
(lb)
rxy = 0.5{acn - acl )sin(20)- rcnt cos(2#)
(1 c)
where 8r is the angle between a vector normal to the cracks and the global
X-axis (-7r/2<0r <7r/2); ax, ay and r are the in-plane normal and
shear stresses in the global XY-coordinate system, respectively; ocn and
<rct are the concrete stresses normal and parallel to the direction of
cracking, respectively; rcnt is the corresponding shear stress; psx and p
are the steel reinforcement ratios in the global X- and Y-directions; asx and
cr are the stresses in the X- and Y-reinforcement, respectively; pfrpx and
pr
are the FRP reinforcement ratios in the global X- and Y-directions
and a frpx and a frpy are the stresses in the X- and Y- FRP reinforcement,
respectively. In the derivation of Eq. 1 the steel and FRP reinforcement can
carry tension and compression only while the concrete carries compression
and shear. At the cracks the concrete carries no tension whilst between
cracks the concrete carries tension via tension-stiffening effects.
FRP-Repaired RC Plane Stress Elements 1179

(a)
(C)
1
OcnCOS 9 r
^ Txy
(pa)sx+(pCT)frpx
?rNX,tcntCOs6r
Ox
Ox
|oy
(D
Oct cos 6 r
l(po)sy+(pa)frpy
OcnsinGr
Tent cos 8 r y 9 r ' . ' '^X Tcnt sin 9 r

Txy
Figure 1: Orthogonally reinforced membrane subject to plane stress: (a) applied

stresses; (b) axis notation; (c) and (d) stresses at a crack.
In Eq. 1 the formulation can be separated into a reinforced concrete

component and a FRP component. For the reinforced concrete the cracked
membrane model finite element (CMM-FE) formulation of Foster and
Marti2,3 is used. The CMM-FE model combines elemental components from
the modified compression field approach of Vecchio and Collins4 and
cracked membrane model of Kaufmann and Marti5. The FRP fabric
elements are then simply superimposed over the reinforced concrete mesh
using the constitutive relationship for bi-directional FRP given by
Efrpx
<?x
'xy
Efrpy
Vy
frv
sym.
0" ex
0
(2)
0 Yxy
Structures requiring repair due to damage carry significant residual

stresses at the time of the repair. Thus, it is important to retain the residual
stresses in the reinforced concrete elements at the time that the FRP
elements are engaged. The FRP elements are activated at a time in the
loading history set to match that of the repaired structure. The method is
based on defining plastic offset strains for reinforced concrete elements and
then enforcing theses offsets though the use of pre-strain nodal forces. At
first, the pre-strains of disengaged overlay elements are set as equal to that
of the underlying elements and, thus, the elements contribute nothing to the
strength or stiffness of the structure. Upon element activation, the element
commences to contribute structural strength starting from a zero elastic
strain condition (Vecchio and Bucci1).
The activation of the FRP elements is summarized in Figure 2. When
loading begins (point A in Fig 2d) only the reinforced concrete elements are
active. At point B, the repair elements are activated with straining of these
elements occurring only after the time of repair. The plastic offset strains
ep at this point are set equal to the total strains s and then held constant
for the remainder of the analysis or while the FRP elements remain active.
With increased loading (point C in Figure 2d) the net strains are used to
determine the secant stiffness and out of balance forces in the FRP elements
where the net strains sn are given by
NUMERICAL EXAMPLES
Analysis of FRP Composite Shear Wall
Lombard6 tested three large-scale walls to evaluate the effectiveness of
using externally bonded carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) sheets in
the repair of shear walls. The tests included one control, unstrengthened,
wall and two strengthened shear walls. The walls were tested under cyclic
loading. The geometry and reinforcement details of the walls are presented
in Figure 3. The wall contained vertical reinforced boundary elements
enclosed within the depth of the wall consisting of 10M stirrups spaced at
80-mm centres. The stirrups also provide for confinement reinforcement to
the edge strips. Wall 1 was retrofitted by applying one vertical layer of 0.11mm thick CFRP sheet to each face of the specimen. Wall 2 was
strengthened with one horizontal and two vertical layers of 0.11 mm CFRP
to each face of the specimen.
The walls were modelled with 4-node reinforced concrete elements
using the CMM-FE model of Foster and Marti2'3 with the FRP modelled
using overlay elements (see Figure 3). In all the FE analyses the in-situ
concrete compression and tension strengths were taken as 40 MPa and
2.1 MPa, respectively. For the confined boundary elements, the strength and
strain at peak strength was increased to account for the triaxial effects of the
A : Start Loading
B : Activation Point
C : Ultimate Load
Displacement^)
STRAIN
(C)
Figure 2. Modelling of FRP elements: (a)-(c) finite element at loading points

A5 B and C, respectively; (d) loading history and; (e) definition of
secant modulus (after Vecchio and Bucci1).
confinement. The effective confining pressure was calculated using the

model of Saatcioglu7 and is 0.93 MPa in each direction. For these confining
pressures the peak triaxial compression strength is 46 MPa with a strain at
peak stress of 0.0035. The stress-strain curves used for the concrete are
given in Figure 4. The CFRP was modelled as perfectly elastic-brittle with
the properties as given in Table 1. The steel reinforcement was modelled as
bilinear using the material properties given in Table 2.
f - ..... -
(a)
... ..... n
'l
IOM
1795
?* Stirrup
"^
IOM
IOM
pj
m
I.
6-20M
-6-20M
90
.1
1730
(b)
(c)
Lsl?Haim, kwpkwtekiapk1
Figure 3. (a) Geometry and details for Lombard shear walls; FE mesh showing
displaced shape (xlO magnification) for (b) control at P=120 kN and
(c) wall 1 at P=220 kN.
In Figure 5 the results of the FE modelling of the walls are compared
with the experimental data for load versus horizontal drift with the
experimental data plotted as the envelope of the cyclic load-drift
measurements. Overall, the FE results show a reasonable correlation with
the test data. The higher level of damage in the experimental control
specimen (Figure 5a) compared to the FE model can be attributed to the
degrading stiffness due to the effects of cyclic loading. In Figure 5d, the
effect of bonding of the CFRP to specimen before loading and in the
damaged state is compared. In the simulated repair case the CFRP was

Table 1. CFRP and concrete material properties.
Maximum
Modulus of Ultimate strain
Jcp
of CFRP (%)
stress of CFRP Elasticity of
(MPa)
CFRP (GPa)
(MPa)
1.5
230
3480
Wall 1
42
1.5
230
3480
Wall 2
40
Control Wall
40
1.2
110
1410
43
Beam 3aLOm*
*Note: Taken as 0.8 times the cube strength.
Specimen
Table 2. Steel reinforcement properties.

Fracture
Hardening
Elastic
Yield Stress
Area
strain
Modulus
Modulus
(MPa)
(mm2)
(GPa)
(GPa)
0.05
200
412
100
Wall: 10M
3.9
0.05
412
3.9
206
300
Wall: 20M
0.05
0.0
215
350
7.1
Beam: R3
0.05
Beam: R6
0.0
215
350
28.3
*Note: Wall specimens from Lombard6; beam specimen from Garden and
Hollaway .
Bar
Designation *
activated when the load reached 170 kN, approximately 85% of the ultimate
load attained in the analysis of the control specimen. The results of the
numerical model indicate that the wall repaired under load would perform
almost as well as when the repair is performed with no load on the wall.
Analysis of FRP Reinforced RC Beam
Garden and Hollaway8 tested a number of 1.0 metre long CFRP plated
beams in four point bending. CFRP plates of 0.82-mm thickness were glued
to the underside of the beams using 2-mm thickness of epoxy resin. Beam
3u,i.om was selected for FE modelling as no anchorage to the CFRP was used
other than that of the glue. Failure of the specimen was by delamination of
the cover induced by the limiting tension strength of the concrete.
The geometry of beam 3Oji.0m is shown in Figure 6. The reinforced
concrete beam was modelled with 4-node reinforced concrete elements
using the CMM-FE model with the FRP plate modelled using overlay
2-node bar elements. The concrete compression strength was 43 MPa and
tension strength 2.2 MPa. The material properties are given in Tables 1
and 2.

60
"
confined concrete
boundary elements
MPa)
50
40
30
/*^\
20
j
10 . /
0
()
unconfined
concrete
0.002
0.004
0.006
Strain
0.008
0.C
Figure 4. Concrete stress-strain curves for FE model for Lombard's walls.

250
200
WalM
Control Wall
x*** *î*
5 150
o
O 100
_l
50
0
Cyclic Load -Displacement

Envelope
Experimental
----FEM
5
10
15
20
Midspan Displacement (mm)
25
5
10
15
20
25
(b)
:~*^.
V
kA
CFRP elements
activated at P 170 kN
* FEM Control
""'*
-FEM Wall 2
--Repaired Analysis
10
20
30
5
10
15
20
25
30
(d)
(C)
Figure 5. Load versus horizontal drift (a) control wall; (b) wall 1; (c) wall 2 and;
(d) FEM analysis of specimen repaired under load.
The calculated load-deflection plot for beam 3u,i.om is plotted in Figure 7

together with the measured data with a good correlation observed. The
failure mode of the model was by delamination of the concrete cover, as
observed in the test and is shown in Figure 8.
FRP-Repaired
P/2
RC Plane Stress Elements
P/2
220
100
50
340
1185
2R6R3@51/
bonded CFRP
3R6-
900
Section A-A
Fi gure 6. Details and dimensions of Garden and Hollaway8 beam 3ui om
0 1
10
Figure 7. Load-mid span deflection of beam 3u,i.om-
Figure 8. FE mesh showing displaced shape at failure (xlO magnification).
CONCLUSIONS
A nonlinear finite element model has been developed for the analysis of
reinforced concrete structures strengthened with externally bonded FRP.
The reinforced concrete is modelled using the cracked membrane FE
formulation of Foster and Marti2'3 with the FRP modelled using elasticbrittle overlay elements. The stiffness matrix and out of balance force
vectors for the FRP is formulated using plastic strain offsets to allow for
pre-loading and damage of the concrete elements prior to activation of the

repair material.
The finite element model was tested against wall specimens of
Lombard6 reinforced with externally bonded CFRP plates and a CFRP
plated beam of Garden and Hollaway8. The analytical results showed a good
correlation with the experimental data both for the load deflection plots and
for the failure mechanisms. However, whilst a good correlation was
observed, missing from the current formulation is a bond model for the
transfer of force from the FRP to the concrete. The development of an
appropriate bond model is essential if post peak behaviour is to be modeled
correctly and is the subject of further research.
REFERENCES
1. Vecchio, F.J., and Bucci, F., "Analysis of Repaired Reinforced
Concrete Structures", ASCE, J. of Struct. Eng., 125(6), 1999, pp. 644652.
2. Foster, S.J., and Marti, P., "FE Modelling of RC Membranes using the
CMM Formulation", Proceedings of the Fifth World Congress on
Computational Mechanics (WCCM V), July 7-12, 2002, Vienna,
Austria, http://wccm.tuwien.ac.at
3. Foster, S.J., and Marti, P., "Cracked Membrane Model: FE
Implementation", ASCE, J. of Struct. Eng., (in review)
4. Vecchio F.J., and Collins M.P., "The Modified Compression Field
Theory for Reinforced Concrete Elements Subjected to Shear", ACI
Journal Proceedings, 83(2), 1986, 219-231.
5. Kaufmann, W., and Marti, P., "Structural Concrete: Cracked Membrane
Model", ASCE, J. of Struct. Eng., 124(12), 1998, 1467-1475.
6. Lombard, J.C., "Seismic Strengthening and Repair of Reinforced
Concrete Shear Walls using Externally Bonded Carbon Fibre Tow
Sheets", Master of Engineering in Civil and Environmental Engineering
Thesis, Carleton University, 1999.
7. Saatcioglu, M., "Strength and Ductility of Confined Concrete", ASCE,
J. of Struct. Eng, 118(6), 1992, pp. 1590-1607.
8. Garden, H.N., Hollaway, L.C., "An Experimental Study of the Influence
of Plate End Anchorage of Carbon Fibre Composite Plates used to
Strengthen Reinforced Concrete Beams", Composite Structures, 42,
1998, pp. 175-188.
Applications in Masonry and Steel Structures

BLAST RESISTANCE OF PROTOTYPE IN-BUILT

MASONRY WALLS STRENGTHENED WITH FRP SYSTEMS
M. K. H. PATOARY AND K. H. TAN
Department of Civil Engineering, National University ofSingapore
Static laboratory tests using air-bags were carried out on four in-built
masonry walls, externally bonded with three different types of FRP
systems. A simple analytical model was developed, and it predicted the
wall strength with good accuracy. By incorporating strain rate effect,
dynamic load factor and the reflected pressure versus time history
generated by the program CONWEP, the blast resistance of the walls under
hemispherical surface burst due to bare high explosive detonation was
evaluated in terms of TNT charge at specified stand-off distances.
INTRODUCTION
Apart from framing an enclosure, masonry walls simultaneously offer
subdivision of space, thermal and acoustic insulation, as well as fire and
weather protection. However, such masonry walls are usually not designed
to take vertical or lateral loads. A change in usage and more stringent
design requirements would result in masonry walls playing a structural role
and thus being in need of strengthening. Furthermore, the numerous
terrorist activities that have surfaced in recent years have brought about
concern that masonry walls should be strengthened against blast effects of
weaponry, besides the effect of domestic gas explosions, which are also
common today due to the wide spread use of natural gas.
Current methods of strengthening masonry structures have proved to be
effective, but have several drawbacks. These include surface treatments
such as shotcreting or guniting to increase the strength and ductility of the
walls.1 Such retrofits often add significant mass to the structure and are
time-consuming, costly to carry out, and they adversely affect the aesthetics
of the upgraded area and in many cases the building as a whole. The above
disadvantages may be overcome by using lightweight, fibre reinforced
polymer (FRP) composites as strengthening materials.2 Several
investigations3,4 have indicated that the out-of-plane strength and ductility
1190 FRPRCS-6: Applications in Masonry and Steel Structures
of un-reinforced masonry walls may be enhanced by externally bonded FRP

reinforcement.
The strengthening of un-reinforced masonry structures to resist lateral
pressure that may result from blast loads or other accidental loads is of
interest here. In the study reported herein, the load-deflection response of
masonry brick walls strengthened with FRP systems under out-of-plane
loads is determined from static laboratory tests. Potential failure modes of
the strengthened walls are identified and a simple analytical model is
presented to predict the wall strength. This paper also proposes a simplified
method for the analysis of structural response to blast loading.
TEST PROGRAMME
Test Walls and FRP Systems
Four rectangular concrete frames, each consisting of 220 mm x 400 mm
beams and columns cast monolithically, were fabricated with a rectangular
opening measuring 2000 mm x 1500 mm to accommodate the brick wall.
All four walls, each 120 mm in thickness, were fabricated with solid clay
bricks having a dimension of 70 x 100 x 215 mm. The brick units were laid
in running bond with a mortar joint of about 10 mm in thickness. ASTM
Type I cement and natural river sand were mixed in the ratio of 1:4 by
volume for the mortar. The same mortar mix was used to plaster all walls
on both faces to a thickness of about 10 mm. All the plastered wall surfaces
were then ground using a disc grinder and dust removed using an air
blower. The first wall specimen was reinforced using two layers of unidirectional glass fibre fabrics externally bonded on the tension face of the
wall. The first layer of fibre fabric was bonded in the direction
perpendicular to the continuous mortar joint while the second layer was
placed in the parallel direction. The second and third specimens were
reinforced in the same manner using two layers of uni-directional carbon
fibre sheets instead. Bi-directional low strength fibreglass woven roving
(WR) was used for the fourth wall.
After the installation of FRP system, equal-angle steel sections having a
dimension of 75 mm x 75mm x 12 mm were installed to the surrounding
beam-column frame at the tension face of the wall specimens. One edge of
the angle was bolted to the concrete frame using anchor bolts while the
other edge provided adequate support for the strengthened wall to prevent
sliding failure. To increase the wall strength further, additional stiffener in
the form of steel "T" sections (75 mm x 75mm x 9 mm) was installed on the
Blast Resistance of In-Built Masonry Walls 1191

third specimen. The details of the strengthened walls are shown in Table 1
while the properties of fibre fabrics and epoxy resin are summarised in
Table 2.
Table 1 Detail of Prototype Walls
Specimen
Types ofFRP
Reinforcement
No. ofFRP
Layers
Details of Anchorage
Systems
MP2G
MP2C
Glass
Carbon
2
2
MP2CI
Carbon
MP2WR
Fibreglass WR
Steel Angle
Steel Angle
Steel Angle plus
intermediate stiffener
Steel Angle
Table 2 Properties ofFRP Systems

^"^"--^^^
Properties
FRP~^~~^^^^
Glass FRP
Carbon FRP
Fibreglass
Woven Roving
Fabric
Adhesive
Fabric
Adhesive
Fabric
Adhesive
Thickness Tensile Elastic

Ultimate
(mm)
Strength Modulus Elongation
(MPa)
(%)
(MPa)
2250
70000
0.67
3.2
4.8
72.5
3200
0.165
3500
1.5
230000
3034
54.0
2.5
1.20
131.5
10520
1.25
54.0
3034
2.5
Test Set-up and Instrumentation

A uniformly distributed load was applied centrally on the wall using a
Kevlar reinforced airbag of size 930 mm by 930 mm. The air bag was
placed in between MTS hydraulic jack head to which a 1000 mm by 1000
mm by 30 mm thick steel plate was attached to transfer the load. Initially,
the airbag was inflated with compressed air until it rose to a height of 240
mm at the centre. The MTS hydraulic jack was then used to apply the load
onto the specimen through the air bag at a rate of 0.005 mm/s.
To monitor the strain in the FRP sheet, strain gauges were attached in
two orthogonal directions on the tension side. In both directions, the
spacing of strain gauges was 200 mm. To measure the lateral deflection of
the wall, five linear variable differential transducers (LVDT's) were used.
One transducer was fixed at the centre of the wall and the rest at the quarter
point in each orthogonal direction.
TEST RESULTS
Fig. 1 shows the load-deflection response of the specimens. Initially, the
deflection increased linearly with applied load. As the load was further
increased, the stiffness of the specimens was reduced, probably due to
cracks in the bricks.
However, the response continued to remain
approximately linear until the ultimate load was reached, at which point the
load carrying capacity of the specimens began to reduce. This was
characterized with a loud bang due to the crushing of bricks accompanied
by de-bonding of the FRP system, at the sides of the walls.
10
15
20
25
30
Deflection (mm)
Figure 1 Load-deflection responses
The load-deflection response of all specimens except MP2CI followed

the same trend regardless of the type of FRP systems. The normalised FRP
reinforcing index, defined as(Ef /Em)(Af Ibt), being 0.064 and 0.052 for
MP2G and MP2C respectively, may have led to the similar load-deflection
trend. In the case of MP2WR, though the reinforcing index is lower at
0.035, the bi-directional properties of the fibre fabric led to similar trend.
For specimen MP2CI, the higher load carrying capacity was due to the
intermediate stiffener.
The load-strain response (Fig. 2) also followed the same trend as the
load-deflection curve. Higher strains were recorded at locations closer to
the applied load than at locations further away. Higher strain measurements
were recorded parallel to the continuous mortar joint compared to those in
the perpendicular direction as the outermost layer of FRP sheet was
arranged in the direction parallel to the continuous mortar joint.
500
j MP2Cljr
400
WR
^MP2G
300
P2C
o 200
100
1500
3000 4500
2000 4000
6000 8000
,-6
Strain (x 10"" mm/mm)
Strain (x 10" mm/mm)
Figure 2 Load-strain responses
6000
At ultimate load, all three specimens without any intermediate stiffener

failed explosively (Fig. 3a). Specimens reinforced with glass or carbon
FRP sheets failed by debonding and peeling off at the edge while the
specimen reinforced with fibreglass WR failed by fibre rapture. Specimen
with intermediate stiffener failed gradually by the yielding of the stiffener
(Fig. .*b).
(b)
(a).
^Ki
HC iT.imo
Wall
.i'i-.k
Figure 3 Specimens after failure
THEORETICAL PREDICTIONS
The flexural moment capacity of a masonry wall bonded with FRP
reinforcement is derived in a manner analogous to that for a reinforced
concrete section. Consider the wall of width b , height h and thickness t,
with the tensile face bonded with FRP laminates of an area fraction p,
defined as the total cross-sectional area of FRP reinforcement divided by
the cross sectional area of the wall. Assuming that plane sections remain
plane after bending, neglecting the tensile resistance of the masonry bricks,
and considering the stress-strain relation for masonry brick to be a seconddegree parabola with the strain at maximum stress equal to that at failure,
the flexural moment capacity per unit width of the section can be obtained
as:
m = 0.61fkb(0J5xi--0315x)
,
afif
+ AfEff\-)
A,
(1)
tX
where x = -a> + \o)2 + 2a>

?,and (o = -^-p, P = -r~, ef =scu
,
bt
fk
x
in which Af, Ef, / , and e. are the area of FRP reinforcement, Young's
modulus, tensile strength and ultimate tensile strain of the FRP
reinforcement, respectively, and Em, fk and scu are the Young's modulus,
characteristic compressive strength and ultimate compressive strain of
masonry bricks, respectively.
For a rectangular wall simply supported along all sides, and subjected to
a uniformly distributed load over a square area of width r at its centre, the
ultimate load Pu can be found as:4
P=-*^ +- ^ (2)
" b-0.5r
h-0.5r
where mb and mh are the flexural moment capacities in the directions
parallel to the width and height of the wall, respectively.
COMPARISON OF TEST RESULTS WITH PREDICTIONS
The theoretical prediction was made using the characteristic compressive
strength of masonry work, fk, determined from laboratory tests as 10.5
MPa. The elastic modulus of masonry work was calculated using the
relation Em-2\\b^J~k
reported by Henry.5 The elastic modulus of
different fibre fabrics and adhesives are as shown in Table 1. The ultimate
compressive strain of masonry, scu, was taken as 0.0035. The proposed
model predicted the wall strengths with reasonable accuracy, as shown in
Table 3. The ratio of observed to theoretical value ranges from 1.10 to
1.22, with a mean of 1.14.

Table 3 Comparison between observed and predicted ultimate loads
Wall
Specimen
Predicted
ultimate load (kN)
Observed
ultimate load (kN)
Observed
Predicted
MP2G
MP2C
MP2CI
MP2WR
320.0
298.4
405.6
263.8
353.9
327.3
462.9
322.8
1.11
1.10
1.14
1.22
RESPONSE OF MASONRY WALLS TO BLAST LOADING

Using the static test results, an attempt is made to estimate the blast
resistance of the FRP-strengthened masonry walls. For this purpose, it is
necessary to introduce some modification factors.
Strain Rate Effect
While the load is applied very slowly on the specimens in laboratory tests,
the blast load is very rapidly applied on the structure. Rapidly applied loads
cause an enhancement in the resistance capacity of the material compared
with static loading. This enhancement is known as strain rate effect. Tests
carried out by some researchers6,7 on masonry have shown that the strain
rate enhancement of 1.19 is reasonable for flexural action.
Ultimate Resistance and Stiffness
For simplicity, a single degree of freedom (SDOF) system is adopted with
appropriate dynamic load factors.6 In the case of a rectangular wall
reinforced isotropically and simply supported along all sides, the maximum
resistance Ru and the spring constant KE for an aspect ratio hlb of 0.75 is
given by8
R..
bh'
Ki
-(l2mh+\0.05mb)
206.5EIa
(3)
(4)
where Ia is the effective moment of inertia per unit width. As an

approximation, Ia may be taken as the average of those of the uncracked
and cracked transformed sections8, that is
/
=! 5.5^ + 0.083
bt
"
2
J
E
where Afs = ^- Af, in which
Ef
(5)
is the Young's modulus of FRP
reinforcement, and Es is the Young's modulus of steel reinforcement.

Natural Period of Vibration
For a specified duration of the blast loading of a given intensity and a given
resistance of the masonry wall, the effective period of vibration determines
the maximum transient deflection of the wall. The expression for the
natural period of vibration is given by
*L = 2 J * ^
L
(6)
where a> is the natural circular frequency; M is the actual mass of the
structure; KE is the equivalent elastic stiffness; and KlM is the load-mass
factor, equal to 0.63 for two-way elements.7
Dynamic Load Factor (DLF)
To obtain the response of a linear elastic system, it is convenient to use the
concept of the dynamic load factor6. This factor is defined as the ratio of
the maximum dynamic deflection to the deflection that would have resulted
from the static application of the peak load (or pressure)/ 1 , which is used in
specifying the load (pressure)-time variation. Since deflections, spring
forces, and stresses in an elastic system are all linearly related; the dynamic
load factor may be applied to any of these to determine the ratio of dynamic
to static effects. Therefore, the dynamic load factor may also be considered
as
DLF = (7)
P
where/? is the maximum resistance, and P is the peak pressure used in
specifying the pressure-time variation. The above response charts are
applicable for elastic systems. However, the charts can be applied to the
entire elasto-plastic range if the actual resistance relations are replaced by
the equivalent elastic system.7
Response Determination
The determination of the dynamic response of any systems is accomplished
using numerical techniques or available design charts, which relate the
dynamic properties of the element (natural period of vibration, resistance,
and deflection) to those of the blast overpressures.
The procedure reported by Volkman6 was adopted to determine the
blast resistance of FRP reinforced masonry walls in terms of TNT charge.
For a given charge, the reflected pressure time history was generated using
CONWEP, which is an automated version of the charts and equations of
TM5-855-1.9 The pressure-time history is then simplified to an equivalent
triangular pressure pulse with zero rise time defined by peak pressure P
and positive phase duration td . Consider a specimen with ultimate
resistance Ru, equivalent elastic stiffness KE, and the natural period Tn
calculated using the method described earlier. Knowing the ratio of td/T,
the dynamic load factor (DLF) can be read from the appropriate figure11
given for simplified triangular loads. The maximum resistance R attained
by the member is calculated from the DLF using Eq. (7) and checked
against the ultimate static resistance Ru of the specimen. The procedure is
repeated until sufficient convergence is found. The calculated blast
resistance in terms of TNT charge at a distance of 10, 20 and 30 m away
from the blast source are shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Blast resistance of FRP reinforced masonry walls
Resistance Eq. Elastic Elastic

Natural
Wall
Specimen
Stiffness, KE Deflection Period, T
Ru
(N/mm)
(mm)
(msec)
(kPa)
15.16
50971
MP2G
258
17.28
16.02
12.18
MP2C
241
59328
15.44
15.32
326
63818
MP2CI
48273
13.03
17.76
210
MP2WR
TNT Charge
(kg)
10m 20 m
38 166
32 146
46 211
30 129
30 m
460
409
597
352
CONCLUSION
FRP system, consisting of fabrics of high performance fibres externally
bonded to masonry walls, provides significant improvement in wall
response to out-of-plane loadings. Specimens without intermediate stiffener
were observed to fail explosively. Failure was due to the fibre debonding
and peeling off at the edge for walls with a high reinforcing index and by
fibre rupture for those with a low reinforcing index. By providing
intermediate stiffener, the wall failed gradually by the yielding of the
stiffener. An analytical model based on the principles of compatibility of
deformations and equilibrium of forces predicted the test results well.
Using available design formulae, the resistance properties of the FRP
reinforced masonry walls are determined for blast loading analysis
incorporating the concept of strain rate effect, dynamic load factor and
SDOF analysis. The analysis indicated that externally bonded FRP system
would contribute to the resistance of masonry walls against blast loads.
REFERENCES
1. Gilstrap, J. M. and Dolan, C. W., "Out-of-plane bending of FRP
reinforced masonry walls." Composite Science and Technology, 58,
1998, pp. 1277-1284.
2. Thanasis C. T., "Strengthening of masonry structures using epoxybonded FRP laminates." Journal of Composites for Construction,
ASCE, 2(2), 1998, pp. 96-104.
3. Michael, L. Albert., Alaa E. Elwi., and Roger Cheng, J. J.,
"Strengthening of un-reinforced masonry walls using FRPs." Journal of
Composites for Construction, ASCE, 5(2), 2001, pp. 76-84.
4. Tan, K. H. and Patoary, M. K. H., "Strengthening of masonry walls
against out-of-plane loads using FRP reinforcement." Journal of
Composites for Construction, ASCE, accepted for publication.
5. Henry, A. W., "Structural masonry." Second Edition, Macmillan Press
Ltd., London, 1998, pp. 16-50 and 181-190.
6. Volkman, D. E. "Aspects of blast resistance masonry design" Masonry:
Components to Assemblages, ASTM STP 1063, John H. Mattys, Editor,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1990, pp. 413-422.
7. TM5-1300 "Structures to resist the effects of the accidental
explosions". US Department of Army, Picatinny Arsenal, New Jersey,
Technical Manual, 1990.
8. Biggs, J. M., "Introduction to structural dynamics" McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York, 1964, pp. 212-213.
9. TM5-855-1 "Fundamentals of protective design for conventional
weapons" Headquarters, Department of the Army, Washington, DC,
1986.
FRPRCS-6, Singapore, &-10 July 2003

RETROFIT TECHNIQUES USING POLYMERS AND FRPs

FOR PREVENTING INJURIOUS WALL DEBRIS
J. E. CRAWFORD AND K. B. MORRILL
Karagozian & Case
2550 North Hollywood Way, Suite 500, Burbank, CA 91505-5026, USA
New highly ductile design concepts for conventional stud and masonry
walls are discussed. These concepts are intended to prevent injurious wall
debris caused by a terrorist bomb from entering a building. The concepts
shown in the paper are designed for a relatively close in blast loads (i.e.,
within 200 to 600 psi-ms). These concepts were developed for existing
metal stud, brick, and concrete block walls, which have inherently weak
lateral resistance. Some of the retrofit techniques use polymers with or
without synthetic or metal fibers to achieve their capability; others use thin
steel plates bonded to rigid polyurethane. These materials provide for
light, highly ductile designs that are readily installed in existing buildings.
The evaluations of the designs shown in the paper are based on physics
based finite models that are able to approximate the actual behaviors of
wall systems.
INTRODUCTION
This paper describes several innovative concepts for retrofitting walls of
conventional buildings to improve their resistance to airblast and ballistic
fragments. Two conventional in-fill wall types (i.e., metal stud and cement
masonry unit or concrete block) are considered for retrofitting, as shown in
Figure 1. None of these walls are load bearing and the metal stud wall, in
particular, is often used as a partition wall.
The work reported focuses on the capability of the concepts to resist a
moderate blast load in the 200 to 600 psi-ms range. Selection of the design
parameters for each retrofit is based on predictions made by high-fidelity
physics based finite element models. DYNA3D is used to provide the highfidelity physics based results. The material characterization and parameters
are based on previous Karagozian & Case studies1'2'3. These studies provide
validation of both the material characterization and the finite element models
used to approximate the wall responses.

Concrete roof slab
3
!4" gypsum board
4", 20 gage metal
stud
Vi" plywood
sheathing
8" block wall with

grouted cells and
#4 @ 48" o.c.
and 9 gage joint
reinforcement
0, 16" o.c.
Interior
Concrete floor
slab
(a) Wall Type 1: metal stud wall; other

studs are also considered in the
study (e.g., 6-inch and 16 gauge).
Concrete floor
slab
(b) Wall Type 2: concrete masonry

unit wall,
Figure 1. Wall sections defining the two wall types considered in retrofit study.
Response Predictions for Wall Types

Responses of the two wall types (i.e., before retrofitting) were computed to
provide a baseline result. These results are described below for a 100-kg
charge of TNT at 10 meters.
Wall Type 1: Responses for the "as is" metal stud wall were performed
with PI Plus4, a Karagozian & Case code that generates P-I based
response predictions. The results indicate catastrophic failure. A highfidelity physics based model was not used for these predictions because
the wall's inherent weakness made use of such a model specious.
Wall Type 2: The DYNA3D model used for the concrete masonry unit
wall is shown in Figure 2. Under the blast load, this wall deformed
about 5 percent of span. This corresponds to a moderate level of
damage based on the damage levels observed in other tests3.
Retrofit Techniques for Preventing Wall Debris 1201

Groyted cell
( Empty cells
Sliding
-^^^\\i''-/^^M^
concrete
roof siSab of
test
_
r^t-v*?"*;
\.
:^N*-K' : : "'
>|i;i's-
surface #2
-'.
Rebar
?^.^ : ;? : l;.-!" ?
J$W
UK
CttU
JSKf
-^- Symmetry plan
applied to both
sides
Sliding surface #2
Concrete floor
slab (fixed)
, ' . - \ ^ : 0 / " : .
i f W: *'' - ^ ^ & / J >;;'
"'*?*& V? -/ ^ > w
A'!,
(a) Mesh.
(b) Mesh for rebars and

anchorage.
Figure 2. DYNA3D model for the baseline configuration of Wall Type 2; symmetry
planes used to reduce size of model.
Wall Retrofit Concepts

The wall retrofit concepts to be evaluated and the materials used for them
are depicted in Figures 3 to 7 and described in Table 1. They consist of a
rigid polyurethane foam panel with a thin metal plate attached to one side
(WR1), multiple ply aramid laminate (WR2)5 and a polyurethane spray
(WR3)5 which are typically applied to the backside of the wall to prevent
entry of wall debris. The intent here is occupant protection rather than wall
strengthening. The response of each of the retrofit designs to the 100-kg
TNT charge at 10 meters was computed on DYNA3D.

Table 1. Retrofit concepts.
Retrofit
Concept
WRl
WRl
WR3
Description
A standard size panel (e.g., 4 x \0-foot) is constructed using a
sheet of rigid polyurethane foam (1/2 to 2 inches thick) with a
thin metal skin attached to one face. The other face of the foam
is bonded to the wall to be retrofitted. A ductile shoe is used at
the panel's edge to transfer panel loads into the diaphragms
and minimize the in-plane forces in the panel skin.
An aramid laminate is lightly bonded to the wall with
polyurethane (or other adhesive) and tied to the diaphragms
with an anchorage device
Polyurethane is sprayed on one or both sides of a wall; this is
particularly useful for strengthen masonry.
diliillipiini
Concrete masonry unit
iiliililliilllll /wall exterior
^pr^
Polyurethane
Foam core
Metal or
FRP skin
(a) Large anchorage block.
' (b) Anchorage block.
Figures. Wall Retrofit Concept WRl: rigid polyurethane foam panel.
Response Predictions for Retrofit Concepts
WRl. In using the WRl retrofit concept to prevent debris entry from a stud
wall, Its Inherent lack of robustnessvis-a-vis, blast loadingmust be
recognized. This Is primarily related to its lack of continuity, lack of mass,
and use of relatively weak fasteners to attach the studs to the track and the
track to the floor. This makes retrofitting these walls more challenging and
can yield retrofits that are less robust than those for masonry walls.
= 4 5 000psi
y= 10 lb/ft3
Et = 285 psi
= 400 psl
Panel propertiesrigid polyurethane foam comes in a range of densities from 5 to

70 pcf with corresponding increases in strength upto ~55000 psi, stress-strain
response of material model employed for polyurethane foam shown in figure; steel
properties the face sheet are ay = 36 ksi, E = 30 msi, is, = 185 ksi.
Figure 4. Properties for the rigid polyurethane foam used in Wall Retrofit Concept
WR1.
Figure 5. Wall Retrofit Concept WR2: aramid laminate photos.
80
70
60
Stres
Typical Prouerties
Tensile Strength - 89 ksi
Initial Modulus - 0.13 Msi
Chord Modulus = 3.5 Msi
Strain to Failure - 4.7 %
Figure 6. Aramid laminate properties, two-ply; capacity 1,700 lb/in per ply.
5000
4000
3000
J_i
-Elastic
modulus
y
2000
~i Initial piasuc
1000
0
0
Specimen 1
î
specimen l
^ '
//
<t
^
o
\ j <*
Spc,cimen^
breaks
fco
200
400
600
800
1000
Percent Strain
Figure 7. Wall Retrofit Concept WR3: properties for polyurethane spray.
WR2/WR3. Some basic features related to the performance of retrofit

concept WR1 are shown in the DYNA3D prediction depicted in Figure 8.
These include the occurrence of an overall flexure mode for the panel that is
accompanied with a significant upward motion of the shoe anchoring the
panel to the floor. The shoe rotation is a key feature of the design that
enables it to function without tearing the thin metal sheet of the panel at its
attachment to the floor. As can be observed in Figure 8, the panel for the
most part is in tension with forces well below its capacity.
(b) Response at anchorage.
Time (sec)
(a) Deformed shape at

peak displacement.
(c) Forces in steel skin, capacity = 36 ksi (12 gage;

/ = 0.106").
Figure 8. Response of Wall Type 1 strengthened with retrofit WR1.
The WR1 retrofit has the added advantage of fitting well with standard
construction practices and requiring no special wall preparation. This
retrofit concept comes in a variety of strengths and can be constructed
without increasing the wall thickness by more than 1 to 2 inches or changing
the basic appearance of the wall.
1206
FRPRCS-6: Applications
in Masonry and Steel
Structures
For concepts WR2 and WR3, which were applied to the concrete
masonry unit wall, the effect of various plies of aramid laminate and
thicknesses of polyurethane spray are indicated by the results given in
Table 2. Both the aramid and polyurethane produce an acceptable result,
limiting deflection to around 2 percent of span. The responses (e.g., as
shown in Figure 9) indicate that all the retrofits have significant elastic
components, as witnessed by the magnitude of the rebound.
Unretrofitted Wall
- Wall w/1/4" polyurethane spray
- - Wall w/ 3/4" polyurethane spray
Wall w/ 2-ply aramid laminate
0.04
0.08
0.12
Time (sec)
Figure 9. Response of Wall Type 2 strengthened with Retrofit Concepts
WR2andWR3.
The added strength of the stronger retrofits provides little benefit in
reducing deflection, presumably because masonry failure is controlling.
However, in the case of the aramid, the stronger retrofits may still be
valuable by allowing the use of a less complex/ductile anchorage device.

The results from the retrofit analyses are summarized in Table 2. It appears
that all three retrofit concepts can provide a valuable capability in adding
blast protection to an existing building. Tests of full-scale retrofits of stud
and masonry walls retrofit with these concepts using moderate blast loads
(200 to 600 psi-ms) have substantiated the results achieved analytically. The
analytic results indicate that the desired protection can be achieved in a
number of ways. Moreover, the slight nature of these retrofits facilitates
their installation and results in a minimal disruption to the operations and
appearance of the existing structure.
Table 2. Summary of results from finite element models for the prediction of wall
responses.
Wall
Wall
Designation
Type
Wall Type 1
Metal stud
wall
Wall Type 2
Reinforced
concrete
masonry unit
wall
Height, ft
Retrofit Concept
10
WR\: Rigid
Polyurethane
foam panel
10
WR2: aramid
laminate
10
WR3:
Polyurethane
spray
Retrofit
Specification
1" thickfoam,
20 GA skin
2" thickfoam
12 GA plate tied
to shoes
2-ply
A-ply
6-ply
'A inch
'A inch
Maximum
Deflection to
Span Ratio, %
18
16
2.0
2.1
2.2
1.8
2.0
This simple study demonstrates that retrofit concepts based on

employing materials that have not previously been used or are not widely
employed have substantial merit and should be studied further. Moreover,
these results seem to demonstrate that other concepts based on materials like
those described (i.e., polymers and synthetic fibers) are likely to prove
advantageous in improving the blast resistance of conventional walls. The
ubiquitous nature of these walls makes finding better ways to improve their
blast resistance important in a time where blast resistance has become an
important design parameter for many.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was performed as an adjunct to the many studies Karagozian &
Case has conducted over the last several years related to increasing blast
resistance of conventional buildings.
REFERENCES
1. Crawford, J. E., D. D. Bogosian, and J. W. Wesevich, "Evaluation of the
Effects of Explosive Loads on Masonry Walls and an Assessment of
Retrofit Techniques for Increasing Their Strength," Proceedings of the
8,h International Symposium on Interaction of the Effects of Munitions
with Structures, April 1997.
2. Bogosian, D. D., "Validation of Component Vulnerability Curves for
Unfilled Masonry Walls and Steel Joists," Karagozian & Case,
Glendale, CA, TR-96-30.1, January 1997.
3. Crawford, J. E. and B. W. Dunn, "Development of Polyurethane Panels
for Retrofitting Masonry Walls," Karagozian & Case, Glendale, CA,
TR-01 -24.1, September 2001.
4. Ferritto, J. F. and J. E. Crawford, "Users Manual for PI Plus,"
Karagozian & Case, Glendale, CA, August 1999.

EXPERIMENTAL BEHAVIOUR OF MASONRY PANELS

STRENGTHENED WITH FRP SHEETS
G. MARCARI AND G. MANFREDI
Department of Analysis and Structural Design, University of Naples
21 Via Claudio, Naples 80125, Italy
M. PECCE
Engineering Department, University ofSannio
Piazza Roma, Benevento 82100, Italy
This paper is focused on the effectiveness of strengthening technique of
masonry by continuous externally bonded (eb) Fiber Reinforced Polymers
(FRPs) and reports on the obtained experimental results. Tuff panels were
subjected to monotonic in-plane shear, combined with axial load.
Performances of different types and amount of FRP, and of strengthening
configurations are compared in terms of shear capacity, ultimate
displacements and failure mechanism.
INTRODUCTION
Unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings are a large part of the existing
building stock worldwide. Structural weakness or overloading,
deterioration, exceptional loadings and settlements, can cause failure of
URM structures.
Recognizing the shortcomings of unreinforced buildings, an increasing
interest to develop techniques for improving their seismic behaviour can be
observed in recent years. In this context, FRP show great potential as
alternative solution to conventional techniques for strenghtening, with low
installation costs, durability, neglegible influence on the global mass, in
addition to their excellent mechanical properties. Due to the lightness of
the materials involved, site equipment and handling requirements are
reduced and simplified. They are typically applied to the tensile zones of
structural members through the use of epoxy adhesives.
The benefits in performing FRP-strengthening technique to masonry
buildings are amplified when low-impact approaches based on non-intrusive
methods are demanded1. Many jobs concerning masonry strenghtening with
FRP have already been performed, involving either FRP sheets and
laminates2,3'4, but few analytical or experimental studies are available.
Load bearing walls, which represent one of the most vulnerable

building components under in-plane shear actions, are the main focus in this
study.
The behaviour of masonry panels subjected to both compression and
shear has been also studied by different authors5'6, but there is lack of
knowledge about the tuff masonry. Tuff is a volcanic natural stone that has
been widely used in Southern Italy as construction material.
The present paper investigates on the effectiveness of using advanced
composite materials in the form of externally bonded FRP fibers to
strengthen masonry tuff panels under in-plane loads. Parameters such as
strengthening schemes ranging from grid to diagonal layout, type and fiber
densities are evaluated.
Static tests on tuff panels under in-plane shear load simulated a shear-type
model. The top side of the wall remained fixed in the horizontal direction
during shear application, but it was allowed to translate vertically.
Material Properties
The tuff specimens have been arranged in order to reproduce typical wall
conditions which can be observed in the old buildings in Southern Italy.
The panels were built of two external regular faces of stones with the cavity
filled with mortar and chips from tuff blocks. The two layers are partially
tied by some cross stones through the entire thickness of the specimen. The
walls presented a gross sectional area At of 0.784 m2 and a mean effective
area An of 0.517 m2. The ratio of effective to gross area is 66%. Blocks of
dimensions 100 mmx250 mmx400 mm have been taken from areas located
near Naples.
The stones were laid in running bond of a 10 mm mortar thickness. The
mix proportion for the mortar was as follows: 310 kg/m3 of cement, 1245
kg/m3 of sand, 195 kg/m3 of water. The mortar mixture was based on
obtaining an average strength close to that typical of the pozzolanic mortar
used in existing buildings. The nominal dimensions of the tested panels
were: 1570 mm (height), 530 mm (thickness), 1480 mm (width). The
panels typologies are summarized in Table 1. Six prismatic tuff stones 120
mmxl20 mmxlOO mm were tested to measure the mechanical properties of
tuff units.
Masonry Panel Strengthened with FRP Sheets 1211
265 250
The stones were tested under uniaxial compression along their minor
direction and exhibited an average compressive strength of fb= 3.71 MPa.
Ten cubes of hardened mortar, with sides of 50 mm, were also tested in
compression. The average compressive strength was fm= 2 MPa.
Panels were externally bonded with two different types of fiber: unidirectional carbon fibers and bi-directional glass fibers. Two configurations
of the reinforcing system were investigated: grid or diagonal arrangement of
strips, as shown in Figure 1. The fabrics width was always 210 mm and two
different FRP densities were considered: 300 g/m2 and 600 g/m2.
Each wall is identified by a combination of two symbols. The letters
"a" and "b" are used to identify the amount per unit area of FRP (300 g/m2
and 600 g/m2 respectively); the numbers " 1 " and "2" refer to the bonding
layouts (cross and grid layouts respectively). The composite materials were
applied with wet lay up system. The steps of application were the
following: the wall was thoroughly cleaned; a designed treatment for tuff
surfaces and an epoxy primer layer were applied to the support; epoxy
adhesive was spread on the wall, then the fibers were glued to the surface of
the specimen and pressed with a roller. Finally, a second coat of adhesive
was put on; such layer ensured also the protection of the laminates.
2070
250 265
250
520
157
520
250
49
49
250
148
(a)
(b)
) Strain gauges location

Figure 1. Pattern of FRP application: a) cross layout; b) grid layout
In order to reproduce applications where development length of FRP is

critical, the horizontal strips were extended around the corners of the
specimens ("U-wrap system"). Rounding of the corners was performed in
order to avoid high stress concentration. The manufacturer specified for the
carbon fibers a tensile strength of 4800 MPa, and a Young's Modulus of

230 GPa. The properties of the glass fibers were: ultimate tensile strength
equal to 1480 MPa and tensile modulus in the longitudinal direction of 74
GPa.
Testing Program
The experimental tests on twelve panels were performed as follows:
a) Test in compression on two un-strengthened panels;
b) Shear test on four unstrengthened panels;
c) Shear test on four strengthened panels with carbon fiber type "a";
d) Shear test on four strengthened panels with carbon fiber type "b";
e) Shear test on three strengthened panels with glass fiber type "a";
f) Shear test on four strengthened panels with glass fiber type "b";
The shear loading consisted of three steps. The first stage was
performed with a vertical load up to 400 kN, with control force mode of the
horizontal steel upper beam, in order to simulate the serviceability
behaviour.
In the second step, a cyclic test was performed imposing quasi-static
lateral displacement of increasing amplitude. In the third stage the panels
were subjected to monotonic in-plane shear loads up to failure by imposing
a displacement rate of 2 mm/min and measuring the applied force. The
value of the vertical load was selected to obtain an average vertical stress
level of 0.5 MPa. Such value was defined referring to the typical stress
conditions of the lowest storeys of multi-storey tuff buildings.
Test Setup
In order to study the wall behaviour, a testing equipment was designed to
subject specimens to a simultaneous combination of vertical load applied at
the top of the wall, and horizontal load applied to its upper corner. The test
setup is depicted in Figure 2.
The test apparatus consists of a heavily braced reaction frame
supporting a horizontal hydraulic actuator; a steel rigid upper beam,
fabricated with two wide flanges profiles; two concrete beams 30 cm high,
for the handling and the load distribution. Furthermore, the vertical load
was constant during the test, and equal to the prefixed value of 400 kN. The
total vertical load was applied by means of hydraulic servo-controlled
actuators.
The vertical actuators were used in force control mode and were
attached to the top steel beam and the bottom strong floor by cylindrical
hinges.
Linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) were placed on both
sides of the panel to monitor shear deformation and base slip under lateral
loads. Vertical and shear displacements were monitored by means of
transducers mounted to a fixed support to measure the absolute
displacement of the wall. Strain readings were taken at several locations
along the length of the composite, using strain gauges. The positions of
some instruments are given in Figures 1 and 2.
CYLINDRICAL HINGES
STEEL LOAD BEAM
Figure 2. Apparatus for testing masonry specimens
The tests gave many results about the behaviour of masonry panels under
vertical and horizontal loads, in terms of strength and deformability. In the
following a preliminary analysis of the meaningful ones is presented.
Compression Tests
The axial tests provided a failure load with a mean value of. 860 kN
corresponding to a net area compression stress fwc of 1.7 MPa. The average
value of the secant modulus of elasticity (calculated between the 30 % and
the 60 % of the maximum strength) is of 2585 MPa. At failure the walls
exhibited typical vertical cracks through the blocks and the mortar joints.
Shear Tests
The measured force-displacement curves are shown in Figures 3 to 6, where
the relationships between the horizontal load (H) and displacement (s) at the
top of the panel are reported for the different types of strenghtened
elements.
240
240 -r
0
Figure 3. Load-displacement response of
strengthened specimens with FRP type "a"
20
30
V14
V12
|
X
160
Chi
X
160 -
C13
V13
~--Vhl
/// Spec.3
*
C14
Ch2
jr^
40

strengthened specimens with FRP type "b"
240
80
10
80 Spec. 3
s (mm)
s (mm)
i
'
0 0

strengthened specimens with FRP type " 1 "
10
20
'
30
40

strengthened specimens with FRP type "2"
Investigation on the strength parameters underlined that the shear

capacity of the un-strengthened walls was highly influenced by the type of
FRP, fiber orientation and fabrics amount. The performance in terms of

strength and maximum displacement for tested walls and the identified
failure modes are summarized in Table 1.
The average maximum shear load (H,,^) of the un-strengthened panels
is equal to 132 kN. The strength increase was clear in almost all cases:
using Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) type "2-b", the load
carrying capacity increased in average of 67 %, whereas Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) type "1-a" showed the lowest increment (i.e.,
18%).
Table 1. Experimental data on shear strengthening by use of FRP fabrics
Specimen
[MP a]
P/o]
[mm]
Failure
mechanism
Al~lmax
**max
[MP a]
Un-Str.
91.8
82.6
10.9
Un-Str.
136.7
123.0
19.9
Un-Str.
123.0
110.7
14.8
Un-Str.
176
158.4
15.1
CHI
1-a
156.7
141.0
18.7
21.2
CL1
1-a
188.9
170.0
43.1
20.0
s
s
s
s
CH2
1-b
180.6
162.5
36.8
19.4
S+F
1-b
227.0
204.3
71.9
30.9
S+F
CL4
c
c
c
c
c
c
VH1
VH2
CL2
CH3
CL3
CH4
Bonding
layout
FRP
andfiber
type"
density
2-a
187.9
169.1
42.3
26.9
S+F
2-a
208.5
187.6
57.9
20.7
S+F
2-b
235.8
212.2
78,6
30.6
S+F
2-b
205.0
184.5
55.3
25.4
S+F
1-a
155.8
140.2
18.0
13.3
S+F (r.)
1-b
179.5
161.5
36.0
15.9
S+F
VL2
1-b
147.4
132.7
12.0
14.85
S+F (r.)
VH3
2-a
199.2
179.3
50.9
16.9
S+F (r.)
VL3
2-a
193.3
174.0
46.4
14.3
S+F
VH4
2-b
222.1
199.9
68.2
15.1
S+F (r.)
VL4
2-b
208.0
187.2
57.6
13.9
S+F (r.)
G=GFRP; C=CFRP;
Improvement percentage of shear load on the maximum shear load of the
unstrengthened panels;
c
S=Shear; F=Flexure; (r.)=FRP rupture.
b
Whereas the tensile strength of carbon fibers is about three times higher
than glass fibers, the in-plane shear capacity measured for strengthened
panels with carbon and glass overlayers were, in many cases, similar. For
both carbon and glass fabrics, the grid layout showed the highest ultimate
capacity increase, due to the larger amount of fiber reinforcement.
When diagonal strips are applied, the interaction between lamina and
masonry is concentrated along the diagonal direction and the influence on
the mortar joint is reduced by the inclination of fibers with respect to
discontinuity direction of the joints.
The overall deformation capacity of the wall is evaluated considering
the ultimate displacement su as the one corresponding to a load Hu that is
90% of the maximum Hmax on the descending branch of curves, neglecting
the residual part of the softening. The highest improvement in terms of
ultimate displacement is given by carbon fibers type "2-b" (86 %), whereas
the increase provided by glass fibers is lower.
The cracking pattern at failure of URM shows that collapse occurred
with a sudden formation and propagation of sub-vertical cracks along
diagonal direction in compression, that results in the descending branch of
the load vs displacement curves described above. Evident cracks usually
started at a stress level varying from 85 % to 100 % of the peak shear force,
and crossed blocks and mortar joints. The URM typical failure was
modified by FRP strengthening, especially by the grid configuration,
showing a higher effectiveness as compared to the diagonal configuration.
Layout type " 1 " determined a clear diagonal crack pattern running
through the units, combined with vertical cracks in the more compressed
side. Phenomena of masonry spalling happened along the edges of the
panel, due to compression effect and imperfections of the mortar joints in
this area.
When glass fibers were used, generally a wide crack distribution over
the entire surface of the wall occurred; moreover the panels were
characterized by rupture of tension fibers before masonry crushing. After
fracture of a single GFRP strip, the panels showed a brittle failure with
respect to the CFRP-strengthened panels. None of the failure modes of
strengthened panel with carbon sheets included FRP fracture; the crisis of
the interface bonding between masonry and CFRP occurred through
fracture in the stones, confirming the good bond properties attained. After
peeling, the load-strain relationship showed a descending branch. The
sheets delaminated from the masonry acted as an external unbonded

strengthening, so the end anchorage system perform an important role in
transferring stresses.
Layout type "2" showed diffusion of inclined and vertical cracks; a
relevant damage with detachment and splitting of the external stones
surfaces occurred at the ends of horizontal strips.
The peeling stress level of carbon fibers can be evaluated from strain
gauges records; the strains measured in four points along a diagonal strip
are presented in Figure 7.
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 7. CFRP strengthened panel type "1": strain vs horizontal displacement
CONCLUSIONS
The preliminary analysis of the experimental results confirmed the
effectiveness of the proposed solution. For both types of fiber remarkable
increases over 50% in both shear and displacement capacity were achieved,
and a significant stress redistribution with consequent reduction of local
damage were obtained. The use of GFRP laminates provided strength
performance comparable to those of CRFP. The same trend was not
observed with respect to the displacement capacity that was lower for GFRP
laminates. This could be due to the higher stiffness of CFRP sheets that
increases the displacement capacity of strengthened panels.
Based on the presented laboratory experience, surface preparation
treatments must be developed to ensure proper bond; in addition^ anchorage
systems need to be addressed for cases in which the bonded length of fibers
is not sufficient to develop its fully capacity or where the anchorage to
adjacent members is required.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The construction and testing were supported by the Italian Ministry of
Research under a contract to the ENEL HYDRO S.p.A. The strengthening
of the specimens was supported by MAPEI S.p.A., Milano, Italy. The
contribution of Dr. Balsamo and Messrs. Balconi and Zaffaroni is
acknowledged. The authors wish also to thank Dr. Franco Ravasio from
ENEL HYDRO S.p.A. for his support in the experimental program.
REFERENCES
1. Triantafillou, T.C., "Strengthening of Historic Structures with
Composites", Proceedings of the International Conference on FRP
Composites in Civil Engineering, Hong Kong, 12-14 December, 2001,
J.-G. Teng Editor, Elsevier Science Ltd., ISBN 0-08-043945-4, Vol. II,
pp. 959-965.
2. Schwegler, G., "Masonry Construction Strengthened with Fiber
Composites in Seismically Endangered Zones", 10th European
Conference on Earthquake Engrg, Balkema, Rotterdam, 1995, The
Netherlands, pp. 2299-2303.
3. Valluzzi, M.R., Tinazzi, D. and Modena, C, "Shear Behaviour of
Masonry Strengthened by FRP laminates", Construction and Building
Materials, May 2002, in press.
4. Tumialan, J.G., Micelli, F. and Nanni, A., "Strengthening of Masonry
Structures with FRP Composites", Structures 2001, Washington D.C.
5. Benedetti, D. and Benzoni, G.M., "Esperienze a Taglio sui Pannelli in
Tufo", Ingegneria Sismica, n.3, 1985.
6. Faella, G., Manfredi, G. and Realfonzo, R., "Cyclic Behaviour of Tuff
Masonry Walls Under Horizontal Loading", 6th Canadian Masonry
Symposium, Canada, June 1992, pp. 317-328.

FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING OF URM WALLS WITH

FRP SYSTEMS
V. TURCO
Department of Construction and Transportation, University ofPadova
Via Marzolo 9, 35131 Padova, Italy
N. GALATI, G. TUMIALAN AND A. NANNI

Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies (CIES), University of Missouri-Rolla
1870 Miner Circle, Rolla-Mo 65409-0710, USA
Unreinforced masonry (URM) walls are prone to failure when subjected to
out-of-plane loads caused by earthquakes or high wind pressures. In this
context, fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) materials offer different solutions
to solve or lessen the effects of this overloading. This paper describes an
experimental program dealing with the flexural behavior of thirty-four
URM walls strengthened with FRP systems and subjected to out-of-plane
loads. The specimens were strengthened with a variety of FRP laminates
and bars (i.e. GFRP, AFRP, CFRP) placed vertically in different amounts
and spacing. The influence of the presence of the putty filler on the bond
strength was investigated in the case of laminates. Two different
embedding materials (epoxy-based paste and latex modified cementitious
paste) were used to encapsulate the bars in the joints. This research allowed
the comparison of different behaviors and failure modes of strengthened
URM walls by changing the parameters described above.
INTRODUCTION
There are several causes leading Unreinforced Masonry (URM) structures
to failure: incorrect design, structural weakness or overloading, differential
settlements, dynamic vibrations, in-plane and out-of-plane deformations,
environmental conditions. Also, URM buildings have features that can
threaten human lives: unbraced parapets, inadequate connections to the
roof, and the brittle nature of the URM elements. In this context, fiber
reinforced polymer (FRP) materials offer different solutions to solve the
effects of this overloading.
This paper deals with an experimental program on the flexural behavior
of URM walls strengthened with Near Surface Mounted (NSM) FRP bars
and externally bonded FRP laminates. The use of pultruded FRP bars
consists of encapsulating them into grooves cut onto the surface of the
member being strengthened (i.e. NSM). Another available FRP technology
is the use of laminates which involves the application of fiber sheets,
impregnated by an epoxy resin, to the surface of the member being
strengthened.
The main objective of this experimental program was to observe the
improved performance, mode of failure and behavior of URM panels
strengthened with FRP systems.
Test Matrix
Thirty-four masonry specimens were constructed for this experimental
program. Twenty-one walls were built with concrete blocks and the
remaining thirteen with clay bricks. Their nominal dimensions were 600
mm (24 in.) wide by 1200 mm (48 in.) high. The nominal wall thickness
was about 95 mm (3.75 in.).
NSM FRP bars:- Nine concrete masonry panels were strengthened with
6.25 mm-diameter (0.25 in.) and 9.37 mm-diameter (0.375 in.) sand-coated
twisted Glass FRP (GFRP) rods in different amounts (one, two or three
rods) with a spacing of 20, 30 and 60 cm (8, 12, 24 in.); the reinforcement
was encapsulated in a square groove by using two embedding materials
(epoxy-based paste and latex modified cementitious paste). In the case of
6.25 mm-diameter rods embedded in the modified cementitious paste, two
depths of the groove were considered: 1.5 and 2.5 times the diameter. Table
1 reports the test matrix.
Externally bonded laminates (Tumialan et al., 2002). - Two different
FRP systems, GFRP and Aramid FRP (AFRP) were installed by manual layup. A single strip was placed in different amounts along the longitudinal
axis on the tension side: the strip widths ranged from 75 mm (3 in.) to 300
mm (12 in.). Two different masonry units (concrete and clay), and two
surface preparation methods (with or without putty filler) were investigated
to account for different compressive strengths and surfaces. The putty filler
is used to fill small surface voids and to provide a leveled surface to which
the FRP can be attached. The surface preparation of all the masonry
specimens built with clay units included the use of putty. This was because
the clay brick wall surfaces exhibited more unevenness that those of the
concrete blocks. Table 2 presents the test matrix.
Flexural Strengthening of URM Walls 1221

Five series of walls were also tested: CLA, CLG, CRG, BLA, and BLG.
The first character in the code represents the type of masonry used, "C" for
concrete masonry and "B" for clay masonry; the second character represents
the type of reinforcement, "L" for laminates and "R" for rods; the third
indicates the type of fiber, "G" for GFRP and "A" for AFRP. In the case of
manual lay-up strengthening, the last character indicates the width of the
strip in inches. Thus, BLG5 is a clay masonry wall, strengthened with a
GFRP laminate, having a width of 125 mm (5 in.). The character "R"
indicates a test repetition. In the case of NSM rods, the last three characters
refer to the embedding material, "E" for epoxy-based paste and "C" for
latex modified cementitious paste, to the size of the rod, 6.25 mm-diameter
(0.25 in.) or 9.37 mm-diameter (0.375 in.), and to the number of rods used
for the reinforcement. Thus CORG-E31, refers to a concrete masonry panel,
strengthened with one 9.37 mm-diameter GFRP rod embedded in epoxybased paste.
The reinforcement terminated before the reaction point so that it would
not touch the roller supports used for testing. Due to the brittle nature of
URM and since the specimen could fail due to the weight of the test
equipment (i.e. steel beam, hydraulic jack, etc.) no control specimen was
tested.
Table 1. Test matrix for series CRG
Code
for Series
CORG
CRG-E31
CRG-E32
CRG-E33
CRG-E22
CRG-E23
CRG-C31
CRG-C32
CRG-C22
CRG-C23
Embedding
material
Epoxybasedpaste
Latex
modified
cementitious paste
Diameter(d)
mm (in)
9.525 (3/8)
9.525(3/8)
9.525 (3/8)
6.35 (2/8)
6.35 (2/8)
9.525 (3/8)
9.525 (3/8)
6.35 (2/8)
6.35 (2/8)
Amount
of rods
Space
between
two rods
cm (in)
60 (24)
30(12)
20(8)
30(12)
20(8)
60 (24)
30(12)
30(12)
20(8)
Depth of
the
groove
times of
d
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2.5
2.5

Table 2. Test matrix for series CLG,CLA,BLG, and BLA (Tumialan et al., 2002)
Series
FRF
fiber
Strip width, mm(in.)

75(3)
125 (5)
175 (7)
225 (9)
300(12)
CLG
GFRP
CLG3
CLG3R
CLG5
CLG5R
CLG7
CLG9
CLG12
CLA
AFRP
CLA3
CLA5
CLA7
CLA9
CLA 12
BLG
GFRP
BLG3
CLG3R
BLG5
BLG5R
BLG7
BLG7R
BLG9
BLG12
BLA
AFRP
BLA3
BLA5
BLA 7
BLA9
BLA12
Materials
Tests were performed to characterize the engineering properties of the
materials used in this investigation. The average compressive strengths of
concrete and clay masonry obtained from the testing of prisms (ASTM
C1314) were 10.5 MPa (1520 psi) and 17.1 MPa (2480 psi), respectively.
Type N mortar was used; standard mortar specimens were tested according
to ASTM CI09. An average value of 7.6 MPa (1100 psi) at an age of 28
days was found. Splitting tensile test (ASTM C496) for both the embedding
materials were performed because the most important mechanical properties
that are used in design of NSM reinforcement are the tensile properties.
The splitting tensile strength was found to be 3.58 MPa (0.518 ksi) after 7
days and 5.59 MPa (0.81 ksi) after 28 days in the case of latex modified
cementitious paste, and 16.31 MPa (2.36 ksi) after 7 days and 18.54 MPa
(2.7 ksi) after 28 days in the case of epoxy-based paste.
Tensile tests were performed on FRP laminates and rods to determine
their engineering properties, which are related to fiber content and not to
composite area. The test results showed that the tensile strength of GFRP
laminate was equal to 1690 MPa (245 ksi) and the modulus of elasticity was
92.9 GPa (13460 ksi). In the case of AFRP laminate, the tensile strength
was 1876 MPa (272 ksi) and the modulus of elasticity was equal to 115.2
GPa (16700 ksi). The 6.25 mm-diameter GFRP bars had a tensile strength
of 825 MPa (120 ksi) and a modulus of elasticity of 40.8 GPa (52900 ksi),
Flexuml Strengthening of URM Walls 1223
while the 9.37 mm-diameter GFRP bars exhibited a tensile strength of 760
MPa (110 ksi) and a modulus of elasticity of 40.8 GPa (52900 ksi).
Test Setup
The masonry panels were tested under simply supported conditions. Figure
1 shows the test setup. A 12 ton (26.4 kips) capacity hydraulic jack
activated by a manual pump was used to load the specimen. The force
generated by the hydraulic jack was transferred to the specimen by means of
a steel beam supported by two rollers, which applied a load along two lines
spaced at 200 mm (8 in). The line loads rested along the full width of the
walls.
The load was applied in cycles of loading and unloading. An initial
cycle for a low load was performed in every wall to verify that both the
mechanical and electronic equipment were working properly.
The instrumentation used consisted of one 22.3 ton (50 kips) load cells
to measure the force from the jack, four Linear Variable Differential
Transducers (LVDTs) to measure deflections at midspan and settlements at
the supports. Five strain gauges were placed on the reinforcement's surface
of specimens CLG3R, CLG5R5 BLG3R, BLG7R, BLG5R and for all the
specimen of series CRG. One strain gauge was placed at midspan, two
strain gauges were placed at 200 mm (8 in) and two at 400 mm (16 in) from
each wall end.
Figure 1. Test setup
TEST RESULTS
Modes of Failure
The walls exhibited the following modes of failure: (1) debonding of the
FRP reinforcement, (2) flexural failure (i.e. rupture of the FRP laminate in
tension or crushing of the masonry in compression), and (3) shear failure in
the masonry near the support.
Table 3 reports the test results. In order to compare them between each
other, the amount of reinforcement has been expressed as a fraction pf
defined as AreaFRP /(Wall Width x Wall Thickness).
Table 3. Test Results
Code
pf
CRG-E31
CRG-E32
CRG-E33
CRG-E22
CRG-E23
CRGC31
CRGC32
CRGC22
CRGC23
CLG3
CLG3R
CLG5
CLG5R
CLG7
CLG9
CLG12
CLA3
0.0012
0.0024
0.0036
0.0011
0.0017
0.0012
0.0024
0.001
0.0017
0.0005
0.0005
0.0008
0.0008
0.0011
0.0014
0.0019
0.0004
Mexp
(kN-m)
1.56
3.93
5.57
1.68
2.27
0.94
1.64
2.07
2.93
2.05
3.22
3.33
5.37
3.74
5.23
6.06
2.54
Failure1
D
S
S
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
F-S
F-S
D
Code
Pf
CLA5
CLA7
CLA9
CLA12
BLG3
BLG3R
BLG5
BLG5R
BLG7
BLG7R
BLG9
BLG12
BLA3
BLA5
BLA7
BLA9
BLA12
0.0006
0.0009
0.001
0.0015
0.0005
0.0005
0.0008
0.0008
0.0011
0.0011
0.0014
0.0019
0.0004
0.0006
0.0009
0.0011
0.0015
Note: D = FRP Debonding, R = FRP Rupture, F-S = Flexural Failure,

S-S = Sliding Shear
M exp
(kN-m)
3.57
4.66
5.25
6.33
3.23
3.88
4.89
5.37
6.58
7.20
6.94
6.16
2.94
5.23
6.13
8.45
5.90
Failure
D
F-S
F-S
F-S
D
R
D
R
D
D
S-S
S-S
D
R
D
D
S-S
Flexuml Strengthening of URM Walls 1225
(a) Debonding of NSM Rod
(b) Debonding of Laminate
(c) FRP rupture
(d) Shear failure

Figure 2. Failure modes
FRF debonding - The first flexural cracks formed in the bed joints at
the maximum bending region. When the tensile strength of the mortar is
reached, the redistribution of the tensile stresses occurred and the cracks
developed in the masonry units oriented at 45 or in the head mortar joints.
Some of these cracks followed the embedding material and masonry
interface causing their debonding and subsequent wall failure (see Figure 2a
and 2b). Since the tensile strength of masonry is lower than that of the
epoxy resins, the failure line is in the masonry. In the case of concrete
masonry walls, part of the concrete block faceshell remained attached to the
FRP rod or laminate.
Flexural failure - After developing flexural cracks primarily located at
the mortar joints, a wall failed by either rupture of the FRP laminate or
masonry crushing. FRP rupture occurred at midspan. The compression
failure was manifested by crushing of the mortar joints (Figure 2.c).
Shear failure - Cracking started with the development of fine vertical

cracks at the maximum bending region. Thereafter two kinds of shear
failure were observed: flexural-shear and sliding shear (Figure 2.d). The
former was oriented at approximately 45, and the latter occurred along a
bed joint causing sliding of the wall at that location, typically, at the first
mortar joint in walls heavily strengthened. In the flexural-shear mode, shear
forces transmitted over the crack caused a differential displacement in the
shear plane which resulted in FRP debonding.
Discussion of the Results
Figure 3 shows the moment vs. deflection curves for Series CRG. It may be
observed that the strength and stiffness of the FRP strengthened walls
increased dramatically when comparing them to a URM specimen.
Considering the Masonry Standards Joint Committee guidelines, the
nominal moments at cracking for the concrete specimens can be estimated
as 0.45 kN-m (0.33 ft-kips), whereas for the clay specimens this value is
0.95 kN-m (0.70 ft-kips). This indicates that depending on the amount of
FRP, increments ranging from 4 to 14 times of the original masonry
capacity were achieved. Since masonry possesses a significant amount of
variability attributed to labor and materials, this range of values should be
taken simply as a reference.
i
--CRG-E23
--CRG-E22
-*-CRG-E31
-B-CRG-E32
-8-CRG-E33
S
e 2
$m^ ^
*.
^^
&
0
10
15
20
25
30
Deflection (mm)
Figure 3. Moment vs. Deflection curves for Series CRG specimens
The overall shape of response can be divided into two distinct phases.
The first phase is the result of the mortar reaching the tensile capacity and
cracking. Initial cracking was delayed due to the presence of FRP
reinforcement. As the mortar lost its bond to the adjacent masonry block,
one joint separates and the load is transferred to the next joints until they
Flexural Strengthening of URM Walls 1227
are completely separated in the constant moment region of the wall. A

straight line simulates the second phase of the response, approximately.
This part of the curve represents the contribution of the reinforcement to the
behavior of the specimens. It is similar for all of them: the only important
difference is the slope which representing the degradation of stiffness that is
larger in walls with high amount of FRP. In this phase of the test, the
cracks widen until the failure occurs.
Rupture of the FRP laminate was observed only in four clay masonry
specimens BLA4, BLG3R, BLG5R, and BLA9. This can be attributed to
improved bond characteristics provided by the putty. However, even if FRP
rupture is a desirable mode of failure, this may not happen all the times. As
an example, BLG3 and BLG5 failed by debonding and the repetition of the
same tests, BLG3R and RBLG5R exhibited FRP rupture.
Shear failure was observed in specimens with large amounts of FRP
reinforcement, except for Series CRG specimens with latex modified
cementitious paste as embedding material, for which failure was by
debonding. A large amount of FRP reinforcement took to higher strength
without affecting the ductility. Indeed, the degradation of the stiffness was
more gradual and the curves were almost parallel between each other in the
second phase.
Some specimens such as BLG9, BLG12 and BLA12 failed due to
sliding shear. The test results showed that due to the nature of the sliding
shear failure, the overall capacity was less than that registered in similar
walls strengthened with a lower amount of reinforcement.
The strains in concrete masonry walls failed by FRP debonding were
around 1.4% in the case of laminates (BLG3R and BLG5R), and 0.9% in
the case of NSM rods. Thus, the tensile properties of FRP laminates are
better harnessed. In the case of the clay masonry the reading in the one
failing due to debonding (BLG7R) was 1.54%, which is about 73% of the
ultimate strain. The remaining two failed due to rupture of the laminate.
When FRP failed, the recorded ultimate strain values were similar to those
obtained from tensile tests of GFRP laminates (1.82%).
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from this experimental
program:
(a) Flexural strengthening with NSM GFRP rods and FRP laminates
has been proven to remarkably increase the flexural capacity (from
2 to 14 times), strength and pseudo-ductility of URM walls.
(b) Debonding is the predominant mode of failure in both FRP laminate
and NSM FRP rod strengthened walls. Shear failure has been
observed when large amount of GFRP rods were embedded in the
epoxy paste.
(c) In the case of strengthening with NSM FRP rod, latex modified
cementitious paste-GFRP rod system has a better performance when
the size of the groove is approximately 2.5 times the diameter. On
the contrary, a groove of 1.5 times the diameter is enough when
epoxy paste is used.
(d) In the case of strengthening with FRP laminates, the presence of
putty on the masonry surface allows a better bond and thus
increases the improved capacity given by the reinforcement. In this
case, the failure mode may shift from FRP debonding to FRP
rupture.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the National Science
Foundation Industry/University Cooperative Research Center at the
University of Missouri-Rolla.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
Masonry Standard Joint Committee, "Code, Specifications and

Commentaries", ACI-530-99/ASCE 5-99/ TMS 402-99, American
Concrete Institute, American Society of Civil Engineering, The
Masonry Society, Detroit, New York and Boulder, 1999.
Hamilton H.R. Ill, and C.W. Dolan, "Flexural Capacity of Glass
FRP Strengthened Concrete Masonry Walls", Journal for
Composites for Construction, August 2001.
Tumialan J.G., N. Galati, and A. Nanni, "FRP Strengthening of
URM Walls Subjected to Out-of-Plane Loads", (Tentatively
accepted for publication by ACI Structural Journal, September
2002).

SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF URM CLAY WALLS WITH

FRP SYSTEMS
S. GRANDO AND M.R. VALLUZZI
Department of Transportation and Construction Engineering, University ofPadova
Via Marzolo 9 - 35131 Padova, Italy
J.G. TUMIALAN AND A. NANNI
Center for Infrastructures Engineering Studies
1870 Miner Circle - Rolla, Mo 65409-0030, USA
This paper presents an experimental program dealing with the shear
strengthening with FRP systems of URM walls built with clay units. Five
clay masonry panels, strengthened with FRP composites in the form of
laminates and rods, were loaded along the wall diagonal to observe their
shear performance. The dimensions of the masonry panels were 1.22 x
1.22 m, having a thickness of 102 mm. For the rods the Structural
Repointing technique was used. This technique consists of placing the
FRP rods in the masonry bed joints. On the other hand, for laminates, the
Manual Lay-Up technique was used. The results demonstrated the
effectiveness of FRP in increasing the shear performance of URM clay
walls in terms of both capacity and pseudo-ductility.
INTRODUCTION
When an in-plane load is applied on an infill wall, the ultimate capacity can
be easily reached and the URM wall collapses. The main effect of this type
of load is the shear stress, identifiable by the cracks along the diagonals and
with the consequence of a shear failure. After the crack opens, the wall
would lose all its capacity and can easily collapse under a low out-of-plane
load, endangering human lives. For this reason, it is important to prevent
and to control this type of failure.
The use of FRP systems can be the satisfactory answer for this problem.
By the use of FRP composites, it is possible to increase the ultimate
capacity of a wall without any addition in its weight and stiffness, avoiding
dangerous consequences in case of seismic events. Moreover, there is an
aesthetic and logistic benefit from the use of FRP: there is a minimal loss of
usable space and with a plaster it is possible to hide the strengthening
material.
MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
Experimental tests were concluded to characterize the mechanical
properties of the materials used in this investigation. The average
compressive strength'of masonry clay bricks resulting from the testing of
prisms (ASTM C1314) was 15.78 MPa. The walls were strengthened with
#2 GFRP bars having diameter of 6 mm, and GFRP laminates; their
characteristics are shown in Table 1. GFRP bars were embedded into an
epoxy-based paste which, according to the manufactures and to test results2,
possess the mechanical properties as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Material properties
Material
#2 GFRP
bars
GFRP
laminates
Epoxy
paste
Compressive
strength
[MPa]
Tensile
strength
[MPa]
Modulus of
Elasticity
[MPa]
824
50162
1687
83129
86.18
27.58
3102
STRENGTHENING PROCEDURE
The Manual Lay-Up technique consists the following phases: (a) the
application of primer, to reduce the porosity of the masonry wall surface;
(b) a subsequent layer of putty, to level the unevenness present on the wall
surface; (c) a layer of saturant as adhesive, applied using a roller; (d) the
positioning of FRP sheets on the wall surface, pressed down using a
"bubble roller" to eliminate entrapped air between the saturant and the
fibers; and (e) a second layer of saturant was applied (see Figure 1).
The FRP Structural Repointing technique3 requires a simpler
application method: (a) by using a grinder with a diamond blade, slots were
grooved with a thickness equal to 1.5 times the size of the bar; (b) a layer of
embedding paste was placed into the slot with an adequate gun; the rod was
nested in the groove, and the slot was then completely filled with the paste
to encapsulate the FRP rod (see Figure 2).
Shear Strengthening of URM Clay Walls 1231
Figure 1. Manual Lay-Up

Technique
Figure 2. FRP Structural Repointing
TEST SPECIMENS
A total of five masonry clay bricks walls, with dimensions of
1220x1220x102 mm, were built with 51x102x203 mm clay bricks "'in-a
running bond pattern. All the walls were built by a qualified mason to avoid
introducing additional variables, such as workmanship and different mortar
workability that may arise from the construction of the specimens.
The test program is shown in Figure 3. An URM' wall, CO 1, was the
control specimen; wall CB 1 was strengthened with #2 GFEP rods at every
second mortar joint in the front side; wall CB 2 has the same amount of
FRP rods as CB 1 even on the rear side; wall CL 1 was prepared with 76.2
mm (3 in) wide CFRP laminates at every 152.4 mm (6 in). Therefore, a total
of 5 strips was applied on the front side. Wall CL 2 was reinforced in the
same way as CL 1, but with the same amount of laminates also on the rear
side, in the same position as the front one.
For the different configurations, the amount of strengthening
reinforcement was equivalent in term of axial stiffness E-A (Modulus of
Elasticity multiplied by Reinforcement Cross Sectional Area).
CONTROL URM
FRP RODS
FRP LAMINATES
.'__!
TT'T'''IT'~T''1 Z
T'''''''?'''"''T'"'"T'". 'Z
^~~~f~-- I " T v * Z
xzszznzzx: z
Wall CB 1
7 GFRP rods #2
WallCLl
76.2 mm (3 in) wide GFRP
Wall CO 1
2
WallCB2
7 GFRP rods #2
(both sides)
Figure 3. Test Program
Wall CL 2
76.2 mm (3 in) wide GFRP
(both sides)
TEST SETUP
The specimens were tested in a closed loop fashion. Two 30-ton-capacity
hydraulic jacks, activated by a manual pump, were used to generate the load
along the diagonal of the wall being tested. During loading, the force was
applied to the wall by steel shoes placed at the top corner, and transmitted
to similar devices at the bottom corner through high strength steel rods.
Figure 4 shows the test setup.
The load was applied in cycles of loading and unloading for every 10
tons, also to verify the stability of the system. The data were acquired by
load cells and Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs) and
collected by a DAYTRONIC data acquisition system at a frequency of 1
Hz. To collect displacements and the crack opening in the walls, two
LVDTs were placed along the diagonals on each side of the walls.
Figure 4. Test Setup

MECHANISM OF FAILUME
One-Side Strengthening
A general mechanism of failure was observed in one-side strengthened
walls (see Figure 5). It develops in two steps; an In-Plane and an Out-ofPlane phase, as described in the following:
(a) In-Plane Phase - First a crack, produced by debonding of the masonry
units from the mortar, occurs in the unreinforced side and it moves
through the wall thickness, until debonding of the epoxy-based paste in
the joint from the masonry unit occurs; as a consequence, the wall fails
because the tensile stresses are not longer transferred to the FRP. The
wall -cracks along the diagonal, following the mortar joints and
generating a stepwise shear crack (Figure 6).
(b) Out-of-Plane Phase (Figure 7) - It is due to the higher rate (Figure 8)
with which the cracks open in the unstrengthened side relative to the
strengthened side.
Two-Sides Strengthening
In the case of two-side strengthened walls, failure was sudden and faster
than the previously described one. It happened at higher values of load
(Figure 8), due to zero eccentricity in the reinforcement. In fact, the

presence of the reinforcement on both sides of the walls did not create the
out-of-plane phase in the failure.
In these strengthened walls, the presence of the reinforcement forced
the formation of diagonal cracks running through the masonry units (Figure
9) instead of the stepwise shear crack behavior. The crack usually develops
over the embedding material and the FRP system and, without changing its
path, continues to propagate over the joint. Thus, the tensile forces in the
FRP bridging the diagonal crack increased the shear capacity of the walls.
Beside that, as a consequence of the high loads reached, there were a case
of splitting (wall CB 2, Figure 9) and a case of sliding (wall CL 2, Figure
12).
Strengthened
Side
Unstrengthened
Side
Figure 5. General failure mechanism for one-side reinforced walls
Figure 6. Star shape behavior in

one-side reinforced walls
Figure 7. Slope for the Out-of-Plane

phase in one-side reinforced walls

250
^
^~
r?
, 200 1
3 iso I I
o
1 -*eoi I!
J -*-CB1
-*-CB2
CL1
100
AH
&
50
I CL2 J
0,4
0,2
0,8
0,6
Crack Opening (mm)

250
200
1
li
II
150 |
1 -*C0 1 I
j -*-CB1 \
-*-CB2
\ -CL1 [
g ioo
*
4
50 i "
I -^-CL2 j
i0
0,2
0,4
0,8
0,6
Crack Opening (mm)

Figure 8. Crack Openings in front and rear sides of the walls
4
7 \
-
'
"-,
""
/ ^
I ' " <*
'
*>4&^&<
^ \^
y . . -'
y?-:
J0^"'""'<''*'
î^y
w -/"l
, "
v
: .
'
'. . :.
* /* / Jt%*
*
S U \ ~* ?*tf!W!&?SSf,t 9
|
-^8!$$^
Figure 9. Crack Behavior in two-sides reinforcement (splitting in the middle)

For the control wall CO 1, failure was brittle and sudden, governed by
bonding between the masonry units and mortar. All the walls failed by shear
failure, but the strengthened ones had more ductility. At the final state, in all
the strengthened walls, a loosen up of material was observed only in the
case of wall CL 2, due to the sliding of a mortar joint. The maximum
increment in shear capacity (about 200%) was registered in two walls (CB
2, CL 2).
To compare the different amount and types of reinforcements, a
criterion based on the shear strain was adopted. The pseudo-ductility "//"
was computed using the following relations (1) and (2):
M=
(1)
r>
r = h|+ta>|
(2)
where "yu" is the ultimate shear strain and "y " is the yielding shear strain
(corresponding to the change in slope in the load vs. shear strain diagrams).
Considering the strains generated by the diagonal load as principal strains,
the maximum shear strain is expressed as the sum of these strains (" s0" and
" sgo")'. The results for y and u are given in Table 2.
Specimen
C01
CB1
CB2
CL1
CL2
Table 2. Comparison of Pseudo-ductility

Loady
Load,,
y>
kN
kN
kips
kips
82.73
18.6
82.73
18.6
0.1603
163.69
36.8
149.46
33.6
0.1253
55.2
245.53
55.2
245.53
0.0501
121.87
27.4
129.88
29.2
0.014
225.07
50.6
225.07
50.6
0.057
Yu
0.1603
0.7129
0.296
0.106
0.944
1
5.69
5.91
7.78
16.56
Figure 10 shows the In-Plane Load vs. Shear Strain curves for all the
tested walls. From Table 2 and Fig. 10, the best behavior is detected for
wall CL 2, reinforced with a symmetrical distribution of laminates on both
sides. This increased both the ultimate capacity and the pseudo-ductility. In
particular, this wall failed with a sliding of the fifth joint, after shear failure.
Moreover, it is noted that the maximum values of ju correspond to the CL
walls; this was probably due to the larger area covered by the laminates in
comparison with the rods.
The good behavior of the clay panels, in comparison with other similar
concrete walls1, is due to the fact that the mortar can get inside the holes of
the bricks and create a solid system (see Figure 11). This creates a dowelaction effect of the mortar and increases the capacity of the wall itself. The
splitting failure (Figure 9), obtained in the central zone along the
compressed diagonal in wall CB 2, was due to a peat tangential strain,
resulting from the high bond between the clay bricks and from the
symmetrical reinforcement (#2 GFRP rods, both sides). The sliding failure
(Figure 12) obtained in wall CL 2 was due to the combination between the
increase in the ultimate load (due to the presence of the reinforcement over
both sides) and the lower strength at the interface of the unreinforced joint
of mortar. However, in this case, a larger increase in shear capacity was
recorded, as the horizontal laminates engaged the masonry layers where the
sliding occurred, and the cracks running along the head joints were bridged.
200
100
rp^^
*-*
w-/'
r^
I
0,2
-*-coi
-*-C8 1
H
-W-CB2
\-
~-GL1
J
0,4
0,6
-*-CL2
0,8
Shear Strain
Figure 10. In-Plane vs. Shear Strain curves for all the walls
Safe? *
2fi
Mortar Nails
Figure 11. Dowel action effect
Figure 12. Sliding Failure
CONCLUSIONS
From this research, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(a) Remarkable increases in shear capacity and pseudo-ductility, up to
200%, can be achieved. These increments can be reached mainly if the
reinforcement has a symmetrical shape.
(b) In the one-side reinforced walls, two failure phases were identified: InPlane and Out-of-Plane. The In-Plane component was the most critical
and related to the stepwise development of the crack; the Out-of-Plane
behaviour could be observed from the curvature of the wall. These
walls did not show a high increase in terms of pseudo-ductility.
(c) In the two-side reinforced walls, the symmetrical reinforcement led to
an increase in the first crack load, the ultimate load and the pseudoductility.
REFERENCES
1. Grando S. and Nanni A., "Shear Strengthening of URM Walls with FRP
Systems", Report CIES 02-##, Center for Infrastructure Engineering
Studies, University of Missouri-Rolla (under review).
2. Turco V. and Nanni A., "Embedding Materials for Strengthening of
Masonry with FRP Bars", Report CIES 02-##, CIES, University of
Missouri-Rolla (under review).
3. Tumialan J.G. and Nanni A., "In-Plane and Out-of-Plane Behavior of
Masonry Walls Strengthened with FRP Systems", Report CIES 01-24,
Center for Infrastructure Engineering Studies, University of MissouriRolla, May 2001.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research study was sponsored by the National Science Foundation
Industry/University Cooperative Research Center at the University of
Missouri-Rolla (UMR). The authors would like to acknowledge the support
of the Rolla Technical Institute (RTI), as well as the help of Turco V., UMR
Visiting Scholar from the University of Padova, Italy and Galati N., UMR
Master Student.

EFFECT OF FRP MESH REINFORCEMENT ON SHEAR

CAPACITY AND DEFORMABILITY OF MASONRY WALLS
S. RUSSO
Department of Construction, I. U.A. V. Venice University,
Venezia, Italy
R. GOTTARDO
M.A.C. S.p.A. plant, Treviso, Italy
D. CODATO
Venezia, Italy
The research deals with the analysis of the structural behaviour of CFRP
(rebars) reinforced masonry panel. The study shows also the comparison
between the behavior of plain masonry and masonry reinforced with
ordinary mesh steel under shear test. The tests were carried out using the
diagonal test; two different types of wall were employed (but with the same
mechanical characteristics of materials) with 200 mm and 330 mm of
thickness, using the steel mesh reinforcement and carbon FRP rebars on
both sides. The sample was made with mortar applied directly to the face,
with the reinforcement inside. Finally the research makes a comparison with
a similar test carried out by other authors using FRP strips and lamina.
INTRODUCTION
In the last decades the great interest to restore historical buildings has
resulted in improvement in the technology of reinforcement. In fact, besides
the ordinary steel reinforcement, non metallic type of reinforcement, that is,
FRP (Fiber Reinforced Polymer) materials have been used in rebars, strips or
lamina.
This study deals with a new type of reinforcement - carbon rebars applied directly to masonry using steel connections and covered by mortar
on the surface.
As it is generally known, the primary consideration in analytical
approach for reinforced masonry consisted of two aspects: (a) the presence
of eccentric load; and (b) the shear strength that is not so high in plain
masonry.
In the study, the diagonal test was employed to induce compression load
along the diagonal line1' 2| 3. Two different types of reinforcement were
used, applied in both faces of the sample and inside of the mortar. The first,
had pultruded carbon rebars with diameter equal to 7.5 mm with

150mmx 150mm mesh; and the second with steel reinforcement with (j) 5 mm
and lOmmxlOmm mesh. The plain masonry panel was also tested to
provide a comparison with the samples with steel and FRP reinforcement.
For each panel, the crack pattern at the first load, the structural behavior
for strength and deformation, and also the type of collapse were analyzed.
The research also shows the experimental results obtained by other authors
using FRP reinforcement in shear behavior4'5'6.
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM AND RESULTS
The aim of this research is to study the improvement in shear behavior of
masonry reinforced with CFRP bars instead of steel mesh. In general, the
presence of reinforcement give more benefit to ductility and increment in
shear strength. The use of CFRP bars also provides more advantage in
terms of durability.
Figure 1 shows the dimensions of the Type 1 sample (with a thickness of
200 mm), and Type 2 sample (with 330 mm of thickness). To determine the
deformation of the material, transducers and strain-gauges were used in
Samples 7, 8 and 10. For the diagonal test, a 6000 kN capacity machine
linked to the software for the automatic acquisition of load and deformation
was employed. All experimental results are presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5
and Figures 2, 3 and 4.
The mechanical characteristics of masonry, mortar and CFRP rebars are
illustrated in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1. Mechanical characteristics of brick and mortar

Material
Mortar between bricks
Brick
External mortar
Compression strength (MPa)

>2.5
18.92
>18
Shear Capacity and Deformability of Masonry Walls 1241

Table 2. CFRP rebars
Mechanical characteristics
CFRP rebars
7.5
Diameter (mm)
2300
Tensile strength (MPa)
130
Longitudinal Modulus (GPa)
150
Shear strength (MPa)
4500
Shear modulus (MPa)
44
Area (mm2)
101200
Maximun load (N)
Ultimate deformation (%)
1.8
75
Linear density (gm )
1600
Density (kg-iri')
Type of
Sample
SI
$2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
Table 3. Experimental results

Total Thickness
Type of
(mm)
Reinforcement
Without Reinforcement
200
With Steel Mesh
With FRP Mesh
Horizontal FRP Rebars
With Steel Mesh
With FRP Mesh
With Steel Mesh
330
With FRP Mesh
&
Max Load
(kN)
234 1
245 4
286 3
247 3
236 9
272 7
213 0
240 1
394 2
343 6
201,5
111111! 11
1081
01,5
1I inH
! I
;
Figure 1. Dimensions (mm) of sample type land type 2, height constant = 878 mm;
position of transducers and strain gauges
Sample
Table 4. Crack pattern, sample type 1, thickness 200 mm

Crack Pattern
Type of Collapse
Position ofReinf.
Sample 1
Without
Reinforcement
One Diagonal
Crack
Sample 2
With
Steel Mesh
Several Diagonal
Cracks
Sample 3
With
FRPMesh
Several Diagonal
Cracks
Sample 4
Horizontal FRP
Rebars
Several Diagonal
Cracks
Sample 5
Without
Reinforcement
One Diagonal
Crack
Sample 6
With
Steel Mesh
Several Diagonal
Cracks
Sample 7
With
FRP Mesh
Several Diagonal
Cracks
Sample 8
Horizontal FRP
Rebars
Several Diagonal
Cracks
Sample
Table 5. Crack pattern, sample type 2, thickness 330 mm

Crack Pattern
Type of Collapse
Position ofReinf.
Sample 9
With
Steel Mesh
Double Diagonal
Cracks
Sample 10
With
FRP Mesh
Double Diagonal
Cracks
10
15
20
25
Axial Shortening, Al (mm)

Figure 2. Load-axial deformation diagram, 10 samples
O
J
0
-500
Longitudinal Strain
500
1000
8 X 10"
1500
Lateral Strain
2000
Figure 3. Load-deformation diagram; deform, deduced by strain gauges. Sample 7
1244 PRPRCS-6: Applications in Masonry and Steel Structures
-8
-6
A
-2
Lateral Elongation (mm)
0
2
4
Longitudinal Elongation (mm)
Figure 4. Load-displacement diagram. Displacement deduced by transducers
Figures 5, 6 and 7 shows different samples after the collapse for three
types of sample, i.e. without reinforcement and with mesh reinforcement (in
both cases with FRP and steel). Comparing Figures 5 and 7, the influence of
presence of reinforcement on crack pattern can be seen.
^
M
-J
i -. :
i i
t, I.
1 îk
/A
Figure 5. Sample 5
(Without Reinft.)
Figure 6. Sample 3
(With FRP Mesh)
Figure 7. Sample 2
(With Steel Mesh)

Crack Width at Crack Load
Table 6 shows the experimental values of load at first crack (Picr), the ratio
PiJPmax, the crack width (wIcr) and the vertical compression (Alverl) obtained
at the first crack for all samples.
Table 6. Experimental results at first crack
Sample
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
Max Load
(kN)
234.1
245.4
286.3
247.3
236.9
272.7
213.0
240.1
394.2
343.6
P,cr(Kn)
234.1
179.5
227.2
225.3
236.9
199.0
180.4
230.2
380.3
313.5
* let4*
Wlcr
max
1.00
0.73
0.79
0.91
1.00
0.72
0.85
0.96
0.97
0.91
(mm)
0.17
0.16
0.15
0.11
0.16
0.16
0.28
0.16
0.12
0.19
Alverl
(mm)
0.31
0.50
0.32
0.34
0.55
0.36
0.56
0.64
0.57
0.59
In the same table, the ratio between the Plcr value and the maximum level
of load is shown. Obviously, for plain masonry this is equal to 1.0; in
presence of FRP, the ratio is near to 0.8 and for masonry with steel
reinforcement, it is near to 0.75.
SHEAR STRENGTH
The shear strength is useful expressed as:
r = P/(bt)
(1)
where P = load applied to the specimen, b = height of specimen, t =

thickness of specimen, and:
s=Al/l
(2)
where s = axial deformation. Table 7 shows the shear strength for all
samples and Fig. 8 shows the r-s relations.

Table 7. Experimental results on shear strength
Sample
SI
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
Type of Reinforcement
Type of Collapse
One Diag. Crack
With Steel Mesh
Several Diag. Cracks
"
With FRP Mesh
a
One Diag. Crack
With Steel Mesh
Several Diag. Cracks
a
With FRP Mesh
"
With Steel Mesh
Two Diag. Cracks
With FRP Mesh
({
Tmax (N/mm2)
1.33
1.40
1.63
1.41
1.35
1.55
1.21
1.37
1.36
1.19
1,8 -J
1,6 s~*>.
1,4 -
& 1,2
J3 i , o Kn
d 0,8 <-!
(/) 0,6 =
0,4
^ a ^ N r U v.
1 sfVCH \
/
' ^ ^ H ^
s S
X
s
S2
S9
)->s
^-sio
VI
0,20,0 0
0,005
0,01
0,015
0,02
0,025
Figure 8. T-S diagram

Shear Strength in Presence of FRP Reinforcement
For the shear strength analysis in presence of non-metallic reinforcement,
that is lamina, strip or FRP rebars, other authors have already proposed an
analytical model that considers the percentage of non metallic reinforcement,
the ultimate value of deformation of FRP and its mechanical characteristics.
Nevertheless it is very difficult to apply such as model, [see Eq. (3), (4) and
(5)] in the case of FRP rebars, although is easier for the case of FRP lamina.
VRd =fvk t d + 0.9 dpfrpfyk
VRd =fvk t d + 0.9d
pfrp
(3)
Efrp r sfrpu
r sfrp,u = sfrpe = 0.0119 - 0.02056%, Efrp) + 0.0104(pfrp Efrp)2
(4)
(5)
in which pjrp = percentage of non metallic reinforcement, Efrp = longitudinal

modulus of FRP, fê = deformation of FRP, %,, = maximum value of FRP
deformation. Table 8 shows the comparison between the experimental
results deduced by authors and the results already obtained in the literature
regarding the shear strength of FRP reinforced panels subjected to diagonal
test5'6. The last column shows the increment due to FRP.
Table 8. Shear strength in presence of different type of FRP reinforcement
[I!
Authors
Russo
Gottardo
Codato
Thickness and
dimension of Type of specimen
specimen (mm)
Max
load
(kN)
Shear
^
^,
,
Strength
""
incr.
(N/mm2)
%)
StVBYl&trl
200- -510x510
Plain
86.0
1.19
200- -510x510
With CFRP
98.5
1.37
15.1
200- - 770x770
Plain (S5)
236.9
1.35
200- - 770x770
Steel mesh (S6)
272.7
1.55
14.8
200- - 770x770
CFRP mesh (S3)
286.3
1.63
20.8
200- - 770x770
CFRP horiz (S4)
247.3
1.41
4.4
CONCLUSIONS
Considering all experimental results, it is important to point out the
following aspects:
(a) The increase in shear capacity of masonry walls reinforced with CFRP
is as high as 20% over that of the plain masonry walls. The position of
non-metallic reinforcement influences the shear capacity; in the presence
of horizontal CFRP rebars, the increase in shear strength is 4.4%, and in
the case of steel mesh, it is 14.8%.
(b) The presence of FRP reinforcement strongly influences the evolution of

the crack pattern and contributes to pseudo-ductility behavior.
(c) The ratio between the load at first crack and the maximum load, i.e.
Pic/Pmax, is obviously equal to 1.00 in the case of plain masonry. The
value of ratio is near to 1.00 with horizontal position of reinforcement.
There is evident increase in capacity over the first crack load with the
presence of steel and CFRP mesh (in this case, the value of PiJPmax is
between 0.73 to 0.85).
AKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to MAC Plant in Treviso for fabricating the
specimen, and to Carlo Tedeschi for his help during the test.
REFERENCES
1. Decreto M.LL.PP. 20 novembre 1987, Norme tecniche per la
progettazione, esecuzione e collaudo degli edifici in muratura e per il
loro consolidamento.
2. EUROCODICE 6, Norme comunitarie per le strutture in muratura,
1996.
3. ASTM 5 1 9 - 8 1 , Standard Test Method for Diagonal Tension (Shear) in
Masonry Assemblages - (Reapproved 1993).
4. Valluzzi, M.R., Modena, C , Marchetti, M , "Shear strengthening of
masonry panels using FRP", 12th IB*MaC, Madrid, Spain, 25-28 June
2000.
5. Stratford, T., Manfroni, O., Pascale, G., Bonfiglioli, B., "Resistenza a
taglio di pannelli in muratura con GFRP: risultati sperimentali
preliminari", Meccanica delle strutture in muratura rinforzate con FRP
- Materials, Atti del Convegno Nazionale, Venice, Italy, 7-8 December,
2000, Edizioni Libreria Cortina, Padova, pp. 19-30.
6. Triantafillou, T.C., "Strengthening of masonry structures using epoxybonded FRP laminates", Journal of Composites for Constructions,
ASCE, May 1998, pp. 96-104.

STRENGTHENING OF MASONRY STRUCTURES UNDER

COMPRESSIVE LOADS BY USING FRP STRIPS
M.R. VALLUZZI, D. TINAZZI AND C. MODENA
Department of Constructions and Transportation Engineering
University ofPadova, via Marzolo 9 - 35131 Padova, Italy
Strengthening of masonry structures with FRP strips embedded in the bed
joints is an innovative technique, investigated up to now only in very few
research works. The intervention can be particularly suitable for confining
the masonry under compressive loads, by easy in-situ applications. In the
research presented in the paper, both mechanical and feasibility aspects of
the proposed technique are evaluated. An extensive selection of materials
(both for repointing mortars and strips) was preventively performed in
order to optimize the strengthening and durability performances. In
particular, studies on bond were carried out considering the different stress
conditions under which a masonry member can be subjected to, e.g. at the
time of the application and under more severe actions. Finally, to validate
the technique under real critical conditions, experimental tests on
specimens are performed; a series of brick masonry panels in undamaged
and pre-damaged conditions will be reinforced and then subjected to
compressive loads and creep simulations.
INTRODUCTION
Existing masonry structures represent one of the most critical historical
assets to preserve and exploit. In fact, they evidently represent an important
sign of our culture and any intervention on them have to take into account
their historical identity; nevertheless, still today, in each phase of the
restoration process, assessment, design and execution, there is a lack of
standards and guidelines to refer to.
Historical masonry monuments (arch bridges, defensive structures,
churches, bell towers, palaces) represent a typical case where the need of
external confinement and particular aesthetic requirements are not
compatible. In the specific field of the rehabilitation and strengthening of
load bearing masonry structures, it is often necessary to operate with
injections, substitutions, integrations and confinement rings. This last
solution is traditionally performed by means of metallic members applied
externally, which often produce aesthetics problems on masonry facades
and, moreover, is not aimed to the improvement of the mechanical
properties of the material.
As reported in previous works1'2, often in those constructions, some

structural members are subjected to over-stress due to long-term sustained
loads. For example, as towers, curtain walls, arches and pillars, suffer creep
phenomena caused by a continuous stress level much lower than the ultimate
compressive strength. The typical damage is revealed by thin but highly
diffused cracks which can lead to unexpected collapses3.
In such a context, the bed joint reinforcement technique, first employed
using steel reinforced bars embedded into pre-cut horizontal mortar joints
with suitable refilling mortars, has demonstrated its high reliability and
aesthetic compatibility. It counteracts the propagation of the cracks due to
the confining action of the reinforcement, which can carry the tensile
stresses otherwise imparted to the bricks2. After experimental validation on
laboratory simulations, the mentioned technique has been applied
successfully on monumental structures2.
The same technique was then developed, involving epoxy mortar and
FRP rods, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of innovative materials with
high specific performance as confinement materials for damaged laboratory
specimens made of brick masonry4.
Current research at Padova University has revealed that using CFRP
strips (small plates having rectangular section and thickness around 1.5 mm)
instead of rebars, allows less invasive applications, due to their more
superficial placement and the more adaptability to the possible joint
unevenness. Consequently, the level of damage provoked on the original
masonry is reduced, while corrosion problems are absent. Moreover, they
can lead to a better mechanical behavior, due to their possible lower
influence in local splitting failures.
Finally, the contextual use of lime-based high performance mortars, can
allow FRP-based structural repointing to also comply material compatibility
requirements while the application reaches an optimal trade off between
mechanical, aesthetic and durability performances.
DESCRIPTION OF THE STRENGTHENING TECHNIQUE
The proposed strengthening technique is based on the insertion of FRP strips
in the bed mortar joints previously cut for a few centimetres and then refilled
with a repointing material. Such a technique is particularly suitable to brick
walls having regular courses of mortar; it exploits the confining action
provided by the bars to counteract the dilation due to the compressive loads.
The intervention is characterized by the following operative phases:
Masonry Structures under Compressive Loads 1251

(1)
Removal of piaster or finishing from the surface, to check the

masonry condition.
(2)
Cutting of bed mortar joints with a grinder; the depth of the slots
depend on the design maximum stress level to be reached in the
strips. It is not necessary that all bed joints on both faces of a
masonry wall be involved in the application; each intervention
requires specific design.
(3)
Accurate inspection of the masonry: it should be appropriate to
inject some large voids or replace some bricks.
(4)
Removal of powder through compressed air, or water. In particular,
water is recommended when mortar is adopted for repointing.
(5)
Placement of a first layer of repointing material, which should be
accurately compacted; hydraulic lime-based mortars having
appropriate mechanical performances are recommended for use.
They should be selected in order to guarantee maximum
compatibility (chemical, physical and mechanical) with the original
materials; nevertheless, they might contain special additives to
compensate the shrinkage during the hydration phase or to provide
tixotropic behavior.
(6)
Placement of the reinforcing FRP strips. The spacers can be
appropriately placed to separate the reinforcement from the surface
of the bricks. Also, the use of more bars with smaller transverse
dimensions rather than one with higher size should be preferred.
(7)
A final layer of repointing material should be applied to seal the
horizontal joints and for aesthetic and homogeneity purpose; special
sands or pigments can be used to obtain particular effects (see
Figure 1).
The proposed technique does not require particular skills and tools
during application and can be performed quite easily and quickly; however
special care is required when cutting, cleaning and repointing the bed joints5.
Figure 1. CFRP stripstobe characterized. Placement of the strip and repointing

with mortar.
Selection and Characterization of Materials
The preliminary phase consisted the selection and characterization of
materials most suitable to simulate the most diffused masonry assemblages
in Italy in the tests, and to represent the most feasible strengthening
application based on FRP.
Bricks and mortar
The characterization of the masonry units is essential to determine and to
explain the behavior of the masonry assemblages. In the present research, as
will be further explained later, it was necessary to investigate the behavior of
the interface between mortar and bricks, as well. Common clay bricks,
representing the most of the masonry assemblages, were chosen for the
experiments. The specified mechanical characteristics are summarized in
Table 1. Test used for the brick characterization complies with the standards
UNI 8942. The type of hydrated lime mortar selected for the laying of the
bed joints possesses ordinary chemical and mechanical properties. On the
other hand, to exploit the high performances of the FRP reinforcement, a
high strength hydraulic lime mortar was selected for the repointing phase,
that is for the filling of the bed joints after reinforcement is inserted into
superficial slots. Test used for the mortar characterization complies with the
standards UNI EN 1015-11 1993. The characteristics of the used mortars
are listed in Table 1.
Interfacial characteristics between mortars and bricks have been
determined through triplets tests, in which different levels of stress
orthogonal to the bed joints were applied (see Figure 3a). Bond on mortarbrick interface is influenced by the orthogonal confining stress in
accordance with the Coulomb theory, with the angle of internal friction </>
equal to 40.50 degrees and a cohesion coefficient c equal to 0.88. This type
of test can well simulate the bond behaviour between the mortar-brick
interface in a real masonry assemblage subjected to compressive load.
CFRP strips
The selected FRP reinforcement selected consisted an externally sanded
pultruded strip (5 by 1.5 mm), made of carbon fibers in an epoxy resin
matrix. The strip was a prototype tailored on the specifications provided to
the manufacturer on the basis of the previous researches carried out at the
University of Padova, which was aimed to determine the optimal mechanical

and geometrical properties for strengthening applications on masonry.
In fact, compared to circular bars with equivalent area, thin strips are
more flexible and therefore can better fit running irregularities of the bed
joints; moreover, the rectangular section possesses also higher bond surface.
The choice of carbon fibers was due to durability and creep immunity
requirements. The drawback in the use of CFRP is its high performance
compared to the poor characteristics of masonry. In the specific case of the
prototype strip, the type of carbon fiber and the fiber content were designed
in order to limit the modulus of elasticity and tensile strength. The
mechanical properties of CFRP strips were determined by direct tensile tests
(see Figure 1), and the average values on three specimens gives the modulus
of elasticity as 73.2 GPa, while the ultimate tensile strength was equal to
1334 MPa, and the corresponding ultimate strain is 1.8%.
Failure Mechanisms
As is it well known from the literature on the bond of steel rods in concrete,
the possible mechanism of failure are the splitting of the cover or the pullout of the bar. In the case of structural repointing, it is necessary to also take
into account also the brick-mortar interface and consider that all the
repointing mortar prism can slide along the brick surface. In order to
distinguish this phenomenon, the mechanisms of failure are indicated as
splitting, sliding and de-bond (see Figure 2), where the lattest refers to the
detachment of the repointing mortar from the bricks.
The mechanism of bond failure based on sliding of the strip into the
repointing mortar is the safest, as friction in the interface guarantees a
pseudo-ductile behavior and can be easily determined experimentally. From
the preliminary work of material selection, it was also clear that another
advantage of rectangular strips over rods is their lower height in
concentrating bond stress along the thin sides, which helps to prevent from
premature failure due to splitting when they are laid horizontally.
A special test setup was designed by the authors to determine how the
parameter "<f, depth of insertion of the strip, affects the bond by changing
the mechanism of failure. Besides, the possible different location, vertical or
horizontal, of the strip into the bed joint, have also been investigated (see
Figure 3b). The test setup is presented in Figure 4, while results are reported
in Table 2.
Test results confirmed that a horizontally inserted strip tends to slide at
any depth of installation, whilst a vertically inserted strip tends to behave
similarly to a rod, presenting a de-bond mechanism related to the depth of

installation; specifically, a very brittle failure mechanism, due to splitting of
the repointing mortar, occurs when the insertion is very close to the surface.
Bond between CFRP Strips and Repointing Mortar
In order to collect essential parameters for design in a strengthening
application, in addition to the mechanism of failure, it is also necessary to
determine the bond stress r between the strip and the repointing mortar. This
depends on the level of confining stress ac normal to the joint, which in a
real application would be due to overloading of the masonry member after
the intervention occurs.
The simulation was realized with a constant confining stress orthogonal
to the bed joint, while the strip was pulled out with a hydraulic jack (see
Figure 5).
Four levels of confining stress were chosen to simulate overloading
from irrelevant to severe levels (see Table 3). Additionally, different
anchoring lengths were introduced, in order to relate the pull out load with
the length of anchoring and the orthogonal stress.
As expected, pull-out tests revealed that at each anchoring length, the
average bond stress on the strip increases with the confining stress, as can be
seen jn each row of Table 3. Additionally, it was possible to see how the
average bond stress tends to increase with the anchoring length up to a
certain length, named Effective Bond Length, beyond which it tends to
decrease. The Effective Bond Length tends to be shorter when the confining
stress increases, as can be seen in the columns of Table 3.
Figure 2. Different mechanisms of bond failures: de-bond of repointing mortar,

splitting on mortar surface, sliding of the strip into the repointing mortar.
->
insertion depth
vertical
horizontal
Figure 3a. Specimen for triplet test. Figure 3b. Different configuration and depth
of the strip into the joint.
hydraulic
jack
Figure 4. Test setup for pull-out vs. depth test.
m
Figure 5. Test setup for pull-out test.

Table 1. Mechanical characteristics of the masonry units, expressed in MPa
Property
Compressive
strength
Flexural
strength
Clay bricks
(MPa)
Laying mortar
(28 days)
Repointing
mortar (28 days)
17.24
10.32
15.61
6.09
0.63
0.83
Table 2. Pull-out vs. depth test results.

Insertion depth
Position
d = 0.2 cm
Horizontal
Vertical
d = 0.5 cm
546
569(2)
(l)
591w
d=0.7cm
607
(l)
d= 1.0 cm
607 1 "
649 (l)
Units are in daN. Failure modes:('sliding,('splitting,('mortar de-bond.

Table 3. Pull-out test results, average bond stress along the anchoring length (MPa)
Anchoring
length (cm)
2
4
6
7.5
10
15
20
25
0.00
3.8
5.3
5.8
5.3
5.2
3.5
3.6
2.8
Confining stress levels (MPa)

0.25
0.50
5.4
6.2
5.9
5.6
5.4
n.a.
n.a.
3.4
10.3
6.4
8.8
6.4
n.a.
n.a.
5.8
n.a.
0.75
11.2
8.2
n.a.
6.9
n.a.
5.6
n.a.
n.a.
CONCLUSIONS
Results of the pull-out tests with different depths of embedded strips
revealed that at the minimum depth of 0.7 cm, the sliding mechanism is
guaranteed for both the strip configurations (vertical or horizontal) with a
reasonable level of extracting load.
Pull-out tests revealed that the de-bond load increases with the
anchoring length and the confinement pressure, and reaches a maximum
level with 20 cm of anchorage and 0.50 MPa of confinement, which

corresponds to the rapture of the strip. Although the results are consistent,
due to the limited number of tests, it is still premature to propose an
anchoring model based on the present database; as a consequence, further
pull-out tests and simulations on masonry assemblage specimens are in
need.
The development of the research is planned to go toward testing of
coupon size specimens in order to simulate the application on axially loaded
masonry members. After that, it would be possible to develop analytical
models and designing real scale applications would be feasible.
The coupon size specimens to be tested are represented in Figure 6. The
brick masonry panels are 60x25x150 cm and present a typical texture of
bricks. Different geometrical configurations are planned to be investigated
on eight panels: vertical or horizontal insertion of the strip, different depth of
insertion, positioning of the strips on one of both of the main opposite sides,
insertion of the strips in every joint or at alternate joints (see Figure 6).
Once the most effective or convenient geometrical reinforcement
configuration are selected, four more panels will also be pre-cracked till a
planned level of damaged in order to investigate the effectiveness of the
proposed strengthening system as a repairing technique.
As previously introduced, the proposed strengthening system aims also
to limit masonry creep phenomena, typical of some monumental structures,
due to long term sustained loads. To validate the system under this condition
four more panels will be also subjected to predetermined cycles of axial
loads to initiate creep. The preventive phase of investigation of the
mentioned reinforcement configuration has recently started.
Figure 6. Example of reinforcement configurations; Masonry specimenstobe

tested.
1258 FRPRCS-6: Applications in Masonry and Steel Structuresv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The present research was possible thanks to the fund "Young Researchers
Project" - University of Padova, Italy. Authors would like to thank the
engineering student N. Bianculli and the company M.A.C. s.p.a. DEGUSSA Group- of Treviso, Italy for the technical collaboration and the
special support.
REFERENCES
1. Binda L., Modena C, Saisi A., Tongini Folli R., Valluzzi M.R., "Bed
joints structural repointing of historic masonry structures" 9th Canadian
Masonry Symposium Spanning the centuries. Fredericton, New
Brunswick, Canada, 4-6/06/2001.
2. Binda L., Modena C, Valluzzi M.R., Zago R. (1999). "Mechanical effects
of bed joint steel reinforcement in historic brick masonry structures",
Structural Faults + Repair - 99, 8th International Conference and
Exhibition, London, England, July, 13-15, 1999 (CD-ROM).
3. Anzani A., Binda L. e Mirabella G. (1999). "The role of heavy persistent
actions into the behaviour of ancient masonry", Structural Faults +
Repair - 99, 8th International Conference and Exhibition, London,
England, July, 13-15, 1999 (CD-ROM).
4. Tinazzi D., Modena C, Nanni A.,(2000). "Strengthening of masonry
assemblages with fiber reinforced polymer rods and laminates"
Advancing with composites 2000, 9-11 May, 2000. Milan, Italy.
5. Valluzzi M.R., Binda L. and Modena C. (2002). "Experimental and
analytical studies for the choice of repair techniques applied to historic
buildings", RILEM Materials and Structures, June 2002, Vol. 35, pp.
285-292.

SEISMIC BEHAVIOR OF MASONRY STRUCTURAL WALLS

STRENGTHENED WITH CFRP PLATES
X. L. GU, Y. OUYANG, W. P. ZHANG AND F. F. YE
Department of Building Engineering, Tongji University,
1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, P. R. China
In this paper, 7 full-scale brick walls (6 of them are strengthened by gluing
the CFRP plates on the surface of the wall) are tested under the reversed
loads. Through the test, the damage mechanism and the mechanical
behavior of the strengthened wall are studied. The test results show that the
bearing capacity and the deformation capacity of the brick wall can be
improved obviously by gluing the plates on the surface of the wall.
INTRODUCTION
Masonry structures are widely used in the building engineering. But the
masonry structure may be easily attacked by the earthquake because of its
brittle mechanical behavior. So, the strengthening for the masonry structure is
very important, especially for the existing masonry building structures in the
seismic zone. FRP materials are very competitive in the strengthening of
masonry structures comparing with other materials, due to their behaviors of
high strength, light weight, resistance to corrosion etc. Even though the FRP
materials are widely used in the strengthening or retrofitting of concrete
structural members1"5, the number of researchers on the strengthening
technology of masonry structures with FRP is very limited6. Actually, both of
the FRP cloth and FRP plate can be employed as the external strengthening
materials for masonry structures to improve the seismic behavior of the
structure. But the FRP plate is better because of the smaller treatment area on
the surface of the wall before gluing.
In this study, the results of an experimental program aimed at
investigating the seismic behavior of brick walls strengthened by CFRP
plates, are described. The test indicated that the CFRP plates provided the
desired bearing and deforming capability for the strengthened brick walls.
Specimen Details
Six full-scale brick wall specimens were constructed (Figure 1). The CFRP

plates which are 12 mm thick and adhesive were employed as the main
materials in the strengthening work. The width of CFRP plate is 100mm for
TW01-R, TW02 and TW035 and 50mm for TW04, TWOS and TW06. A
triangle CFRP sheet was glued on the top of CFRP plate and the surface of
brick wall at the end of CFRP plate to guarantee the anchoring efficiency. The
strengthening method is shown in Figure 2. The photo of TW02 is shown in
FigureS.
ramnnminiinniii]
fijifo
1^3
A-A
Figure 1. Details of brick wall specimen

CFRP plate
Strain gauge;'
TW01~R,TW02,TWQ4,TW05,TW06
TW03
Figure 2. Strengthening method and arrangement of strain gauges
Figure 3. Photo of TW02
Seismic Behaviour of Masonry Structural Walls 1261

The major design parameters in the specimens are the axial load and the
strengthening ratio of CFRP plate. The axial load for specimen TW01,
TW01-R, TW02, TW03 and TW04 is 500kN, for TW05 is 250kN, and for
TW06 is 375kN.
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Table 1 presents the main mechanical properties of the CFRP materials. The
average compressive strength of mortar is 4.97 MPa. The average
compressive strength of the brick is 4.4 MPa.
Table 1. Mechanical properties of CFRP materials
Young's modulus
(MPa)
CFRP plate
CFRP sheet
Tensile strength
(MPa)
165000
2800
240000
3500
Ultimate
strain
(%)
1.7
1.5
Test Set-up
The test set-up is shown in Figure 4. Three jacks were used to apply a constant
compressive stress on the top of the wall in the test to simulate the action of
the dead load. The specimen was subjected to a cyclic loading pattern using
actuator at the concrete pier beam. Data from load cells, displacement
transducers, and strain gauges were acquired using a computer controlled data
acquisition system.
Jack
Displacement
transducers
Data acquisition
s stem
y
Figure 4. Test setup

Specimen TWO 1 was tested to crack under cyclic loadings first, and then
was strengthened with CFRP plates and designated as TW01-R. Other
specimens were strengthened with CFRP plates before the test.
1262
FRPRCS-6: Applications
in Masonry and Steel
Structures
The lateral loading system of specimen TW01 was force-controlled until

the wall cracked. The displacement ZlyOn the top of TWO 1 corresponding to
the shearing capacity of the wall was recorded and was used in the
displacement-controlled phase for other specimens. The lateral loading
system for the other specimens was initially force-controlled, followed by
displacement controlled after the displacement on the top of the wall reached
Ay. The loading sequence is shown in Figure 5. Testing was continued until
the specimen lost its ability to resist an applied horizontal load of
approximately 85 percent of the ultimate load.
P,
l
0.75
0
-0.75
-1
Loading
cycles
Figure 5. Loading routine

Load-displacement Relationship
Curves of the lateral load-displacement relationship for all specimens
acquired from tests are shown in Figure 6. The main results of tests are
summarized in Table 2. In Table 2, TV is the axial load applied on the top of the
wall, Vy is the shearing capacity of the wall, Au is the ultimate displacement on
the top of the wall, 5\ stands for the increasing percentage of the shearing
capacity for the strengthened wall comparing with the reference wall (TW01),
&i and Si stand for the increasing percentage of Ay and Au respectively for the
strengthened wall comparing with the reference wall (TW01). The ultimate
displacement is defined as that when the specimen lost its ability to resist an
applied load of approximately 85 percent of the shear capacity.
From Figure 6 and Table 2, it can be seen that cracked brick wall can be
rehabilitated effectively by gluing the CFRP plates on the surface of the wall.
Although the CFRP strengthening ratio of TW03 is 25 percent higher
than TW02, because the strengthening method for TW03 is different with
TW02, the maximum lateral load of TW03 is approximately same as TW02.

The CFRP strengthening ratio for TW04 is 50 percent lower than that of
TW02. But the maximum lateral load and deforming capacity of TW04 are
almost same with TW02, which indicates that there is a upper limitation
amount of CFRP plate to strengthen a given brick wall.
Table 2. Shearing capacity and characteristic values of the displacement for
specimens
N
(kN)
TW01
TW01-R
TW02
TW03
TW04
TW05
TW06
500
500
500
500
500
250
375
(kN)
238.2
332.3
429.9
443.4
416.3
313.7
395.8
(%)
reference
39.5
80.5
86.1
74.8
,
(mm)
1.87
5.59
5.48
7.49
5.98
8.97
7.74
S2
(%)
reference
198.9
193.0
300.5
219.8
(mm)
2.43
7.84
7.46
10.13
7.69
(%)
reference
222.6
207.0
340.4
216.3
8.9
Specimen TW05 is same as TW04, but the axial load is 50 percent lower.
The lower axial load of TW05 degraded the flexural capacity, the flexural
failure happened before the shearing failure or the debonding failure. The
axial load of TW06 is 375kN, lower than TW04 (500kN) but larger than
TW05 (250kN). The maximum lateral load for TW06 is 395.8kN, lower than
TW04 (416.3kN), but larger than TW05 (313.7kN). When the debonding
failure happened, two flexural cracks between the bottom mortar of the wall
and the concrete beam in TW06 were observed.
Typical Failure Mode
Figure 7 shows the failure modes for all of the testing walls. From the results
shown in Figure 7, it can be seen that all of the factors such as the axial force,
initial state of the wall, strengthening manner, and strengthening ratio may
affect the failure mode of the strengthened wall. Even though there are cracks,
the wall can still work well until the debonding happened between CFRP
plates and the strengthened wall.
Load- strain Relationship of CFRP Plate
There are five strain gages placed in the length direction on each CFRP plate.
To compare the behavior of the CFRP plate in the wall, the results of strain
measurements at the same location are presented. Figure 8 shows load-strain
relationship curves (point 5, middle position of the CFRP plate) for each wall.
For all specimens, the maximum load in each loading cycle was recorded and
plotted against the maximum strain of each point (point 1,3,5, 8, and 10) of a
CFRP plate, as shown in Figure 9.
>z 600
2
300
-300
-600
-12 -8 -4 0
8
Displacement / mm
12
Displacement / mm
(a)TW01
-12 -8 -4
(b)TW01-R
12
Displacement / mm
(c) TW02
-12 -8 -4 0
8
Displacement / mm
(e) TW04
-12 -8 -4 0
8
Displacement / mm
12
(d) TW03
12
-12 -8 -4 0 4 8
Displacement / mm
(f) TW05
-4 0 4
12
Displacement / mm
(g) TW06
Figure 6. Load-displacement responses of testing walls
12
(a)TWOl
(c) TW02
Crack
(b)TWOl-R
(d) TW03
TW04
Debonding/
(e) TW04
(f) TW05
(g) TW06
Figure 7. Failure modes of testing walls
-2000 -1000
1000 2000
-2000 -1000
Micro-strain
(b) TW02
(a) TW01-R
-2000 -1000
0
1000
Micro-strain
(c) TW03
600
300
0
-300
-600
-2000 -1000
1000
Micro-strain
(e) TW05
2000
Micro-strain
2000
-2000 -1000
1000
2000
Micro-strain
(d) TW04
2000
-600
-2000
-1000
0
1000
Micro-strain
2000
(f) TW06
Figure 8. Load-strain responses of CFRP plates

From these figures, it can be seen that the strains increased with increase
in the load. The glued CFRP plates can work well together with the brick wall.
When the lateral load is small, the strain of CFRP is small too, and linearly
changed with the applied lateral load. When the crack appeared on the wall,
the strain of CFRP plate increased rapidly, indicating the effectiveness of the
CFRP plates in sharing the load.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the test study of seismic behavior for brick walls
strengthened with CFRP plates.
For a brick wall strengthened / repaired with CFRP plates, both of the
bearing and the deforming capacity of the wall are improved significantly.
The mechanism of strengthening is that CFRP plates carry some of the shear
force, and delay the cracks appearing and extending. When CFRP plates
debond at the ends, they could not shear the force any more, and the wall
damages immediately. The failure mode is bond failure, and is brittle too. If
the axial load applied on the wall is lower, the failure mode may be flexural
failure, and the effect of the strengthening with CFRP plates is not significant.
600
300
- ^
i-300
-600
-3000
L.
-Point 1
- Point 3
-Point 5
- Point 8
-PointlO
-1000
1000
Micro-strain
(a)TW01-R
600
2 300
3000
,3-300
-600-3000
-1000
1000
Micro-strain
- Point 1
-Point 3
- Point 5
-Point 8
-PointlO
1&A
-1000
1000
Micro-strain
3000
- Point 1
- Point 3
- Point 5
- Point 8
-PointlO
i
3-300
-600
-3000
-1000
1000
Micro-strain
3000
(d) TW04
~--c^
3-300
-600-3000
600
300
3000
(c) TW03
600
300
"*WT
(b) TW02
-Point 1
- Point 3
- Point 5
- Point 8
-PointlO
600
300
^5 0
3-300
-600
-3000
- Point 1
-Point 3
- Point 5
- Point 8
-PointlO
-1000
1000
Micro-strain
(e) TW05
3000
600
300
^ 0
3-300
-600
-3000
- Point 1
-Point 3
- Point 5
- Point 8
-PointlO
-1000
1000
Micro-strain
(0 TW06
Figure 9. Envelopes of load-strain relationships of CFRP plates
3000
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Katsumata, H.; Kobatake, Y., and Takeda, T., "A Study on

Strengthening with Carbon Fiber for Earthquake-Resistant Capacity of
Existing Reinforced Concrete Columns", Proceedings of the 9*
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, V.7, Tokyo, Japan, 1988,
pp.517-522.
Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M.R., and Jin, L., "Seismic Strengthening of
Circular Bridge Pier Models with Fiber Composites", ACI Structural
Journal, V.93, No.6, 1996, pp.639-647.
Saadatmanesh, H., Ehsani, M.R., and Jin, L., "Repair of
Earthquake-Damaged RC Columns with FRP Wraps", ACI Structural
Journal, V.94,No.2, 1997, pp.206-215.
Parvin, A., and Granata, P., "Investigation on the Effects of Fiber
Composites at Concrete Joints", Composites Part B: Engineering, No.31,
2000, pp.499-509.
Granata, P. J., and Parvin, A., "An Experimental Study on Kevlar
Strengthening of Beam-column Connections", Composite Structures,
No.53,2001,pp.l63-171.
Zhao, T., Xie, J., and Dai, Z. J., "An Experimental Study on Masonry
Wall Strengthening with CFRP Sheet", Building Structures, No.3, 2002,
pp.64-67.

ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR THE REPAIR

OF STEEL STRUCTURES
A. H. AL-SAIDY
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University
P.O. Box 33, AlKhod, 123, Sultanate of Oman
T.J. WIPF AND F.W. KLAIBER
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Iowa State University
Ames, I A USA
Many of the old structures, specially bridges, are deteriorating due to age
and environmental effects. In the United States alone about 15 percent of
the brideges are considered either structurally deficient or functionally
obsolete according to a recent Federal Highway Adiminstration report.
Corrosion is considered as one of the main causes of deterioration of steel
bridges. Repair and strengthening of these structures can be the only
alternative if funds for replacement is limited or unavailable. The study
presented in this paper focused on the behavior of damaged steel composite
beams repaired with carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates
attached to their tension side. The test results indicated a significant
increase in the strength and the stiffness of the repaired beams. Strengths
of all damaged/repaired beams were fully restored to their original
(undamaged state) strength. The test results clearly indicate that the
method is effective and viable.
INTRODUCTION
Structures will deteriorate as they age and will require maintenance works
during their service lives. In recent years there has been a great deal of
research in the repair and rehabilitation of deteriorated structures due to the
magnitude of such a problem on a global level. For example in the United
States there are approximately 600,000 bridges and nearly 15 percent of
these bridges are classified as structurally deficient1. Causes of the
deterioration are attributed to the age of the structure, steady increase in the
weight of highway vehicles, increase in traffic density, environmental
effects; and the lack of proper maintenance. The superstructures in a large
number of these bridges are structural steel. One significant cause of
deterioration in steel structures is the corrosion of flexural elements due to
extensive use of de-icing salts in winter weather.
Various methods have been used in the past to strengthen steel bridges2.
One method used in the past on steel bridges is the bonding of steel plates to
the tension flange of the girders. However, steel plates are heavy and
difficult to install in the field as well as it will require heavy equipment and
scaffolding mobilized to the bridge site. Another problem is the limited
length that can be delivered to the site which requires the use of lap joints
along the strengthened beam.
Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) plates are light weight with
high strength to weight ratio. CFRP plates have been used to strengthen
concrete beams and code design guidelines are already available for the use
of CFRP on concrete. However, very little research 3'4 has been completed
on the feasibility of using CFRP in the rehabilitation of steel composite
sections.
The research presented in this paper focused on the feasibility of
repairing damaged steel composite beams using carbon fiber reinforced
polymer (CFRP) plates. Intentional damage was induced by removing part
of the tension flange to simulate corrosion damage. Damaged beams then
repaired by attaching the CFRP plates to the tension side of the beam and
tested to failure.
Description of Specimens
A total of 6 steel-concrete composite beams were tested in this study as
described in Table 1. The steel beams were W8xl5 grade A572 structural
steel; all beams were 11 ft (3.4 m) long. A composite concrete slab 32 in.
(813 mm) wide by 3 in. (76 mm) thick was used in all beams. Shear studs
(1/2 in. (12.7 mm) in diameter by 2 in. (50.8 mm) long) provided the shear
connection between the slab and the steel beams.
The experimental program consisted of two undamaged (control) steel
composite beams and four steel composite beams that were damaged by
removing part of their bottom flange (i.e. a percentage of the bottom flange
area) to simulate field corrosion and then repaired by adding the CFRP plate
to restore the composite beam to its original strength.
As shown in Table 1, the specimens designated by the letter "U" are the
undamaged control beams, while the rest of the specimens were damaged
and designated by the letter "D". The number that follows the letter "D"
indicates the percentage of area of the bottom flange that was removed.
Materials for Repair of Steel Structures 1271

Table 1. Description of test specimens.
CFRP
CFRP
Remarks
applied to applied to
hot. flange
web
No
C.B.
2
5.4
No
29
U
No
C.B.
1
5.4
29
No
D50
Repairl
1
5.4
29
4 in. wide No
D50R1
1
D50R2
4.5
29
2 in. wide 2 in. wide Repair2
Repairl
D75R1
1
4.5
29
4 in. wide No
fc = concrete compressive strength, Et,; = Elasticity' modulus of CFRP
C.B. = Control Beam
Note: 1 ksi =
-- 6.895 Mpa; 1in.: = 25 A mm
Specimen
Type
Total
No.
fc
(ksi)
Epi
(ksi)
"Rl" and "R2" are used to reflect the type of the repair scheme used to
repair the beam. Repair scheme 1 (Rl) consisted of applying the CFRP
plate to the web of the steel beam only, while Repair scheme 2 (R2)
consisted of applying the CFRP plates to the web and the bottom flange of
the steel beam. For example, "D50R1" refers to a beam with 50 percent of
its bottom flange was removed and repaired using repair scheme 1 (Rl).
One of the repair schemes used (R2) is shown in Fig. 1.
Table 2 summarizes the important properties of the materials used in
this study. Strengthening and repair of the beams was accomplished by
using 0.055 in. (1.4 mm) thick, and either 1.97 in. (50 mm), or 3.94 in. (100
mm) wide CFRP plates. To ensure a sound bond between the steel and the
CFRP plates, the tension flanges and the lower part of the web of the beams
were sand blasted. The surfaces of the steel beam and the CFRP laminates
were cleaned with acetone just prior to the application of the epoxy.
Test Set Up and Instrumentation
All beams were tested in four points bending static loading. As previously
noted, each beam was 11 fit (3.4 m) long with a 10 ft (3.05 m) clear span
(i.e. 6 in. (152 mm) of overhang at each support). Loading was applied
using a 120 kip (534 kN) capacity hydraulic cylinder at two load points;
these load points were 48 in. (1220 mm) from the ends of the beam and 36
in. (914 mm) apart. All loads reported here are point loads (i.e. loads at
each hydraulic cylinder). Vertical deflections of the beams were measured
at the midspan and the quarter span points. Strains along the CFRP plates
were measured at all load stages, especially at the cut off points.
32"
Concrete
slab
I*
Removed part
of flange
W8X15-
JJ
^
CFRP Plate
Figure 1 Damaged Beam repaired using scheme 2 (R2).

Table 2, Material properties
Material
Concrete
Structural steel
CFRP plates
Compressive
strength
(ksi)
4.5-5.4
Yield
strength
(ksi)
Elasticity
modulus
(ksi)
72
360
52.7
29000
29000
10
Epoxy
Note:
Tensile
strength
(ksi)
500
1 ksi = 6.895 Mpa

The loads vs. mid-span deflections of tested beams are shown in Figs. 2
through 4. In the case of the undamaged control specimens (Beams Ui and
U2), the behavior was of a typical composite steel beam. Since the response
of these two beams were almost identical, only the results of one of them
(Beam U2) will be discussed in the subsequent sections and will be referred
to as Beam U. As indicated by the load vs. mid-span deflections of Beam U
(see Fig. 2), the relation is linear elastic until the steel beam started to yield,
and then the beam deflected with only a slight increase in the applied load.
The beams finally failed by crushing of the concrete slab. In the same
figure, the mid-span deflections of Beam D50 (damaged control beam) is
also shown. As seen in this figure, the stiffness as well as the strength of
the damaged beam (Beam D50) is less than that of the undamaged beam
(Beam U).

35,000
D5QE1E29
30,000
""" U
25,000
/
D50
"35"
(/ y
20,000
///
///
g 15,000
\l
10,000
///
5,000
0
/
0.5
1.5
2.5
Deflection (in.)
Figure 2. Load vs. mid-span deflections of Beams U, D50, and D50R1E29.
1.5
Deflection (in.)
Figure 3. Load vs. mid-span deflections of Beams U, D50, and D50R2E29

35,000 -r
^\D75REP1E29
30,000 -
_f/~-
^ T ~
U
S ^ \ /
25,000 -
^^
JS 20,000 -
/
/
15,000
10,000 -
5,000 -
if
0 +
/
D75
/ ^
l/
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
Deflection (in.)
Figure 4. Load vs. mid-span deflections of Beams U, D75, and D75R1E29.
Effect of Repair Schemes

The damaged and repaired specimens are designated as D50R1E29,
D50R2E29, and D75R1E29; the description of these specimens was
presented earlier. Comparison of the responses of all repaired beams (see
Figs 2 through 4) indicates that both stiffness and strength were increased in
the repaired beams. One distinction in the behavior of the repaired beams
is that they do not show a clear yield platue as the case in the control
(unrepaired) beams. This means that the repaired beams will keep resisting
additional load until failure. However, excessive deflection indicates when
the failure is imminent. In general, the repaired beams behaved in a similar
fashion; hence, a typical beam results will be discussed here. Comparing
the responses of Beams D50, D50R1E29, and U illustrated in Fig. 2, it is
obvious that both stiffness and strength were increased in the repaired beam
(Beam D50R1E29). Deflections of the three beams were compared at the
load that caused yielding in Beam D50 (15,000 lbs (66.7 kN)) as a measure
of stiffness in the elastic range. The measured deflections of Beam D50,
Beam D50R1E29, and Beam U at an applied load of 15,000 lbs (66.7 kN)
were 0.396 in. (9.4 mm), 0.315 in. (8 mm), and 0.240 in. (6 mm),
respectively. Approximately, 50 percent of the lost stiffness in Beam D50
was restored in Beam D50R1E29. In the inelastic range, significant
stiffness was gained as observed in Fig. 2. In addition, the ultimate strength
of the original beam (Beam U) was fully restored; in fact the ultimate load
of Beam D50R1E29 reached 33,000 lbs (146.8 kN), exceeding the failure
load (31,0001bs (137.8 kN)) of Beam U.
The tests results of all beams are summarized in Table 3. The measured
gains in strength were calculated with respect to the undamaged beam
(Beam U2). Measured gains ranged between 6 and 24 percent. However,
when the measured ultimate loads were compared to the damaged control
beams (Beams D50 and D75), the range was much higher. For example, in
the case of D50 specimens, the gain in strength was found to be 32 and 52
percent for Beams D50R1E29 and D50R2E29, respectively.
Table 3. Summary of tests results.
Measured ultimate
Measured gain in
Mode of failure
load (lbs)
strength (%)
U,a
30,900
0
CC
U2
31,000
0
CC
D50
25,000
-19
CC
D50R1E29
32,900
6
S
D50R2E29
38,000
24
CC&R
D75R1E29
32,850
6____
S&CC
Note: 1 lb = 4.448 N; 1 in. = 25.4 mm;
"subscript refers to the specimen number;
CC= crushing of concrete; R= CFRP plate rupture; S= slip at the concrete-steel
interface.
Beam
Longitudinal Strains and Shear Stresses along the CFRP Plates

Longitudinal strains as well as the shear stresses along the CFRP plate of all
tested specimens showed a similar pattern; hence, only some of the test
results are presented and discussed here. The longitudinal strains along the
CFRP plate for Beam D50R1E29 are shown in Fig. 5a. From this figure, it
is observed that within the elastic range of loading (i.e. before yielding of
steel which is approximately 1,800 microstrain), the distribution of the
strain along the CFRP is smooth and gradual. However, at higher loads, the
distribution becomes non linear with the highest strains within the middle
two-thirds of the beam length. This is because as the steel yields in the
maximum moment region and the yielding extends towards the ends of the
beam, the CFRP plate takes more stress to compensate for the yielding steel.

6,000 -I
5,000 4,000
S
-P=5,260lbs
P= 10,320 lbs
- * - P=20,440 lbs
- P = 30,460 lbs
- * - P = 32,910 lbs
3,000
2
O
2,000
j
_..
1,000
20
10
30
40
50
60
Distance from support (in.)
a.
Longitudinal strains
250
- ^ P = 5,260 lbs
--P=10,320lbs
-*-P= 20,430 lbs
?= 25,450 lbs
20
30
40
50
60
Distance from support (in.;
b.
Shear stresses
Figure 5 Longitudinal strains and shear stresses in the CFRP plate in Beam
D50R1E29
Figure 5b illustrates the shear stresses corresponding to the measured

longitudinal strains. The shear stresses acting on the CFRP plate were
calculated from the requirement of equilibrium of forces acting on an
infinitesimal length of the CFRP plate, Dx.
This is expressed
mathematically by Eq. (1).
where a is the longitudinal stress, and tpt is the thickness of the CFRP plate.
From Fig. 5b, one can see that at loads within the elastic limit, the shear
stresses distribution follows the classical elastic theory of adhesive bonded
joints. The joint (or plate end) will experience very high stress
concentration. That is, the shear stress is highest at the edge of the CFRP
plate and decreases away from the joint. However, as the steel starts to
yield in the maximum moment region, the shear stress distribution deviates
from the elastic theory predictions. This is due to the fact that as the steel
yields at the maximum moment region, the CFRP plate will pick up the high
stresses in this region. As the plastic stresses propagate away from the
center of the beam, the CFRP plate will resist more longitudinal stresses.
These stresses are transferred by very high shear stresses. This is observed
from the shear stresses plots, where the highest shear stresses are not at the
joint (end of the CFRP plate). As can be seen from Fig.5b, the shear
stresses are much higher at the quarter points than at the ends.
Nevertheless, the bond between the CFRP plate and the steel beam was not
a problem in this investigation as no debonding or delamination was
observed in any of the specimens.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions may be drawn from this study:
1. Damage to the bottom flange degrades both the flexural stiffness as
well as the strength of the beam.
2. The elastic flexural stiffness of damaged beams can be partially
restored (up to 50 percent) with the use of CFRP plates.
3. Strength of damaged beams can be fully restored to the original
undamaged state with the use of CFRP plates for the system
investigated.
4. Ductility is slightly reduced with the addition of CFRP plates.
5.
Bond between steel and CFRP is not a problem for the system
investigated.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Federal
Highway
Administration
(FHWA),
<http//www.fhwa.dot.gov/bridge/allbridg.htm>, Washington, D.C.,
2001.
Dorton, R. A. and Reel, R., "Methods for Increasing Live Load
Capacity of Existing Highway Bridges." NCHRP Synthesis 249, TRB,
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1997, 66 pp.
Sen, R., Liby, L., Spillet, K., Mullins. G., "Strengthening Steel
Composite Bridge Memebers Using CFRP Laminates." In NonMetallic (FRP) Reinforcement for Concrete structures, proceedings of
the Second International RILEM Symposium, Taerwe, L., Ed., Ghent,
Belgium, 1995, pp. 551-558
Miller, T.C., Chajes, M.J., Mertz, D.R., Hastings, J.N., "Strengthening
of Steel Bridge Girder using CFRP Plates." Journal of Bridge
Engineering, Vol. 6, No. 6, 2001, pp. 514-522.
Field Applications and Case Studies

CONSTRUCTION AND EVALUATION OF FULL-SCALE

CFRP PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DT-GIRDER
N. F. GRACE
Department of Civil Engineering,
Lawrence Technological University, Southfield, MI, USA
G. A. SAYED
Department of Civil Engineering,
University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada
The present study deals with the fabrication, instrumentation, and flexuraltesting of a full-scale double-T (DT) concrete girder prestressed using
bonded pretensioned carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) Leadline
tendons and unbonded carbon fiber composite cable (CFCC) posttensioning strands. The DT-girder was designed to simulate the
performance of the girders used for the construction of the 3-span Bridge
Street Bridge, City of Southfield, Michigan. The conducted test focused on
measurement of strain distributions along the length and depth of the girder,
transfer length, camber/deflection, cracking load, forces in post-tensioned
strands, ultimate load carrying capacity, and mode of failure. It was
observed that the ultimate failure of the DT girder was initiated by partial
separation between the topping and the girder flange, which then led to the
crushing of the concrete topping followed by rupture of bottom tendons. It
was also observed that the ultimate and cracking loads of the girder were
5.3 and 1.4 times the service load, respectively. The deflection of the girder
at the service load was 3.8% of that at the ultimate load.
INTRODUCTION
Currently, concrete bridges prestressed and reinforced using carbon fiber
reinforced polymer (CFRP) materials are being used worldwide'. However,
the concrete bridges constructed using CFRP tendons are few in number.1"4
The most recent and first of its own kind CFRP prestressed concrete bridge
in the USA (i.e., Bridge Street Bridge3 located in the City of Southfield,
Michigan) has been constructed using CFRP Leadline bonded tendons and
CFCC unbonded strands. Extensive research investigations6"9, funded by the
1282 FRPRCS-6: Field Applications and Case Studies

NEFMAC sheet
Non-prestressing
(300 mm x 100 mm 10 mm Leadline
mesh)
rods
298mmL304mrn|.\\\\
7 5 m m ->'
BIT'
mm
Concrete topping
2120 mm
916 mm \
r XWX
Two-legged steel stirrups
1,304 mm J298 mm
^ \
=\
*_*_
195 mm
'180mm
330
...C:g,c.pf.comppsite.sect:
..S-.g.c. of.precast, seclion
9l0mm
J5*IL.
E
E
210 mm
215 mm
60 mm
&
70 mm
(TyP.)
280 mm
Pretensioning 10 ram Leadline Post-tensioning 40 mm CFCC
tendon, 10th row
strand
Non-prestressing
12.5 mm
CFCC strand,
Figure 1. Cross-section of DT-girder at midspan
federal, state, and private funding agencies, addressing the behavior of this
new bridge system were conducted on one-third scale bridge models in the
Structural Testing Center at Lawrence Technological University, Southfield,
Michigan. The obtained research results6"9 formulated the basis on which the
design of the Bridge Street Bridge and the DT-test girder was made.
The objective of the present investigation is to experimentally verify the
design approach and assumptions made for this project and to determine the
various response parameters for the DT-girder (identical to those planned for
use in the Bridge Street Bridge) such as strains, deflections, forces in posttensioning strands at service load, cracking load, and ultimate load
conditions10"11
Full-Scale CFRP Prestressed Concrete DT-Girder 1283
FABRICATION AND INSTRUMENTATION

The test girder cross-section is shown in Figure 1, while the elevation of the
girder with the location of the externally draped post-tensioning CFCC
strands is shown in Figure 2. The reinforcement consisted of 10 rows of
uv
<+)
ud.
IJJ
<t>
uo
LIJ
HI
<p
<+i
(t>
It ife^szznlc
nil
nil -^-afr || II
max
Elevation
<!><+>
40mmCFtC
post-tensioning
strands
Figure 2. External post-tensioning arrangement for CFCC strands
10 mm (0.39 in.) diameter bonded prestressing CFRP Leadline tendons, 6

rows of 12.5 mm (0.5 in.) non-prestressing CFCC strands in each web, and
four externally draped 40 mm (1.57 in.) diameter post-tensioning CFCC
strands. A total of nineteen 10 mm (0.39 in.) diameter non-prestressing rods
were provided longitudinally in the flange. In addition, the flange was also
reinforced with two layers of transverse 10 mm (0.39 in.) diameter Leadline
tendons. The post-tensioning strands were longitudinally draped between
diaphragms D2 and D6. The mechanical characteristics of the CFRP
Leadline tendons and CFCC strands are given in Table 1. The modulus of
elasticity and strength of NEFMAC sheets were 86.5 and 1.5 GPa (1,2540
and 217 ksi), respectively. The precast concrete and concrete topping had
strengths 53.8 and 39.3 MPa (7.81 and 5.7 ksi) while the corresponding
modulus of elasticity were 36.7 and 31.6 GPa (5,320 and 4,580 ksi),
respectively.
Fabrication
The sequence of construction activities is given below:
i.
early in the girder fabrication stage, the CFCC and CFRP mild
reinforcements, steel stirrups, CFRP prestressing Leadline tendons, and
other embedded items were installed in the formwork.
ii.
installation and stressing of the pretensioned CFRP tendons.
iii.
casting and curing of concrete.
iv.
releasing the pretensioned CFRP Leadline tendons after concrete
achieved desired strength.
v.
removing the prestressed girder from the form, and
vi.
installing the longitudinal CFCC post-tensioning strands and applying
60% of the total post-tensioning force.
Table 1. Characteristics of CFRP tendons/CFCC strands.
Characteristics
Nominal diameter,
in. (mm)
Effective crosssectional area, in.2
(mm2)
Guaranteed tensile
strength, ksi
(kN/mm2)
Specified tensile
strength, ksi
(kN/mm2)
Young's modulus
of elasticity, ksi
(kN/mm2)
Elongation, %
Guaranteed
Breaking load, kips
(kN)
Ultimate Breaking
load, kips (kN)
Leadline
CFCC 1 x
7
CFCC 1 x
37
0.39(10)
0.5(12.5)
1.57(40)
0.111(71.6)
0.118
(76.0)
1.17
(752.6)
328 (2.26)
271 (1.87)
205(1.41)
415(2.86)
305(2.10)
271 (1.87)
21,320(147)
19,865
(137)
18,419
(127)
1.9
1.5
1.5
36.4(162)
31.9(142)
240.5
(1,070)
46 (204.7)
36(160)
316.9
(1,410)
Nine of the ten Leadline tendon rows were draped prior to pretensioning
using hold-down and hold-up arrangements. The bottom most tendon was
Full-Scale CFRP Prestressed Concrete DT-Girder 1285
not draped. Each CFRP tendon was individually pretensioned to a target

load level of 82.3 kN (18.5 kips) [rows 1 through 5; row numbering starts
from top to bottom] and 86.7 kN (19.5 kips) [rows 6 through 10] after seating
losses. The DT-girder was cast by pouring the concrete into the formwork
and allowed to cure. After the concrete achieved adequate strength of 45.9
kN (6.65 ksi) in 48-hours, CFRP Leadline"" tendons were released in a
specific sequence. Additional details are given in the reference paper10.
The four externally draped post-tensioning CFCC strands were installed after
the release of the pretensioning tendons and after form removal. Only 60%
(60.6 kips) of the final post-tensioning force (101 kips) was applied to each
strand prior to the transport of the test girder to the testing facility. A special
bearing system at diaphragm D3, D4, and D5 was designed and constructed
to allow the designed (anticipated) movement of the external CFCC strands.
INSTRUMENTATION
The instrumentation and measurement of various parameters of this
investigation are described below:
Measurement of Pretensioning Forces
A load cell, installed between the fabricator's stressing jack at the live end
and the anchorage (chuck), and read-out device were used to measure
pretensioning forces. Few load cells were positioned at the dead end of
selected tendon lines between the steel strand anchor chuck and the bulkhead
for spot-check and verification of the readings taken at the live end. The load
cells located at the dead end were continuously monitored during and after
pouring of the concrete to measure any changes in the pre-tensioning forces
during the curing process of concrete.
Measurement of Concrete Strains
Embedded electrical resistance strain gages were installed for measuring
strain distributions along the depth of cross-sections at midspan and quarter
spans. A total of thirty strain gages were installed in the test girder. Of these
thirty gages, twenty-one gages were installed in the precast section at the
fabrication plant, while the remaining nine gages were installed in the castin-place concrete topping at the testing facility.
Measurement of post-tensioning forces

Prior to post-tensioning, all four post-tensioning strands were instrumented
with load cells at one end. The load cells were installed between the locknut
on the strand-anchor/head and the bearing plate embedded in the transverse
diaphragm (D2) near the end of the girder (Figure 2). Post-tensioning was
applied to the four CFCC strands in two separate stages (initial and final).
The initial post-tensioning (PT) consisted of applying 60% of the total
desired post-tensioning force [449 kN (101 kips)] on the precast DT-girder.
The final post-tensioning was applied at the testing facility after casting the
concrete topping and consisted of the remaining 40% of the total posttensioning force. The average measured strand force after the initial posttensioning was 268 kN (60.3 kips), while the average measured strand force
after the final post-tensioning was 449 kN (100.9 kips).
Casting of Concrete Topping
Finally, a 75 mm (3 in.) thick concrete topping was cast over the top flange
of the precast DT-girder. In preparation for the cast, CFRP NEFMAC2
grid reinforcement was installed over the top flange of the DT-girder. The
NEFMAC2 reinforcement was supplied in the form of grid sheets, each
with a transverse dimension of 2,083 mm (82 in.). Each grid sheet
incorporated longitudinal reinforcement elements spaced at 300 mm (11.8
in.) and transverse elements spaced at 100 mm (3.9 in.).
TEST SETUP
The girder was loaded along two lines to create a 3,658 mm (12.0 ft) wide
constant moment region symmetrical about midspan. The two lines were
oriented orthogonal to the longitudinal centerline of the girder. Along each
line, load was applied at two bearing points that were coincident with girder
webs. All loads applied to the girder during the test were monitored using
load cells, while displacements were measured using displacement
transducers.
Full-Scale CFRP Prestressed Concrete DT-Girder
1287

To evaluate the ultimate flexural strength, the girder was incrementally
loaded to a total load of 1303.9 kN (293.1 kips) and then unloaded (Figure
3). This load represents about 50% of the actual ultimate strength. After the
initial loading and unloading sequence, the girder was incrementally loaded
to induce flexural failure. The ultimate load, applied during the test was
2443.0 kN (549.1 kips). Average midspan deflection and CFCC strand force
were observed to be 342.3 mm (13.48 in.) and 807.1kN (181.4 kips). It was
noted that at the ultimate load, strain at the top surface of the concrete was
compressive (as high as 0.0025 at midspan), whereas tensile at the bottom of
webs. It should be also noted that the measured strains and deflections were
due to the applied load only and do not include the prestressing and posttensioning effect.
3000
Compression Failure of Topping
2500
._
[2443 kN (549.1 kips)]
2000
Rupture of Leadline tendons
3
a
J
1500
50% of Ultimate load [1303.9 kN (293.1 kips)]
1000
Unloading
Cracking load [643.9 kN (144.7 kips)]
500
Design Service Load [464 kN (104.3 kips)]
50
100
150 200 250
300
350 400
Average midspan deflection, mm

Figure 3. Girder response under ultimate load
Figure 4. Close-up view of DT-girder failure
As shown in Figure 4, the failure of the DT-girder occurred in the constant

moment region along one side of the midspan diaphragm (D4) and the failure
plane extended across the width of the girder. The ultimate failure of the
DT-girder was initiated by partial separation between bottom of the topping
and top of the girder flange,, which led to the crushing of the concrete
topping. After the concrete topping failure, an attempt was made to further
increase the load, however, as shown in Figure 3, the girder collapsed
without any further increase in the load, The force levels in the four CFCC
post-tensioning strands nearly doubled during the test, increasing from
approximately 443 kN (99.6 kips) at the start to 807 kN (181.4 kips) at the
ultimate load (see Figure 5). None of the CFCC srands or their anchors
raptured.
Full-Scale CFRP Prestressed Concrete DT-Girder
1289
2443.0 kN (549.1 kips)
2500
Ultimate failure
2000
Rupture of Leadline tendons
2
rct
_o
-a
.22
"el
8-
"3
1500
Loadin:
1000
Unloading
-4-
o
H
Cracking load [643.9 kN (144.7 kips)]
500
Design service load [464 kN (104.3 kips)]
400
600
800
1000
Figure 5. Load versus post-tensioning force relationship
CONCLUSIONS
The test results, design assumptions, and construction experience gained
from this investigation have been implemented in the design and construction
documents for the 12 DT-girders required for the construction of the Bridge
Street Bridge. The ultimate load and the cracking load of the DT-girder were
observed to be about 5.3 and 1.4 times the service load. The combined
internal and external prestressing induced the desired compressive strain in
the cross-section, which counteracted the tensile strain induced due to the
traffic load.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The presented investigation was supported by the Federal Highway
Administration and National Science Foundation. The test was conducted by
Construction Technology Laboratory (CTL) Inc., Illinois. Hubbel, Roth &
Clark (HRC), Consulting Engineers, Michigan provided the entire design and
construction documents.
REFERENCES
1. ACI Committee 440, "State -of-the-Art Report on Fiber Reinforced
Plastic Reinforcement for Concrete Structures," American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI, 1996, 153 pp.
2. Rizkalla, S. H., "A New Generation of Civil Engineering Structures and
Bridges," Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Nonmetallic (FRPRC) Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Sapporo, Japan,
Vol. 1, 1997, pp. 113-128.
3. Dolan, C. W., "FRP Prestressing in the USA," ACI Concrete
International, Vol. 21, No. 10, 1999, pp. 21-24.
4. Tadros, G., "Provisions for Using FRP in the Canadian Highway Bridge
Design," ACI Concrete International, 22(7), 2000, pp. 42-47.
5. Grace, N. F., Navarre, F., Nacey, R., Bonus, W., and Collavino, L.,
"Technology Transfer of Innovative CFRP/CFCC Prestressed Concrete
Bridge "Bridge Street Bridge," PCI Journal, September-October 2002.
6. Grace, N. F. and Abdel-Sayed, G., "Behavior of Externally Draped
CFRP Tendons in Prestressed Concrete Bridges," PCI Journal, 43 (5), 1998,
pp. 88-101.
7. Grace, N. F., "Response of Continuous CFRP Prestressed Concrete
Bridges Under Static and Repeated Loadings," PCI Journal, 45 (6), 2000, pp.
84-102.
8. Grace, N. F., "Transfer Length of CFRP/CFCC Strands for Double-T
Girders," PCI Journal, 45(5), 2000, pp. 110-126.
9. Grace, N. F., Enomoto, T., and Yagi, K., "Behavior of CFCC and CFRP
Leadline Prestressing System in Bridge Construction," PCI Journal, MayJune 2002.
10. Grace, N. F. and Abdel-Sayed, G., " Evaluation of CFRP/CFCC FullScale DT Girder, part I: Experimental Study," PCI Journal, 2002,
Communicated.
11. Grace, N. F. and Abdel-Sayed, G., "Evaluation of CFRP/CFCC FullScale DT Girder, Part II: Analysis," PCI Journal, 2002, Communicated.

FLEXURAL BEHAVIOUR OF BRIDGE DECK SLABS

REINFORCED WITH FRP COMPOSITE BARS
E. F. EL-SALAKAWY, C. KASSEM, AND B. BENMOKRANE
NSERC Chair, ISIS Canada, Department of Civil Engineering,
Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada J1K 2R1
The serviceability concerns, specially cracking and deflections usually govern
the design of reinforced concrete deck slabs. This research program is
designed to investigate the flexural behaviour of concrete one-way (deck)
slabs reinforced with different types of FRP composite bars. A total of 7 full
size slabs were constructed and tested. The slabs were 3100-mm long xlOOOmm wide x 200-mm deep. The test parameters are the type of FRP
reinforcing bars as well as the reinforcement ratio. Three slabs were
reinforced with glass FRP, three were reinforced with carbon FRP bars, and
one control slab was reinforced with conventional steel. The slabs were tested
under four-point bending over a simply supported clear span of 2500 mm and
a shear span of 1000 mm. The test results are presented in terms of deflection,
crack width, strains in concrete and reinforcement, ultimate capacity, and
mode of failure. Comparison with the predictions of CAN/CSA-S806-02
Code and ACI 440.1R-01 design guidelines were also made.
INTRODUCTION
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) rods are used as reinforcement for concrete
structures in which the corrosion of steel reinforcement has typically led to
significant deterioration and rehabilitation needs. The non-corrosive nature
of the FRP rods is beneficial for improved durability. However, the failure
of FRP reinforced flexural members is brittle and current practice is to
design for compression-controlled failure (over-reinforced concrete sections)
to take advantage of the small plasticity produced as concrete crushes'. The
low modulus of FRP composites reduces the serviceability performance of
the flexural members. At the same reinforcement ratio, FRP reinforced
members will have larger deflections and crack widths than steel reinforced
members. Accordingly, In most cases, serviceability requirements govern
the design of FRP reinforced concrete members. Limited research was
carried out on slabs reinforced with FRP bars2,3.
Recently, several codes and design guidelines for concrete structures
reinforced with FRP composite bars were published4"7. This research
program is designed to investigate the flexural behaviour of concrete one-

way slabs reinforced with FRP composite bars compared to the available
design models.
The test slabs were designed such that the actual reinforcement ratio is equal
to or greater than the balanced reinforced ratio, pfh, which is given in
Section 8.2.1 of ACI 440.1R-01 4 as:
Pjh=QX5p^
EfSai
(1)
where (3, = 0.97 - 0.0025 fc > 0.67, fc is the compressive strength of

concrete(MPa), ffu is the ultimate tensile strength of FRP Bars (MPa), Ef is
the modulus of elasticity of FRP bars (MPa), ecu is the maximum usable
compressive strain in the concrete (assumed to be 0.003).
Material Properties
The slabs were constructed using normal-weight ready-mixed concrete with
an average concrete compressive strength of 40 MPa. The properties of the
FRP and steel bars used in reinforcing the slabs are listed in Table 1.
Table 1 Properties of reinforcing bars
Diameter
Area
(mm)
9.50
15.90
11.30
(mm )
71
198
100
Bar Type
CFRP
GFRP
STEEL
Modulus of
Elasticity
(GPa)
114 4
40 + 2
200
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
1536 61
570 + 56
/y = 400
Ultimate
Strain
(%)
1.20 + 0.0
1.55 + 0.1
sv = 0.2
Test Specimens
A total of 7 full size slabs were constructed and tested to failure. The slabs
were 3100-mm long xlOOO-mm wide x 200 mm deep. These dimensions
were chosen to represent the most common size of the concrete deck slabs
for girder-type bridges in Canada. The test parameters are the type of FRP
reinforcing bars as well as reinforcement ratio. All slabs have identical
GFRP reinforcement in all directions except the bottom reinforcement in the
main direction, where three slabs were reinforced with GFRP bars, three
were reinforced with CFRP bars, and one control slab was reinforced with
conventional steel bars as listed in Table 2. Three different reinforcement
Bridge Deck Slabs with FRP Composite Bars 1293

ratios, pb, 2pb, and 3pb using No. 10 (db = 9.5 mm) carbon FRP and No. 16 (db
= 15.9 mm) glass FRP reinforcing bars were used. The bars were arranged
in three different placement configurations, single, two bundled, and three
bundled bars. The reinforcement ratio for the steel-reinforced slab was
0.56% using singly placed No.lOM bars. For all slabs, the clear concrete
cover was 50 and 30 mm top and bottom, respectively.
Table 2 Details of slab reinforcement in the bottom main direction
Pad
Slab
Pac/Pb*
EjAf/
Es As
(%)
Steel
S-ST1
0.56
0.12
N/A
0.40
Carbon
S-Cl
S-C2B
S-C3B
1.21
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.4
0.8
1.2
S-Gl
S-G2B
0.82
1.0
0.3
1.64
2.0
0.6
S-G3B
2.46
3.0
0.9
Glass
0.81
Reinforcement
configuration
No.lOM @112mm
No.l0@112mm
2No.lO@112mm * |
3No.l0@112mm
No.l6@150mm
2No.l6@150mm
3No.l6@150mm
Pact, Pb = the actual and balanced reinforcement ratio, respectively
Total
No. of
bars
9
9
18
27
7
14
21
Instrumentation
Several electrical resistance strain gauges were glued on reinforcing bars and
on concrete surface, at two locations: mid-span and quarter-span. The midspan deflection is measured using two Linear Variable Differential
Transformers (LVDTs) fastened at each side of the slab. Two high-accuracy
LVDTs (0.001 mm) were installed at positions of first cracks to measure
crack widths. During loading, the formation of cracks on the sides of the
slabs were also marked and recorded.
Test Set-up and Procedure
The slabs were tested under four-point bending over a clear span of 2500
mm and a shear span of 1000 mm, as shown in Fig. 1. The load was
statically applied at a stroke-controlled rate of 2.0 mm/min to achieve failure
in 25 to 35 minutes. The loading was stopped when the first two cracks
appeared. Then the initial crack widths were measured manually using a
microscope and the two high-accuracy LVDTs were installed to measure
crack width electronically with increasing load.
Fig. 1 Test set up

The test results will be presented in terms of deflection, crack width,
ultimate capacity, and mode of failure. In the following discussion, to define
a reference for comparison purposes, the service load (Pser or Mser) of the
slabs is considered as approximately 50% of the ultimate load of the control
slab (S-ST1) reinforced with steel (Pser = 90 kN, Mser = 45 fcN.m).
Deflection Characteristics
Figure 2 shows the mid-span deflection versus total applied loads for the
tested slabs. For steel reinforced slab (S-ST1), the load-deflection curve was
tri-linear with yielding plateau. For FRP reinforced slabs, the loaddeflection curve was bilinear. The first part up to the cracking moment (Pcr
= 50 kN) represented the behaviour of the uncracked slab utilizing the gross
inertia of the concrete cross-section, while the second part represents the
cracked slab with reduced inertia. It should be noted that the theoretical
cracking moment (based o n / = 0.6 V/ c MPa) equals 24.0 kN.m, which is
very close to the experimental value (25 kN.m).
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Deflection (mm)
Fig. 2 Load-deflection relationship for the tested slabs
At service load level, the ratios of the measured deflection for slabs SCl, S-C2B, and S-C3B reinforced with CFRP bars to that of the control slab
reinforced with steel were 1.7, 1.07, and 0.78, respectively. These ratios for
slabs S-Gl, S-G2B, and S-G3B were 1.7, 1.3, and 1.0, respectively. It can
be seen that the flexural stiffness of the slabs reinforced with FRP bars (both
carbon and glass) increases with the increase of the reinforcement ratio. For
the two slabs, S-C2B (carbon FRP bars) and S-G3B (glass FRP bars), the
flexural stiffness was very similar to that of the control, S-ST1, before
yielding.
Crack Width
Figure 3 shows the variation of the measured crack width against the total
applied load for the tested slabs. For all slabs, the initial cracking load was
approximately 50 kN (MCI = 25 kN.m). For slab reinforced with FRP bars,
the crack width varies linearly with the load up to failure. For slabs S-C2B
(2 carbon FRP bars) and S-G3B (3 glass FRP bars), the measured crack
widths were very similar to that of the control, S-ST1, before yielding.
However, for slab S-C3B (3 carbon FRP bars) the measured crack widths
were smaller compared to the control slab.
At service load level, the ratios of the measured crack width for slabs SCl, S-C2B, and S-C3B reinforced with CFRP bars to that of the control slab
reinforced with steel were 1.53, 1.06, and 0.71, respectively. These ratios
for slabs S-Gl, S-G2B, and S-G3B were 2.06, 1.35, and 1.12, respectively.
Thus increasing the FRP reinforcement ratio by 100% and 200% for slabs
reinforced with carbon FRP bars, S-C2B and S-C3B, decreased the crack
widths by 3 1 % and 54%, respectively. For slabs reinforced with glass FRP
bars, S-G2B and S-G3B, these decreases in crack widths were 34% and
60%o, respectively.
Strains in Reinforcement and Concrete
Figure 4 shows the measured mid-span strains in reinforcement as well as in
concrete versus the total applied load. For the six slabs reinforced with FRP
bars, it can be noted that the strains vary linearly with the increased load up
to failure. The increase in FRP reinforcement ratio decreased the strains
measured in both bars and concrete. Although the carrying capacities of
these six slabs were greater than that of the control slab, the measured
strains, at failure, were less than the ultimate strains of the materials and the
failure of these slabs was by shear. While for the control slab reinforced
with steel (S-ST1), a typical steel yielding plateau was obtained, which
increased the compression strains in the concrete resulting in concrete
crushing.
1296 FRPRCS-6; Field Applications and Case Studies
0.00 0.30 0.80 0.90 1.20 1.50 1.80 2.10

Crack Width (mm)
Fig. 3 Load-crack width relationship
.eooo -3000
0 3000 6000 9000 12000 1S0-OO

Strain (micro-strain)
Fig. 4 Load-strain relationship
Ultimate Capacity and Made of Failure

All slabs reinforced with F.RP bars failed in shear while the control steelreinforced slab, S-ST1, failed by steel yielding followed by crushing of
concrete. The two slabs reinforced with a reinforcement ratio equivalent to
the balanced reinforcement ratio, S-Gl and S-Cl,. failed by compressionshear failure in the vicinity of the concentrated load showing an increase of
the capacity of only 26% and 55%, respectively compared to the control
slab, S-ST1. This was due to the high strains developed in the reinforcing
bars (approximately 13000 p and 11000 \m for slabs S-Gl and S-Cl,
respectively), which increased the penetration depth of the shear crack and
reduced the area of concrete in compression that can resist shear.
(a) Tension-shear failure (S-C2B)

(b) Compression-shear failure (S-Cl)
Fig. 5 Mode of failure
For the four slabs reinforced with reinforcement ratios higher than the
balanced reinforcement ratio, 8-G2B, 8-C2B, S-G3B and S-C3B, failed by
tension-shear failure in the vicinity of the support showing an increase of the
capacity of 81%, 86%, 87%, and 111%, respectively compared to the control
slab, S-ST1. This increase in carrying capacity may be due to increasing the

dowel action as well as decreasing the crack width. Figure 5 shows photos
of the two types of shear failures.
CODE PREDICTIONS
Most code provisions for deflection control of cracked one-way reinforced
concrete flexural members depend on the section effective moment of
inertia, Ie, which is inserted into elastic deflection equations instead of the
gross moment of inertia. Due to the difference in stiffness and bond
characteristics between FRP and steel bars, the following expression is given
by the ACI 440.1R-01 3 guidelines:
M..
M
M* +
1-
a J
M, y
la. < I and (3d = ab
Ma J
+ 1
(2)
in which Mcr and Ma are the cracking and the applied moments, respectively,
Es, Ef are modulus of elasticity of steel and FRP bars (GPa), respectively, Icr
and Ig are cracked and gross moments of inertia of concrete section (mm ),
respectively, and a b is a bond-dependant coefficient, which may be taken as
0.5. This value of a b was based on tests carried out on beams reinforced with
glass FRP bars. For over-reinforced section, the stress in FRP bars {fj), the
moment of resistance (M,), and the concrete contribution in shear capacity
iycJ), at failure, is given by:
(Ef ecu)2
// =
+ÂlLEt
ecu
-0.5Efecu
(3)
Pi
(
Mr
Pfff
=<PjP,ff 1-0.59
bd1
(4)
I
E
Kf =
PJ I
-bd
-bd
(5)
90/U
in which d is the effective depth of the slab (mm), b is the slab width (mm),
a, is a constant (equals 0.85), pf is the FRP reinforcement ratio, Ex is the
modulus of elasticity of steel bars, scu, Pi, and /are as defined in Eq. (1).
CAN/CSA-S806-02 Code6 used the moment -area method to develop
closed-form deflection equations for several common types of loading and
support conditions. This method is based on the assumption that the
moment-curvature relation of a cracked FRP reinforced member remains
linear under increasing load with flexural rigidity of EcIa, and that tension
stiffening is negligible. For a one-way slab under two-point loading, the

maximum deflection is given by:
c
PL3
24EJ,.
-4
v-w
^
\Lj
-877
and 77 = 1 -
(6)
s J
in which P is the applied load, L is the span of the slab, a is the shear span,
and Lg is the distance from support to point where Ma = M in simply
supported slabs. For normal weight concrete, the ultimate moment of
resistance (M) can be calculated using equations (3) and (4) provided that scu
= 0.0035 and,
a, = 0 . 8 5 - 0 . 0 0 1 5 / c > 0 . 6 7
(7)
c _
7
d ~ 7 + 2000^
(8)
and the concrete contribution in shear capacity (Vcf) is given by,
V,
0-tyc-Jfcbd<Vcf =0.035 fc'PfEflJ-d
bd<0.2tc.i]f'.bd (9)
M.
in which c is the distance from maximum compression surface to the neutral

axis, Efi, is the ultimate tensile strain of FRP bars, Vf IMf is the ratio of the
shear force to moment at a distance d from the center line of support (equals
5.0 for the tested slabs).
Table 3 Comparison of test results with code predictions
Experimental
Theoretical
Theoretical Shear
failure Load Flexural Capacity
Capacity
(kN, kN.m)
(kN.m)
(kN)
Slab
S-ST1
S-Cl
S-C2B
S-C3B
exp
-M
90
MAC,
68
MCSA
68
140
146
149
192
196
167
190
205
209
121
S-Gl
113
117
S-G2B
163
155
159
S-G3B
163
168
160
* S = shear failure, Y = steel yielding
+
VAC,
Experimental/
Theoretical
Mode of
Failure*
VCSA
KX/VACI
174
174
KX/^CSA
1.32
1.32+
24.1
48.5
72.7
18.4
36.9
55.3
141
178
198
126
159
173
5.81
3.44
2.61
6.14
4.42
3.04
0.99
0.94
0.96
0.90
1.03
0.97
s
s
s
s
s
Calculated based on flexural capacity values (M)
Table 3 gives the predicted values of the ultimate capacity of the tested
slabs compared to the experimental ones. These values were calculated
considering resistance and strength factors <pt- <pc = 1.0. Based on the shear

mode of failure, the shear capacities predicted by ACI 440.1R-01 were very
conservative specially with low FRP reinforcement ratios. Much better
predictions were obtained by CAN/CSA-S806-02. In term of predicted
deflections, good agreement between test results and both codes was obtained
as shown in Fig. 6. However, the deflection predictions of the CSA code
seem to be more conservative especially at low load levels.
15 20 25 30
Deflection (mm)
15
20
25
30
45
Deflection (mm)
(a) Slab S-C2B
(b) Slab S-G3B
Fig. 6 Comparison of test results and codes' predictions
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the experimental test results, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
(a) The carrying capacity of concrete slabs reinforced with composite FRP
bars (carbon and glass) was much higher than the control slab reinforced
with steel (26% to 111%). In addition, the FRP reinforced slabs failed
by shear while the control slab failed by steel yielding followed by
concrete crushing.
(b) The flexural stiffness of the slabs reinforced with FRP composite bars
increased with the increase of the reinforcement ratio. The slabs S-G3B
(glass fibres 3Nol6 @ 150 mm - 2.46%) and S-C2B (carbon fibres
2NolO @ 112 mm - 0.81%) have very similar flexural behaviour to the
control slab reinforced with steel (No.lOM @ 112 mm - 0.56%).
(c) For slabs S-C2B (carbon FRP) and S-G3B (glass FRP), the variation of
the crack width with the applied load was similar to that of the control
slab, S-ST1 (steel). However, due to the larger bar spacing (150 mm)
for slab S-G3B, the measured crack width was larger than that of the
control slab (bar spacing of 112 mm).
(d) The values of the deformability factor, J, for the 6 concrete slabs
reinforced with composite material reinforcement were well above the
limit required by the Canadian Highway Bridge design Code5.
(e) Shear capacity predicted by ACI 440.1R-01 is very conservative

especially for low FRP reinforcement ratio (less than or equal pbj).
Better shear capacity predictions were obtained by CAN/CSA-S806-02.
Deflections predicted by both codes were in good agreement with the
test results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the Ministry for Transport of and Pultrall Inc (Thetford
Mines, Quebec). Thanks are extended to the technical staff at the Civil
Engineering Department, Universite de Sherbrooke.
REFERENCES
1. GangaRao, H.S. and Vijay, P.V., "Design of Concrete Members
Reinforced with GFRP bars", Proc. of the 3 rd Int. Sym. on the Use of
Non-Metalic FRP Reinforcement for Concrete Structures, Vol. 1, 1997,
pp. 143-150.
2. Michaluk, R., Rizkalla, S., Tadros, G., and Benmokrane B., "Flexural
Behaviour of One-way Concrete Slabs Reinforced with Fibre Reinforced
Plastic Reinforcements," ACI St. J., Vol. 95, No. 3, 1998.
3. Alkhrdaji, T., Ombres, L., and Nanni, A., "Flexural Behaviour of Oneway Concrete Slabs Reinforced with Deformed GFRP Bars",
Proceedings of the 3 rd Conference on Advanced Composite Materials in
Bridges and Structures, Ottawa, 2000, pp. 217-224.
4. ACI 440.1R-01, "Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete
Reinforced with FRP Bars", American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Michigan, 2001, 41p.
5. CAN/CSA-S6-00, "Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code", Canadian
Standard Association, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada, 2000.
6. CSA S806-02, "Design and Construction of Building Components with
Fibre Reinforced Polymers", Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale,
Ontario, 2002, 192 p.
7. ISIS-M04-00, "Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fibre Reinforced
Polymers", The Canadian Network of Centers of Excellence, ISIS
Canada, University of Winnipeg, Manitoba, 2000, 40 p.
8. Benmokrane, B., Zhang, B., Laoubi, K., Tighiouart, B., and Lord, I.,
"Mechanical and Bond Properties of New Generation of CFRP
Reinforcing Bars for Concrete Structures", Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002, pp.338-343.

DETAILS AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR A BRIDGE DECK

WITH FRP FORMWORK, GRID AND REBAR
L. C. BANK, M. G. OLIVA, J. S. RUSSELL, D. A. DIETER, J. S. DIETSCHE
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin,
1415 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI53706, USA
R. A. HILL, B. GALLAGHER AND J. W. CARTER
AlfredBenesch & Co
4633 Washington Rd, Kenosha, Wl 53144, USA
S. WOODS AND G. H. ANDERSON
Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT),
4802 Sheboygan Ave, Madison, Wl 53707, USA
Aspects of the construction details and the material specifications for a

concrete bridge deck prepared for the construction of a new two-span, twolane highway bridge in the State of Wisconsin are discussed. The bridge
deck measures approximately 66 by 14 m and uses an innovative
combination of FRP material products including, a pultruded FRP stay-inplace (SIP) formwork panel, a bi-directional pultruded FRP grid, and a
FRP reinforcing bar. All FRP products are produced by commercial
manufacturers and consist of E-glass fiber reinforcements in vinylester
resins. A number of complex detailing issues, related to the geometrical
features of the FRP reinforcement materials and the bridge which were
resolved in the design, are described. Key elements of the FRP material
specifications, developed for the FRP materials, which were incorporated
into the special provisions of the project, together with construction and
quality control specifications for the FRP materials, are also reviewed.
INTRODUCTION
The Innovative Bridge Research and Construction (IBRC) Program, a
program of the US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), provided
funding to the Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) to
construct a novel FRP reinforced bridge deck on US Highway 151 near the
city of Waupan, Fond du Lac County, Wisconsin. The bridge deck is on a
two-span, two-lane reinforced concrete bridge approximately 66 m long by
14 m wide and has a 32 horizontal skew. The bridge superstructure will
consist of five simply-supported 1370 mm deep prestressed girders
1302 FRPRCS-6; Field Applications and Case Studies

approximately 33 m long which act compositely with the FRP reinforced
deck.
The bridge deck is reinforced with three different types of FRP
materials; pultruded FRP stay-in-place/reinforcement panels, a pultraded bidirectional FRP grids, and pultraded FRP reinforcing bars. All FRP
materials are commercially manufactured. A mock-up of a section of the
deck is shown in Fig. 1 and a sketch of the transverse cross-section of the
deck (perpendicular to the girders) is shown in Fig. 2. A cross-section
through the roadway is show in Fig. 3.
Figure 1. Mock-up cross-section bridge deck showing FRP panel and FRP grid
457 mm
- FRP Grid
37 mm
13 mm FRP Bar
fczfe
o
o
-</%5&.
37 mm-J
sj
6mm-
^zM
nu,
jp&g?^-
FRP Deck Form
Figure 2. Cross-sectional dimensions showing FRP panel, grid and rebar (typ.)
Bridge Deck with FRP Framework, Grid and Rebar 1303
Figure 3. Cross-section through the roadway showing girders and deck
A nominally identical twin bridge structure, reinforced with

conventional steel reinforcing bars, constructed alongside the bridge with
the FRP reinforced deck, carries traffic in the opposite direction. Future
long-term observation of the two bridges, under the same environmental and
service conditions, will provide a comparison between the performance of
the two bridges.
Due to the fact that this combination of FRP materials had never
before been used in a highway bridge deck, a research and development
study was conducted at the University of Wisconsin-Madison to investigate
the structural behavior of bridge deck slabs with the FRP reinforcement and
to determine the mechanical and physical properties of the FRP materials.
Based on the results of this testing the deck design calculations and
assumptions were verified and material specifications for the FRP products
were produced.
Details of the structural testing and material
characterization are provided elsewhere1'2'3. A set of construction plans;
specifications and estimates (PS&E) were developed for the project by the
design team.
Due to the nature of the three different FRP reinforcement products
used and the bridge configuration (horizontal skew, the different girder
elevations, the composite action needed between the prestressed girders and
the deck, and the continuity over the center pier) a number of challenging
detailing issues had to be resolved to ensure that the deck was constructed
in accordance with the design assumptions and to facilitate constructability.
The purpose of this paper is to describe these detailing issues in order to
provide a resource for future designers who encounter such design/detailing
challenges with FRP reinforcement systems. A second purpose is to
provide information on the material specifications for the FRP products
used in the project and to describe the quality assurance provisions in the
specification.
CONSTRUCTION DETAILS
In order to accommodate the geometric and material properties of the
different FRP products used in the bridge deck design a number of
modifications were made to the originally (conventional steel reinforcing
bar) designed bridge. A number of the more critical design details are
discussed below.
FRP Formwork Panel Details

The individual stay-in-place FRP formwork panel is 457 mm wide, has two
tubular 75 mm high "ribs" and a lap splice along its longitudinal edges as
seen in Fig. 2. The FRP panels are placed alongside each other such that an
overlapping splice occurs every 457 mm along the length of the bridge. A 6
mm limestone aggregate is epoxy bonded to the horizontal surfaces of the
FRP panel to provide bond to the concrete. When punching shear testing1'2
was conducted on slabs the effect of this lap splice was extensively studied.
Methods were considered to improve the tensile and shear force transfer
across the joint in order to prevent cracking at the splice locations. It was
concluded that little structural advantage was provided by such methods
(together with many construction difficulties) and the construction
specification therefore does not call for any mechanical or adhesive
connection between the panels when placed in the field. Nevertheless, this
splice joint is anticipated to be a location of potential serviceability
problems over the long-term. From a structural perspective the deck slab
does show a decrease in stiffness when transverse cracks develop at the
splice joint under concentrated wheel loads, however, the ultimate punching
shear capacity of the deck is not considerably affected by the lap splice as
the slab distributes load primarily in the longitudinal direction of the FRP
formwork panels.
After the concrete is poured and cured the FRP formwork panels stayin-place and serve as the bottom tensile reinforcement for the deck in the
transverse direction. The deck design was performed in accordance with
ACI procedures4. The ACI design guidelines primarily address the use of
FRP reinforcing bars. The design team concluded that in the absence of
specific design recommendations for SIP FRP formwork the existing
provisions were the most appropriate to use in this case. The FRP
formwork panel was designed to be simply-supported between the
prestressed girders in order to provide a means for the concrete in the deck
to act compositely with the girders. According to ACI calculations the deck
section is significantly over-reinforced for positive bending moment. To
create the simply-supported condition for the formwork on the girder edges
and to form a variable thickness haunch above the girders a variable height
rigid cellular polystyrene was provided as shown in Fig. 4. After placement
of the FRP formwork panel on the haunch the cavity between the haunches
is filled with a cemetitious grout that provides additional bearing support
for the FRP formwork panel. The remaining area of the cavity over the
beam is filled with the concrete when the deck is poured. The concrete

specifications call for a nominal 28 MPa strength mix with a maximum
aggregate of 18 mm.
FRP GRID REINFORCEMENT
DECK FORM (S.I.P.)
GRID REINFORCEMENT
*-?.
GIRDER
50
13 m m PREFORMEDFILLER
HAUNCH DETAIL
AT
<t
DIAPH.
TYPICAL HAUNCH DETAIL

AT
TOP OF
BEAM
Figure 4. Haunch details at the pier and the top of the girder (beam)
Over the pier the concrete in the deck is deliberately separated from the
girder as shown in Fig. 4 in the centerline diaphragm detail. The flat FRP
formwork panels are placed perpendicular to the girders and intersect the
pier diaphragm at a skew as seen in Fig. 5. This design detail was a
departure from the conventional design at the center pier diaphragm which
typically calls for an increased thickness in the deck and a taper in the deck.
The taper is formed on both sides of the diaphragm at the underside of the
slab extending outward about 6 m from the diaphragm with a depth starting
at the height of the bottom of the girder top flange and ending at the
underside of the deck. The conventional detail is provided to create a
monolithic increasingly strong concrete deck section to reduce transverse
cracking over the pier since the diaphragm at the pier acted as a support for
the deck. In the current design the deck is intentionally separated from the
pier diaphragm along the entire length of the diaphragm in an attempt to
reduce the deck cracking over the pier by eliminating the reaction applied
directly to the at the diaphragm. A preformed filler (felt type) material is
used to separate the FRP formwork panel from the top of the girder at the
diaphragm. A significant part of the post construction evaluation of this
IBRC project will be to determine if this novel detail helps to alleviate
problem with deck cracking over the center pier diaphragms of bridges of
this type.
<L
13 mm X 6 0 0 mm X 6 6 0 mm
NON-LAMINATED ELASTOMERIC
BEARING PAD
CONC. DIAPHRAGM
FRP DECK FORM (S.I.P.) (TYP.)

(FRP BARS OMITTED FOR CLARITY)
<t
GIRDER
ENDS OF GIRDERS
13 mm PREFORMED
FILLER
Q
13 mm PREFORMED FILLER
CONCRETE DIAPHRAGM
{J
BEARING PAD DETAILS

AT PIER DIAPHRAGM
Figure 5. Bearing pad details at the pier diaphragm
FRP Pultruded Grid Details

The FRP pultruded grid serves as the top reinforcement for the concrete
deck and carries tensile stresses over the girders caused by transverse
negative bending moments in the deck. The FRP grid consists of 50 mm
high I bars at 100 mm o.c. connected together with round connecting bars at
100 mm o.c. that run through drilled 13 mm holes in the webs of the I bars
as seen in Fig. 1. Design of the FRP grids was in performed in accordance
with the ACI procedures4. The FRP grids are provided in prefabricated
panels 1224 mm wide and having lengths as shown in Fig. 3. The grids are
spliced between the girders in the positive moment region of the slabs. An
FRP mechanical splice is provided at the ends of abutting I bars for
constructability purposes and not for load transfer. The FRP grids are
supported on plastic chairs spaced at 1 m2 in a similar fashion to that shown
in Fig. 1. The connecting bars that run perpendicular to the main I bars
serve primarily to transfer load into the main bars as minimal bond is
developed between the smooth I bars and the concrete. Extensive prior
work had demonstrated that pultruded FRP grids were suitable for
reinforcing bridge deck slabs5 and consequently they were chosen for this
application. The connecting bars were originally envisioned as providing
the longitudinal distribution reinforcement for the slabs as well as serving
their function of anchoring the main I bars. However, the development of

an effective method to splice the connecting bars every 1220 mm along the
deck length did not prove feasible from a constructability perspective. In
addition, due to the longitudinal negative moment over the center pier
additional longitudinal tensile reinforcement was required in the deck for
composite action. To solve the problem of the distribution reinforcement,
the temperature and shrinkage reinforcement, and the additional
longitudinal reinforcement needed over the pier, FRP reinforcing bar was
used.
FRP Pultruded Reinforcing Bar (Rebar) Details
FRP reinforcing bar of three sizes was used to provide longitudinal
reinforcement to the deck. The bars are provided with a fine sand coated
surface texture and a helical fiber deformation to develop bond with the
concrete. Design of the bars was performed in accordance with the ACI
procedures4. At the center pier 25 mm bars at 100 mm o.c were used. As
determined from bar cut-off calculations the FRP bars sizes were reduced to
18 mm at 200 mm o.c and then to 13 mm at 200 mm o.c. at approximately 7
m and 16 m from the centerline, respectively.
MATERIAL SPECIFICATIONS AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
Material specifications for the three different types of FRP materials were
produced for the special provisions of the construction documents. Each
FRP product has a separate section in the special provisions. The material
specifications followed a model specification recently developed for the
FHWA6. The material specification requires that the manufacturer of the
material provide specific information about the constituent materials used
and the processing parameters as well as meet certain limiting mechanical
and physical property requirements. As an example, Table 1 shows the
limiting physical and mechanical properties for the FRP formwork panel.
Since the pultruded FRP formwork panel has different thicknesses and fiber
architecture at different locations around the cross-section the limiting
properties are specified for two different classes of FRP material:
glass/vinylester 1 (GV1) and glass/vinylester 2 (GV2). Since the bottom
plate of the FRP formwork panel serves as the primary tensile
reinforcement of the deck it is classified as GV1 material. The remainder of
the section is classified as GV2 material. Note that GV1 material requires
that at least 75% of the reinforcing fiber in the part be oriented in the

longitudinal (pultrusion) direction of the part. Similar provisions exist for
the FRP grid and FRP reinforcing bar materials3.
Table 1. Limiting Properties for FRP Formwork Panel
MATERIAL
PROPERTY
Longitudinal Tensile Strength (min)

Transverse Tensile Strength (min)
Longitudinal Compressive Strength (min)
Transverse Compressive Strength (min)
Longitudinal Flexural Strength (min)
Long. Short Beam Shear Strength (min)
Longitudinal Tensile Modulus (min)
Longitudinal Compressive Modulus (min)
In-Plane Shear Stiffness (min)
Major (longitudinal) Poisson Ratio (min)
Fiber Volume Fraction (min)
Longitudinal Fiber Fraction (min)
Barcol Hardness (min)
Glass Transition Temperature (min)
Water absorption (max)
Longitudinal CTE (max) x Iff6/"C
Transverse CTE (max) x Iff6/"C
GV2
552 MPa
28MPa
552 MPa
69 MPa
552 MPa
38 MPa
31GPa
28GPa
3GPa
0.25
45%
75%
50
95C
1.5%
11
54
GV3
414 MPa
28 MPa
414 MPa
69 MPa
414 MPa
35 MPa
28GPa
21 GPa
2GPa
0.25
45%
40%
50
95C
2.0%
11
54
Both quality control and quality assurance provisions are stipulated in

the special provisions. The manufacturer of the FRP material is required to
conduct tests and provide certified reports that the material delivered to the
construction site meets or exceeds the limiting properties provided in the
material specification (such as those listed in Table 1.) In addition the
manufacturer of the FRP formwork panel is required to provide one extra
panel for every 50 panels delivered, to be selected at random for
independent quality assurance testing by the owner. Similar provisions
exist for the FRP grid and FRP reinforcing bar materials.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the work conducted the following key conclusions can be reached.
1. The unique geometric and material properties of FRP products can
require innovative solutions to detailing that affect the design assumptions
and entire structural configuration.
Consequently, details must be
considered at the outset. 2. Close communication between the material
suppliers, designers and owners is crucial to success. Innovative thinking is

required on the part of the owners, in particular, to consider design concepts
compatible with the FRP materials that may be different from conventional
designs.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The research and development team extends thanks to John Hooks of the
IBRC program, Thomas Strock of the FHWA, Kurt Eyring and John Doyle
of Composite Deck Solutions (manufacturers of the FRP formwork panel),
Bruce Nelson of Strongwell (manufacturers of the FRP grid), Doug Gremel
of Hughes Brothers (manufacturers of the FRP reinforcing bar), and
William Lang and John Dreger of the Wisconsin Structures and Materials
Testing Laboratory for their assistance and support.
REFERENCES
1. D.A. Dieter, J.S. Dietsche, L.C. Bank, M.G. Oliva and J.S. Russell,
"Concrete Bridge Decks Constructed with FRP Stay-in-Place Forms and
FRP Grid Reinforcing," Proceedings of the 81" Annual Transportation
Research Board Meeting, CD-ROM, Washington, DC, January, 2002.
2. D.A. Dieter, "Experimental and Analytical Study of Concrete Bridge
Decks Constructed with FRP Stay-in-Place Forms and FRP Grid
Reinforcing" MS thesis, University of Wisconsin, 2002
3. J.S. Dietsche, "Characterization of FRP Materials for a Fiber
Reinforced Composite Bridge Deck," MS thesis, University of
Wisconsin, 2002.
4. ACI 4440.1R-01, Guide to the Design and Construction of Concrete
Reinforced with FRP Bars, American Concrete Institute, 2001.
5. L.C. Bank and Z. Xi, "Pultruded FRP Grating Reinforced Concrete
Slabs," in Fiber-Reinforced-Plastic for Concrete Structures International Symposium (eds. A. Nanni and C.W. Dolan), SP-138,
American Concrete Institute, 1993, pp. 561-583.
6. L.C. Bank, T.R. Gentry, B.P. Thompson and J.S. Russell, "A Model
Specification for FRP Composites for Civil Engineering Structures," in
FRP Composites in Civil Engineering, (ed. J.G. Teng), Proceedings of
the International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering,
Hong Kong, December 12-15, 2001, pp. 3-14.

CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND MONITORING OF FRP

REINFORCED CONCRETE BRIDGES IN NORTH AMERICA
B. BENMOKRANE AND E. F. EL-SALAKAWY
Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada J IK 2R1
G. DESGAGNE
Ministry of Transportation of Quebec, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
T. LACKEY
Vermont Agency of Transportation, Montpellier, Vermont, USA
This paper presents the construction details, testing, and monitoring results
of three FRP reinforced concrete bridges recently constructed in North
America. Two bridges, Wotton Bridge and Magog Bridge, are located in
Quebec, Canada while the third one, Morristown Bridge, is located in
Vermont, USA. All three bridges are girder-type with main girders made of
either steel or prestressed concrete. The main girders are simply supported
over spans ranging from 26.2 to 43.0 m. The deck is a 200 to 230 mm
thickness concrete slab continuous over spans of 2.30 to 2.85 m. Different
types and reinforcement ratios of FRP bars as well as conventional steel
were used as reinforcement for the concrete deck. Furthermore, the three
bridges are located on different highway categories, which means different
traffic and environments (frequency of using de-icing salts). The bridges
are well instrumented at critical locations for internal temperature and strain
data collection using fibre optic sensors. These gauges are used to monitor
the deck behaviour from the time of construction to several years after
completion of construction. One of the bridges, Wotton Bridge, was tested
for service performance using standard truckloads as specified by the new
Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code (2000). The other two bridges are
scheduled for similar tests during fall 2002. The construction procedure,
field tests and monitoring results, under real service conditions, showed very
competitive performance to concrete bridges reinforced with steel.
INTRODUCTION
Deterioration of concrete structures such as bridges and parking garages due
to corrosion of steel reinforcement has limited the service life and increased
the maintenance cost of such structures. Bridge decks are one of the bridge
components most vulnerable to deterioration because of direct exposure to

environment, de-icing chemicals, and ever-increasing traffic loads. The use
of non-corrosive FRP composites as reinforcement for concrete bridge
decks provides a potential for increased service life, economic, and
environmental benefits1'2.
Design guidelines, manuals, and codes for FRP reinforced concrete
structures are now available 3"6. The new Canadian Highway Bridge Design
Code3 (CHBDC), includes a new section (Chapter 16) about using FRP
composites as reinforcement for concrete bridges. A newly developed type
of FRP composite bars has been used as concrete deck reinforcement in
three bridges. The variables in these three bridges are the type of FRP bars
(glass or carbon), the reinforcement ratio, the area of the bridge deck
reinforced with FRP bars, the location, and category of the bridge (amount
of traffic and frequency of using de-icing chemicals). The three bridges are
instrumented at critical locations to monitor the behaviour of the bridge
from the time the construction starts to several years after the completion of
the construction. One of the three bridges has been tested for service
performance using standard truckloads as specified in CHBDC". The other
two bridges are scheduled for similar tests during fall 2002.
The main objective of these demonstration projects is to implement the
technology and design of FRP composite reinforcement and to demonstrate
its ability to meet all the requirements for the construction of bridges.
Furthermore, it is important to assess the short and long-term performance
of FRP reinforcement and to improve/validate the current design guide lines
under different service loading and environmental conditions. This paper
summarizes the construction details and some results of the field tests and
remote monitoring.
DESIGN OF FRP REINFORCED CONCRETE DECK SLABS
Normal weight concrete with an average 28-day compressive strength of 27
to 40 MPa was used. Both glass and carbon FRP bars, which were used as
reinforcement in these bridges, are sand-coated bars 7. The properties of
these FRP rods used in reinforcing the slabs are listed in Table 1. Extensive
studies to develop a new generation of carbon FRP and to improve the
properties of glass FRP bars 8 have been carried out at the Universite de
Sherbrooke through the NSERC Chair.
For the two bridges constructed in Canada (Wotton and Magog
Bridges), the design of the concrete deck slab was originally made with
steel bars using the flexural design method according to the new CHBDC .
Construction, Testing and Monitoring of Bridges 1313
The steel reinforcement is then replaced based on equivalent stiffness for

bottom reinforcement layer and based on equivalent strength for top
reinforcement layer. This design approach led to the use of carbon FRP
bars at bottom and glass FRP bars at top. For Morristown Bridge (USA),
the design of the concrete deck slab was made according to the AASHTO
specifications and ACI 440.1R-01 6 design guidelines. This design method
led to using glass FRP bars, with the same amount, at both top and bottom.
To verify the design, several slab prototypes with identical thickness
and reinforcement to the actual concrete deck slabs for each bridge, were
constructed and tested in the laboratory up to failure. Slab prototypes
reinforced with steel were also tested as control. The experimental results
were encouraging to go forward with the field applications.
Table 1. Properties of reinforcing bars
Bar
Type
CFRP
GFRP
Bar
Diameter
(mm)
9.5
15.9
19.1
Bar
Area
(mm )
71
198
285
Modulus of
Elasticity
(GPa)
114 + 4
40 2
39 + 2
Tensile
Strength
(MPa)
1536 + 61
570 56
535+46
Ultimate
Strain
(%)
1.20 + 0.0
1.55 + 0.1
1.41 0.1
CONSTRUCTION AND DETAILS OF THE BRIDGES

Installation of FRP bars
The construction crews reacted positively saying that more FRP bars could
be handled and placed in less time due to their lightweight. Plastic chairs
were spaced at 0.9 m apart in both directions to support the FRP bars and to
maintain the required clear concrete cover. The FRP bars withstood all onsite handling and placement problems.
Instrumentation of the Bridges
The bridges are similarly instrumented at critical locations for internal
temperature and strain data collection using fibre optic sensors (FOS) as
shown in Fig. 1. Different types of Fabry-Perot and thermocouples FOS
were installed on reinforcing bars, embedded in concrete, or glued on the
surface of the concrete or steel girders. In addition, during testing,
deflections of concrete slabs and girders were measured using a system of
rulers and theodolites as well as the overall vibration of the bridge was
measured by means of accelerometers that were fastened to the curb. The
Instrumentation of each bridge is connected to a 32-channel FOS data

acquisition system provided with a modem to allow remote monitoring and
transfer of data through a phone line to the research group's office at the
Universite de Sherbrooke. Therefore., it is possible to evaluate the effect of
each stress type (dynamic, vibration, impact, thermal,...etc.) and the most
critical parameter causing maximum stresses in the bridge.
Wotton Bridge
Wotten Bridge is located in the Municipality of Wotton (on the 6e
Rang Quest, Western Bank, over the Nicolet-Center River in Quebec). The
new bridge is a girder type with four main girders simply supported over a
span of 30.60 m. The deck is a 200.mm thickness concrete slab continuous
over three spans of 2.65 m each with an overhang of 1.15 m on each side.
Standard Type IV AASHTO pre-stressed concrete beams were used as main
girders. Curbs, sidewalks, and top layer of the deck slab for half the bridge
was reinforced with glass FRP composite bars. Within the same half of the
bridge, a 5-m width portion of the bottom layer of the deck slab was
reinforced with carbon FRP composite bars. Glass FRP bars were used in
all directions (No. 16 @ 150 mm, 1.0%, at top main direction and No, 16 @
165 mm, average 0.85%, at top and bottom secondary direction) except in
the short direction at the bottom where carbon FRP bars (3 No. 10 @ 90 mm
- 1.5%) were used. The other half of the bridge, including curbs, sidewalks,
and top layer of the deck slab as well as the rest of the bottom layer of the
deck slab, was reinforced with No. 15M steel bars (Fig. 2).
i'ig. 2. Reinforcement of Wotton Bridge deck
Magog Bridge
Magog Bridge is located over Magog River on Highway 55 north (Quebec,
Canada) in the vicinity of Sherbrooke City near US/Canadian borders. The
total length of the bridge is 83.7 m over three spans. The two end spans are
26.2 m each and the middle one is 31.3 m. The bridge is a girder type with
five main steel girders continuously supported over the three spans (Fig. 3).
The deck is a 220-mra thickness concrete slab continuous over four
spans of 2.845 m each with an overhang of 1.352 m on each side. One full
end span (26.2 m), including curbs and sidewalks, were reinforced with
FRP bars. The same design criteria as for Wotton Bridge was used.
However, the FRP reinforcement ratios were reduced based on the actual
required slab thickness and on the test and monitoring results of Wotton
Bridge. The same reinforcement amount and configuration as for Wotton
Bridge was used but for larger span (2.845 m) and bigger slab thickness
(220 mm). The other two spans of the bridge were reinforced with steel
bars. Figure 4 shows the bridge deck slab during casting. The bridge was
completed and opened for traffic on September 2002.
Morristown Bridge
The Morristown Bridge is located over the Ryder Brook on Route 100 in the
town of Morristown (Vermont, USA). The bridge is a girder type with five
main steel girders simply supported over one span of 43.0 m. The deck is a
228.6-mm thickness concrete slab continuous over four spans of 2.364 m
each with, an overhang of 0.915 m on each side. Two identical
reinforcement mats were used at top and bottom. Each mat consists of glass
FRP bars No. 19 @ 100 and 150 mm in main and secondary directions,
respectively (Fig. 5). This is the first bridge deck world wide, of this size
and category, which was fully reinforced with glass FRP bars (Fig. 6).
FIELD TESTING
To date., only Wotton Bridge was tested for service performance on
November 16th, 2001. The other two bridges are scheduled for similar tests
during the fall of 2002 and spring 2003. The tests were carried out using
two standard truckloads (each is a three axle truck having 102 kN on the
front axle and approximately 116 kN per each back axle) as specified by the
new CHBDC3. The bridge was tested under both static and dynamic loads
using two trucks (see Fig. 7). Two data acquisition systems with two
different speeds were used: a high-speed system of 1000 Hz to collect data
for dynamic tests, and a regular-speed system of 10 Hz to collect data for
static tests. The data acquisition systems were installed underneath the
bridge to collect data from FOS during testing.
Pig. :'\ M"*rristown Bridge during casting
Fig.6. Overview of Morristown Bridge
Static Test
Three different paths in each direction with nine stations (truck stops) were
marked on the bridge (Figs. 8). These stations were determined such that to
give maximum strains in the instrumented bars and concrete sections. The
test was carried out using either one truck or the two trucks simultaneously.
Figure 9 shows comparison between maximum measured strains in the
bottom reinforcing bars, both FRP and steel bars against truck position
along the bridge. In this figure, the zero value on the horizontal axes
represent the point at which the longitudinal midpoint of the front axle is
directly over a given gauge. Maximum strain values do not coincide with
the abscissa zero value due to the dual back axle assembly and the influence
of the front axle on the strain readings. The strain values depend on the
case of loadings namely truck position and path. Therefore, for each graph,
the truck path, which gives the maximum strain readings, is considered.
It can be seen that a change in strains of only 15 micro-strains was
measured in the bottom carbon FRP bars as the truck moves across the
gauge. Similar results were obtained for tensile strains in top glass FRP
bars (only 4 micro-strains). These strain values are less than 0.12% of the
ultimate strain of the material. The maximum tensile concrete strain was
approximately 45 micro-strains.
-8450 -4225
4225
8450 12675 16900 21125
Distance from gauge (mm)

Fig. 9. Maximum tensile strains in bottom reinforcement
A change in strain of only 12 micro-strains was measured in the
concrete as the truck moves across the gauge. It is noted here that the
concrete gauges were embedded, between two bars, in the deck slab at the
same level as top and bottom reinforcement, which is 60 mm and 35 mm,
respectively. Using simple bending theory, it can be shown that the tensile
strain at the top and bottom surfaces of concrete reached a maximum of 10
and 25 micro-strain, respectively at these gauge locations. These strain
values at concrete surfaces of the deck slab are well below the cracking
strain of concrete, ecr = 125 |U (for fc' = 35 MPa and Ec = 28 GPa).
During static tests, deflections of concrete slabs and girders were measured.
Recorded deflections of the bridge deck and girders were less than 2 mm
and 10 mm, respectively for the entire load duration.
Dymamic Test
The dynamic test was carried out using the same two standard trucks as
described in the static test. The trucks ran through the same three paths in
each direction at four different speeds, 5 km/hr, 30 km/hr, 50 km/hr, and 70
km/hr. At each speed, the trucks travelled across the bridge on the same
path with duration of 30 sec apart. For all fibre optic sensors, the data
acquisition system was adjusted to a rate of 1000 readings per second.
While, for accelerometer, the data acquisition system was adjusted to a rate
of 500 readings per second.
The maximum-recorded strain values in FRP reinforcement were in the
same order as for the static tests. Figure 10 shows the maximum measured
strains on bottom reinforcement due to the truckloads travelling on path Al
at a speed of 5 km/hr.
10
15
20
Time (sec)
25
30
10
15
20
25
30
Time (sec)
(a) Carbon FRP bars

(b) Steel bars
Fig. 10. Strain distributions in the bottom reinforcement (track speed 5 km/hr)
REMOTE MONITORING
After the completion of the field tests, the 32-channel data acquisition
system was provided with a modem and a phone line. Then it was fixed in a
protected location underneath the bridge. Using computer software, our
research personnel are collecting readings from FOS periodically through
the phone line from the office at the Universite de Sherbrooke. Figure 11
shows the maximum measured strains in FRP reinforcement from the time
the bars were placed to date. The changes in the measured strains were in
the range of 500 micro-strains, which are 25 to 33 times those due to

truckloads. These strains were basically due to drastic temperature changes
(-14Cto+27C).
30
5000
I
+
4800
25
Temperature in the bottom
20
15
(A
I
c
<5
<"
â>
10 *
4600
-TopGFRP
4400
Q.
-TTop
0
-5
- T Bottom
-10
- Bottom CFRP
4200
4000
era
F
0)
(-
-15
60
0
30
September 2001
90
120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Time (days)
September 2002
Fig. 11. Strain readings during one-year cycle

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the construction details, the results of the field tests, and the
monitoring results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
(a) No obstacles to construction were encountered due to the use of the
FRP bars. The FRP bars withstood normal on-site handling and
placement problems.
(b) The performance of FRP bars is very similar to that of the steel bars.
During the entire test, the maximum tensile strain in FRP bars was 15
micro-strains. This value is less than 0.12% of the ultimate strain of the
material.
(c) Due to truck loading, the maximum tensile strain values in concrete
were very small, 10 to 25 micro-strains, as the truckload moves over the
gauge. These strains are well below cracking strain for concrete (125
micro-strain for the used concrete).
(d) Deflections of the bridge deck and slab were well below AASHTO 9 and
CHBDC 3 allowable limits.
(e) Under real service conditions, strains in FRP bars due to temperature
changes were 25 to 33 times those due to truckloads. However, these
maximum strains are in the order of 500 micro-strains, which represent
approximately 3 to 4% of the ultimate strain of the material.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the Ministry for Transport of Quebec, Department of
Structures (Quebec, QC), Vermont Agency of Transportation (VT, USA),
and Le Groupe Teknika Inc. (Sherbrooke, QC), Les Coffrages Carmel Inc.
(Deauville, QC), and Blow and Cote Inc. (Morristown, VT, USA) for their
collaboration in these projects. Our thanks are also extended to Pultrall Inc
(Thetford Mines, QC), and Roctest Ltee (St. Lambert, QC).
REFERENCES
1. Humar, J. and Razaqpur, G. (editors), "Advanced Composite Materials
in Bridges and Structures", Proceeding of the 3 rd International
Conference, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2000, 876 p.
2. Rizkalla, S., and Tadros, G., "First Smart Bridge in Canada", ACI
Concrete International, Vol. 16, No. 6, 1994, pp. 42-44.
3. CAN/CSA-S6-00, "Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code", Canadian
Standard Association, Rexdale, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2000, 734 p.
4. CSA S806-02, "Design and Construction of Building Components with
Fiber Reinforced Polymers", Canadian Standards Association, Rexdale,
Ontario, 2002, 192p.
5. ISIS-M03-01, "Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fibre Reinforced
Polymers", The Canadian Network of Centres of Excellence, ISIS
Canada, University of Winnipeg, Manitoba, 2001, 81 p.
6. ACI 440.1R-01, "Guide for the Design and Construction of Concrete
Reinforced with FRP Bars", American Concrete Institute, Farmington
Hills, Michigan, 2001, 41p.
7. Pultrall Inc., "ISOROD Composite Reinforcing Rod", Technical Sheets,
Thetford Mines, Quebec, 2000, 7 p.
8. Benmokrane, B., Zhang, B., Laoubi, K., Tighiouart, B. and Lord, I.,
Mechanical and Bond Properties of New Generation of CFRP
Reinforcing Bars for Concrete Structures", Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2002, pp. 338-343.
9. AASHTO, "Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges", 16th ed.,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC, 1996.
10. Benmokrane, B. and El-Salakawy, E. F., "Construction, Design, and
Monitoring of a Bridge Deck Reinforced with FRP Bars: Wotton
Bridge," Proceedings, 1st International Workshop on Structural Health
Monitoring of Innovative Civil Engineering Structures, Winnipeg,
Manitoba, Sept. 19-20, 2002, pp. 175-184.

STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES WITH

PRESTRESSED AND GRADUALLY ANCHORED CFRP
STRIPS
I. STOECKLIN AND U. MEIER
EMPA
Ueberlandstrasse 129.CH-8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland
Today post-strengthening of structures with externally bonded CFRP strips

is state of the art. To take full advantage of this relatively expensive
material it is beneficial to apply the strips in a prestressed condition. This
relieves the stresses in the steel reinforcement and reduces crack widths and
deflections. Due to the limited shear strength of concrete the very high shear
stresses at the ends of the strips cannot be transferred into the structure. To
prevent premature failure of the system, the strips have to be anchored at
their ends for example by the use of pressing plates. These anchorages are a
key element of the system. They are expensive, difficult to install and are
subject to corrosion when they are made of steel. These are the major
reasons why prestressed, externally bonded CFRP strips have not yet been
used in practice. To overcome these anchorage problems, the prestressing
force can be reduced gradually towards both ends of the strip. The result is
an increased development length of the prestressing force such that the
occurring shear stresses are within the limitations of the concrete. This can
be achieved by using a purposely developed prestressing device which
allows the CFRP strips to be bonded to the concrete structure using a
stepwise approach. A first test on a concrete beam strengthened with two
prestressed and gradually anchored CFRP strips showed a considerable
increase of cracking load and ultimate load compared to a beam
strengthened with the same type and amount of non-prestressed CFRP
strips.
INTRODUCTION
Post-strengthening of a structure is necessary when its safety under the
specified loads is no longer guaranteed. This may be caused for example by
poor workmanship, an increased payload or deterioration of the structure
due to corrosion or mechanical influences. Construction companies all over
the world are looking for an easy, cost-effective and reliable way to enable
these works. In case of bridges it is important not to interrupt the traffic or

at least to reduce the interruption to a minimum. Therefore, the application
has to be highly automated.
EXTERNAL REINFORCEMENT WITH CFRP STRIPS
In 1969 the first structures have been strengthened with externally bonded
steel plates. But these steel plates are heavy, have limited length and are
subject to corrosion.
To overcome the disadvantages with these steel plates, non-prestressed
carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) strips can be used. For about seven
years this technology is state of the art and is used by many companies
throughout the world. These CFRP strips with a width of 50 mm to 150 mm
and a thickness of approximately 1 mm are bonded with an epoxy-based
adhesive to the pre-treated concrete surface. The CFRP strips are
lightweight, can be transported and stored rolled up and are produced in
almost unlimited length. To take full advantage of this very expensive
material, the CFRP strips should be prestressed. This relieves the stresses in
the steel reinforcement and reduces crack widths and deflection.
Furthermore, it results a better fatigue behaviour of the structure '
ANCHORAGE OF PRESTRESSED CFRP STRIPS
Premature Failure
The major drawback is the occurrence of very high shear stresses at the
ends of the strips (Figure 1). Hence, the prestressing force cannot be
transferred into the structure due to the limited shear strength of concrete.
To prevent premature failure of the system (Figure 2) the strips have to be
anchored at their ends for example by the use of pressing plates. These
anchorages are a key element of the system. They are expensive and
difficult to install. A failure of the anchorage would cause a total failure of
the strengthening system due to peeling off of the CFRP strip. These are the
major reasons why prestressed, externally bonded CFRP strips have only
been used in demonstration projects.
Concrete Structures with Prestressed CFRP Strips 1323
Figure 1. Shear stress peak at the end of a prestressed CFRP strip
Figure 2. Premature failure of a prestressed CFRP strip without anchorage

immediately after the prestressing force has been relieved. The shear strength of
concrete is not sufficient to transfer the very high shear stresses into the structure.
The CFRP strip starts to peel off from its ends due to premature failure in the
concrete. To prevent such failure, the ends of the strip have to be anchored, e.g. by
pressing plates.
Gradually anchored CFRP strips
To overcome these anchorage problems, the prestressing force, F, can be
reduced gradually towards both ends of the strips as shown in Figure 3. The
result Is an increased development length of the prestressing force such that

the occurring shear stresses are within the limits of the shear strength of
concrete.
concrete
- adhesive
CFRP strip
Figure 3. Gradual anchorage of prestressed CFRP strips
PEESTHSSING A CFRP STRIP

Gripping a CFRP Strip
Due to the very anisotropic behaviour of CFRP strips it is very complicated
to grab and prestress the strips. Therefore a new type of prestressing device
was designed. It enables prestressing a CFRP without the need of a
preliminary anchorage device on the CFRP strip (e.g. bonding of brackets)
and generating the gradient in the prestressing force.
The basic idea is to wrap each end of the CFRP strip partly around a
wheel or any convex curved surface and clamp it at the end.. As a result the
remaining prestressing force5 FreS5 in the clamp on the wheel is reduced by
the friction of the CFRP strip on the wheel (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Reduction of prestressing force due to friction on the wheel
It is desirable to have a high coefficient of friction, \i. The higher the

friction, the lower is the remaining force in the clamp. The coefficient of
friction is approx. 0.29 between the CFRP strip and steel. To increase the
coefficient of friction between the wheel and the CFRP strip, a strip of a
Concrete Structures with Prestressed CFRP Strips
1325
special film can be placed between them. The resulting coefficient of

friction is about 0.57.
The decline of the prestressing force due to the friction on the wheel can
be calculated with Eq. (1).
=F-
(1)
M<*)
where F: initial prestressing force;Fres: resulting prestressing force in the

clamp; u.: coefficient of friction; and a: angular position.
The theoretical results have been verified with experimental data
(Figure 5). For this purpose, a CFRP strip has been equipped with a number
of strain gauges in the wrap area.
experiment
(F=50kN)
with film
0.8
\ Y
'" \
x -.
* experiment
(F=50kN)
without film
X X
x'ir.
0.6
.H=0.29
5 0.4
.57 *""~--Z'"
0.2
exponential
regression
without film
H=0.'75
90
180
angular position a Il
H=0.25
exponential
regression
with film
1270
| clamp
360
Figure 5. Decrease of the prestressing force in the CFRP strip as a function of the
angular position on the wheel.
By using a film to increase the friction, the remaining prestressing force
at the clamp of the strip is about 10 % of the initial force. A simple pressing
plate can be used to temporarily clamp the CFRP strip to the prestressing
device. The stresses in the strip caused by prestressing are superimposed by
stresses caused by bending the strip around the wheel. This fact has to be
considered to determine the diameter of the wheel.
Prestressimg a CFEP Strip

There are two possibilities to apply a prestressed CFRP strip to a concrete
structure. The strip can be prestressed on a reaction frame and the reaction
frame is then temporarily mounted to the structure during the bonding
process. Otherwise, two separate prestressing units at each end of the strip
are directly mounted to the structure. In this oase the strip is prestressed
against the structure (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Two ways of prestressing and applying a CFRP strip to a structure
In the following only the reaction frame method will be discussed

further. Of course the other method works accordingly.
The new developed prestressing device consists of two wheels which
are connected to a beam of the required length (Figure 7). The CFRP strip
(1) is wrapped around the wheels (2) and clamped at its ends (3). By
rotating one or both wheels (4a) or displace the wheels (4b), the strip can be
prestressed.
Figure 7. Prestressing a CFRP strip
Concrete Structures with Prestressed CFRP Strips 1327

The prestressing device with the prestressed CFRP strip is temporarily
mounted onto the structure. The CFRP strip is on the very top of the device
and can be applied directly to the pre-treated structure without any
additional work at the structure itself. By using an. air-cushion (5) between
the strip and the connecting beam, the CFRP strip can be pressed against the
structure with a constant pressure.
GRADUAL ANCHORING
To bond a gradually anchored CFRP strip (Figure 3), a stepwise approach is
used as shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8. Generating gradual anchoring using a stepwise approach

The CFRP strip (1) is clamped and prestressed on the prestressing
device and covered with adhesive. The device is temporarily mounted to the
structure. The middle part of the strip is bonded (A). Then, the force is
marginally reduced (5), and the following areas (B) are bonded. The force is
reduced further (5) and the adjacent areas (C) are bonded. This procedure is
repeated until there is no remaining prestressing force at the ends of the
strip. After that, the prestressing device can be removed immediately. The
adhesive is completely cured.
For a stepwise bonding of the adhesives, each section is equipped with
an electrical heating device. By using a heating device, the curing-time of
the epoxy-based adhesive can be reduced considerably. This way5 it is
possible to control the curing process in the various sections. The used
adhesive in the experiment is the commonly used Sikadur-30.

TEST AND RESULTS
Three identical concrete beams (2.3 m 0.5 m 0.2 m) were tested in a fourpoint-bending test (Figure 9). The reference beam was not strengthened.
The second beam was strengthened with two passive (non-prestressed)
CFRP strips (CarboDur S512). The third beam was strengthened with two
prestressed and gradually anchored CFRP strips. For the second and third
beams the same type and amount of CFRP strips were used.
910
480
910
11
2100
500
2300
Figure 9. Test specimen and experimental set-up

The actual strain curve of a prestressed and gradually anchored CFRP
strip (Figure 10) corresponds quite well to the theoretical assumptions in
Figure 3.
n n500
area of gradient
1000
1500
position [mm]
2000
2500
Figure 10. Strain curve of a bonded prestressed CFRP strip (CarboDur S512,
thickness: 1.15 mm, width: 50 mm, Young's-modulus: 165 GPa) on a concrete
specimen. The prestressing force in the middle part is approx. 50 kN.
Concrete Structures with Prestressed
CFRP Strips
1329
The unstrengthened beam shows the typical behaviour of a concrete

beam with internal steel-reinforcement (Figure 11). The cracking load of the
strengthened beam with non-prestressed CFRP strips is only slightly higher.
But the ultimate load doubles almost (Table 1). The prestressed beam has a
cracking load that is more than three times higher than the one of the
unstrengthened beam. The prestressed beam shows a much more stiffer
behaviour than the others due to the later occurrence of cracks. The
observed failure modes of both, the passive and the prestressed strengthened
beam were peeling off of the CFRP strips.
No CFRP strips
Non-prestressed CFRP strips
Prestressed CFRP strips
10
20
30
40
50
Deflection [mm]
60
70
80
Figure 11. Three identical RC-beams with different ways of strengthening tested in a
four-point-bending test
Table 1. Comparison of cracking load and ultimate load with the reference beam
No CFRP
strips
Non-prestressed
CFRP strips
Ultimate load
100 %
192 %
Cracking load
100 %
117 %
Prestressed, gradually
anchored CFRP strips
235 %
325 %
CONCLUSIONS
Strengthening of concrete structures with passive CFRP strips is state of the
art. By prestressing these strips, the effectiveness of the reinforcement can
be improved considerably. However, its application has been limited to
demonstration projects only due to anchorage problems at the end of the
strips. To overcome this problem the strips can be bonded with a decreasing
prestressing force towards their ends. To generate this gradient a
prestressing device was designed at which the strip is wrapped partly
around a wheel. This way, the prestressing force at the clamp of the strip
can be reduced considerably, depending on the coefficient of friction
between the strip and the prestressing device. The use of an air-cushion
provides an easy and comfortable way to press the strip against the structure
during the entire curing process. The gradient is approached by a stepwise
bonding with decreasing prestressing force. The result is a prestressed
CFRP strip without any external anchorage systems. Tests on a concrete
beam post-strengthened with prestressed and gradually anchored CFRP
strips showed a considerable increase of the cracking load and the ultimate
load. The beam behaves much more stiffer than the one with the nonprestressed CFRP strips.
REFERENCES
1. Martin Deuring (1993), "Verstarken von Stahlbeton mit gespannten
Faserverbund-werkstoffen", EMPA Dubendorf Bericht Nr. 224
2. Peter Holzenkampfer (1997), "Ingenieurmodelle des Verbunds
geklebter Bewehrung fur Betonbauteile", Beuth Verlag GmbH Berlin

STRENGTHENING OF CONCRETE BRIDGES WITH

CARBON CABLES AND STRIPS
T. KELLER
Composite Construction Laboratory CCLab
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
Described herein are two bridges in Switzerland that were strengthened
with carbon fibre tension elements. In both cases the advantageous
properties of these elements yielded reliable and economical solutions. The
two-span Verdasio Bridge in Intragna was strengthened with four carbon
fibre cables. The cables run the length of the bridge box girder in a
polygonal path. The minimal cross-sections of the 70 m long cables
allowed for simple deviation of the cable and easy handling in the confined
space of the box girder. For the Duttweiler Bridge in Zurich the north
abutment, used for storage space, was strengthened with CFRP strips and
L-shapes plates. As the strengthening elements were both thin and lightweight, they could be easily overlapped and anchored. Strengthening could
be carried out without interruption to traffic.
INTRODUCTION
The strengthening of load-carrying structures with carbon fibre reinforced
polymer (CFRP) strips was first developed in Switzerland in the 1980's. In
1991 the first bridge, the Ibach Bridge in Lucerne, was strengthened using
this technique. Today approximately 100 tonnes of CFRP composites for
the strengthening of load-carrying structures are sold in Switzerland per
year '.
Switzerland also plays a prominent role in the development of CFRP
cables. In 1996, on the Storchen Bridge in Winterthur, two CFRP stay
cables, each consisting of 241 parallel 5 mm diameter wires, were used for
the first time in a bridge application. The cables were equipped with fibre
optic monitoring sensors and a special gradient material based anchoring
system was developed to anchor the cables2.
The strengthening of the Verdasio Bridge in Intragna with parallel
carbon fibre wire cables in 1999 and the Duttweiler Bridge in Zurich with
CFRP strips and L-shaped plates in 2001 are further examples of the
aforementioned techniques. Both projects were carried out under the
direction of the CCLab and are described in this paper.

VEMDASIO BEIDGE INTRAGNA
Overview of Damage and Repair Measures
The Verdaslo Bridge over the Verdasio River by Intragna in the Canton of
Tessin was constructed in 1984. It is a continuous concrete box girder
bridge with two spans of 31.40 m and 37.60 m, a width of 6.0 m and a
girder depth of 1.80 m. Both webs of the box girder are fully pre-stressed
with 3 to 4 tendons per span. Each cable is pre-stressed to an initial prestress force of 2350 kN.
The bridge was examined in 1998. Serious damage was discovered on
the valley-side web of the box girder after only 14 years of service life. The
surface dewatering tubes installed at 2 m intervals on that side of the bridge
were found to be too short and not water-tight. Run-off containing de-icing
salts from the road deck had run from these points through the cantilever,
along the underside of the cantilever and the sie|e of the web to the
underside of the box girder. The damaged zones can be seen in Figure 1 as
the dark areas on the concrete web, which include rust and water marks.
In the damaged zones the chloride content in the web at the depth of the
nonpre-stressed reinforcement reached levels of 2.8% of the cement mass
and 2.0% at the depth of the pre-stressing. Corrosion potentials of up to
-600mV (CSE) were measured. The non-pre-stressed reinforcement
exhibited up to 100% loss of cross-section in these areas. The lower prestressing cables, closest to the exposed web surface, exhibited substantial
Figure 1. Verdasio Bridge, damaged zones on underside of cantilever and on web.
Concrete Bridges with Carbon Cables and Strips 1333
pitting corrosion at the low lying inflection points at centre-span, at the

locations of inspection openings in the concrete. The remaining cables
exhibited very little corrosion at these points.
The load carrying capacity of the bridge was calculated assuming no
contribution from the corroded cable nor from a second cable, and local
corrosion in the non-pre-stressed reinforcement. Even though the load
carrying capacity of the bridge was found to be adequate in this critical state
due to the high level of pre-stressing, the owner of the bridge requested that
the original load-carrying capacity of the bridge be restored. The corroded
cable on the valley-side was thus to be replaced by external pre-stressing
cables running through the interior of the box girder. At the same time the
bridge was to be completely repaired.
Strengthening with External Carbon Fibre Cables
The space available in the box girder and abutment chambers is limited; the
crawlspace is only 1.2 m. In order to obtain a sufficient static depth for the
reinforcement, small cable bundle dimensions had to be chosen. This was
one of the main reasons for choosing carbon fibre cables, since in
comparison with steel cables, they possess significantly smaller diameters
and only require small and simple deviation devices. The very light-weight
carbon fibre cables were also easy to handle during assembly and
installation. The fact that the carbon fibre cables are not susceptible to
corrosion was the final decisive detail in obtaining the consent of the owner
for the proposed solution.
On the interior of the valley-side web four carbon fibres were installed
in pairs, running in a polygonal path over the entire length of the bridge
(Figures 2 and 3). The 70 m long cables are composed of 19 pultruded
carbon wires with 5 mm diameters and 70% carbon content. The parallel
wires are held together by a shrunk polyethylene sock. The outer diameter
of the cable is 32 mm; the minimum permissible radius of curvature is
3.00 m. Full-scale tests of the cable subjected to this radius were carried out
by the manufacturer3.
The nominal tensile strength, elastic modulus and density of the wires
are 2400 MPa, 160 GPa and 1.62 g/cm3, respectively. The nominal ultimate
load of the cable anchor systems is therefore 912 kN per cable, which is
approximately 90% of the ultimate load of the wires. The cables were prestressed to 65% of their nominal ultimate load, that is, to 4x600 kN, which
corresponds to the pre-stress of the corroded steel cable. In this way, it was
possible to maintain the initial structural resistance.

Locarno cj>
^p Camedo
69.00
Figure 2. Longitudinal section of bridge showing carbon fibre cables in polygonal

path, view magnified in vertical direction.
Figure 3. Left: External carbon fibre cable reinforcement close to abutment. Right:
Bottom deviation location with concreted curved steel cradles.
The anchors include conical resin-cast terminations. A ceramic and
epoxy based gradient materia! prevents peaks in shear stress when the
cables enter the anchors.
The cables are deviated at one-third points in each span as well as over
the pier at curvatures of 3.80 m to 8.90 m. Simple curved steel cradles are
used as deviation devices. For the lower deviation points in the span,

concrete ribs were added through boreholes in the road deck (Figure 3). The
cables were slid under the concrete ribs. The upper deviation saddle over
the pier was constructed through two boreholes in the transverse-beam. Two
cables are deviated through each hole over concreted steel cradles.
Boreholes were also made in the transverse-beams at the abutments.
Additional strengthening ribs were concreted to the beams for load
introduction. The cables are anchored behind the transverse girders in the
abutment chambers at the height of the bridge cross-sectional axis. The
space required for pre-stressing, 1.10 m, was just under the 1.25 m available
in the abutment chambers. The cables were drawn into the box girder
through a small, diagonally drilled hole in the deck slab, shifted into place
and pre-stressed in two stages.
40
20
25
* /.g^r*
*.\
~~?
*~
*/#^==^\
20
i O
\/f
IS
*
10
n)
O.
a -20
*[
^ 7 ;
-
^ ~
-
. .
!>
<a
H
-40
Sep 99 Nov 99 Jan 00 MrzOO Mai 00 Jul 00 Sep 00 Nov 00 Jan 01
Figure 4. Variation of pre-stressing force in 4 cables and temperature since time of

installation (figure courtesy of EMPA2).
The load in the pre-stressing cable was monitored using strain gauges
on the terminations of the anchors. Figure 4 shows the variation in prestressing force since installation of the cables in 1999. The force in the
cable has so far varied only due to temperature changes. As expected, since
carbon fibre cables exhibit a very small relaxation, almost no long-term
losses in pre-stress have been detected. Furthermore, the structural concrete
was already 15 years old at the time of the strengthening.
The wires can be checked at any time by opening the polyethylene sock.
The socks are not filled and do not fulfil a protective function against
corrosion, that is, they act only as physical protection during installation
and help maintain the geometrical configuration of the cables. Since the
cables are external, individual cables can be replaced at any time.
DUTTWEILEE BRIDGE ZUEICH
Reasons for Reinforcement Measures
The Duttweiler Bridge, constructed in 1969, is one of the most heavily
travelled bridges in the City of Zurich. It is a reinforced concrete bridge
with six lanes. The northern abutment is 50.40 m long in the direction of the
bridge axis, 16.80 m wide, and has an approximately 4.5 m high chamber
space used for storage (Figure 5). It was planned to build 5m wide and 4 m
high doors into the lateral abutment walls in order to extend the use of the
storage chamber.
The road deck slab, the ceiling of the abutment chamber, is supported
by 14 columns, aligned in two rows inside the chamber, as well as the
lateral walls of the chamber. The slab width between the two column rows,
the centre strip, is 6.50 m. The distances between the rows and the lateral
walls of the abutment, the edge strips, are 5.15 m.
Figure 5. Left: New door in north abutment with CFRP plate reinforced cross-beam.
Right: Abutment chamber.
By cutting through the abutment walls to accommodate the doors, the

fixed end conditions for the slab, more specifically, the edge strips, were
lost over a length of 5 m. The reinforcement in the remaining abutment
walls above the doors, which now formed a sort of cross-beams, were
completely severed and their load-carrying function was also lost.
The installation of the doors therefore required two reinforcement
measures. First, the cross-beams needed to be strengthened to ensure that
they could still support the loads transferred from the edge strips. Second,
the edge strips required strengthening to compensate for the loss of fix it.
Strengthening of the bridge was to take place without interruption to
traffic. This was one of the main reasons that low-weight CFRP strips and
L-shaped plates were used. Furthermore, since these elements are easily
installed without heavy scaffolding, use of the abutment chamber was
perturbed for only short periods of time. In addition, the owner required a
fire protection of the CFRP elements with two layers of 30 mm thick fire
protection plates; this measure, however, was not necessary for the loadcarrying function of the repair.
Strengthening of Deck Slab Edge Spans
Due to the loss of the fixed end conditions of the edge strips the positive
moments in the deck edge spans due to dead and live load increased by
approximately 50% in both load-carrying directions. Glued CFRP strips
were used to provide the additional required reinforcement. Before cutting
through the abutment walls, on each side five 10 m long strips spaced at
70 cm intervals were glued in the longitudinal bridge direction, while seven
6.0 m long strips spaced at 57 cm intervals were glued in the transverse
direction (Figure 6). In this way, the strips were already loaded by the dead
load of the slab.
The cross-section dimensions of the strips are 90x1.4 mm. The small
thickness of 1.4 mm meant that the strips could be overlapped easily. The
tensile strength of the strips is 2400 MPa; the elastic modulus is 210 GPa. A
two-component epoxy adhesive was used for fixation of the strips.
On three sides the anchoring of the strips was easy, since enough space
was available for the required 1.50 m anchor length. However, on the crossbeam side not enough space was available for anchoring of the strips in the
transverse direction. For this reason, 350 mm long, 110x11 mm horizontal
slots were cut into the cross-beam using a diamond-tooth saw. The slots
were filled with epoxy adhesives and the CFRP strips were subsequently
slid into the slots and anchored in this way (Figure 6 and 7).
Figure 6. Strengthening of the deck slab with crossed CFRP strips, anchoring of
transverse strips in cross-beam.
Figure 7. Strip anchoring in cut slots. Left: Diamond-tooth saw. Right: Horizontally
anchored deck slab strips, vertical slot for anchorage of L-shaped plate of crossbeam.
Strengthening of Cross-Beams
Both flexural and shear reinforcement were required for the cross-beams to
be reinstated as load carrying members. Flexural strengthening was
achieved with three CFRP strips adhesively bonded to the underside of the
beams (Figure 8). The shear reinforcement was added in the form of crossed
CFRP L-shaped plates, bonded over the flexural reinforcement strips
(Figure 8). The plates have cross-sectional dimensions of 50x1.2 mm. In
total 2x14 plates spaced at 50 cm were applied on each beam.
Anchoring of the plates in the compression zone of the cross-beams was
carried out with vertically cut 110x11 mm slots In the deck slabs. In the two
slots near the beam supports two plates are anchored in the same slot. The
anchor length is 20 cm on the interior of the abutment and 40 cm on the
exterior. The anchor length on the interior was limited by the depth of the
deck slab; more space was available on the exterior due to the parapet.
The L-shaped plates have a bend zone length of 35 cm. The average
failure force of the plates with these anchorages and bend zone lengths
reach 74 kN each, that is, 59% of the ultimate tensile force of the plates.
Figure 8. Strengthening of cross-beam with strips and crossed L-shaped plates. In

the background, fire protection on the strengthened deck slab.
CONCLUSIONS
Strengthening of bridges using carbon fibre tension elements - cables or
adhesively bonded strips and L-shaped plates - has multiple advantages in
comparison with traditional strengthening methods. The strengthening
elements possess very high specific material strength, resulting in small
cross-sections, which lead to new constructive possibilities such as easy
over-lapping and anchoring of strips or simplified deviation and anchoring
of cables.
The low self-weight of the material also allows for easy and rapid
handling during installation without the need for heavy scaffolding or lifting
equipment. Furthermore, strengthening is possible without interruption to
traffic.
The elements are corrosion resistant and do not require further
protection, apart from a possible fire protection for strips and plates.
Particularly noteworthy is that carbon fibre cables can be monitored using

integrated sensors.
By exploiting the advantages of the CFRP elements, as was done in the
strengthening of the Verdasio Bridge Intragna and the Duttweiler Bridge
Zurich, reliable and economical solutions can be achieved.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author would like to thank the following organisations and industrial
partners for the implementation of these projects: Civil Engineering
Departments of the Canton of Tessin and the City of Zurich, EMPA, BBR
Systems Ltd and Sika AG.
REFERENCES
1. Meier, U., Stocklin I. and Terrasi G.P., "Making Better Use of the
Strength of Advanced Materials in Structural Engineering",
International Conference on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering
(CICE2001), Hong Kong, December 12-15, 2001, Vol. 1, pp. 41-48.
2. Meier, U., "Multifunctioal Use of Carbon-Fibre Composites in
Construction: Present Situation and Trends", International Conference
on FRP Composites in Civil Engineering (CICE 2001), Hong Kong,
December 12-15, 2001, Vol. 2, pp. 1643-1648.
3. EMPA Report No. 168' 106/1 -3 (in German).

NEW CORROSION-FREE CONCRETE BRIDGE BARRIERS

REINFORCED WITH GFRP COMPOSITE BARS
E. EL-SALAKAWY, R. MASMOUDI, AND B. BENMOKRANE
Universite de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada JIK 2R1
F. BRIERE AND G. DESGAGNE
Ministry of Transportation of Quebec, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
New concrete bridge barriers, type PL-2 and PL-31, totally reinforced with
glass FRP composite bars have been developed at the Universite de
Sherbrooke. Also, a new detailing for connecting the barrier wall to the
deck slab by extending the main reinforcement of the wall through the slab
using bent GFRP bars was introduced. Laboratory and field tests have been
carried out on full-size concrete barrier prototypes to investigate their
behaviour under static and impact loads, respectively. This paper describes
the field investigation where pendulum impact tests, using a 3.0-ton pearshaped iron ball, were carried out. A total of 8 full-scale 10-m long barrier
prototypes were constructed and tested in the field. The tests included 4
PL-2 and 4 PL-3 prototypes. For each type of barriers, two prototypes were
reinforced with GFRP bars and the other two were reinforced with steel
bars. The behaviour of barriers reinforced with GFRP bars under the
impact load is compared to their counterparts reinforced with conventional
steel in terms of cracks pattern and width. The newly developed concrete
barriers have been approved by the Ministry of Transportation of Quebec
(MTQ) and currently are being used for construction of new concrete
bridge barriers all over Quebec.
INTRODUCTION
An elaborate research program to develop type PL-2 and PL-3 corrosionfree concrete bridge barriers totally reinforced with glass FRP bars has been
going for the last few years at the Department of Civil Engineering,
Universite de Sherbrooke (Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada). In addition, a
new connection between the barrier wall and slab using bent glass FRP bars
was introduced. This was the first time to use bent glass FRP bars in real
concrete structures. The research program consisted of two parts. Part I
included laboratory and analytical investigations under static loading
conditions2. The results of this part of the study indicated that the overall
behaviour of GFRP reinforced concrete bridge barriers was very similar to

that of their counterparts reinforced with steel. Also, the new connection
between the barrier wall and the slab successfully sustained and transferred
the applied load up to failure. The new CHBDC1 and the AASHTO 3,4
require that the barrier wall should have sufficient strength to survive the
initial impact of a collision and to remain effective in redirecting the
vehicle. Both Codes specify that the strength of the barrier should be
determined from a crash test using a designated vehicle. A pendulum crash
test has been used recently as an alternative to the vehicle crash test for
comparison purposes5'6. In part II of the study7, the impact test was
performed on the newly developed barriers as well as on identical barriers
reinforced with conventional steel under the same conditions.
A
comparison of the behaviour of barriers reinforced with GFRP and
conventional steel is valid, as the performance of steel reinforced concrete
barriers has been verified by long-term service in the field. This paper
presents the details of the newly developed concrete bridge barriers and the
results of the pendulum impact tests.
TEST PROGRAM
Test Prototypes
Based on a theoretical analysis according to the AASHTO 4 and CHBDC 1 ,
the geometry, concrete dimensions, and amount of steel reinforcement for
both types PL-2 and PL-3 barriers were determined. For GFRP reinforced
barriers, the amount of steel reinforcement obtained from the previous
analysis was replaced with an amount of glass FRP bars based on strength
equivalence. The newly developed designs, using bent GFRP bars, for PL-2
and PL-3 concrete barriers are shown in Figures 1 and 2. The height and
the breadth of the base of the wall are 880 mm and 410 mm for PL-2 and
1140 mm and 435 mm for PL-3, respectively. For test purposes, the
considered part of the deck slab was 1.5 m wide by 0.25 m thick and was
reinforced with two steel layers. Each layer has No.l5M bars @ 100 mm in
the short direction and No.l5M bars @ 200 mm in the long direction.
Seventy six-mm diameter holes through the slab thickness were constructed on
both sides of the wall to enable anchoring the slab to the rigid concrete flooring
system during testing.
A total of eight full-scale 10-m long reinforced concrete bridge barriers
were constructed and tested. The barriers were divided into two series: PL2 and PL-3. Series PL-2 contains barriers PL2-ST1, PL2-ST2, PL2-GF1,
New Corrosion-Free Concrete Bridge Barriers 1343

and PL2-GF2 for barriers meeting performance level 2. Series PL-3
contains barriers PL3-ST1, PL3-8T2, PL3-GF1, and PL3-GF2 for barriers
meeting performance level 3. Each series contains 4 identical barriers, two
reinforced with conventional steel bars (-ST1, and -ST2), and the other two
reinforced with GFRP sand-coated bars8 (-GF1, and -GF2). Figure 3 shows both
PL-2 and PL-3 barrier prototypes during and after the completion of fabrication.
410
225 60
1125
Shape PI
Shape HI
Shape Dl
Shape D2
Shape PI
Figure 1. Dimensions and reinforcement details for Type PL-2 barriers

435
125
Shape PI
00
\
335
EU
ShapeDl
285
Shape D2
slUJ
lfJ
Shape PI
Figure 2. Dimensions and reinforcement details for Type PL-3 barriers
Figure 3. GFRP bent bars and barriers prototypes during and after completion of construction
Material Properties
The barriers were constructed using ready-mixed normal weight concrete
(concrete Type V MTQ) with an average 28-day strength of 42 MPa. The
properties of the sand-coated GFRP (composed of 75% type-E glass fibres
and 25% Vinylester resin) were determined by performing tensile tests on at
least five straight specimens cut from the actual bent bars (Table 1).
Table 1. Tensile properties of GFRP reinforcing bars
Reinforcing Bars
r r p r
"._
No-16 (straight)
Ko.16 (bent)
Ko.19 (bent)
Guaranteed Tensile
Strength, f,*
(MPa)
640
540
530
Modulus of
Elasticity, E
(GPa)
41
42
39
Ultimate
Strain, su
(%)
1.55
1.49
1.46
Instrumentation
For each barrier, a total of 26 electrical resistance 5-mm long strain gauges
were used to measure strains in reinforcing bars at critical locations. An
accelerometer was mounted on the back face of the wall (opposite to
impact) directly behind the point of strike to measure the peak and the
duration of the impact load. Also, the crack widths on both faces of the
wall, directly after each test, were measured and recorded. A very highspeed data acquisition system (5000 Hz), provided by the Ministry of
Transportation of Quebec, was used to collect and record the data from the
accelerometer and the strain gauges. As well, the construction and testing
of all barriers were video taped for further investigation.
Pendulum Test Set-up
At the site of testing, a rigid reinforced concrete test bed, 12.0-m (length) x
2.0-m (width) x 1.0-m (depth), was constructed. A total of 24, 36-mm
diameter, Dywidag bars were embedded vertically in the rigid test bed
acting as anchors (Figure 4). The top surface of the rigid bed was levelled
with the ground surface on site using a surveying tool. The barrier was
tightened to the rigid test bed by nuts through steel plates (45x200x200 mm).
The pendulum impact test was carried out using a pear-shaped 3.0-ton
iron ball. The iron ball was suspended from the boom of an 80-ton mobile
crane at a height of approximately 30-m above the test bed. The crane was
positioned such that the first point on the ball that hits the wall is at 0.75 m
and 0.90 m above the base of the wall for PL-2 and PL-3 series,
respectively. The ball was pulled laterally to the desirable height with the

help of a pulley system powered by the same crane. The height of the ball
was established by using a surveying instrument. Figure 4 shows a photo
for the test set-up.
Figure 4. Photo for the test set-up

The adequate height of the wrecking ball along with a configuration for
transmitting the impact of the ball to the wall that causes a considerable but
not extensive damage to the barrier was establish through several attempts.
These attempts were carried out on the edge of batriers reinforced with
conventional steel. After each attempt, the amount of damage received by
the barrier wall was evaluated. The final configuration was done by
transferring the impact of the ball to the barrier through two 1200x900x50
mm steel plates. The steel plates were raised on timber backing above the
slab such that they were in direct contact, through their whole area, with the
sloping face of the wall to prevent any localized premature failure (Figure 5).
2 Steel Plates
1200x900x50
Sb.
Point of Strike
r- Timber Filling
//~ Dywidage Bar 36 mm
Steel Nuts
;|C_, Bearing Plates 200x200x45 mm
-rt
No.l5M Steel Bars @ 100 mm
x
\ N o . l 5 M Steel bars @ 200 mm
_PVC Tubbs 75 mm
The Rigid Test Bed

2000
Figure 5. Schematic for load transmission configuration
Same configuration was used for both types of barriers PL-2 and PL3,
with raising the ball to the height of 3.0 and 3.5 m, respectively. To confirm
the results of this configuration, the impacts were repeated on the other edge
of the steel-reinforced barriers. The damage received by barriers was not
extensive, but it was considered sufficient for the purpose of comparison.
This final configuration was used to transfer the impact load of the main test
at the middle part of the wall. More details about the test set-up and
procedure can be found elsewhere .
The results discussed herein are those performed on the middle part of the
wall. The results of all strikes, at the edge of the walls, were not considered
in the comparison of barrier behaviour. However, it was noted that the
amount of damage received by the wall due to the impact near the edge was
more sever in terms of crack width (approximately twice) and dislodging of
concrete. Due to the low stiffness of GFRP composites, larger number of
cracks and crack widths should be expected in the barriers reinforced with
GFRP bars than those of their counterparts reinforced with conventional
steel. The measured acceleration of the ball, at the moment it strokes the
wall, was used to calculate the impact force. Table 2 lists the values of the
calculated impact force for PL-2 and PL-3 barriers, respectively.
Barrier
PL-2
Series
PL-3
Series
Acceleration Impact load
PL2-ST1
PL2-ST2
PL2-GF1
PL2-GF2
PL3-ST1
PL3-ST2
PL3-GF1
PL3-GF2
(m/s2)
243
173
220
248
257
234
252
245
(kN)
716
511
649
731
758
690
744
728
Max. measured crack width

Backface
Front face
(mm)
(mm)
0.70
0.65
0.45
0.46
0.75
0.66
0.90
0.85
0.45
0.60
0.65
0.56
0.64
0.55
0.55
0.80
It can be noted that, for barrier PL2-ST2 and PL3-ST2, the small value for
the measured acceleration and consequently for force and energy, compared to
its counterparts at the same ball height, may be attributed to an uneven torque,
which was applied to tighten the slab of the barrier to the test bed.. Also, the
close values of measured acceleration for the two heights, 3.0 m and 3.5 m, can
be similarly explained. The impact effect lasts for 0.1 S and reached its peak
value during the first 0.03 S. No failure was observed at the base of the wall
where the new connection between the wall and the slab using GFRP bent bars
exists. Due to space limitations, the test results will be presented in terms of
crack pattern and width. The complete test results can be found elsewhere9.
Cracking
Figures 6 to 9 show the crack pattern, at the middle third, on the front and back
faces of both series of barriers. All barriers of the same type, either reinforced
with GFRP or steel bars, behaved in a similar manner. The barriers suffered
from diagonal cracks symmetrically distributed around the vertical axis, which
passes through the point of strike on the wall. These cracks spread over a
length, defined by AASHTO4 as the critical length. This critical lengths was
2.9 to 3.3 m and 3.7 to 4.1 m, respectively, for PL-2 and PL-3 barriers at the top
of the wall coming down to 0.9 m to 1.2 m at the base of the wall. The
measured critical lengths are in good agreement with the values predicted by
the yield line approach (2.60 to 2.77 m and 4.4 to 4.6 m for PL-2 and PL-3
barriers, respectively) developed by Hirsch10 and later adopted by AASHTO4.
It should be noted that the barrier nominal resistance to transverse load is 2.67
times that allowed by AASHTO3. Following the same procedure for PL-3
barriers, this value is 1.87 times7.
The maximum measured crack widths on the front and back faces for both
barrier series are listed in Table 2. For barriers PL2-GF1 and PL2-GF2
reinforced with GFRP bars, the number of cracks was larger (1.35 to 1.45 times
larger) and the spacing between these cracks was smaller than those of their
counterparts reinforced with steel. However, For barriers PL3-GF1 and PL3GF2 reinforced with GFRP bars, the density and width of cracks were very
similar. This may be attributed to two reasons. First, the smaller spacing
between the horizontal bars for type PL-3 barriers than that of type PL-2
barriers. Second, because its higher overall inertia, the effect of the
reinforcement stiffness on the overall stiffness of PL-3 barriers is less than that
on PL-2 barriers with less inertia. It can be noted that the area of the barrier wall
affected by the impact load is approximately the same for all barriers of same
type PL-2 or PL-3. For PL-2 barriers, the intensity of cracks, for barriers
reinforced with GFRP bars, is higher than that of their counterparts reinforced
with steel. This higher crack intensity, spread over the same area, suggests that
the strains in the GFRP bars are larger than those in the steel bars. This may be
attributed to the low stiffness of the GFRP bars (about one fifth that of steel).
Also, this explains why the maximum measured crack widths for GFRP
reinforced barriers were not 5 times but only in the range of 1.35 to 1.45 times
those measured for steel reinforced ones.
**
IM.2-S'! 1
PL2<8I-2
\JL^
Figure o. Cracks pattern on the IroiU (ace for PI,-2 barriers
IU.2-ST!
;*;."
P1.2-GF2
Fnyure 7. Cracks pattern on the back face for PI -2 barriers
Figure 8. Cracks pattern on the front face for PL-3 barriers

IOBHHHHI
PL3-*T2
^ 3 3 ^
PL3-GF2
^^\
1 ^' I * i
Figure 9. Cracks pattern on the back face for PL-3 barriers
CONCLUSIONS
This paper presents the results of pendulum impact tests, which were carried
out on newly developed type PL-2 and PL-3 corrosion-free concrete bridge
barriers reinforced with GFRP composite bars. Based on the test results, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The behaviour of concrete bridge barriers of both types, PL-2 and PL-3,
reinforced with GFRP bars, subjected to impact load, was very similar
to that of the identical barriers reinforced with conventional steel.
2. For type PL-2 and PL-3 barriers reinforced with GFRP bars, the
maximum measured crack widths on the front face of the barrier wall
were 0.8 mm and 0.67 mm, which represents only 1.45 and 1.15 times,
respectively, larger than that measured for their counterparts reinforced
with steel.
3. The new connection between the slab and the barrier wall sustained and
transferred the impact load successiully without showing any sign of failure.
This was thefirsttime to use glass FRP bent bars in real structures.
4. In barriers reinforced with GFRP bars, the horizontal reinforcement
contributed more, in carrying the impact load, than that of barriers
reinforced with steel. Therefore, it is recommended to increase the
amount of horizontal reinforcement for type PL-2 barriers. Spacing
between horizontal bars of 140 mm, as in PL-3 barriers, seems to be
adequate for cracking control.
5. Due to the edge effect, the impact load caused damage to the barrier
wall at the edge more than at the central part under the same loading
conditions. To compensate for this edge effect, the amount of
reinforcement, shown in Figures 1 and 2 for PL-2 and PL-3 barriers,
should be doubled at the end of the barrier wall.
The two presented types of concrete bridge barriers, PL-2 and PL-3, reinforced
with GFRP bars using the newly developed corrosion-free connection between
the wall and the slab were approved by the Ministry of Transportation of
Quebec and currently are being used for construction of new concrete bridge
barriers all over Quebec".
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support and technical assistance
received from the Ministry of Transportation of Quebec. Pultrall Inc. (Thetford
Mines, Quebec) GFRP ISOROD bars. Thanks to Beton Demix, the concrete
provider, Aciers Orford Inc., fabrication and installation of steel bars, and Les
Coffrages Carmel Inc., fabrication of formwork and casting. The partial

finance received from NSERC and ISIS-Canada is greatly acknowledged. The
authors would like to thank Francois Ntacorigira, Helene Nadeau, and Frederic
Turcotte from the technical staff at Civil Engineering Department, Universite
de Sherbrooke, for their help.
REFERENCES
1. CAN/CSA-S6-00, "Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code," Canadian
Standard Association, Rexdale, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2000, 734p.
2. Masmoudi, R., El-Salakawy, E.F., Beaumier, E., and Benmokrane, B.,
"Behaviour of Types PL2 and PL3 Concrete Barriers Reinforced with
Composite Bars," Final Technical Report (in French), Phase II, Submitted
to the Ministry of Transportation of Quebec, Canada, 2001, 52p.
3. AASHTO, "Guide Specifications for Bridge Railing," American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC, USA, 1989.
4. AASHTO, "LRFD Bridge Design Specifications," 1st ed., American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC, USA, 1994.
5. Klement, T. and Aly, A., "Pendulum Testing of the Ontario Bridge
Barrier," Draft submitted for publication, 2001, 23p.
6. Scanlon, A., McClure, R.M., Spitzer, P., Tessaro, T., and Mansour, A.,
"Performance Characteristics of Cast-in-Place Bridge Barrier,"
Research Report No. 87-21, Prepared for the Pennsylvania Department
of Transportation, State University, 1989.
7. El-Salakawy, E.F., Briere, F., Masmoudi, R., and Benmokrane, B.,
"Impact Test on Concrete Bridge Barriers Reinforced with GFRP
Composite Bars," Final Technical Report, Phase III, Submitted to the
Ministry of Transportation of Quebec, Canada, August, 2001, 75p.
8. Pultrall Inc., "ISOROD Composite Reinforcing Rod," Technical Sheets,
Thetford Mines, Quebec, 2000.
9. El-Salakawy, E.F., Briere, F., Masmoudi, R., Desgagne, G., and
Benmokrane, B., "Pendulum Impacts into Concrete Bridge Barriers
Reinforced with GFRP Composite Bars," Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering, Submitted, August, 2002, 32p.
10. Hirsch, T.J., "Analytical Evaluation of Texas Bridge Rails to Contain
Buses and Trucks," Research Report 230-2, Texas Transportation
Institute, Texas A&M University, Collage Station, TX, August, 1978.
11. Desgagne, G. and Benmokrane, B., "Conceptual Design of Concrete
Bridge Barriers Reinforced with FRP Bars," (in French), Innovation
Transport, Bulletin ScientifiqueTechnologique,No.l 1, October, 2001, pp. 3-6.

STRENGTHENING OF STEEL SILOS WITH POSTTENSIONED CFRP LAMINATES

L. DE LORENZIS, F. MICELLI AND A. LA TEGOLA
Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell'Innovazione, Universita degli Studi di Lecce
Via per Monteroni, 73 J 00 Lecce
In the past decade, techniques for repair/rehabilitation and strengthening of
structures based on the use of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) materials
have become increasingly popular worldwide. The most common
applications include the use of FRP materials (in the form of wet lay-up
sheets or fabrics, pre-cured laminates or bars/tendons) to enhance flexural
and/or shear capacity of concrete beams, to confine concrete and masonry
columns, to increase the capacity of masonry panels. More recently, the
potential of FRP materials in combination with timber and metallic
structures is being explored.
This paper illustrates a case study in which FRP pultruded laminates
were used for strengthening circular steel silos. FRP laminate hoops were
applied as external "belts" resting on discrete supports on the perimeter of
the silos. By means of a simple mechanical device, the laminates were
manually post-tensioned to the desired load level, measured indirectly by
means of electric strain gages. Active strengthening allowed to compensate
for part of the existing deformation of the walls, and to optimise the state of
stress in the steel structure by tailoring the post-tensioning level. The paper
examines in detail design process, experimental tests conducted for proper
design of the construction details and implementation of the strengthening
system.
INTRODUCTION
In the past decade, innovative technologies to strengthen reinforced concrete
(RC) and masonry structures, involving the use of fiber-reinforced polymer
(FRP) composites, have been extensively studied and increasingly accepted
by the civil engineering community. The most common applications so far
included the use of FRP materials (in the form of wet lay-up sheets or
fabrics, pre-cured laminates or bars/tendons) to enhance flexural and/or
shear capacity of reinforced and prestressed concrete beams, to confine
concrete and masonry columns, to increase the capacity of masonry panels
subjected to out-of-plane as well as in-plane loads 1 . More recently, the
potential of FRP materials in combination with timber and metallic

structures is being explored ' .
Among the case studies reported thus far in the literature, a few involve
repairing and/or strengthening of RC silos with FRP materials in the form of
lay-up sheets4, pre-cured plates5 or near-surface mounted bars . In all cases,
the strengthening concept was that the composite would contribute taking
the hoop tensile stresses arising from the inner pressure of the stored
material. Hence, the FRP was installed with the fibres oriented along the
hoop direction and appropriately bonded to the substrate material.
This paper illustrates a case study in which FRP pultruded laminates
were used for strengthening circular steel silos in the hoop direction. In this
case, the FRP laminates were not externally bonded, but applied as external
"belts" resting on discrete supports on the perimeter of the silos. By means
of a simple mechanical device, the laminates were manually post-tensioned
to the desired load level, measured by means of electric strain gages. Active
strengthening allowed to compensate for part of the existing deformation of
the walls, and to optimise the state of stress in the steel structure by tailoring
the post-tensioning level.
DESCRIPTION OF THE STRUCTURE
The strengthening operation was conducted on six circular steel silos, used
for wheat storage in southern Italy. The walls of the silos, 12.75-m high with
9.00-m diameter, are made of 1.5-mm thick and 850-mm wide wrinkled
steel sheets bolted to each other. The vertical stiffeners are 30 steel Cprofiles at 930-mm distance bolted to the circumferential sheets (Figure 1).
The silos, built in the '80s, presented visible deformations in the lower
part, due to different causes. During the emptying out of the silos, a vertical
component of the hoop pressure is generated due to friction. Under such
component, the vertical profiles, if under-designed, may eventually buckle
and the sheet may consequently undergo large deformations. This was
especially evident in the lower part, where the normal pressure is maximum
and so is also the vertical component, proportional to it. Moreover, the
presence of openings in the lower part of the silos, used for inspection and
maintenance, further worsened the state of stress. In fact, it was just around
the openings that the deformations were more evident, represented by a
hoop extensive deformation accompanied by slippage of the connecting
bolts.
Steel Silos with Post-Tensioned CFRP Laminates 1353
CHOICE OF THE STRENGTHENING SYSTEM

A traditional strengthening system for the silos could have been to confine
them with external steel elements. Given the dimensions of the silos, this
system would have required fabricating the confining hoops in pieces and
assembling them on site. The pieces would have needed strict tolerances on
dimensions and curvatures to fit the external shape of the silos. This also
implies that, for corrosion protection, the use of stainless steel would have
been more suitable than zinc plating of ordinary steel elements, which may
cause alterations in shape and dimensions due to residual stresses.
!\W
,L-cl rr-> files
**
Figure 1. Steel silos object of the intervention
After a preliminary analysis, it was decided that an innovative

technology be used for the strengthening operation. In place of steel
elements, carbon FRP (CFRP) pultraded laminates would be used as
confining devices. Among the available FRP materials, carbon was chosen
for its better long-term performance. The CFRP laminates would be applied
as external "belts" resting on discrete supports on the perimeter of the silos.
By means of a simple device, the laminates would be manually posttensioned to the desired load level The advantages of this solution with
respect to the traditional one were basically the greater speed and ease of
installation. Due to the small thickness of the composite laminate, the FRP
hoop would easily adapt itself to the external shape of the silos, hence, no
preliminary machining would be needed to realize the confining elements.
The low weight of CFRP would minimize the need for temporary supports
to keep the hoops in place before post-tensioning. The hoops would be
easily handled with no danger for the operator and with notable reduction of
the installation time. A cost analysis indicated that the second solution was
the most convenient.
DESIGN OF THE STRENGTHENING SYSTEM
As resulted from a preliminary evaluation, two CFRP confining hoops at the
bottom of the silo were needed, and it was decided that they would be placed
at 0.85-m and 1.70-m distance from the bottom of the silo. Among different
products available on the market, the choice was based on results of
laboratory tests performed on bonded joints, as reported later. The chosen
laminate had 100-mm width, 1.4-mm thickness, 170-GPa elastic modulus,
and 3100-MPa tensile strength.
Computation of the stress level to be applied to the CFRP hoops by posttensioning is reported as follows. Given the dimensions of the silos, the
maximum horizontal and vertical pressures resulting from the presence of
the stored material can be computed with the classical earth pressure theory
(Table 1). Assuming that two confining hoops are placed at 0.85-m and
1.70-m distance from the bottom of the silo, if the steel structure did not take
any load the tensile load in the hoops when the silo is completely filled
would be approximately equal to Nj = 90 kN and N2 = 84 kN, respectively.
An approximate analysis of the distribution of axial stiffness between
CFRP hoops and the steel structure revealed that the stiffness of steel was
notably large compared to that of FRP, the stiffness distribution coefficients
being 0.918 and 0.082, respectively. Hence, the use of passive FRP hoops,
even if applied to the empty silos, would not give any appreciable benefit to
the state of stress in the steel structure. Conversely, post-tensioning the
CFRP hoops would allow to tailor the distribution of stresses between CFRP
and steel by choosing the post-tensioning level. With reference to the first
CFRP hoop (starting from the bottom; the same reasoning is valid for the
upper one), if the hoop was not post-tensioned and applied to the empty silo,
the steel structure in the corresponding region would be unloaded when the
silo is empty, and carry about 91.8% of TV/ in tension when the silo is totally
filled, only the remaining 8.2% being carried by the CFRP. If the hoop was
post-tensioned to a load level equal to TV/ (with post-tensioning conducted on

the empty silo), the steel structure would carry Ni in compression when the
silo is empty, and about 8.2% of Ni in compression when the silo is filled. In
both cases, no significant advantage would be achieved from the application
of the FRP. In order for the steel structure to undergo the lowest absolute
value of the maximum load among the two extreme loading conditions of
empty silo and completely filled silo, the post-tensioning load must be equal
to 0.918/2 = 0.459 N,. Under this condition, the CFRP hoop carries 0.459 N,
in tension when the silo is empty, and (0.459 + 0.082) Ni = 0.541 N, in
tension when the silo is filled, whereas the steel structure carries in both
cases 0.459 Ni, in compression or in tension if the silo is empty or filled,
respectively. Hence, the state of stress in the steel structure is reduced to less
than half of the current one. The post-tensioning loads for the two hoops
were thus chosen equal to 41 kN and 38 kN. Such loads (and also the
maximum loads when the silo is filled, equal to 49 kN and 45 kN) are well
below the ultimate tensile load of the CFRP laminate, equal to 434 kN.
Table 1. Computation of the maximum pressures
Density of wheat,
y
<p\
pmax2
3
tg<P
tg i{n
(N/m )
<
8000
0.44
{^' IJ
(N/m )
0.24
25290
tymax
(N/m2)
11130
<Pi = Friction angle between wheat and steel

<p= Internal friction angle of wheat
Pmax = YHtg
?max = Pmax^'Pi
maximum horizontal pressure

maximum vertical pressure
A critical detail to be designed was the joint between the two ends of the
laminate, in order to form the hoop. An epoxy-based high-viscosity paste,
was used to realize the bonded joint. Type of CFRP laminate, bonded length
and construction details of the joint were all based on results of a series of
preliminary bond tests. Such tests were conducted on single-lap joint
specimens (Figure 2) using a 200-kN universal testing machine in
displacement-control mode with a 0.2-mm/min cross-head displacement
rate. The variables examined in the tests were: type of CFRP laminate (with
or without a superficial sand layer intended to improve the bond properties),
overlap length, and transverse wrapping of a CFRP sheet around the bonded
joint. The latter was introduced to take the normal tensile ("peeling")
stresses arising from the small eccentricity between the two laminates
connected by the joint. In the application of the laminate on the silo, further
normal tensile stresses would arise due to the curvature effect.
1356 FRPRC8-6: Field Applications and Case Studies

Test results are reported in Table 2. The joint with the sanded laminate
displayed lower values of ultimate load. In these specimens, bond failure
was accelerated by the detachment of the sand layer from the substrate, as
evidenced by visual inspection of- the fracture surfaces. In the specimens
with smooth laminate, the joint displayed cohesive failure in the epoxy paste
along the bond line. Application of a transverse CFRP wrap notably
improved the behaviour of the joint, in terms of ultimate load and pseudoductility of the bond stress-slip behaviour. While the unwrapped specimens
failed catastrophically, the wrapped ones showed a gradual drop of the load
with increasing slip and never reached a complete separation. Increasing the
length of the bonded joint led to a corresponding increase in ultimate load.
However, the increase was less than proportional due to the non-uniform
distribution of bond stresses along the bonded length.
Figure 2. Bond tests on lap joint specimens

Table 2. Results of the bond tests on lap joints
Type of CFRP
laminate
Sanded
Length of the joint

(mm)
300
500
Not sanded
300
500
Presence of
transverse wrap
NO
YES
YES
NO
YES
YES
Ultimate load
(kN)
60.3
80.7
115.1
85.1
126.0
140.2
Given the values of tensile load to be applied to the hoops, results of the
bond tests were considered satisfactory. The laminate with no sand was
Steel Silos with Post-Tensioned CFRP Laminates
1357
selected for the strengthening operation, the length of the joint was
conservatively taken as 1200 mm to account for uncertainties in the longterm performance of the joint and in the quality of workmanship, and it was
decided that the joint be transversely wrapped with two CFRP biaxial sheet
200 - mm wide strips at the two extreme locations of the joint.
A simple mechanical post-tensioning system for the hoops was
developed, and is illustrated in Figure 3. It consists of a support plate for the
hoop in correspondence of any vertical steel profile, and in another plate in
which two bolts are inserted which react against the profiles. Screwing of
the bolts forces the hoop to get away from the silo and thus produces a selfreacting system of radial pressures balanced by circumferential stresses. A
PTFE layer was applied between CFRP hoop and steel supporting plate, in
order to avoid electro-chemical corrosion effects and also to reduce friction
during the post-tensioning operation.
Stop thickness 20x50x200

Teflon sheet 100x200x3
CFRP laminate 100x1.4
Steel plate 100x200x4
Stop thickness 20x50x200
Figure 3. Tensioning device (dimensions in mm)
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STRENGTHENING SYSTEM

The strengthening operation was conducted in the following phases:
(a) The steel supporting plates, each covered by a PTFE layer, were
bolted to the vertical profiles (Figure 4). Such plates were realized
with a slight curvature, in order to follow the surface of the CFRP
laminate upon tensioning and better distribute the pressure;
(b) The CFRP hoop was positioned with temporary clips, using wooden
dowels to avoid damage to the laminate (Figure 5);
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
The overlap portion was bonded with the epoxy paste. In order to
ensure proper contact of the bonded surfaces during hardening, clips
(along with wooden dowels) were applied along the joint (Figure 6).
Moreover, heaters were placed close to the joint to accelerate curing
and, at the same time, to obtain a higher degree of polymerisation and
hence higher tensile strength and glass transition temperature for the
epoxy.. The heaters were kept in place for about 24 hours and
guaranteed a temperature of about 30C around the bonded joint;
After 7 days curing, the transverse wrapping was applied with the
hand lay-up technique (Figure 7);
After 7 days curing, the tensioning devices were put in place (Figure
8) and the post-tensioning was performed. The load level in the CFRP
hoops was known indirectly by means of strain measurements. Each
CFRP hoop was instrumented with three 6-mm electric strain gages on
their surface situated at 120 degrees along the circumference. The
strain gages were connected to an electronic data acquisition system.
The tensioning operation was conducted by screwing the bolts in
sequence around the perimeter of the silo (Figure 9), and monitoring
continuously the strain readings until the-value corresponding to the
desired load level was attained in all strain gages. The trend of the
readings was always reasonable during post-tensioning in the various
regions along the perimeter of the silo, and the readings were typically
very consistent with each other.
A few days after post-tensioning, a protective epoxy top coating was
applied on the hoops, to improve durability of the system. The silos
after completion of the work (but before coating) are shown in Figure
10.
support plates
CONCLUSIONS
The case study illustrated herein has clearly shown the fast, cost-effective
and innovative way in which CFRP laminates have been used to strengthen
six steel silos- in southern Italy. The installation was easy, fast and free of
risks for the operators, due to the light weight of the CFRP material. The
entire operation was conducted within 16-17 days merely because of the
curing time of the epoxies used for the bonded joints, but the actual working
time was less than three days.
The key concept of this work is that active strengthening should be used
whenever possible. The contribution of passive FRP systems to the loadcarrying capacity of a structure is in most cases limited, due to the low
stiffness of FRP and sometimes to the presence of load on the structure
during strengthening. The development of effective yet simple prestressing
or post-tensioning devices (such as the one presented herein) can

significantly raise the effectiveness and efficiency of FRP systems for
strengthening of civil engineering structures.
Figure 10. The silos tiller post-tensioning

REFERENCES
1. Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Fibre Reinforced Plastics
for Reinforced Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-5), Cambridge, UK, July 16-18,
2001.
2. Lopez-Anido, R., Muszynski, L., Gardner, D.S., and Goodell, B. (2001), "FRPGlulam Structures: From Material and Processing Issues to a PerformanceBased Evaluation Methodology," Proceedings of "Composites in Construction:
A Reality", Capri, Italy, July 20-21.
3. Tavakkolizadeh, M., and Saadatmanesh, H. (2002), "Repair of steel bridges
with CFRP plates", Proceedings of ACIC2002, Southampton University, UK,
15-17 April 2002
4. Aboudrar, A., Burghauser, A., Taljsten, B, (2000), "Strengthening of concrete
silos with CFRP", Proceedings of ACMBS-III, Ottawa, Canada, 15-18 August
2000, pp. 621-628.
5. Luke, S., Karuna, R., Jarman, A., and Godman, S. (2002), "Repair and
refurbishment of a Prill Tower in Qatar", Proceedings of ACIC2002,
Southampton University, UK, 15-17 April 2002
6. Emmons, P., Thomas, J., and Sabnis, G.M. (2001), "New Strengthening
Technology Developed - Blue Circle Cement Silo Repair and Upgrade",
Proceedings of the Int. Workshop on Structural Composites for Infrastructure
AppL, Cairo, Egypt, May 28-30 2001, pp. 97-107.

SEISMIC PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OF THE

BELL TOWER IN SERRA S.QUIRICO BY COMPOSITES
E. COSENZA AND I. IERVOLINO
Dept. of Structural Analysis and Design, University of Naples Federico II
via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples - Italy
E. GUGLIELMO
Head of State Office for Architectural and Environmental Heritage of Naples
Palazzo Reale, Piazza del Plebiscito, 80100 Naples - Italy
Masonry ancient buildings are relevant part of Italian cultural and
architectural heritage. Through centuries, these structures have been
subjected to several dangerous environmental events such as earthquakes.
During the recent 1997 Umbria-Marche earthquake, many historically and
architecturally important buildings experienced wide damages and losses.
Due to recent architectural restoration guidelines, any developed intervention
must not change appearance of the structure, structural mechanism and must
be also invasively limited. These innovative principles, that are quite obvious
from a cultural and artistic point of view, are very restrictive constraints to
engineers jobs. Furthermore, traditional structural materials may be not
suitable for these purposes. Besides, innovative materials such as composites,
and advanced analysis techniques according to the requirements listed above,
may be helpful in matching requirements. This philosophy was applied to the
design process of the retrofitting intervention for the bell tower of Serra S.
Quirico (Ancona - Italy). A light FRP ties system was gripped on the inner
walls; this reinforcing structure being anchored at the base on a formerly
built reinforced concrete slab independent of the tower foundation. The FRP
installation process was planned to avoid any material removal and also to
keep any non-structural element intact. In the present paper suitability of
innovative composite materials in structural rehabilitation of historical
buildings is demonstrated by describing on site dynamic preliminary tests,
intervention principles, design and construction processes for an important
masonry bell tower.
INTRODUCTION
While the repair and reconstruction of damages by Friuli (1976) and IrpiniaBasilicata (1980-1981) earthquakes was still going on, new technical
regulation, oriented to seismic adjustment of buildings, was promulgated in
Italy. It dealt with the idea of "performing several interventions in order to
make the structure resistant to the seismic actions". Those interventions,

based on reinforced concrete and construction steel bars, appeared
extremely harmful for structures belonging to the architectural heritage, and
would provoke irreversible damages. Construction steel, for example, was
commonly placed in masonry structures; its volumetric expansion due to
corrosion induced wide cracking in the retrofitted elements.
After the assessment of damages of those "seismic adjustment"
following the regulations, members of National Committee for Cultural
Heritage Seismic Risk Prevention (created by the Environmental and
Cultural Department in the 1986) claimed the principle of seismic
improvement, instead of seismic adjustment, by techniques respecting the
structural system and preserving their integrity. This thinking has been
clearly claimed by 16.1. 196 decree that explains the mandatory seismic
improvement for historically-artisitically relevant structures as
"interventions on the structural elements of the building in order to increase
the safety margin without changing the main features of global behaviour".
It is worth noting that is not possible to get completely removable
interventions, keeping their structural effectiveness; this is why the listed
principles should be called "asymptotic" concepts. Innovative structural
materials are helpful in the matter. Using varying composite matrices
quantities, fibres types and relative percentage, several structural problems
can be addressed; it opens new scenarios for engineers. Industrial
processing and economical reasons only, limit these new structural
capabilities.
Continuous fibres composites, due to their lightness, strength and
durability features, are particularly powerful. The intervention
described in the following shows this. The focused structure is an
aging bell tower affected by the umbria-marche earthquake (1997).
The S. Lucia's church bell tower is a sac-masonry structure built
during the XV century, it is a very tall structure (approx. 32 m in
height, 1100 tons in weight) at the centre of the little town of serra s.
quirico that is a mid-age suburb near ancona (see figure la).
To improve the structural seismic strength, inner steel beams reticular
system anchored to the masonry was formerly designed. It was concepted to
be a fully substitutive structures in case of earthquake. It would need the
removal of existing wood floors and their replacement by steel panels and
anchoring of steel profiles in the masonry.
As the designed intervention strongly defy the concepts of structural
restoration, cultural heritage department authorities rejected this proposal
due to its structural invasion. Then the former supervisor to the architectural
Seismic Performance Improvement of Bell Tower 1363
heritage of Marche, Arch. Enrico Guglielmo, consulted the first author for a
solution using innovative materials. The whole process, including
installation of composites, was finished in the summer of 2002. In the
following preliminary structural investigations, the design process and
realization phases are described.
STRUCTURAL INVESTIGATIONS
Since the structure is completely surrounded by buildings, uncertainty
regarding the whole dynamic behaviour were added. to the traditional
uncertainties associated with materials features and conditions.
Experimental tests were then carried out to obtain data on the constraining
level between the tower and the adjoining buildings (mainly theJS. Lucia's
Church and its cluster). The tests described elsewhere1, comprised the
following tasks:
1. Simple linear continuous and concentrated mass models set up by

the technical literature to preliminary assess the modal behaviour.
2. Detailed 3D finite elements structural modelling (see Figure 3)
based on the relief performed by the task force (33000 nodes; 27000
elements pre-processed with Altair HyperMesh 4.0 software).
3. Numerical study to get vibration frequencies and modal shapes
considering the presence and absence of lateral constraints.
4. Forced vibration test using a vibration machine and wind action.
Using very accurate accelerometers allowed low excitation
energies, avoiding damages to the painted church and the cluster.
5. Comparison of numerical and experimental results gives the
material mechanical properties and whole structural behaviour2.
Experimental and numerical analyses are summarized in Table 1. The
results in terms of natural frequencies and shapes clearly indicate constraints
from surrounding buildings.
Table 1. Experimental and numerical dynamic analyses comparison.

3D FEM no
constraints
3D FEM w/o
constraints
Experimental
Tests
I mode
1.1 Hz Bending
2.27 Hz Bending
1.95 Hz Bending
II mode
1.13 Hz Bending
2.40 Hz Bending
2.20 Hz Bending
III mode
4.86 Hz Bending
7.21 Hz Torsional
6.75 Hz Torsional
Numerical model was used also for static analyses considering weight
wind and conventional seismic action3. Masonry density (1900 kg/m3), was
evaluated by on site-tests. The elasticity modulus was estimated as 2000
MPa; this value was also confirmed by dynamic analyses.
In Figure 2, modal shapes obtained from 3D FEM analysis are plotted
for the first three modes in both the free and side-constrained subcases.
A A
t\<~/\
\%
-j
(a)
? \
j ^
.*
J (b)
Figure 2. F.E. modal analysis for free (a) and constrained (b)conditions.
RETROFITTING DESIGN
The design process was intended to satisfy the principles listed above, with
the planned intervention avoiding local masonry failures4 and improving the
seismic strength of the structure (see Figure 3).
ffl
Figure 3. Bell tower composites intervention relief into two sections.

A reticular system, made of horizontal and vertical carbon fibres, was
gripped on the inner walls of the tower (see Figure 4). The FRP was
installed without removing the original wood beams at floors; only wood
panels were temporarily removed and restored at the end of the whole
process. Horizontal short composite elements were spaced in the walls
corners to improve the grip (see Figure 5a).
From the structural point of view, the FRP design was aimed to greatly
improve seismic capacity of the tower. Usually structural engineering
practice neglects masonry tension strength, while FRP ensure a monolithic
behaviour for high intensity earthquakes. The structure keeps its static
mechanism for low intensity seismic activity because the added stiffness is
very low in comparison to the one of the bell tower, but in case of strong
motion the tension side of masonry loses cohesion, allowing the composites
to start working; then the masonry behave as a reinforced structure.
A reinforced concrete slab (70 cm thickness, 40 micro poles), built as
foundation for formerly proposed steel structure, was used for anchoring
composites to the ground without overloading the original tower's
foundation. The strength improvement was computed by ultimate limit state
analysis. The results indicated that the critical cross section is the one that
corresponds to the connection between the tower and the church. With the
composites, the overturning moment, considering a ultimate stress in the
masonry of 4 MPa, jumps from 1650 tm to 2750 tm (limit strain in the
masonry equal to 0.2%) or 3000 tm (limit in strain of 0.5%), implying a 7085% strength improvement.
A simplified analysis, considering unlimited masonry strength and full
strength development of the FRP, gives an overturning moment of 1780 tm
without considering intervention, and 3440 tm with composites,
corresponding to a 90% of strength improvement. The calculations show
that this solution gives a higher strength improvement with a very low
structural invasion. The composites used were made of 20 cm wide double
layer fabric, 600 g/m2 in weight and 0.67 mm in thickness. A key aspect of
the intervention was the composites-masonry grip system, the fabrication
details and the anchoring of the composites to the foundations.
INSTALLATION OF COMPOSITES
The installation strictly followed the design specifications. Despite the small
available space and the presence of the wood beams, the composite textile
allowed a simple installation. To obtain a good grip, masonry samples were
analysed to get the optimum surface treatment. The process is illustrated in
Figures 4 to 6. In Figure 4 and 5b, an anchoring steel plate detail is shown;
also the horizontal and oblique elements are displayed close to an original
wooden beam.
figure 4, installed composites and base anchorage.
In Figure 6, another anchoring plate is pictured; it is very stiff since it

should not be the weakest element of the whole system. The focused plate is
in the most irregular corner of the inner part of the bell tower, and a large
quantity of filling resin was needed. Figure 5(a) shows a horizontal element
which was used to improve the grip on the masonry. Figure 6 shows how
the composite structural system geometry was locally modified to avoid
passing over the tower openings.
(a)
d(h)
nîirc v ihUYwniion v.ills p.rippin (rO and andioiinp delaiis (h)
Figure 6. Composites near 1o unrcmoved wooden floor
The lack of pictures brightness in the pictures is due to the achievement of

the "transparency" target of the intervention design process: the
improvement of structural strength is strong but the installation is "light".
CONCLUSIONS
The intervention on the bell tower of the S. Lucia's church is an interesting
application of composites in the structural restoration. Transparency and
low structural invasion are fully achieved, avoiding holes and removal of
wooden beams and slabs. In the same time structural target was satisfied
also since the seismic strength was greatly increased; the same safety level
could be obtained as with a heavy steel structure (that is, to the rejected
former design). The composites are placed directly on the masonry surface
so they are removable and almost invisible. The application is a case of
fruitful interaction among state offices; architects and engineers trough
innovative structural techniques (on site structural identification tests,
refined numerical 3D modelling, advanced design using innovative
materials). The result is a model procedure for further interventions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge architects A. Cyrillo Gomes and U. Soragni for
relieves and architectural aspects; Ph.E. S. Vitolo for aiding in analyses.
REFERENCES
1. T. Pelella, G. Mannara, E. Cosenza, I. Iervolino and L. Lecce:
"Structural dynamic investigations on the bell tower from the S.Lucia's
church - Serra S. Quirico, Ancona"; 7' Int. Seminar on Seismic
Isolation, Passive Energy Dissipation and Active Control of Vibrations
of Structures, Assist, Italy, October 2-5, 2001.
2. P.Clemente, G. Buffarini, G. Bongiovanni and D. Rinaldis, "Dynamic
characterization of the bell tower ofS. Giorgio in Trignano before and
after restoration", ISTHECH Project, Final Workshop.
3. V. Zabel, C. Bucher and J. Riedel, "The dynamic behaviour of a
historical bell tower in situ-test and numerical investigation''' , Faculty
of Civil Engineering, Institute of Structural Mechanics, Bauhaus
University Weimar, Germany.
4. Bongiovanni G., Clemente P. and Buffarini G., "Analysis of the seismic
response of damaged masonry bell tower" Proa, 12 the World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Auckland, 30 Jan-4 Feb 2000.

STRENGTHENING WITH CFRP UNDER SIMULATED

LIVE LOADS
A. HEJLL, A. CAROLIN AND B. TALJSTEN
Div. of Structural Engineering Dept. of Civil and Mining Enginering
Lulea Univ. of Technology SE-971 87 WLEA
The need for concrete strengthening and retrofitting is well known and
the research in this field is widespread. Many methods exist for
strengthening and retrofitting, for example concrete castings, external post
tensioning, and shotcreting. In recent years, the use of CFRP (Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Polymer) plate bonding has been shown to be a competitive
method for strengthening and retrofitting, both from the point of view of
structural performance and economical advantages . This method implies
that a thin carbon fibre laminate or fabric is bonded to the surface of a
structure and then acts as an outer reinforcement layer. However, in most
research, the laboratory tests have been undertaken on beams without any
loads acting during the strengthening process and adhesive curing. Owners
of structures need in many cases to continue with their activity or service
while the strengthening system is carried out. The most common example
is strengthening of bridges, where a delay in traffic would not only produce
negative public interest but also in many cases would not be a realistic
alternative. This paper presents research performed on CFRP strengthened
concrete beams, loaded during strengthening and curing of the adhesive
(i.e. simulating live loads from trains or heavy trucks) and how this affects
the final strengthening result. A full-scale application on a railroad bridge
has shown that it is possible to strengthen a structure under live loads, but
there is a lack of understanding of how this will affect the strengthening.
The beams loaded in static four point bending tests during strengthening
and curing were compared with similar reference beams, strengthened and
cured under no load conditions. The shear stress between the CFRP and the
concrete was additionally examined both during curing and during the test
to failure. The deflection, loads and strains on the CFRP were also
measured during both tests.
INTRODUCTION
Today, CFRP bonding is a quite common method for strengthening concrete
structures. An extensive amount of research has been carried out throughout
the world during the last decade 5 6 7, where theoretical as well as laboratory
tests have been undertaken. There has however, not been much focus placed
on the users' needs. For example a question which still requires further
attention is whether or not it is possible to strengthen a structure during
movement of traffic.
During a real strengthening case in 1999, it was assumed to be possible
to strengthen a bridge during normal traffic flow. This was the Kallkallan
bridge in Lulea, Sweden '. However, the frequency of the load as well as the
speed of the traffic was low. The Swedish Railway Association had
demanded that the traffic not be stopped during the strengthening work due
to the importance of the iron ore traffic. A prohibition to pass the bridge
during the duration of the strengthening work would have caused serious
economic damages for the mining company in question. The trains did not
cause extreme strain deformations where the CFRP laminate was applied
but large enough to be of concern.
Measurements on the Kallkallan bridge, before and after the
strengthening showed that the stiffness was 15 % higher after strengthening
works with CFRP in spite of the fact that the resin was cured during
movement. However, it was assumed at this point that the strengthening
effect would have been larger if no live loads were allowed on the structure
during strengthening.
TESTING
To clarify the possible strengthening losses due to live loads, an
experimental test on concrete beams was carried out. The objective of the
tests was to have a curing situation as realistic as possible. A highway, the
E4, near Lulea was the subject for the real traffic loads, where a typical load
regime was chosen.
Test Beams
The test beams were heavily reinforced for shear failure, by providing shear
reinforcement <>
( 10, Ks500, cc 150mm. The tensile and compression
reinforcement consists of 2 <|>16 at the top and bottom. The dimensions of
the beams and the test set-up is shown in Figure 1.
Strengthening under Simulated Live Loads 1373

200
1600
200
c
1100
400
F/2
F72
Figure 1. Dimension of test beams and dynamic test set-up

External CFRP Reinforcement
Four beams were reinforced with rods (NSMR), and four were reinforced
with laminates. Two types of CFRP with modulus of 250 and 160 GPa were
used with two different adhesives, one with high viscosity and the other with
lower viscosity.
Table 1 Specification of the test specimens
E-module
160 GPa
160 GPa
250 GPa
250 GPa
160 GPa
160 GPa
250 GPa
250 GPa
CFRP
BPE NSMR 101
BPE NSMR 101
BPE NSMR 101
BPE NSMR 101
BPE Laminate 155
BPE Laminate 155
BPE Laminate 155
BPE Laminate 155
Name
BS32
BS32hv
BM32
RefBM32
LS32
RefLS32
LM32
RefLM32
Dimension
10x10 mm2
10x10 mm2
10x10 mm2
10x10 mm2
1,5x49 mm2
10x10 mm2
1,5x49 mm2
1,5x49 mm2
Adhesive
NM BPE 465
NM BPE 567
NM BPE 465
NM BPE 465
NM BPE 567
NM BPE 567
NM BPE 567
NM BPE 567
Strain Gauges
To be able to calculate the shear stress between the concrete and the CFRP
laminates and NSMR-rods, strains on the CFRP were measured. Here, eight
strain gauges were attached on the CFRP in accordance to Figure 2.
xi-L
s
Gauge No
Distance x fmml
7
i
1 2
5 20
6
i
3
50
5 4 3 2 1 GaugiNo
I i 111
4
100
5
200
6
400
1
600
8
1600
Figure 2. Strain gauges attached to the CFRP reinforcement
The strain gauges were bonded closer to each other at the ends. The
reason for this is that the theoretical shear stress is highest near the cut-off
end. In the cross-section at the centre of the beam, three strain gauges were
applied. The first on the CFRP, gauge No 8 in Figure 2, the second on the
flexural reinforcement and the last on the concrete at the top of the beam.
This gauge set-up was not only used to measure the strains at failure but also
to detect the curing course of the adhesive.
Live Load Test
Only heavy trucks passing the measurement point were simulated as one
load cycle which approximately gave one deflection every other minute or
0.0092 Hz. A passing truck was simulated to pass the object in 3.5 seconds.
The force acting on the test beams was chosen to 60% of the breaking load
of an unstrengthened beam which gives a maximum load of 40 kN. The
minimum force was chosen as 5 kN to prevent vibration in the set up. The
beams were mounted upside down in a four-point loading set up. The reason
for mounting the beam upside down was to simplify the strengthening
procedure and supervise the movements of the CFRP reinforcement.
Another advantage was that the curing course of the resin adhesive was
easier to inspect. The cycles continued until the decrease of the deflection
was negligible. This occurred after approximately 700-1000 hours
depending on the adhesive used.
Failure Test
Before the static failure test the beams were stored for 5 days in a controlled
environment of 20 C and RH 50 %. The static failure test was conducted as
a four point bending test similar to the live load set-up. The difference was
that for the failure test the beam tested was turned with the underside of the
beam facing the floor. The load was deflection controlled and applied with a
speed of 0.03 mm/sec until failure occurred.
THEORY
Failure Modes
During the four point bending test, a strengthened concrete beam passes
from state I, uncracked concrete, to state II, cracking in the concrete, and in
most cases to state III where cracking is visual and yielding in the internal
reinforcement has happened. Depending on the geometry and the material
properties of the beam and the CFRP reinforcement different failure modes
occur. The possible failure modes defined here are:
(a) Concrete failure in the compression zone
(b) Shear failure in the concrete beam,
(c) Tensile failure in the CFRP laminates,
(d) CFRP reinforcement peeling-off, and
(e) CFRP reinforcement concrete failure.
In this paper, the CFRP reinforcement peeling-off failure due to high shear
and normal stresses is discussed. The research performed at Lulea
University of technology ' and by others9,10 shows that peeling-off failure is
the most common if other failure modes are not forced by special
geometrical properties, such as heavy internal bending reinforcement, to
obtain a shear failure. The peeling-off procedure is caused by shear and
normal stresses occurring at the cut-off ends of the CFRP. Large shear
stresses also culminate near cracks in the concrete but they are not
considered in this study.
Theoretical Shear Stresses
Shear stresses acting in the bond zone between an external reinforcement
and a concrete beam depend on the loading configuration. In a four point
loading set-up, the two point loads Pi and P2 are acting on the beam.
Taljsten 2 gives the following expression for the forces acting between the
concrete and the external reinforcement. This model is compared with
similar models by Smith and Teng3. The model turns out to be a simple but
satisfactory model with the exception that there is only one point load acting
on the beam. If two point loads act on the beam then each load has to be
considered individually and the shear stresses have to be super-imposed as
follows:
, x
G-P
2-l + a-b
a-A-e'A+l
T(X)=
(1)
2_G-t
E A
\ff
+E-c'A
Ec-Ac
(2)
The two point loads. Pi and P2 causing shear stress are calculated
individually.

Ga-Pl
'
2-l + a-b,
2-s-E-W^
a-A-e~Ax
+l
l+a
(3)
where Ga = shear modulus of adhesive [Pa], a = distance between support

and CFRP [m], b = distance to point load [m] and s = thickness of adhesive
layer [m]
( \T
2 \X)
G P
' 2
2-s-Ec-Wc
2-1 +a-b2
l +a
~~ '
a-X-e~lx
X1
+\
(4)
The total shear stress between the CFRP reinforcement and the concrete
is the sum of ij and x2 These equations are then used for evaluation of the
test results (see Figure 6).
Experimental Shear Stresses
*Z^=*rh==-=jr*jt.
nr
a+da
Ul
U2
dx
Figure 3. Equilibrium between CFRP and concrete
Consider the small element cut out from a CFRP laminate in Figure 3. The
normal stress in the laminate can be written as:
Wj - u2
F
a
t-h
Ax
du
dx
(5)
Equilibrium in Figure 3, then gives:
Ua + da-a)dAf
- \T(x)dA). = 0
(6)

I dx
da -t-h =
d(E-s)-t-
fir(X)dxdy
(7)
h = / r{x)dx
(8)
and the shear stress can be expressed as:

r{x) = E-h-
ds
dx
(9)
For a NSMR rod the height, h, is equal to t and the shear stress acts on
three sides of the rectangular rod. Therefore the shear force for NSMR rod is
{x) = E
ds
(10)
T~dx~
RESULTS
In all the tests, the strains have been measured continuously during curing of
the adhesive and at the time of static tests. In Figure 4, the result during
curing is shown. The curves presented in Figure 4 clearly show when the
strain in the steel decreases and the CFRP laminate and NSMR start bearing
the load. After approximately 700 minutes a stabilised situation has
occurred, this means that at this point the adhesive had bonded to both the
composite and concrete.
BS32HV
2000
2000
Steel
' 1500
I 1500
^ 1000
' 1000
CFRP
500
_CEBE_
500
0
400
400
800
1200
800
1200
Time [min]
Time [min]
Figure 4. Strain in internal reinforcement.

In Figure 5, the shear stresses calculated from the measured strains
during cycling are shown for beams BM32 BS32 LM32 and LS32. In these

diagrams, it may be noted that the more cycles undertaken, the higher the
shear stresses recorded in the bond zone.
BS32
ft-
I 0,7
' ''
V0,5
0,3
I0'1
r*-~.-r"*~T " ~ ; r
i
-0,3*
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8

Distance [m]
- 220 cycles
230 cycles
- 400 cycles
1000 cycles
0.8
|0,7
1 ' 35
1 ' 1
S '
s .
I-0'1
1 2
-0,3
I '0,79
100 cycles
i '0,35
200 cycles
130 cycles
- 600 cycles
&-"'
-0,3
Distance [m]
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
(I 02 04 06 08 1
Distance [m]
Distance [m]
Figure 5 Experimental Shear Stress during the curing of the adhesive.
Experimental
Experimental
-Theoretical
- Theoretical
0
0,2
0,4
0,6 0,8
1
Distance [m]
1,2
1,4
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1

Distance [m]
1,2
1,4
1,6
LM32
5T7
I6
w5
tn 5
a) 4
g> 4
\Expeiiineiil
35 3
S 2
co 3
i5 2
5co1
0
mreoretfcat:
Êxperimental
^ 1
0
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8
Distance [m]
1,2
,4 1,1
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6

Distance [m]
Figure 6 Theoretical Shear Force compared with experimental result

Hence, the above test results indicate that it is possible to strengthen
concrete structures during loading with epoxy bond laminates or NSMR.
The next step is to evaluate the static four point bending test. In Figure 6, the
curves from the tests are shown. It can clearly be seen in this figure that no
significant difference, between beams subjected to cyclic load during curing
and strengthened beams cured under normal no-load conditions, exists. The
beams strengthened under live load have similar failure load to the reference
beam that has been strengthened without live load. Beam LM32 is 15%
weaker compared with the corresponding reference beam. Beam LS32
shows almost exactly the same behaviour as reference beam LS32 and
BM32 has a higher failure load compared with reference beam BM32.
Compared with an unstrengthened beam, the test beams failed at 80-150%
higher load. This strengthens the assumption that movement during curing
will not affect the final strengthening result. In addition, the shear stresses
along the bond zone for the laminate and NSMR rod have been calculated
using Eqs. (12) and (13) respectively and compared with experimental
results from the measured strains. The total force of the two point loads was
chosen to 100 kN due to the fact that a higher load causes more cracks and
the evaluation becomes considerably more difficult.
175
150
g-125
^.100
-BS32H
15 75
vReferenceUnstrengtriened
o
-J 50
25
0
10
20
30
Deflection [mm]
40
50
175
150
' 125
100
75
50 25
0
Ref LM32
/RefLS32
i<< - ^ ^ i ^ = ~ L S 3 2
Reference
Unstrenqthened
J^'
J%-10
20
30
Deflection [mm]
(a) NSMR
(b) Laminate
Figure 7 Test specimens compared with reference beams
The curves show quite a good agreement between theory and test. The
NSMR beams correspond especially well, which may seem surprising since
Taljsten's 2 model is first derived for laminates. However, the shear stress
transfer is similar in both cases.
CONCLUSIONS
(a) For an uncracked concrete beam, Taljsten's model2 for shear force along
external flexural reinforcement corresponds to the measured shear
forces well.

(b) During the curing of the adhesive, the shear stress increase is due to the
live load that acts on the beam. The strains in the internal reinforcement
decrease to the same degree as the strains in the external CFRP
reinforcement increase, indicating that the strengthening process works.
(c) The comparison between the reference beam and the test specimens
shows no or small difference, which means that strengthening can be
done without stopping traffic.
(d) The strengthened beams failed at 80-150 % higher load compared to a
non- strengthened beam.
REFERENCES
1. Carolin, A "Strengthening of concrete structures with CFRP: Shear
strengthening and full-scale applications" Licentiate Thesis, Lulea
university of technology, Division of structural engineering, ISSN: 14021757
2. Taljsten, B "Strengthening of concrete beams by plate bonding" Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, 1997, pp206-212
3. Smith S. T. and Teng J. G. Interfacial stresses in plated beams, Engineering
Structures 23 2001 pp 857-871
4. Hejll, A Norling, O "Betongbalkar forstarkta med kolfiberkomposit:
Dynamisk belasting under limmets hardningsforlopp" Lulea university of
technology, Division of structural engineering, ISSN:1402-1617 (In
Swdish)
5. Burgoyne, C. J, "Advanced Composites in Civil Engineering in Europe"
Structural Engineering Int., Journal of the IABSE, V.9 No. 4, 1999
November pp.267-273
6. Erki, M.-A. "Fibre-Reinforced Polymers for Structural Engineering in
Canada" Structural Engineering Int., Journal of the IABSE, V. 9 No. 4,
1999 November pp.278-280.
7. Fukuyama, H. "Fibre-Reinforced Polymers in Japan" Structural
Engineering Int., Journal of the IABSE, V.9 No.4, 1999 pp.263-266.
8. Karbhari, V. and Seible, F. "Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites for
Civil Infrastructure in the USA", Structural Engineering Int., Journal of the
IABSE,V.9 No.4 1999 Nov. pp.274-277
9. Garden, H N, Quanrrill, R J, Hollaway, L C, Thome, A M, Parke, G A R
"An experimental study of the anchorage length of carbon fibre composite
plates used to strengthen reinforced concrete beams" Construction and
Building Materials, Elsevier #12 1998.
10. Chaallal, O., Nollet, M.-J., and Perraton, D. "Strengthening of reinforced
concrete beams with externally bonded fibre-reinforced-plastic plates:
Design guidelines for shear and flexure", Canadian Journal of Civil
Engineering 1998b, pp. 692-704

COMPOSITE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS - FROM

CHARACTERIZATION TO FIELD IMPLEMENTATION
V.M. KARBHARI AND H. GUAN
Department of Structural Engineering, MC-0085;
University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0085, USA
L. ZHAO
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816-2450, USA
Successful implementation of FRP composite materials in civil
infrastructure for new construction depends on the development of
structural concepts and systems that combine these "new" materials with
conventional ones, optimizing the functional efficiency of each of the
classes of materials. This paper describes the development of a class of
structural systems incorporating FRP shell type components that serve as
girders with deck systems ranging from full FRP decks to polypropylene
fiber reinforced steel free concrete deck systems. The transition of this
system to the field through the construction of a bridge along a major
highway is described emphasizing aspects important to field
implementation. Results of load testing of this bridge after construction in
the field are provided as part of the implementation of a health monitoring
system.
INTRODUCTION
As tailorable materials that are light-weight and provide very high values of
specific performance (i.e. performance divided by density) fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP) composites provide immense opportunities for use in the
renewal of civil infrastructure. They are already being used extensively for
the rehabilitation of deteriorating and under-strength civil structures through
external bonding. Although still not widely accepted, these materials, either
by themselves, or in conjunction with traditional construction materials,
provide significant potential for use in new structural systems ranging from
bridges and industrial buildings, to large domed recreational areas, and even
artificial living environments of the future. In the near term the use of FRP
components for new bridge systems is extremely attractive since they

present opportunities for rapid construction (with the attendant advantages
of less disruption to existing traffic and/or faster access to new routes),
longer spans (due to decreased self-weight), enhanced seismic resistance,
greater ease of combining form and function (thereby increasing aesthetic
appeal without significant additional cost), and even decreasing the
environmental impact to the surroundings.
This paper provides a summary of development and field
implementation of a specific type of bridge system, which combines FRP
materials with conventional construction materials. The example is
presented as a case study and includes load test results and strategies in
place for long-term health monitoring.
DESCRIPTION OF BRIDGE SYSTEM
The intrinsic system consists of prefabricated filament-wound carbon/epoxy
shells that serve as girders after being filled on-site with concrete. The shell
serves the dual function of reinforcement and stay-in-place formwork for
the concrete core. The concrete provides compression force transfer,
stabilizes the thin shell against buckling, and allows the anchorage of
connection elements. Transverse ribs are provided on the inside of the
carbon shell for full force transfer between the concrete infill and the shell.
For the development of superstructure components, the concrete filled
carbon shells are combined with a structural deck system, which consist of
either a conventional cast-in-place reinforced concrete (RC) slab, or a FRP
modular deck system.
In general the FRP deck system, fabricated primarily with E-glass fiber
reinforcement, is roughly 1/4* - 1/6* the weight of a reinforced concrete
deck of similar depth and stiffness. A number of deck configurations exist
fabricated using pultruded profiles as cores with additional face sheets, resin
infused truss or box type systems, and even honeycomb or modified
sandwich type panels. The deck and girders are connected through the use
of dowels, which are anchored in the confined concrete through the
carbon/epoxy shells. It should be noted that confinement of the concrete
within the shell provides for use of shorter development lengths and better
connections. A schematic of the concept is shown in Figure 1, wherein the
connection between deck and girder sections is also shown.
Composite Structural Systems 1383
_No. 19 Dowels
O 610
Hoop (90*) ond

Longitudinal (10') fibers
(unit: mm)
Figure 1. Schematic of the shell system and the girder-deck connection

THE KINGS STORMWATER CHANNEL BRIDGE
The Kings Stormwater Channel Bridge, a two-lane highway bridge recently
completed on Route 86 in California, utilizes the concept of the Carbon
Shell Bridge System (CSS). The design of the bridge, as schematically
shown in Figure 2, consists of a two-span beam-and-slab superstructure
with multicolumn intermediate piers. The superstructure is composed of 6
longitudinal carbon shell girders with 10 mm wall thickness and 0.34 m
inside diameter, which are connected across their tops with a modular FRP
deck system consisting of interlocking pultruded profiles bonded together
with additional face sheets placed by wet layup. The girders are attached to
the abutment end diaphragm and the center cap-beam by continuing the
carbon shell into the reinforced concrete elements, and providing a
conventional steel reinforcement anchorage.
The design criteria for the bridge were set to ensure that the structural
performance meets both Safety and Functionality Limit States. The Safety
Limit State was defined in terms of allowable stain levels for the advanced
composite components as being 10% of ultimate for DEAD LOAD, 25% of
ultimate for SERVICE I conditions, and 50% of ultimate for STRENGTH I
conditions. The functionality limit states were defined as a maximum
overall deflection under live load of L/800, and a maximum strain under
SERVICE I conditions of 2500 microstrain. These criteria and the
structural response of individual components and the entire system was
validated through large- and full-scale component and systems level testing
in conjunction with the development of detailed analytical models as
described in Reference 1. For purposes of systems characterization a fullscale superstructure system consisting of three carbon shell girders and a
FRP deck system was constructed and tested1,2. The test specimen simulated

one half of the width and the distance between the support and the
inflection point of one span of the prototype bridge.
20.1m (66'-0")
a) Plan view
20.1m f 6 6 ' - m
_
Reinforced Concrete or
Advoced Composite Deck System
b) Longitudinal section
Polymer concrete wearing surface
Carboni shell
shell
\_glrder
glrder filled with
concrete, 343mm
ID, 10mm thick
5 girders O 2.4m
c) Cross section
Figure 2. Overall Geometry of the bridge
The bridge superstructure (Figure 3) was initially subjected to 2 million
cycles of fatigue service loading consisting of 4 servo-controlled actuators
applying a load of 56 kN each at a frequency of 1 Hz. This load level
duplicates the shear force demand on the prototype bridge at the girder-deck
interface under full service loads. Test results show that the strength and
stiffness of the structure did not degrade during fatigue loading. The loaddisplacement response of the system at mid-span is shown in Figure 4. The
system remained primarily linear up to failure, which occurred through

local buckling and subsequent delaminations between the pultraded cores
and the top face sheet at a total load of 1960 kN. It is noted that this level is
equivalent to approximately 8.8 times the service level demand. Failure
traversed the entire width of the system near the loading location at the midspan, agreeing with the analytical results from a 3-dimensional finite
element model, which showed the highest in-plane stresses in the top flange
of the deck at that location, and that the first-ply failure occurred in the
laminate at that load3. After failure occurred, the system still possessed
approximately 85% of its maximum capacity. When loading resumed, it was
able to achieve up to approximately 95% of its original maximum capacity,
with a decreased stiffness.
Figure 3. Test Setup
Figure 4. Load-displacement response
CONSTRUCTION OF THE BEIDGE

A sequence of events in the construction of the bridge is shown in Figure 5.
Hollow carbon shell girders were placed with steel reinforcement cages
embedded in the abutment on one end and the pier cap on the other. Holes
on the top of the girders were provided for making connections between the
deck and the girders using steel dowels. The dowels were held in place
through pumping of concrete into the girders starting at one end and-being
vented through each pair of dowel holes and the other end. FRP deck
panels were then installed on the girders, and the deck-to-girder connection
was made by locally grouting the dowels into the core of the deck panels
with polymer concrete.
Once completed a conventional concrete barrier system was cast using
slots in the deck to allow penetration of rebar which was cast inside using
polymer concrete4. It should be noted that the use of polymer concrete as a
filler/grout within the FRP deck and in the saddle between the deck and the
girders precludes the possibility for alkali attack of E-glass fibers in the
deck which would have occurred were standard Portland cement to have
been used. Figure 6 shows the completed bridge
::^NL\
(a) Girder installation between abutment

and cap beam formwork
(b) Dowels embedded in concrete filled

girders
(c) Placement of deck over girders with

(d) Use of polymer concrete u* fill
dowels entering precui cutouts in the
saddle and cut-out region
deck
Figure 5. Sequence of system installation
Figure 6. Completed bridge

Since the bridge is on a major highway with significant traffic,
including heavy truck traffic, at speeds of over 100 km/h, it was decided
that the bridge be proof tested at periodic intervals, including prior to its
opening. In addition a system of sensors for continuous health monitoring
was also considered to be advantageous since it would provide an
opportunity to study over the long-term the response of the FRP
components and of the bridge system.
LOAD TESTS
Prior to the opening of the bridge, two separate load tests were conducted.
The first was due to the movement of a paver over the bridge whereas the
second was a planned test using specific trucks. Both tests were conducted
using deflection and strain transducers to monitor structural response.
The paver loading represented approximately one-half the flexural
demand by the design truck loading regime. The loading profile, i.e., track
location, of the concrete paver is shown in Figure 7(a) with maximum
displacements being shown in Figure 7(b). The arrows in Figure 7(b)
denote the locations of the two tracks of the paver, relative to the 6 girders,
across the width of the bridge. It should be noted that the "paver" test was
conducted prior to the construction of the side barriers, which are expected
to contribute to the overall system stiffness.
(a) Locations of paver tracks
(b) Displacement profile
Figure 7. Details of the "paver" test

In order to simulate the actual design loading on the bridge three trucks
that approximated the full flexural demand were used. A photograph of the

loading vehicles and the locations of their axles for the proof test are shown
in Figure 8,
Figure 8. Track configuration for the load test

The test results from some of the "string pots" and strain gages at midspan, where maximum response was observed, are shown in Figure 9.
2 ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^ - ^
,_^-^-|r_^-T^
500
(a) Deflection response
(b) Strains measured at the bottom of the

girder at midspan
Figure 9. Results of load test
In Figure 9(a), "vn3" and "vs3" are displacements measured from the
north and south mid-span, respectively. The first peak (downward
deflection of-the bridge is defined as negative) in the figure occurred when
the second axles of the three trucks traveled to the south mid-span, while
the second peak occurred when the same axles traveled to the north midspan. Both peaks reached approximately 9 mm, or L/1118. In comparison
with the design target of 1/800, in which the stiffness contribution from the
barrier rail was not considered, the superstructure was significantly stiffer.
Each curve has three peaks, which correlate with the passing of the three
sets of axles, i.e. the front axles of all three trucks, the second and third
axles of all three trucks, and the fourth and fifth axles of Truck #3 (the long

truck), respectively. The maximum measured strain was approximately 450
microstrain, equivalent to 4.5% of the ultimate strain capacity of the carbon
shell (10,000 microstrain) and 18% of the allowable strain for service loads
(2,500 microstrain). Measurements from the "gap pots", which represented
relative movement in the vertical direction between adjacent deck panels,
were lower than 0.1 mm, indicating good connection integrity of the deckto-deck joints.
Within a few months of the opening of the bridge a flash flood caused
significant flow in the stream below the bridge with debris including trunks
of trees, some of which were trapped below the bridge with repeated impact
taking place between the roots and the girders. In order to assess the
response of the bridge after this event as well as to conduct a routine
assessment of bridge performance a second load test was performed. Since
the purpose of the investigation was the assessment of overall bridge
response it was decided to consider a number of different traffic conditions
as listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Comparison of results of second load test
Load Condition
Rolling loads
Full-lane load
Two-lanes loaded
Brake test*
Predicted 3-AASHTO design
trucks without the dynamic
amplification factor
Predicted 3-AASHTO design
trucks without the dynamic
amplification factor
%of
Maximum
Mid-Span
Deflection
(mm)
DeflectionSpan
Ratio**
Peak
Strain
7.16
9.25
8.20
7.34
11.09
L/1400
L/1088
171226
L/1370
L/906
300
403
377
291
625
allowable
strain under
Service I
conditions
12
16
15
12
25
14.76
L/682
831
33
* From 48 km/h to a stop

** Based on maximum mid-span deflection and a span length of 10.06m
Two water trucks, designated as Truck A and B, with known axle
spacing and axle weight were used for this test. In addition normal traffic
on the highway was also used as an auxiliary method of loading. Truck A is
a 3-axle water truck with a total weight of 224.2 kN. The load on the front
axle is 71.2 kN and the two rear axles have a load of 76.5 kN each. Truck B
is a 5-axle water truck with a total weight of 326.8 kN, of which the front
axle has a load of 51.3 kN, the next two axles have a load of 64.2 kN each,
and the two rear axles have a load of 73.6 kN each. Results in Table 1
clearly indicate that the overall performance is above that required by
design criteria
SUMMARY
A new bridge system comprising of a combination of FRP and conventional
materials has been developed and transitioned to the field after full-scale
characterization of component and systems response. Its behavior in the
field has been assessed through periodic load tests and is further being
evaluated through the use of an extensive set of instrumentation linked to a
wireless communications network to provide on-line continuous
monitoring. Work is being conducted to provide autonomous assessment of
response through integrated coordination of on-line data with structural
response models to provide warnings if performance thresholds are
exceeded.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The continued support of the California Department of Transportation (C.
Sikorsky, Program Manager) for this project is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Karbhari, V.M., Seible, F., Burgueno, R., Davol, A., Wernli, M. and
Zhao, L., "Structural Characterization of Fiber-Reinforced Composite
Short and Medium-Span Bridges," Applied Composite Materials, Vol.
7 [2-3], 2000, pp. 151-182.
2. Burgueno, R., Karbhari, V.M., Seible, F. and Kolozs, R.T.,
"Experimental Dynamic Characterization of a FRP Composite Bridge
Superstructure Assembly," Composite Structures, 54[4], 2001, pp. 427444.
3. Zhao, L. and Karbhari, V.M., "Investigation of Stress States and Failure
Mechanisms of a Cellular FRP Composite Bridge Deck System,"
Proceedings of the 16'h A?i?iual Technical Conference, American Society
for Composites, Blacksburgh, VA, 2001.

OPTIMAL COST DESIGN FOR BEAMS PRESTRESSED

WITH FRP TENDONS
I. BALAFAS and C. J. BURGOYNE
University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering
Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ, UK
While most of the technical questions concerning structural integrity of
concrete structures prestressed with fibre reinforced plastic bars have
already been solved, their application is limited to prototype structures due
to their high initial cost. The paper proposes a method for selecting
structural dimensions that are optimised with respect to cost. By observing
the sensitivity of the optimum solution to various factors, more efficient
ways to use those materials in structures can be found.
INTRODUCTION
Research on the application of fibre-reinforced plastics (FRPs) in
concrete structures has been extensive. FRPs are a suitable alternative
reinforcing material but their high initial cost hinders their use, partly due to
the high cost of prototype batches. The high cost means little demand, so
there is little incentive for the composites industry to invest in the civil
engineering market. This paper arises from a study to investigate the
various cost interactions in the market for FRP reinforced or prestressed
structures1.
One of the drawbacks in design with FRPs is their brittle nature. Plastic
behaviour gives warning of failure, and in indeterminate structures, moment
redistribution can occur. In prestressed concrete (PSC) structures with FRP
tendons, plastic deformations can come from concrete when properly
confined2.
Recent work on FRP prestressed beams confined in the
compression zone with aramid spirals showed extensive non-linear
characteristics in the load deflection curve3. By adjusting the bond
conditions between concrete and reinforcement, the desired concrete
crushing failure mode can be achieved4.
FRPs only give high stresses at high strains, which is considered
problematic in reinforced concrete design, but this can create advantageous
conditions when used in PSC structures. The high strength of the bars can
be utilised by pre-straining5, at the same time reducing the problem of
excessive deflections at the service load. The low stiffness can also be
beneficial by minimising the losses that result from creep and shrinkage of
the concrete.
In this study, determinate PSC beams are analysed and the design
constraints identified.
The depth of the section and the area of
reinforcement are taken as the primary design parameters, and when all the
design constraints are taken into account, a feasible zone is created on a plot
of depth versus bar area. By introducing a costing function to the problem
the most economic structures can be found, and a parametric study can
reveal how design parameters affect cost. Alsayed & Al-Salloum6 used a
similar approach when optimising concrete structures reinforced with FRPs.
DESIGN CONSTRAINTS: ULTIMATE CONDITIONS
Sectional analysis
The structure is assumed to be a simply-supported beam loaded with a
uniformly distributed ultimate load of w=1.4G+1.6LL, where G and LL
are the service dead- and live-loads respectively.
A sectional analysis is carried at midspan, using standard well-known
assumptions. Initially, it is necessary to assume a position for the tendon
(and hence its eccentricity). It will be assumed to be as low as practicable in
the section in order to maximise the moment capacity, but this is adjusted
later if working load stress conditions are critical.
The strain is assumed to vary linearly through the depth of the beam,
and allowance is made for partial or fully unbonded structures; incremental
tendon strains are multiplied by a bond reduction coefficient Oj. For single
point loading with unbonded tendons, Qu=1.5/(l/dpJ, and for three point or
uniform loading Qu=3.0/(l/dpJ, where / is the span and dps the static depth.
Equivalent values do not yet exist for partially bonded tendons, so for the
current work a parametric study was performed.
Material law
Concrete can be confined or unconfmed.
Passive FRP spiral
reinforcement can be used to confine the concrete in compression. The
model developed by Leung3 is used to draw the stress-strain properties of
both plain and passively confined concrete, taking data from actively
confined concrete tests (Figure 1). In this study a simpler triaxial model is
used8. The failure strain for plain concrete is taken as 0.0035 and for
passively confined concrete occurs at snapping of the spiral, when the
concrete's lateral expansion is more than the spiral's failure strain.
Optimal Cost Design for Beams with FRP Tendons
1393
80
70
* Spiral snapping
60
Kg" 50
E
|
spacing
20mm
40
ta
m 30
g spacing
35mm
20
spacing
50mm
10
"0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
strain
0.01
0.012
0.014
Figure 1. Concrete stress-strain curves (aramid spiral 2.5mm diameter)

FRPs are linear elastic up to failure. Steel is linear elastic up to yielding
and strain hardens up to snapping, with a slope of (fu-fy)l(eu-e}), where (e
fu), {eyfy) are strain and stress values at the maximum load and yielding load
respectively.
Moment capacity
Two modes of failure can occur at the ultimate load: crushing of
concrete or tendon snapping. In the first case the concrete strain at the top
fibre is fixed at the concrete failure strain (confined or unconfined as
appropriate). By assuming a tendon area, the force and moment equilibrium
equations can be solved for the beam depth and bottom fibre strain (eh,
Figure 2). If the resulting tendon strain is greater than the snapping strain of
the bar, the bar strains are fixed as the bar snapping strain and the system is
solved for top strain (e,) and section depth. The systems to be solved are
non-linear but can be solved for a range of bar areas using NewtonRaphson. The results represent beams with the same strength, but different
material proportions. Figure 3 shows typical results of such an analysis on a
plot of required section depth against reinforcement. The line marked
"ultimate" represents a lower bound on combinations of section dimensions,
which have adequate capacity at the ultimate load.
Limiting reinforcement ratios
If it is assumed that tendon snapping is undesirable with FRP tendons, a
minimum reinforcement ratio (pmi) can be determined which represents
beams with balanced concrete crushing and reinforcement snapping modes
of failure. This can also be plotted as shown on Figure 3. Similarly, for

beams prestressed with steel tendons, where over-reinforcement is deemed
to be unacceptable, a maximum reinforcement ratio ( p max) can be found.
DESIGN CONSTRAINTS: WORKING CONDITIONS
At the working load, the structure must satisfy deflection and allowable
stress conditions with partial safety factors for load set to unity. The beam
can be either cracked or uncracked, depending on the prestressing class, but
otherwise the materials are assumed to be linearly elastic.
Working
forces
Ultimate
depth
f. bw y
Figure 2. Working and ultimate sectional analysis at midspan section

A sectional analysis is performed using (for unbonded and partially
bonded beams) the strain reduction factors Q for uncracked and cracked
elastic PSC sections9.
Deflections
Deflections can be found by integrating twice the curvatures, along the span.
For a simply supported beam uniformly loaded without variations in the
cross section or reinforcement ratio across span, the deflections can be
given in the closed form A=(10/96)y/J, where / is span and t//m the average
curvature. If cracks are permitted at service conditions then the CEB
formula10 can be used" to interpolate cracked and uncracked curvatures:
v. = ^ i + O - O ^
(i)
Optimal Cost Design for Beams with FRP Tendons 1395
where if/, y/2 are the curvatures for state 1 (uncracked) and state 2
(cracked) respectively, and C, is the CEB interpolating coefficient.
Creep effects are taken into account using an age adjusted effective
modulus, which allows for external loads developing gradually with time.
Shrinkage can be considered in the calculations as a compressive strain
induced at the centroidal level. Equilibrium redistributes those strains in the
section.
The compatibility and equilibrium equations can then be used to
determine the three unknown parameters: the top and bottom strains (s,, ej
and the depth of the beam. They can be found by solving the three
equations for force & moment equilibrium and deflection. The solutions
represent structures, which deflect equally for the given moment. Such a
solution is shown on Figure 3 as the "deflection" line. This also represents a
lower bound and in this particular case is a more severe constraint than the
ultimate load condition.
Allowable stress constraints
For determinate PSC structures, the four stress constraints that govern are:
(a) tension and compression at transfer, (b) tension and compression at the
maximum service load. These apply for both top and bottom fibres, but if
the beam is assumed to be in sagging bending, then it is known which four
of these conditions apply. For an uncracked section the elastic equation for
each stress limit can be solved for section depth while varying the tendon
area. A modified approach is needed if the section is cracked. This process
results in a further four bound lines on Figure 3. Two will be upper bounds;
two will be lower bounds.
DEPTH-TENDON AREA DIAGRAM
Figure 3 now shows all the constraints from the design process. Cracking
could also have been included but this example is fully prestressed. The
result is a feasible zone, which shows acceptable combinations of tendon
area and section depth. The transfer stress bounds the zone from the right,
the minimum tendon area limits from the top and one (or a combination) of
the limits imposed by ultimate, deflection or working stress conditions
governs from the bottom left. In the case illustrated by the figure, the
tensile stress limit at the working load defines the bottom left part of the
feasible zone.
1.6
Ultimate
1.4
_ Balanced
tendon area
Tension
working
1.2
_ - Optimal solution
CrF.eiasibte:
X^20ii:e::::
\
0.8
Q.
(U
TJ
0.6
Compression
transfer
>
Compression
-T <^.working
Tension
transfer
0.4
Deflections
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Ap (mm2)
Figure 3. Typical depth - tendon area diagram, aramid partially bonded beam.
The flexural cost function is also shown on the figure, which takes into
account the expense of concrete, tendon, confining reinforcement and
formwork. Lines of equal cost take the form of parallel lines, one of which
is shown as a chain-dashed line in the bottom left of Figure 3. One of the
most important effects of changing from steel to FRP is that the slope of this
line alters. The cost function moves with the same slope towards greater
depths and tendon areas as the cost increases. The optimum flexural
solution occurs where the increasing costing function line meets the feasible
zone. In the example shown in Figure 3 this is clearly where the working
tension and minimum tendon area constraints coincide.
TENDON ECCENTRICITY
At the beginning of the analysis a tendon eccentricity was assumed. If the
section is governed by the ultimate load condition, a reasonable assumption
is that the most cost-effective section is one with the tendon as near the
bottom fibre of the section as possible. But this may not be allowed if the
transfer stress constraints are so strict that they eliminate the feasible zone
entirely. In such cases the analysis is repeated with lower eccentricity. The
transfer stress constraints move to the right and a feasible zone is formed as
in Figure 3. The eccentricity for which a feasible zone just forms is the
optimum. Figure 4 shows three possible Magnel diagrams. Figure 4a
shows the normal case where the maximum tendon eccentricity is valid.
Figure 4b shows the case where the tension constraint at transfer would be
violated at the maximum tendon eccentricity, which forces a new optimal
solution. The section also has to be large enough to allow the existence of a
feasible zone on the Magnel diagram. In the present analysis this can be
forced by adjusting the relative depth of the tendon. This results in a
Magnel diagram as in Figure 4c.
SOL: optimum solution
Final solution
a.
b.
c.
Figure 4. Magnel diagrams at optimum feasible and non feasible sections.
SHEAR
To allow for shear forces, shear reinforcement is provided following recent
modifications on the normal 45 truss analogy which is used for shear
predictions on beams with steel reinforcement12. Full details are to be found
elsewhere1. The principal addition to the method given above is to allow for
the cost of the shear stirrups; this may alter the slope of the cost function on
Figure 3, and thus may alter the optimal solution, but it does not affect the
other constraints on the design.
EXAMPLE
The principles given above were applied to a typical simply supported
beam structure with a straight-profile prestressing tendon. The beam had a
clear span of 13m and a cross section as shown in Figure 2. The web is
0.25m wide and the flange is 0.15m thick and 5m wide with an effective
width of 1.05m wide. The beam is loaded with its own weight and a 2
kN/m2 live load. The beam is prestressed with steel, aramid (Fibra or Parafil
rope) or carbon (CFRP) tendons. Their properties are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Tendon properties
P ratl1 r
P e
Steel
AFRP (Fibra)
v
Strength (MPa)
1752
1480
1964
2200
Elastic Modulus (GPa)
210
68.6
112
130
'
CFRP
(Kevlar 49)
Failure Strain
0.1
0.02
0.017
0.013
Cost (Euros/m3)
5930
27010
27010
28860
Concrete strength was taken as 50 MPa and the partial material safety
factors were 1.5 for concrete, 1.05 for steel and 1.3 for all FRPs. The creep
factor was taken as 3 and a shrinkage strain of 0.0003. The stress limits
were: transfer tension 1 MPa, transfer compression 18 MPa, working
tension 0 MPa and working compression 25 MPa. The concrete cost in
Euros/m3 for the southern parts of UK follows the formula:
Ccocrete=54.4e0006fc where/; is in MPa13. Beam stirrups, in this example, had
the same material as their tendons. For steel tendons, low strength (460
MPa) steel was used for stirrups, with cost 4420 Euros/m3.
500
1000
1500
200O
2500
Ap(mm 2 )
a. Fully bonded
3000
3600
400
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Ap(mm 2 )
b. Unbonded
Figure 5. Typical depth versus tendon areas diagrams
3000
3500
4000
The beams were prestressed in different ways: from fully bonded to

fully unbonded with plain or confined compression concrete. The optimal
cost solution for each form of construction can be found in Table 2. Figure
5 shows typical plots of tendon area versus section depth for two extreme
cases: fully bonded and fully unbonded CFRP tendons are shown.
It is found that in the case of steel PSC cost is virtually constant because
in all optimum cases the steel yields. The small cost difference is due to
effects of slight strain hardening, and thus higher stress and lower steel area
when the tendon is bonded.
In contrast, for beams prestressed with FRPs, the lowest cost comes
from fully unbonded beams. The optimal solution for a bonded beam tends
to be shallower with a larger tendon (Figure 5a), but for the unbonded beam
the optimum is deeper with a smaller tendon (Figure 5b).
The presence of spirals in the compression zones adds cost to the final
solution, but in most cases they should be provided because concrete can
fail in a brittle and catastrophic manner. The additional costs can be
justified from the improved structural characteristics of such structures. By
providing confinement concrete, fails gently, thus the structure can give
warning and show non-linear characteristics before failure.
Table 2. Cost (Euros) simply supported beams prestressed with steel and FRPs
Steel
Fibra
Parafil
Carbon
Bonded
unbonded
partial
bonded 1
partial
bonded 2
439.3
441.1
440.7
440.3
1539.6
945.2
963.5
1151.8
partial
bonded
unbonded
(spiral
spacing
60 mm)
partial
bonded
(spiral
spacing
30 mm)
(spiral
spacing
60 mm)
unbonded
(spiral
spacing
30 mm)
1504.8
1908.9
1200.5
1549.6
1184.2
1533.7
1186.1
1538.1
833.8
1238.8
886.9
946.5
1076.5
1425.1
1845.7
CONCLUSIONS
The method described above allows the optimal determination of the
parameters of concrete structures prestressed with fibre reinforced plastic
tendons. The feasible zone that results when the design constraints are
plotted on a depth versus tendon area diagram allows the observation of the
behaviour and interactions of the various parameters on the final solutions.
As a result lessons can be learnt on how best to use the properties of
expensive FRP. In particular, beams prestressed with FRP should be
unbonded.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the European Commission for funding the
EU TMR Network "ConFibreCrete".
REFERENCES
1. Balafas, I. (2003). Economic Viability of FRP concrete Structures,
PhD Thesis, Cambridge University, in preparation.
2. Kotsovos, M.D. and Pavlovic, M.N. (1995), Structural Concrete,
Thomas Telford Publications, 512 pp.
3. Leung, H. Y. (2000), Study of Concrete Confined with Aramid
Spirals, PhD Thesis, Cambridge.
4. Lees J.M. (1997). Flexure of Concrete Beams Pre-Tensioned with
Aramid FRPs, PhD thesis, Department of Engineering, University
of Cambridge, UK.
5. Burgoyne, C. J. (1993). Should FRPs be Bonded to Concrete?, SP138, Nanni & Dolan (eds.), American Concrete Institute: 367-380.
6. Alsayed, S.H. and Al-Salloum, Y.A. (1996). Optimisation of
Flexure Environment of Concrete Beams Reinforced with FibreReinforced Plastic Bars, Magazine of Concrete Research, 48(174):
27-36.
7. Naaman, A.E. and Alkhairi, F.M. (1991). Stress at Ultimate PostTensioning Tendons: Part 2 - Proposed Methodology, ACI
Structural Journal, 88(6): 683-692.
8. Ahmad, S.H. and Shah, S.P. (1982). Complete Triaxial Stress-Strain
Curves for Concrete, ASCE, 108(ST4): 728-742.
9. Naaman, A.E. (1990). A New Methodology for the Analysis of
Beams Prestressed with External or Unbonded Tendons, External
Prestressing in Bridges", ACI Special Publication SP-120,
American Concrete Institute, 1990: 339-354.
10. Beeby A.W., Favre R., Koprna M. and Jaccoud J.P. (1985).
Cracking and Deformations, CEB design manual, Lausanne.
11. Eurocrete (2000). Design Recommendations of FRP Reinforced
Concrete Structures, First Draft, Riga, Latvia.
12. Guadagnini, M. Pilakoutas, K. and Waldron, P. (1999). Shear
Design for Fibre Reinforced Polymer Reinforced
Concrete
Elements, SP-138, Dolan et al (eds.), American Concrete Institute,
Michigan, Selected Presentations Proceedings: 11-21.
13. Ablemix (2002), Private communication.

FRP IN CIVIL ENGINEERING IN CHINA:

RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS
L. P. YE, P. FENG, K. ZHANG, L. LIN AND W.H. HONG
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University
Beijing 100084, China
Q.R. YUE, N. ZHANG AND T. YANG
National Engineering Technique Research Center of Industrial Buildings
Beijing 100088, China
This paper summarizes the research achievements and applications of FRP
in civil engineering in the mainland of China. It covers structural
strengthening with FRP sheets and plates, reinforced concrete structures
with FRP bars and tendons, pure FRP structures and bridges, FRP-concrete
composite structures and self-monitoring using CFRP. The code of FRP
application in civil engineering, which is in preparation, is also introduced.
INTRODUCTION
To the best of the authors' knowledge, the application of FRP in civil
engineering was first researched in China in 1958, when a fatigue test of a T
section hanging bridge beam reinforced with GFRP bars, 6000mm in span
and 1000mm in height, was conducted at Tsinghua university in 1958. The
purpose of the test was to explore the use of GFRP bars instead of steel bars
due to the limited supply of steel in that year in China. But the beam failed
in a very brittle manner with the sudden rupture of the GFRP bars, so the
research was not continued. From 1970s, some research institutes in China
began research on GFRP bridges and some GFRP bridges were built.
Besides, there has been research on and application of GFRP water tanks
for buildings. But it was until the late 1990s that FRP found its popular
applications in civil engineering in China when the technique of structural
strengthening using externally bonded CFRP sheets became widely
accepted.
After that, Chinese engineers began to acknowledge the merits of this
new construction material, and since then there has been rapid growth in
research on FRP for applications in civil engineering in China. In 1998, a
committee on FRP and application was founded within the Chinese Civil
Engineering Association (CCEA). Under the organization of the committee,
a series of research projects was undertaken. This paper provides a brief
report on the state-of-the-art of the research and applications of FRP in civil

engineering in China. It should be noted that only the activities on the
mainland of China are covered.
STEUCTUEAL STRENGTHENING
Restructures
Like other countries, most of the applications of FRP in civil engineering in
China are in the strengthening of RC structures using externally bonded
CFRP sheets or plates. The first test and application was in 1997, which
was conducted by the National Engineering Technique Research Center of
Industrial Buildings (NETRCIB). After that, many studies on this new
technique were undertaken in China. From 1997 to 1999, this research was
mainly to demonstrate the effectiveness of this new strengthening method.
With the support of the Chinese Science and Technology Bureau, a
series of experimental projects on the flexural strengthening of RC beams
and slabs, and shear and seismic strengthening of RC columns were
conducted at Tsinghua university and NETRCIB to establish the design
method for the strengthening of RC structures with CFRP sheets and plates.
The design method was established based on the Chinese design approach
for RC structures, i.e., the limit state design philosophy was adopted. The
contribution of CFRP to the strength of RC members was determined by its
strain development at the corresponding limit state, and a maximum
allowable strain for CFRP, equals to 2/3 the rupture strain of CFRP sheet or
plate, was proposed considering the elastic brittle material behavior of CFRP.
Figure 1 Test of RC bridge slab strengthened

with CFRP sheets under sustained load
Figure 2 Test setup of RC column

strengthened with CFRP sheets
Figure 1 is a photograph of an RC bridge slab flexurally strengthened

with CFRP sheets bonded to the soffit under sustained load. The test results
showed that the plane section assumption is also suitable for the
strengthened slab, and that the strain development of CFRP sheets can be
FRP in Civil Engineering in China 1403
determined based on this assumption. The test and parametric study also
showed that the strengthening effectiveness reduces when the amount of the
original steel reinforcement or the CFRP is excessive. It was also suggested
by researchers from Tongji University, Shanghai, China that flexural
strengthening with side bonded CFRP sheets in the tensile zone of the RC
beam section is also effective.
Figure 2 is the photo of the test setup of shear and seismic
strengthening of RC columns with CFRP sheets. In the column tests, the
strains and their distributions in CFRP were studied to determine the
contribution of CFRP to the shear strength and confinement at maximum
loading. A total of about 75 column specimens strengthened with CFRP,
GFRP and AFRP, were tested in six universities in China. The concrete
strength was up to 78.2 MPa, the shear span ratio was from 5.1 to 1.0, and
the axial force ratio was from 0.13 to 1.29.
Based on these researches and some design guidelines of other
countries, the Chinese committee on FRP and application produced the first
specification for the strengthening of RC structures with CFRP sheets and
plates in China in December, 1999. Figure 3 shows a comparison of the
shear strengths calculated according to the specification and the test results
for 32 column specimens which failed in shear.
Figure 3 Shear Strength
With the publication of the specification and continued research in

some other research institutes and universities, the effective strengthening
technique of externally bonded FRP sheets or plates for RC structures has
been widely accepted by Chinese engineers and has been used more widely.
It is estimated that the CFRP sheets used in structural strengthening total
about 500,000 m2 in 2002.
In writing the specification, it was found that the bond strength
between CFRP and concrete was an important factor which controls the
CFRP strain development. As a result a series of researches on bond

strength and bond capacity for flexurally- and shear-strengthened RC beams
were conducted at Tsinghua University and NETRCIB. Figure 4 shows a
bond test set-up and specimens after failure. Figure 5 shows debonding
failure in a RC beamflexurally-strengthenedwith CFRP sheets at the soffit
anchored with U-type CFRP sheets; and Figure 6 shows the debonding
failure of a shear-strengthened RC beam using U-type GFRP sheets.
Figure 5 Debonding failure of

flexurally strengthened beam with
U-type anchorage
Figure 6 Debonding failure of

shear strengthened beam using
U-type GFRP
300
-,
CB1 Load=91.5kN
-T3t
'Analysis
i
Loading
5
M
1
8
250
150 ..
100
a
u
i.
.^k..._
1 \s& * i
<
i yft
m i * / * - - ' h-
'
50
0
50
Distance from the end of the FRP sheet /mm
Figure 7 Bond stress distributions

between CFRP sheets and concrete
100
150
200
250
300
Test results (kN)
Figure 8 Comparison between

calculated results and test results of
shear strength for debonding
failures of U-type FRP
With these experimental and finite element studies on debonding

behavior, the bond strength and capacities were suggested. Figure 7 shows
the comparison of test, analysis and proposed shear stress distributions at
the interface between the soffit-bonded CFRP sheets and concrete at the
debonding limit state. Figure 8 is the comparison of calculated results of the
proposed debonding shear strength for U-type FRP strengthening with the test
results of 30 experiments conducted in China and abroad.
The basic compressive behavior of concrete confined by FRP and
hybrid FRP jackets, including round, square and rectangular sections were
researched In several universities In China. Figure 9 shows a square section

columns confined with CFRP and GFRP, which was tested at Tsinghua
University. There were also research reports and publications about
strengthening with FRP sheets and plates for two-way slabs, torsion
members and beam-column joints.
Figure 9
Steel Structures
Since 2000, a series of experimental studies on the-strengthening of steel
structures with CFRP were conducted by NETRCIB. The research included:
(a) Axial tensile tests of steel plates (see Figure 10). Thirteen tensile tests
showed that the yield strength could be increased by 8-21% for
different amounts of CFRP.
(b) Static and fatigue axial tensile tests of cross section specimens with Ktype welding. The tests showed that the fatigue strength could be
effectively Increased under high stress changes and the fatigue cracks
were delayed after strengthening with CFRP.
(c) Fatigue strengthening of round comers at the support position of steel
beams (see Figure 11). Fifteen tests showed that the fatigue life could
be increased by about 50%.
Figure 12 shows a steel roof truss structure strengthened with CFRP
sheets. The load of the truss was Increased due to change of usage, which
induced a stress increase in the upper and lower chords.
Masonry Structures
About 60 percent of the masonry building structures in China were built
about 30 years ago and some were built more than 100 years ago. Many of
the masonry buildings do not meet the requirements of the current design
code, especially the seismic design requirement. As the bonded FRP
strengthening method has become popular for RC structures, demand for it

to be applied to the strengthening of masonry structures has arisen. The
main research is the seismic strengthening of masonry walls under cyclic inplane lateral load. About 40 tests on masonry wall specimens were
conducted in four universities. Figure 13 shows a test on a masonry wall
strengthened with GFRP5 at Tsinghua University, and Figure 14 shows a
comparison of the lateral load-displacement hysteresis loops of the
strengthened wall to those of the unstrengthened one.
Figure 10 Tensile test oi steel

plate strengthened with CFRP
Figure 11 Fatigue test of steel beam

strengthened with CFRP at the support
Figure 12 Application of CFRP sheets in a ace! roof tru5S sliuulu:'*,
Figure 13 Masonry wall

strengthened with GFRP
Unstrengthened wall
Strengthened wall
Figure 14 Lateral load-displacement hysteresis relations
Special Structures
Figure 15 shows a test of a containment shell structure of a nuclear power
station strengthened with CFRP sheet, conducted by NETRCIB. The one-tenth
scale shell structure model wasfirstloaded to failure under internal pressure and
then strengthened with CFRP sheets. The test showed the effectiveness of the
CFRP strengthening method and the analysis is now under way.
Figure 15 Test of containment shell structure of nuclear power

station
EC STRUCTURES WITH FRP BARS AND PRESTRESSED FRP
TENDONS
Research on RC structures using FRP bars began In Southeast university,
Nanjing, in 1999, and then in Tongji university, Shanghai. More than 20
beams were tested to determine the flexural behavior and to establish the
flexural strength. To obtain high performance, Southeast university began to
study concrete prestressed with FRP tendons and developed some
anchorage devices since 2001. The Nanjing GFRP institute developed
GFRP and CFRP bars in 2001. These systems including design methods are
now well developed, but there has been no application so far, because there
is not much demand compared to FRP strengthening.
PUEE FMP STRUCTURES AND FRP-CONCRETE COMPOSITE
STRUCTURES
FRP Bridges
Research on GFRP bridges began in China 1970s. In 1982, a highway
bridge 20.7m in span and 9.2m in width in the form of a box-beam made of
GFRP honeycomb plates was built in Miyun, Beijing, which was the first
trial to use FRP in bridges in China. The bridge was designed to carry a QI15 track load. The bridge was tested in field before being opened for traffic
and demonstrated the feasibility of GFRP for bridges. After some time in
service, a local depression happened in one deck due to the instability of the
honeycomb and local buckling in the compression part of the web. Thus, it
was examined and repaired in 1987, and the GFRP beam was strengthened
into a GFRP-concrete composite beam. It has performed well till now.
In 1986, Jiaoyuan Bridge, a single tower cable-stayed footbridge in
Chongqing., was completed. The bridge is 50m long with a 27.4m main span.
The cables were made from high-strength steel tendons, and the pylon is RC.
The superstructure is a box-beam made of GFRP honeycomb sandwiched
plates. The weight of the GFRP beam is 8.9t, which is only 30% of a steel
beam and 13% of an RC beam. The bridge costed 250,000 Yuan (RMB), or
1,000 Yuan(RMB) per square meter], which is only 36% of that of a steel
bridge. After that, many such footbridges were completed in Sichuan
province, China (see Table 1 and Figure 16).
Chenjiawan bridge
Jiaoyuan Bridge
Figure 16 GFRP Bridges

Table 1: Some GFRP Footbridges in China
Year
Name and
Location
1986
Jiaoyuan Bridge,
Chongqing
1988
Chenjiawan
Bridge,
Chongqing
1988
Guanyin Bridge,
Chongqing
1988
Footbridge,
Luzhou, Sichuan
Huashan Bridge,
Panzhihua,
Sichuan
Chuanmian Bridge,
Chengdu, Sichuan
Xiangyang
Bridge, Chengdu,
Sichuan
1992
1993
1993
Introduction
Single tower cable-stayed
bridge, GFRP beam
Length
of Beam
Width
of
Bridge
Loadfor
Design
27.4m
4.4m
3.5kN/m2
11.2m
4.0m
4.0kN/m2
9.8m
19.2m
4.2m
4.0kN/m2
Single span simple

supported GFRP beam
13m
4.0m
3.5kN/m2
Half-through Xarch
bridge, 4 spans
continuous GFRP beam
24.0m
3.0m
3.5kN/m2
10.1m
5.0m
4.0kN/m2
50m
4.0m
4.0kN/m2
Half-through rigid
spatial frame bridge, 3
spans continuous GFRP
beam
Half-through rigid
spatial frame bridge, 4
spans continuous GFRP
beam
Unsymmetrical A-shaped
arch bridge, GFRP beam
Unsymmetrical A-shaped
arch bridge over a river,
GFRP beam,
Figure 16 shows the pictures of the Chenjiawan Bridge and the

Guanyin Bridge in Chongqin city, China. The GFRP elements in these
bridges were made by hand lay-up. All kinds of complicated shapes can be
fabricated by this method. However, the quality of lay-up fabrication
depends on the production process, so it is unstable. In 2001, the Jiaoyuan
Bridge was repaired and the Guanyin Bridge was demolished because of
large deformations.
FRP space structures
The lightweight and high strength of FRP means that it is reasonable to use
FRP to construct super large span space structures. Figure 17 shows CFRP
tubes developed for research on space truss structures at Tsinghua University.
GFRP breakwater
Flood is a major hazard in China, and many sandbags and a great deal of
manpower are needed to build breakwaters in rainy season every year. To
alleviate the manpower demand for building breakwaters, an FRP sandwich
panel breakwater has been developed at the Beijing FRP institute, as shown
in Figure 18. Due to the lightweight of FRP, the FRP breakwaters can be
shipped and installed very quickly when the flood comes. After the flood,
the FRP breakwaters can be easily dismantled and stored, and there is no
need to protect them from corrosion.
Concrete Filled FRF Tubes
More than 40 concrete filled GFRP tube columns were tested to determine
their static and seismic behavior at Tongji university since 1998. The
ductility of the columns was much increased with the confinement of GFRP
tube. It was found that GFRP tubes made with fibers in 45 degrees had
pseudo-yielding properties under compression. A hybrid tube of GFRP and
CFRP has been prepared for research on compressive behavior of confined
concrete at Tsinghua University.
Figure 17 CFRP tube for space structure
Figure 18 GFRP breakwater panel
SELF MOMTOMMG OF CFRP

Because of the electric conductivity of CFRP9 it can be used for the self
monitoring of structures by detecting the changes of electrical resistance.
Figure 19 shows the changes of electrical resistance in CFRP sheets bonded
to the soffit of an RC beam as the beam deflected. The test was conducted
at Tsinghua University' in 2000. The load-deflection relationship is also
shown in Figure 19. It ran be seen that the electric resistance of CFRP
decreases as the deflection increases before the yielding of the steel
reinforcement, but begins to increase as the deflection increases after the yielding.

10
8
12
0
16
Figure 19 Self Monitoring
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS

The first design and construction specification for CFRP strengthening of
RC structures was published by the end of 1999. Two material product
standards, for CFRP sheets and resins respectively, were also published at
the same time. With the increased field applications of FRP in civil
engineering in China and based on more research, a code of FRP
application in civil engineering is in preparation. The code includes FRP
materials, strengthening and repairing of RC, steel, masonry and wood
structures, structural concrete elements with FRP bars and prestressed FRP
tendons, and FRP-concrete composite structural elements. The code will be
finished by the end of 2003.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are very grateful to the Chinese Natural Science Foundation for
supporting the key research project of FRP application in civil engineering
in China (Grant No. 50238030).
REFERENCES
1. Proceedings of First Conference of Chinese FRP and Application in
Civil Engineering, June, 2000, Beijing, China, Committee of Chinese
FRP and Application in Civil Engineering (in Chinese)
2. Proceedings of 2nd conference of Chinese FRP and Application in Civil
engineering, July 25-28,2002, Kunming, China, Tsinghua Press (in Chinese)
3. Ye L. P., Yue Q. R., et al., Shear Strength of Concrete Columns
Strengthened with Carbon Fiber Sheet, Journal of ASCE, Vol.128,
No.12, 2002.12, pp.1527-1534
4. Ye L. P., Zhao S. H., et al., Experimental study on seismic
strengthening of RC columns with wrapped CFRP sheet, Proceedings

ofCICE Hong Kong, Dec. 12-15, 2001, pp.885-891
5. Zhang K, Yue Q. R. and Ye L. P., Experimental Study on Ductility
Improvement of Concrete Column Strengthened with CFRP Sheet (in
Chinese). Industrial Construction Vol.30, February, 2000, pp.6-19
6. Ye L. P. and Cui W., Flexural strength analysis for RC beams
strengthened with bottom bonded CFRP sheets, March. 2001, Building
Structure, pp.3-5
7. Zhao S. H., Ye, L. P. Shear Strength Analysis of Concrete Column
Retrofitted with CFRP Sheet Based on Strut-arch Model, Engineering
Mechanics, Dec. 2001, Vol. 18, pp.134-140 (in Chinese)
8. Ye L. P., Fang T. Q., etc, Experimental Research of Flexural
Debonding behavior for RC Beams Strengthened with CFRP Sheets,
Building Structure, Accepted (in Chinese)
9. Lu X. Z., Feng P., Ye, L. P., Finite Element Analysis of FRP Confined
Square Columns under Uniaxial Loading, Journal ofCSCE, Accepted
(in Chinese)
10. Huang Y. L., Ye L. P., Nonlinear FE Analysis Of Bond Behaviors For
RC Beams Strengthened With Bottom Bonded Cfrp Sheets,
Engineering Mechanics, Accepted (in Chinese)
11. Technical Specification for Strengthening Concrete Structure with
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer, Chinese Standard of Chinese
Construction Standard Association, 2001
Codes and Standards

DESIGN CONCEPTS OF THE NEW SWISS CODE ON

EXTERNALLY BONDED REINFORCEMENT
T. VOGEL AND T. ULAGA
Institute of Structural Engineering (IBK)
ETH Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
Today, the application of steel and carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer
(CFRP) plates, respectively, for the strengthening of structures far exceeds
the narrow circle of researchers and developers. However, not all users
have a profound knowledge of the materials and the options and limits of
these techniques. Codification can produce a sound basis for practical application and a further promotion of the related methods and systems. In
Switzerland a task group composed of representatives of research, education, consulting, production and application has worked out a draft for a
code on externally bonded reinforcement. The scope covers both steel and
CFRP plates bonded onto various substrates like concrete, masonry, steel
and timber. The task group aimed at producing a user-friendly document
that describes the possibilities and limits of the technique and proposes
consistent design procedures to gain comparable experience without hindering further developments. The paper describes the different parts of the
code and explains as key issues the proposed procedure from conceptual
design to structural analysis and detailing, differentiating between strengthening failure (that is failure of strengthening elements) in the functional
area and bond failure in the anchorage zone. Special emphasis is given to
the verification concept of flexural strengthening of concrete beams, but
strengthening for shear and compression is also treated. The code should
become effective in 2003.
INTRODUCTION
Bonded steel plates have been used successfully for more than thirty years.
With the establishment of fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) from the middle
of the 1990s the field of application was considerably extended.
Reasons for a Code
The action of bonded plates is closely related to the condition and behaviour
of the existing structure, whose properties are often not known entirely and
cannot be altered arbitrarily. Generally it is already subjected to load, at
1416 FRPRCS-6: Codes and Standards
least to the dead load; the load history, however, is hardly known in detail.
That is why bonded plates only carry a part of the load occurring after application, unless a further participation is forced by special measures like
unloading prior to application or prestressing.
Using materials without yielding capability (i.e. FRP-materials) and
considering substrates with unfavourable post-failure behaviour in tension
(e.g. concrete, masonry or timber) leads to brittle failure which cannot be
avoided. Thus failure modes often have their origin in the existing structure
and may occur without large deformation.
These circumstances provide considerable differences in comparison to
dimensioning methods that are covered by conventional standards. The
average user is not familiar with many of these technical aspects, therefore
the need for an appropriate code arises.
The Task
In 1999 the Swiss code committee for concrete structures formed a task
group consisting of researchers, consulting engineers and contractors
chaired by the first author to create a code on plate bonding. The aim was
to write a user-friendly document that shows the possibilities and limits of
the technology, proposes a consistent design procedure to gain comparable
experience but without hindering further development.
The Scope
Because plate bonding is not limited to concrete the scope was extended to
all building materials like masonry, steel and timber in common use. The
code covers externally bonded reinforcement that is adhered subsequently
to existing structural elements. Generally, it is used within the framework
of the conservation of existing structures.
To achieve better accuracy in the core field the following methods were
excluded:
(a) The application of steel or FRP as internal reinforcement or integrated
formwork of concrete elements.
(b) The application of steel or FRP as inlayed or embedded reinforcement
of timber structures.
(c) The use of steel profiles adhered to concrete slabs or other concrete
elements.
(d) The application of adhesive technologies for joints within steel, timber,
masonry or concrete structures.
(e) Strengthening by external reinforcement without bond.
Swiss Code on Externally Bonded Reinforcement 1417
THE CONTENTS
The code follows the usual scheme of Swiss standards with the following
chapters:
0 Field of Application
1 Notation
2 Design
3 Structural Analysis and Dimensioning
4 Detailing
5
6
7
8
9
Materials
Execution
Quality Assurance
Health and Safety
Transition Clauses
In the following, some aspects of the Chapters 2 Design and 3 Structural Analysis and Dimensioning are presented in detail.
DESIGN
The procedure corresponds to the principles given in the Swiss code on the
conservation of concrete structures1. Since the methodology is not restricted to concrete structures it also applies to other types of construction.
Strengthening is not always the primary goal of the application of externally bonded reinforcement. Equivalent goals are the improvement of ductility by wrapping columns to activate multiaxial compressive stresses or by
counteracting lateral tensile stresses and shear forces. In special cases the
improvement of deformation behaviour may be a rewarding task (e.g. stiffening of timber beams).
Conceptual Design of Strengthening
Prior to dimensioning of the strengthening the conceptual design has to be
worked out following the updated service criteria.
The conceptual design
(a) covers the arrangement of the structural elements as well as the mode of
their interaction,
(b) describes the principal dimensions, material properties and structural
details,
(c) takes into account constructional provisions and fire protection measures relevant to the hazard scenarios,
(d) decides on the planned execution method.
As a design boundary condition it has to be checked whether the structural capacity of those elements and cross sections that remain untouched
still meet the actual service criteria.
Hazard Scenarios
The hazard scenarios for the existing structure have to be checked and complemented, taking into account the design conditions.
In the terms of the Eurocodes2, the ultimate limit states for structures
with externally bonded reinforcement are of the STR-type (i.e. internal failure or excessive deformation of the structure or structural member) and can
be differentiated as follows:
(a) Design situations resulting from the expected use being covered by the
ordinary verification of ultimate limit states applying the relevant partial
factors for actions yF and the related combination factors \j/,.
(b) Failure of the externally bonded reinforcement as an accidental design
situation, applying no amplifying -/-factors and reduced i|/-factors.
The verification of the ultimate limit state for fatigue (FAT-type) relies
on the methods provided by the codes for structures built of the materials
concerned (concrete, steel, masonry, timber) combined with the relevant
action code. Little experience exists, however, for the fatigue failure of
bond and CFRP plates, respectively. By considering failure of the reinforcement as an accidental design situation, failure by fatigue is covered as
well.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DIMENSIONING
Design Resistance
The resistance of externally bonded reinforcement is governed by two failure modes: strengthening failure (i.e. exceeding the structural resistance of
plates and fabrics) and bond failure which in the case of concrete occurs in
the substrate.
For modeling the anchorage zone has to be distinguished from \Yie functional area. In the functional area the externally bonded reinforcement can
take tensile forces and deliberately strengthen the related structural element.
The tensile forces arising at the ends of the functional area have to be anchored in the anchorage zone.
The anchorage capacity formulas are based on a bilinear shear stressslip relationship and contain the specific bond fracture energy GFb of the
substrate as a relevant parameter. Actually, the formulas are used for an-
chorage zones in uncracked concrete, but they have the potential to be extended to other substrates.
To be consistent with the verification concept, the extension of the uncracked region has to be determined at the design level. Applying Eq. (1),
the length that is available for anchorage purposes can be determined.
JEJ<fcUi=-^-
(1)
JR-Jn,
Strengthening Failure
In the case of strengthening failure in the functional area, the partial factor
for material properties is chosen as ym = 1.1 for both steel and CFRP plates,
assuming that the strength of both materials can be determined with the
same accuracy. Because the resistance models are the same for all strengthening materials, a factor yR = 1.05 independent of the plate material is justified. These two partial factors can be multiplied together to give,
YM=Ym-Y*
(2)
There is a need, however, to take into account the lack of ductility of
CFRP due to its linear-elastic constitutive law. This can be done by using a
conversion factor n < 1.0 in Eq. (3) to derive the design value Xd from the
characteristic v a l u e d of the tensile strength.
xd=y\^
(3)
ym
Because other aspects are more restrictive, this strength criterion applies
in special cases only.
Anchorage Failure
The concept used to design for anchorage failure is based on the work of
Ulaga3. Up to now only bond failure on a concrete subgrade is covered.
The principle, however, may apply for other subgrade materials as well.
The force FbiRd that can be anchored is limited, depending on the cross
sectional properties of the plate bj and t\ as well as its modulus of elasticity
Ei and on the specific bond fracture energy GFb>d of the substrate, Eq. (4).
The necessary anchorage length to reach FbRd is denominated l^d (efficient
anchorage length) and depends additionally on the maximum shear stress
x,o,A Eq. (5).
FbM{l >lb0) = br p-ErtrGFbM
(4)
_Tt
\2-E, -t, -GFbd
V x'o,d
Both material properties FbM and T,0,</ depend on the pull-off strength fcp
that has to be determined on site. Eq. (6) gives simple approaches for the
characteristic values based on a best fit of all available test results.
l
^Fb,k-Qfcp-f
- 1
IO,k-fcp
(6)
For design purposes these characteristic values have to be converted to

the design level, Eq. (7).
_\_ Û_
4 y\fcp
8 Jc
3 yc
where yc denominates the combined partial factor yM, how it is used for concrete structures applying Eq. (2). The conversion factor n normally equals
1.0, but according to the relevant codes may be smaller for high performance or lightweight concrete.
In cases where the achievable anchorage length lb is smaller than the efficient anchorage length lb0 the force that can be anchored is calculated according to Eq (8).
Fb,Rd(h < / J = sin
' ^~i~2_T2
brp-ErtrGFb,d
(8)
\2-E,-tr UFbd
VERIFICATION CONCEPT FOR BENDING
Strengthening Concept
Up to now flexural strengthening of beams and slabs is the major field of
application of externally bonded reinforcement.
Continuous beams have the potential to redistribute bending moments.
Therefore the strengthening concept has to ensure that plastic hinges occur
only in regions, which are not strengthened by externally bonded reinforcement.
Cross Sectional Analysis
Although not all verifications can be carried out considering single cross
sections along the beam, a cross sectional analysis is a necessary tool and
allows one to consider both prior loading and prestressing.
The stress and strain states are calculated according to the relevant
codes for the substrate concerned with the following assumptions:
(a) rigid bond between substrate and plate (equal average strain As in the
contact layer),
(b) stress calculation with idealized constitutive laws and for cracked substrates by taking into account a bond coefficient K relating the average
strain e along a crack element to the maximum strain in the crack ef,
(c) as a rule, neglect of differing temperatures within the cross section.
Verification of the Ultimate Limit State
For bending structural safety is considered as verified, if the following conditions formulated at the design level can be fulfilled:
(a) For all non-strengthened regions it has to be verified that the bending
moment does not exceed the bending resistance, Eq. (6).
Md<MRd
(6)
(b) For the whole structure the shear force may not exceed the shear resistance, Eq. (7).
Vd<VM
(7)
(c) The effective force in the plate at the end of the functional area has to
be anchored within the anchorage zone which has to be proved to be
uncracked by calculation, Eq. (1) and (8).
FMFKRd
(8)
(d) In the functional area the tensile force in the plate in a cracked cross
section must not exceed the tensile resistance of the plate, Eq. (9).
Flr,d<FlM
(9)
The characteristic value of the tensile force F!M depends on the cross
sectional area of the plate and its tensile or yield strength, respectively.
The related strain must not exceed a given strain limit /,/;,,</, Eq. (10)
for CFRP plates, and Eq. (11) for steel plates.
F\,M ~ &-rfiud ^ A/-8/i/jm/-'/
(10)
F\,M = ^rfayd ^ NÎMmM'^l
( 1 1)
(e) In the functional area the variation of the tensile force which is proportional to the interface shear stress, may not exceed the resistance for
tensile force variations. This can be achieved by multiplying the plate
width bi by a limiting shear stress xUin,id, which depends on the tensile
bond strength, Eq. (12).

\
WAJbF,
r\T?
v Ax j
~~ Xl,lim,d
I Ax
(12)
' "I
Rd
Figure 1 shows all the required verifications for the example of a beam.
II I I
uneracked
ix
II
^
l->l*-
1 1 1 1 II
j
II
yielding of interior
....... reinforcement OX |
functional
anchorage
zone
area
II
|
II
[
1 1 1 1 M
i 1 W
^-! uneracked;.-
^^>l anchornot strengthened region
Ml,*
tension force considering stiffening
Figure 1. Required verifications for a strengthened concrete beam
Verification of Serviceability
In order to prevent yielding of the internal reinforcement under service conditions, the calculated stresses must not exceed an admissible value of 90%
of the yield stress.
Generally, the verification of maximum deformations is of minor relevance.
Prestressing
Prestressing of the external reinforcement plates does not change the verification concept fundamentally, because it is considered to be an initial strain
in the cross sectional analysis. Mechanical end anchors are characterized as
anchorage devices and the various types are supposed to be tested by the
supplier.
PROVISIONS FOR OTHER STRENGTHENING PURPOSES
Strengthening for Shear
For externally bonded reinforcement intended to increase the shear capacity
the code stipulates how the capacity of the unstrengthened element has to be
superimposed on that originating from the plates acting as stirrups. It also
described how the lever arm of the internal forces and the anchor force in
the stirrups can be determined.
Strengthening of Compression Members
Wrapping of columns, especially by woven or non-woven fabrics, can increase the compression capacity considerably. In this application anchorage
failure plays a subordinate role and the tensile strength of FRP can be
achieved.
The models that have been derived from the various test series carried
out worldwide describe the phenomena of confinement adequately, but generally lack physical evidence that would allow an extension of the field of
application beyond the test loads. This is why a conservative approach has
been proposed, allowing the consideration of the confining action to that
range only, in which a corresponding steel confinement would behave elastically.
OUTLOOK
The draft has already passed a review by experts in 2001 and the public
review that is required for all Swiss standards in 2002. In February 2003
the result of the public review and knowledge gained from ongoing research
was incorporated. The final version will be issued by the end of 2003 and
may due to last minute decisions still be subject to substantial changes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the contributions of all colleagues in the task
group (Robert Bossart, Prof. Dr. Eugen Briihwiler, Dr. Martin Deuring,
Prof. Dr. Marc Ladner, Hans Ulrich Reber and Prof. Dr. Rene Suter). The
opinions and proposals of all experts and potential users, participating in
both the internal and public reviews, helping to improve the code, are also
appreciated.
NOTATION
Roman letters
A
area
E
modulus of elasticity, effect of
actions
F
force in plate
G fracture energy
M bending moment
V
shear force
X
resistance value
b
width
/
strength
/
length
n
modular ratio
t
thickness; depth
x
coordinate
Greek letters
A difference
y partial factor
e strain
1 conversion factor
K
bond coefficient
P reinforcement ratio
a normal stress
X
shear stress
V combination factor
Subscripts
action, fracture
F
model & material
M
resistance
R
steel
a
bond
b
concrete
c
design level
d
general index
i
plate
I
material
m
pull off
P
crack
r
tension
t
u
ultimate
basic value
0
edge value
1
REFERENCES
SIA Committee 162-2, "Erhaltung von Betontragwerken (Conservation
of Concrete Structures)", Recommendation SIA 162/5, Swiss Society of
Engineers and Architects, Zurich 1997, 44 pp.
CEN/TC250 Structural Eurocodes, "Basis of design", prEN 1990, European Committee of Standardization, Brussels 1991, in press.
Ulaga, T., Vogel T. and Meier U., "The bilinear stress-slip bond model:
theoretical background and significance", Proceedings, 6th International
Symposium on Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement of Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-6).

DESIGN GUIDELINE FOR CFRP STRENGTHENING OF

CONCRETE STRUCTURES
B. TALJSTEN
Department of Civil & Mining Engineering, Lulea. University of Technology,
SE-971 87 Lulea, Sweden andSkanska AB, 169 83 Solna, Sweden
There is an increasing need, and a great challenge, to repair and upgrade
the existing civil infrastructure. There are several reasons for this; a
structure may have to carry larger loads in the future or to comply with new
standards than it was designed for. In extreme cases, a structure may have
to be repaired or strengthened due to accidents. There are several methods
for repairing or strengthening a concrete structure. One such method that
has been used quite extensively around the world, in the last decade, is
Plate Bonding. This is when FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymer) sheets or
laminates are epoxy-bonded to the surface of a structure. If the technique is
to be used effectively, it requires a sound understanding of both the shortterm and long-term behaviour of the bonding system and the materials used.
The execution of the bonding work is also of great importance in order to
achieve a composite action between the adherents. Of the utmost
importance is the knowledge within what limits the strengthening method
can be used. Maybe the most important factor is a proper understanding of
the design process. In this paper a summary of the Design Guideline
developed in Sweden1 is presented. A Design Guideline for FRP
strengthening of concrete structures has existed in Sweden since end of the
90s. The Guideline is based on theoretical analyses, laboratory and fullscale tests as well as on practical experience.
SIGNIFICANCE
In general, the design for strengthening of concrete structures is of utmost
importance. Not only does one have to consider the performance of the
existing structure, but also the function of the newly strengthened one. To
be able to strengthen concrete structures in an optimal way and to use the
FRP materials most effectively proper design guidelines are needed. Lack of
guidelines will not only reduce the use of FRP for strengthening but also
risk that the strengthening materials are used incorrectly without
understanding of how the FRP material and the structure work together.
Accordingly, it is of utmost importance to develop and compile design
guidelines and codes for FRP Plate Bonding. Due to limited space, only the
Swedish design guideline is presented in this paper even though it would
have been of value to compare it with other existing guidelines such as the
Canadian2, Japanese3 and FIB4.
STRENGTHENING PHILOSOPHY
Our conception about strengthening is that it shall only be carried out if
absolutely necessary, if possible it is preferable to use administrative
upgrading where refined calculation methods are used in connection with
exact material and loading parameters to show that the existing structure has
a higher load-carrying capacity than what was earlier assumed. This may
also be combined with advanced measurement methods. However, if it is
found that a structure has to be strengthened and that FRP is the solution a
strict design methodology shall be followed.
SAFETY FACTORS
In traditional building design, safety has to be considered. These may be
divided into safety due to: the size and frequency of the loads, the properties
of the materials used, deviation in structure dimensions and form in relation
to the nominal figures and tolerances that are given on the drawings and are
used in design models. To compensate for these uncertainties, factors of
safety are used. These factors shall describe the reality as close as possible.
It shall also be possible to compare different materials from a competition
basis. The dimensioning material values may be decided with the partial
coefficient method:
where fk is the characteristic value used on the material, lower 5 % fractile,

ym is the partial factor for material properties in which the random
distribution is considered. The systematic difference between a test
specimen's property and the structures are considered by 77 and finally y is
related to the class of safety. In Sweden, three safety classes are used : class
1, 2 and 3. In design for FRP Plate Bonding the partial factor ym is different
compared to steel or concrete. In the guidelines this factor is used to
compensate for uncertainties due to durability issues, manufacturing process
of the FRP material, and the method to undertake the strengthening work.
Also uncertainties due to short or long length of time are considered. In
addition a structure that is considered to be strengthened is divided into four
different environmental classes; Class 0: is a dry environment with low
CFRP Strengthening of Concrete Structures 1427

relative humidity, Class 1: is characterised of an environment that can be
exposed to frost and low humidity, Class 2: is characterised by a humid
environment but the structure is not in direct contact with water and finally
Class 3: which is characterised of very humid environment or a structure
direct in contact with water. It is not recommended that a structure in Class
3 be completely wrapped with FRP's, especially not in cold climates.
DESIGN FOR STRENGTHENING IN BENDING
Strengthening for bending is the most common as far as strengthening
concrete structures with FRP's is concerned. CFRP (Carbon Fibre
Composite Polymer) has dominated in such works, as well as the use of
laminate in comparison to fabrics. The design process is quite
straightforward and is based largely on reinforced concrete design with
special considerations to FRP Plate Bonding. In design with FRP Plate
Bonding in bending1, the following assumptions are made: Bernoulli's
hypothesis is valid - plane cross sections remain plain after deformation,
which means that the strain is linearly distributed over the cross section and
implies complete composite action between the materials, cracked concrete
has no tensile strength and the FRP is linear elastic up to failure.
p
Figure 1: Possible failure modes for concrete beams strengthened for shear with
CFRP sheets. 1) Concrete crushing, 2)Yielding of tension reinforcement, 3) Yielding
of compression reinforcement, 4) Laminate failure, 5) Anchorage failure, 6) Peeling
in concrete and 7) Delamination laminate.
In the design, 7 primary failure modes (see figure 1), are considered and
checked for in design. Furthermore, yielding in the tensile reinforcement in
the ultimate limit state is assumed. Yielding of the reinforcement in the

serviceability state is not permitted. In addition, other failure modes are
possible, for example laminate peeling off at a shear crack or peeling off at
a section with extensive yielding of the bending reinforcement. However,
these failures are considered as secondary failures and not considered in this
design model.
Design
First the actual strain distribution over the structure is calculated, the initial
calculated strain due to, for example, dead load is then used in design. In
figure 2 the initial strain is denoted su0. When the initial strain distribution is
known, the amount of CFRP necessary for strengthening can be calculated.
Different equations are used with consideration to the calculated failure
mode, that is, whether the failure will arise in the laminate with or without
yielding of the compressive reinforcement or in concrete crushing with or
without yielding in the compressive reinforcement.
a)
b)
ff
c)
Figure 2: Strain and stress figures for a FRP strengthened loaded beam with a
rectangular cross section
The failure criterion is sc < ecu = 3.5 %o for concrete and sf < 0.7 Efu for
the composite. The design equations are based on equilibrium conditions. In
this paper only the simplest form, that is, the case of laminate failure with
yielding in the compressive reinforcement, is presented. From Eqs. (2) and
(3), it is easy to calculate the area of FRP needed.
Md = Asa's (flc - d's)+ AJy (ds -0c) + sfEfAf
A force equilibrium equation gives (see figure 3):
Asfy+ZfEfAf-Asa's
afccb
{h - fk)
(2)
where Md is the design bending moment, fy and fy the steel yield load, Ef
young's modulus of fibre, as stress in compressive reinforcement and/ cc
concrete compressive strength. The other parameters are given in Figure 2.
Anchorage
To transfer the force from the concrete to the laminate, it is very important
to provide sufficient anchorage length. The design equation for anchorage,
equation (4), is based on fracture mechanics and laboratory tests5,6.
0-2 ffu
r7-=
(4)
yjfctEfw/tf
where lcr is the critical anchor length, f^ ultimate tensile strength of
composite,^! the concrete tensile strength, w a constant equal to 0.5 mm and
tf the thickness of the composite. There exists a critical anchor length4 above
which any longer anchor length will not carry any extra load. The maximum
load that can be transferred into the concrete in the anchorage zone is
approximately 20 % of the ultimate tensile capacity of the laminate. This
gives an anchor length, which depends on the stiffness of the FRP used, and
for CFRP is around 250 mm. If the calculation gives longer anchor lengths,
then mechanical anchorage is necessary. In the Design Guideline, the
anchorage is calculated from the section where the laminate stress is below
20 % of the ultimate tensile stress for the laminate.
ea=*cr
DESIGN FOR STRENGTHENING IN SHEAR

The design for strengthening a concrete structure in shear is based on the
truss model and the superposition principle with considerations for the
orthotropic behaviour of the CFRP material. The shear capacity of a CFRP
strengthened concrete beam can hence be expressed as:
Vd=Vc+V,+Vf
(5)
where Vc , Vs and Vf are the contribution from the concrete, steel and
composite respectively. The following assumptions have been made:
Bernoulli's hypothesis is valid - plane cross sections remain plain after
deformation, the shear crack arises in a principal stress direction, the FRP is
linear elastic up to failure and the load is presumed to act so that the shear
force can be considered evenly distributed on the structures width
perpendicular to the beam span
Failure modes
In Figure 3, failure modes typical of shear strengthened beams are shown. If
the structure is over-strengthened concrete crushing can arise. Fibre failure
in the most stressed fibre is another possible failure mode. Anchorage
failure can arise if the sheets or laminates are not anchoraged properly.
Tensile failure
in fibre
CFRP sheets
Anchorage failure
to concrete
Figure 3: Different failure modes for a rectangular concrete beam strengthened with
FRP, 1) Concrete crushing, 2) Fibre failure and 3) Anchorage failure
Design
In this paper a shortened version of a comprehensive derivation for concrete
beams strengthened with CFRP in shear is presented. For the full derivation
reference 1. The basic idea for derivation of the contribution to the shear
capacity by bonded FRP composites is based on the well-known trussmodel; it is hence possible to derive the following equation for shear
strengthening:
Vf=efEf
AfO.9d{l + cot0)
,
sin J3 cos 6
(6)
where, of is the stress and sf is the strain in the fibre direction; Ef is the
Young's modulus in the fibre direction; s = b/sinfl, is the distance between
adjacent sheets if the whole side is covered; and Af = 2tjbfi is the crosssectional area of the composite. Hence Eq. (6) can be written in the
following form:
Vf 2tffEf0.9d(l
+cot
cos 9
(7)
There exists a considerable difference between the contribution from
steel stirrups and CFRP sheets or laminates to the shear capacity. The
reason for this is that in ultimate limit design, the steel stirrups are assumed
to yield but the CFRP are not. If a rectangular beam on free supports is
considered, the maximum shear stress is at the centre of the beam. The most
stressed steel stirrup is in the mid-section of the beam. When a crack is
formed, this stirrup yields at a certain strain level; if the load increases the
neighbouring stirrup starts to yield and so on. At a defined load level, all
stirrups have yielded and the condition stipulated in Vs is fulfilled. However,
this is not possible for CFRP materials and there is an increasing strain on
the CFRP strip up to failure (see figure 4).
<T = fsy
CFRP
Steel
Figure 4: Principle for shear capacity contribution for steel and CFRP
It can be noted in Figure 4 that all stirrups reach the yield limit, SI to S5
on the curve, but for the carbon fibre composite an uneven strain
distribution can be noted where C3 is the sheet that has the highest strain
(stress). However, it can also be noted that the contribution from the CFRP
sheets can be considerable if fibre failure is reached. In design, this can be
difficult to take care of and a simplified approach is necessary where an
assumed strain distribution is considered. It is important to anchor the sheets
or laminates in the compressive zone. This is often taken care of
mechanically, however, if possible it is suggested that closed "stirrup" is
formed by the composite.
DESIGN FOR STRENGTHENING IN TORSION
Strengthening a concrete structure for torsion is quite unusual. However,
tests7 have shown that it is fully possible to strengthen concrete members for
torsion with FRP. The torsion cracks are formed by the same mechanism as
for shear. However, when it comes to torsion it is important to enclose the
structure with the strengthening system used. It should also be mentioned

that the theory for torsion is not as well founded as the theory for bending
and shear. The same assumptions as for shear are considered and the failure
modes are more or less the same as for shear failure of a FRP strengthened
concrete member. The design equations for torsion, with T as the torsional
moment, can be written as:
T
= tfsfEf{l
+ cotp)sin2pcos26
(8)
DESIGN WITH CONSIDERATION TO FATIGUE

In the design guidelines it is suggested that the capacity against fatigue
failure in the composite is sufficient if:
sf<0.7efu
(9)
However, in general the CFRP has a very good fatigue resistance and it
is most likely that other parts of the concrete structure will fail in fatigue
before the composite. Therefore, if fatigue is an issue the concrete structure
itself must be controlled due to this type of failure.
STRENGTHENING OF RC COLUMNS
To calculate the load bearing capacity for axially loaded columns in general,
a contribution from the concrete and the longitudinal steel is used in the
calculation. However, national codes over the world consider this
differently and different values of constants and safety factors are often
used. Nevertheless, the load-bearing capacity usually ends up to nearly the
same value. The load-bearing capacity for axially loaded concrete columns
may with confinement be calculated as:
Nu = K
cJcc
+ ksAsfsc
(10)
where the increase in axial compressive strength in FRP-confined concrete

can be expressed as:
fee ~ fco + kikskshol
(11)
and, cpef is the effective creep number, kc, kf and k are coefficients that
depend on the steel reinforcement, concrete quality and the relation between
IJh, lc is the column buckling length and h the height of the cross section in
the direction of buckling for rectangular columns, and i*J12 for circular
columns, where i is the radius of inertia. The coefficients kc, /and ks can be
found in reference 1, where they are expressed as functions of the quality of
the concrete.
EXECUTION OF THE STRENGTHENING WORK
If the investigation shows that Plate Bonding is the most suitable method to
solve the problem, mainly four steps have to be carried out. First the
aggregates in the concrete must be uncovered, the surface must be dust free
before the strengthening starts. The most common way to uncover the
aggregates is by sand blasting, but water blasting or grinding can also be
used. Pressurised air or a simple vacuum cleaner removes the dust. The next
step in the strengthening process is to apply a primer. The function of the
primer is to enhance the bonding for the adhesive. After the primer has
hardened the first layer of resin is applied, thereafter FRP-laminates or
sheets can be bonded to the surface of the structure. If sheets are used the
process with resin and carbon fibre wrap can be repeated until enough
numbers of layers have been applied. Finally, a finishing layer of plaster,
polymer concrete, paint, shotcrete can be applied upon the reinforcing
material for aesthetic look or for fire protection. It is of utmost important
that the surfaces that shall be bonded are dust free and free from
contamination such as grease or oil.
Different adhesive suppliers can have different demands on the bonding
environment but in general the temperature on the concrete surface shall
exceed 10 C and it is recommendable that the working temperature is 3 C
over the existing dew point. The relative humidity in the air must be below
80 %. The tensile strength of the concrete surface shall exceed 1.5 MPa.
Allowed unevenness on the concrete surface depends on strengthening
system used and should be given by the manufacturer. It is also important
that the strengthening work is carried out with skilled workers with
experience in these types of jobs.
In this paper, a summary of the Swedish Design Guideline for concrete
structures strengthened with FRP is presented. The guideline has now been
in use for almost three years and an increasing use of FRP's for
strengthening due to the guidelines has been noted. It is important to
compile guidelines since without their existences, the consultants will fall
back to old proven strengthening methods and FRP's will mostly be used in
special cases. The summary of the guideline presented here covers
strengthening for bending, shear as well as for torsion and confinement. A
short discussion is made about safety factors and also how the strengthening
work shall be carried out.
REFERENCES
1. Taljsten, B. (2002): "FRP Strengthening of Existing Concrete
Structures. Design Guidelines" Division of Structural Engineering,
Lulea University of Technology, Lulea 2002, 228 pp, ISBN 91-8958003-6.
2. Neale K., 2001, Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures with
Externally-Bonded Fibre Reinforced Polymers, Design Manual No. 4,
ISIS Canada, ISBN 0-9689007-0-4, September 2001, p 198.
3. Maruyama K. Edt, 2001, Recommendations for upgrading of concrete
structures with use of continuous fibre sheets, Concrete Engineering
Series 41, JSCE, ISBN 4-8106-0355-5, 2001, p 250.
4. FIB, 2001, Bulletin 14, Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC
structures, Technical Report, Task Group 9.3 FRP (Fibre Reinforced
Polymer) reinforcement for concrete structures, ISBN 2-+88394-054-1,
July 2001, p 130.
5. Taljsten B., 1994, Plate Bonding, Strengthening of Existing Concrete
Structurers with Epoxy Bonded Plates of Steel or Fibre reinforced
Plastics, Doctoral Thesis 1994:152D, Div. of Structural Engineering,
Lulea University of Technology, ISSN 0348 - 8373, p 308.
6. Taljsten B., 1996, Strengthening of concrete prisms using the platebonding technique, International Journal of Fracture 82: 253-266, 1996,
1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Printed in the Netherlands.
7. Taljsten B., 1998, Forstdrkning av betongkonstruktioner med stdlplat
och
avancerade kompositmaterial utsatta for
vridning,
Forskningsrapport, Lulea Tekniska Universitet, Avdelningen for
konstruktionsteknik, Institutionen for vag och vattenbyggnad, 1998:01,
ISSN 1402-1528 p. 56 (In Swedish).

DESIGN PRACTICE OF FRAMED BUILDING

STRUCTURES BASED ON AIJ DESIGN GUIDELINE 2002
K. KOBAYASHI
Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Fukui University
3-9-1 Bunkyo, Fukui-city, Fukui 910-8507, Japan
H. FUKUYAMA
Department of Structural Engineering, Building Research Institute
1 Tatehara, Tsukuba-city, Ibaraki 305-0802, Japan
T. FUJ1SAKI
Institute of Technology, Shimizu Corporation
3-4-17 Etchujima, Koto-ku, Tokyo 135-8530, Japan
S. FUKAI
Structural Engineering Department, Nikken Sekkei Ltd
2-1-3 Koraku, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8565, Japan
T. KANAKUBO
Institute of Engineering Mechanics and Systems, University ofTsukuba
1-1-1 Tennohdai, Tsukuba-city, Ibaraki 305-8573, Japan
Seismic design practices were done using a same design procedure as steelRC. The response was evaluated using capacity spectrum method that has
been added to the Japanese Building Standard Law revised in 2000. The
structural detail of member was verified using AIJ guideline in 2002. A
possibility of the construction of FRP-RC building in seismic zone was
recognized, but at the same time it was proven that the response strongly
depends on the expected damping factor. If the seismic response can be
reduced, FRP-RC buildings will perform well and have less residual
deformation because of the completely elastic behavior of continuous fiber
bars. It will realize a reinforced concrete building with high reparable
performance after receiving a strong motion.
INTRODUCTION
An Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) research committee was organized
in the initial stage of FRP-research in 1988-1991. It reviewed the past
research results and studied the evaluation criteria and the evaluation
methods of FRP-RC. At the same time the usefulness of FRP was
recognized and a Building Research Institute (BRI) project (1988-1993) was
organized. The AIJ Committee members fully cooperated with BRI project
that compiled the "Design Guidelines of FRP Reinforced Concrete Building
Structures" in 1993 and contributed it to the Journal of Composites for
Construction, ASCE in 19971.
The research of FRP has shifted to the seismic retrofit using fiber sheet
since the Kobe Earthquake in 1995, and a lot of data was accumulated in
this field. Then AIJ organized a research committee for FRP again in 1996,
and they worked to compile a design and construction guideline. A part of
the committee work about fiber sheet wrapping technology was presented at
FRPRCS-4.
The structural design of the building is currently shifting to the
performance-based design. It is expected that not only fiber sheet but also
any fiber material turn into a useful structural material in the future are to
meet the required performance. AIJ Committee took this opportunity to
compile a design and construction guideline including the evaluation
method of material characteristics, fire resistance, durability and FRP-RC
using FRP-bars as well as the seismic retrofitting method using fiber sheet,
and published it in 20022. The guidelines for FRP-RC using FRP-bars,
overlaps vastly with the already published one1. However, it has been
reconstructed from a viewpoint of the performance-based design to satisfy
various demands, both structural and non-structural.
The seismic design concept entails the ensuring of seismic performance
by overcoming the ductility deficiency of the continuous fiber material,
which shows elastic behaviour up to fracture. The seismic design of
building using FRP-bars has therefore been regarded as questionable.
However, the elastic behavior of FRP-RC is an advantage to reduce the
residual deformation and achieve a reparable structure after a strong
earthquake. AIJ guideline2 includes an example of seismic design of framed
building using FRP-bars. It shows that the response of FRP-RC frame can
be predicted in a same way as of steel-RC, and FRP-RC building may be
constructed in seismic region. This paper introduces this part of the AIJ
guideline2.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN METHOD
A new option of structural design method was added to the Japanese
Building Standard Law in 2000. This is based on the equivalent linearization
Design Practice of Framed Building Structure
1437
method and a way to predict the response to the demand seismic action that
is given as a response acceleration spectrum. The response is figured out
from the demand and the capacity spectrum characterized by the period
corresponding to the equivalent stiffness and the equivalent damping. This
method has an advantage that it is applicable to any structural type of building
if the load-displacement relation and the equivalent damping are given.
The design procedure is shown in Fig.l. The specific issues for FRPRC in the capacity spectrum method are mainly: (1) formulation of loaddisplacement skeleton curve of members; (2) evaluation of equivalent
damping; (3) characterized values of sections. These are described in the
next section.
Regarding a capacity spectrum, the acceleration at the reference point is
obtained by dividing the base shear by the effective mass for the first mode.
The effective mass for the first mode, Mel, is calculated as follow,
Mtl = {-Lmr Srf/iXmc
6s,2)
(1)
in which ^^displacement of i-th story, and /73/=weight of i-th story, The

displacement is calculated as follows:
As=CLmr
<5s?)/(I,mi- d>si)
(2)
Decision of demand spectrum

To assume the detail of section of members
Elasto-plastic pushover analysis
S a (gal)
1.200
Demand spectrum
Perfo mance point
Calculation of capacity spectrum (Sa-Sd)

for each step
Calculation equivalent damping for each step
Calculation of the performance point using the
capacity spectrum arid the demand spectrum
Calculation of stresses of frames at the
performance point
0
10 20 30 40 50
Spectral displacement S d (cm)
Reparable limit: Examination of beam and column

sections against the stress.
Safety limitTo give guarantee to the ductility of
frames and the expected hinge.
Fig. 1. Procedure of seismic design
Fig.2. Capacity spectrum and

demand spectrum

The demand spectrum (Sa-Sd) is made by superimposing T-Sa relation
and the relation of Sa= co2 Sd. Here, T is the period, Sa is the demand
acceleration. Sd is the demand displacement. The demand acceleration is
calculated by multiplying the site amplification factor to the demand
acceleration, and on the engineering bedrock. In the Japanese Building
Standard Law, the standard value of the demand acceleration spectrum on
engineering bedrock to the safety limit state is 5.12/T m/sec2 on the longperiod side with a constant velocity amplitude of 81.5 cm/sec.
The performance point is figured out from the intersection of the
capacity spectrum and the demand spectrum, shown in Fig. 2.
RESTORING FORCE CHARACTERISTICS
Hysteretic Loop
Experimental results of beam specimens loaded cyclically are explained in
this section. The specimens No.3-8 were tested in Reference 3. CFRP
reinforcements (spirally fiber wound type) and AFRP reinforcements
(braided type) are utilized as longitudinal bars of specimens No.3-5 and
No.6-8, respectively. Shear force versus drift angle curves until 1/33 radian
are shown in Fig. 3.
Q (kN)
Q (kN)
Q(kN)
Q(kN)
Q (kN)
Q(kN)
Fig. 3. Shear force versus drift angle curves of beams with FRP main bar
Design Practice of Framed Building Structure 1439
Skeleton Curve
Skeleton curves of members with longitudinal FRP-bars are possibly
represented by bilinear shape, because FRP bars have no yield phenomenon.
The characteristic points, of bilinear shape correspond to elastic part, postcracking part and ultimate point, as shown in Fig. 4. The elastic stiffness, ke,
and cracking load, Qbc, can be estimated similarly with ordinary steel-RC
members. In order to predict stiffness after cracking, fo, a stiffness
reduction coefficient at R=\I\5Q radian, amso, is newly defined as that
corresponding to the yield deformation of ordinary steel-RC members.
i/i50 = {o.043 + 1.64.A+0.043^ + 0.33 % j.W
(3)
where n = elastic modulus of FRP / elastic modulus of concrete, p, = main

bar ratio, a = shear span length, D = depth of member, rjo = axial stress /
concrete strength, and d= effective depth of member.
The stiffness reduction coefficient can be calculated by Eq. (3), which
has been originally proposed to identify the yielding point of steel-RC
members. Fig. 5 shows the correlation between observed stiffness after
cracking in experiments and calculated ones. Both values correspond well
to each other.
Fig. 4. Bilinear model
Fig. 5. Comparison of stiffness K2
Hysteretic Energy Absorption

The hysteretic energy absorption could be expected even though FRP-bars
have no yield phenomenon. Table 1 indicates values of equivalent damping
factor, heq, obtained for the specimens shown in Fig. 3. The values of heq
ranged from 3 to 4% in the 2nd cycle at the drift angle of 1/200-1/100 radian,
and 4 to 6% for 1/50-1/33 radian. There is a room of argument whether this
could be accepted in a seismic design. It is a safer consideration to deduce
that there is no hysteretic energy absorption.
Table 1. Values of h(
ID
l/200rad.
2nd
1"
No. 3 0.079 0.044
No. 4 0.078 0.038
No. 5 0.076 0.038
No. 6 0.093 0.041
No. 7 0.094 0.038
No. 8 0.091 0.041
1/lOOrad.
2nd
1"
0.070 0.044
0.067 0.041
0.060 0.038
0.070 0.043
0.065 0.038
0.068 0.039
Loading cycle
l/50rad.
2nd
1"
0.082 0.053
0.074 0.047
0.070 0.047
0.079 0.053
0.072 0.045
0.068 0.044
l/33rad.
l/20rad.
2nd
1"
1"
0.081 0.060 0.126
0.074 0.057 0.110
0.072 0.058 0.102
0.092 0.074 0.184
0.070 0.059 0.199
0.065 0.049 0.145
DESIGN PRACTICE-1
The response of a frame structure was figured out, using the horizontal
loading test result of a 2.5-story, 2-bay frame4. This experiment differs
from actual building conditions such as horizontal load distribution. The
capacity spectrum was made under the following assumptions.
(1) The acceleration at the reference point was calculated assuming the
effective mass for the first mode is 90% of the total building weight.
(2) The displacement of the reference point was calculated by multiplying
the 2-story height to the measured drift angle at 3rd floor level.
Demand spectrum for safety limit had a velocity of 165 cm/sec on the
long-period side assuming the normal ground (type II: site amplification
factor is 2.025.) and 5% of damping. Demand spectrum for reparable limit
was assumed 20% of that for safety limit demand. The relation between the
acceleration and displacement at reference point and the demand spectrum
are shown in Fig. 6. The response to the demand for reparable limit is about
1/500 in drift angle, and it is less than 1/200 that is generally accepted in the
design of Steel-RC frame. The response to the demand for safety limit is
about 32cm (more than 1/25 in drift angle). This performance point is close
to the point where the bottom bars of beam ruptured in tension. The
displacement response to the safety limit demand will be considered too
large to be accepted. Such a large response may be caused due to the
assumptions of large seismic design load and only 5% of damping factor.
When damping is 5%, the displacement response becomes large. Then
it may be possible to control the response by introducing some damping
mechanisms. The response is shown in Fig. 7 when the damping factor
increases up to 10%. The response is successfully reduced to 21cm by
adding more 5% of damping and that is 2/3 of the response when the
damping is 5%. This suggests the effectiveness of addition of some
damping mechanisms.
Safety i n *
^
Rupl Lire of! onpm
100C
WJi/M '*} i
'3V 1endency
compress* lilure of of
concrete
-3
-2
-I
Drift angle
Fig. 6. Response
(Normal ground, 5% damping)
-4
-3
-2
-I
Drift angle
Fig. 7. Response
(Normal ground, 10% damping)
DESIGN PRACTICE-2
Capacity spectrum is made from the result of pushover analysis, and the
response of the building is predicted by the capacity spectrum method. The
design aims that FRP-bars should rupture neither in tension nor in
compression before reaching the performance point.
The analyzed building on hard soil ground (type I) is shown in Fig.8. It
is a unit frame building that was taken out of a nine-story building. The
specified concrete strength is 30MPa. The longitudinal FRP-bars are
aramid braided bars of which the nominal diameter is 15mm. The sectional
area, elastic modulus and design tensile strength are 180mm2, 68,650
N/mm2 and 931.6 N/mm2, respectively. The detail of typical column and
beam sections is shown in Fig. 9.
T-
in
rj
Til
v-i
Gl
*'
ffl
r.i
r.i
r.i
[G1
fi
JJL
W- *
fii
4
/
950
fi1
. lil
*'S
*?
3L
story
e>
Longitudinal
J l . ' l
a)
"
ffl
ill*
1" 1" 1
a| 4 J sj
fbr.fur.Ki'Rjr
~\
48-Aramid braided bars 4> 15
Column section
4
t
t3
Structural elevatic>n
i
950
CL
story
s
650
1

Structural plan
Fig. 8. Analyzed building
Top
bars
Bottom
bars
22-Aramid braided bars (b 15

22-Aramid braided bars 4> 15
Beam section
Fig. 9. Typical detail of sections
The response to the safety limit demand is discussed. The demand

spectrum was set up to have a velocity of HOcm/sec (site amplification
factor is 1.5 for type I ground) on the long period side and 5% of damping.
In the pushover analysis, the horizontal load distribution was decided on the
basis of the description in the Japanese Building Standard Law. The
horizontal load distribution at CB=0.2 is shown in Table 2. Pushover
analysis was stopped when the first member reached the flexural capacity.
The relation between story-shear force and story-drift is shown in Fig. 10.
The demand spectrum and the capacity spectrum are shown in Fig. 11,
which was calculated on the basis of the analytical result shown in Fig. 10.
The response to the safety limit demand is obtained as a point where the
capacity spectrum meets the demand spectrum. The response acceleration
of reference point is figured out as 465gal, and 26.2cm for the response
displacement. At this time, the equivalent period is 1.49 second. The ratio

of the effective mass for the first mode to the total building weight is 0.752.
The base shear coefficient is 0.375. The maximum story drift is 51mm
(drift angle: 1/71).
The end of curves in Fig. 10 is the end of pushover analysis where the
beam-ends in 2nd and 3 rd story reached the flexural capacity. The response
remains before reaching these points, so FRP-bars do not rupture in tension.
The strain at compressive fiber is 0.138% at maximum and the neutral axis
ratio is 0.185, so the strain of FRP-bars in compression side is less than
0.1% and it is proven that they do not rupture in compression.
Tablf i 2. Static horizontal load distribution at CB=0.2
Story
9F
8F
7F
6F
5F
4F
3F
2F
IF
LW
(kN)
1648
3277
4935
6658
8445
10259
12144
14042
15960
Weight
(kN)
1648
1630
1657
1723
1788
1813
1885
1899
1918
Ai
2.325
1.881
1.656
1.498
1.372
1.266
1.170
1.082
1.000
ai
0.103
0.205
0.309
0.417
0.529
0.643
0.761
0.880
1.000
Story Shear
(kN)
765
1232
1632
1992
2314
2595
2837
3035
3188
a
0.464
0.376
0.331
0.299
0.274
0.253
0.234
0.216
0.200
Hard ground (type I )

7000
6000
/1F
^
3F
S sooo
5F
)ry shear for
*9F
1000
(26.2cm,<l 65gal)
7F
bf
r erforman :e point
8F
S
\\
400
8.
Respc
nse
10
Story drift (cm)
Fig. 10. Story-shear force and

story-drift relation
20
Spectral displacement
Sd (cm)
Fig. 11. Capacity spectrum and

demand spectrum
CONCLUSIONS
(a) In the design practices, the responses remained within the safety limit
demand before the tensile or compressive fracture of FRP-bar. It was
shown that FRP-RC framed structure may possibly be designed in high
seismic region and the seismic design procedure for steel-RC is
applicable to FRP-RC.
(b) It is critical how much damping factor is expected. There is about 4-5%
of the hysteretic damping after the occurrence of flexural crack.
However, it is not acceptable to take into account this damping effect in
seismic design. The combination with some vibration control
device/material may be one solution to realize FRP-RC buildings in the
high seismic region.
(c) The almost elastic behavior of FRP-RC is an advantage to realize a
structure that has less residual deformation after strong earthquake and
has high reparable performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This is a part of the research activity of AIJ committee chaired by Dr. Shiro
Morita, Professor Emeritus, Kyoto University. The authors would like to
express great appreciation to all the committee members.
REFERENCES
1. Sonobe, Y., Fukuyama, H., et al., "Design Guidelines of FRP
Reinforced Concrete Building Structures", ASCE Journal of
Composites for Construction, Vol.1, No.3, 1997, pp.90-115.
2. "Design and Construction Guideline of Continuous Fiber Reinforced
Concrete ", AIJ, March 2002 (in Japanese).
3. Sonobe, Y., Fujisawa, M., et al., "Flexural Performance of Concrete
Beams Reinforced with FRP Bars under Anti-symmetric Cyclic
Loading", Summaries of Technical Papers of AIJ Annual Meeting,
Structures-II, August 1992, pp. 141-144 (in Japanese).
4. Fukuyama, H., Masuda, Y., Sonobe, Y. and Tanigaki, M., "Structural
Performances of Concrete Frame Reinforced with FRP Reinforcement,
2nd International Symposium on Non-metallic (FRP) Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures (FRPRCS-2), Belgium, August 1995, pp.275-286.

EVALUATIONS OF CONTINUOUS FIBER REINFORCED RC

MEMBERS BASED ON AIJ DESIGN GUIDELINE 2002
K. NAKANO AND Y. MATSUZAKI
Dept. ofArchitecture, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo University of Science
1-3 Kagurazaka, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan
T. KAKU
Dept. of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Toyohashi University of Technology
Toyohashi city, Aichi 441-8580, Japan
K. MASUO
General Building Research Corporation
5-8-lFujishirodai, Suita city, Osaki 565-0873, Japan
This paper describes and comments on AIJ Design Guideline 2002 of
seismic retrofit using continuous fiber sheets. The focus is on the
evaluation of the strengthening effect in regular RC columns and beams.
The following findings were obtained: (a) the amount of shear
reinforcement, the span to depth ratio, the axial compressive stress level
influence the strength and deformation capacities of retrofitted RC
members by continuous fiber sheet wrapping; (b) shear capacity of
retrofitted RC members can be predicted by previous design equation based
on the strut and tie models for usual RC members, in which the effective
fiber strain is developed; and (c) there are few test data on the confining
effect of continuous fiber sheet wrapping on splitting bond resistance of
longitudinal bars. Shear strength of members governed by the splitting
cover concrete along longitudinal bars can be predicted by the design
equation to evaluate the increase in splitting bond strength due to
confinement by the sheets. The confining effects on bond splitting failure
were evaluated from results of tests on cantilever specimens; and (d) the
ductility ratio can be roughly estimated as a function of the shear to flexural
strength ratio.
INTRODUCTION
The Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) established the committee for
'Structural Use of New Fiber Reinforcing Materials' for continuous fiber
reinforced concrete in 1996 with a five-year term of activity, and 'Design
and Construction Guideline of Continuous Fiber Reinforced Concrete' was
published in March 2002. This guideline on seismic retrofit using

continuous fiber sheets deals with regular columns and beams, short
columns with spandrel walls, columns with wing walls, beams with slab (T
shaped beams) and earthquake resisting walls.
This paper describes and comments on AIJ Design Guideline 2002 of
seismic retrofit using continuous fiber sheets. The focus is on the evaluation
of the strengthening effect of a regular RC member.
PROVISIONS OF SHEAR AND SPLITTING BOND STRENGTH
This guideline states the principles of design to prevent a shear failure and
to secure ductility rather than reinforcing a column and a beam for ultimate
strength. The ductility depends on the ultimate flexural capacity (Qmu) and
the ultimate shear capacity with consideration to the splitting bond capacity
(Qsuo), and is estimated by seismic capacity evaluation standards. In
Japanese design practice, splitting bond failure along longitudinal bars is
considered as one of the brittle failure modes to be prevented. The ultimate
capacity (Qsuo) used to evaluate the ductility is calculated from the minimum
value of shear capacity (Qsu) and splitting bond capacity (Qsllb), where Qsu
and QSUb of an RC member strengthened with continuous fiber sheet are
computed by adding shear contribution of the continuous fiber sheet, to the
shear contributions of concrete and steel.
The evaluation method of ultimate capacities shown in the guideline is a
rational one, based on corresponding equations used in AIJ Design
Guideline2 for earthquake-resistant RC buildings. The equations assume the
shear resisting mechanism as the sum of the truss mechanism and arch
mechanism. Safety is ensured by taking evaluation value to be the minimum
value in the compiled database.
CONTENTS OF DATABASE
The compiled database contains a total of 422 column and beam specimens.
Table 1 shows the classification of the data according to the types of the
strengthening method and the observed failure modes for regular members.
Table 2 shows the variations of the experimental parameters.
The fiber types used in the experiments are carbon, two types of aramid,
glass and polyacetal fibers. Figures 1(a) and (b) show the comparisons
between nominal and experimental mean values of the tensile strength and
the modulus of elasticity of fiber sheets. The nominal tensile strength is
Continuous Fiber Reinforced RC Menbers 1447

smaller than the measured mean experimental values. Nominal strength is
the manufacture-guaranteed catalogue value considering the safety
allowance of 3 a ( a : standard deviation). It is noted that the tensile strength
of fiber sheets is defined for the total sectional area of fibers only, that is,
not including the binding epoxy-resin. On the other hand, the nominal value
of the modulus of elasticity closely coincides with the experimental mean
values.
Table 1. Classifications of regular column and beam data
Total
S
B
F
FS
FB
C
X
Types
81
13
53
22
3
22
1
195
Carbon
23
1
19
4
0
3
0
50
Aramid
12
1
0
11
0
0
0
0
Others
46
9
7
6
4
8
1
81
RC
3
1
11
1
0
2
1
19
Steel
357
154
24
101
33
7
35
3
Total
Note Others: Glass and Polyacetal Fiber Wrapping
S: Shear failure, B: Splitting Bond Failure,
F: Flexural failure, FS and FB: Shear failure and Bond
Splitting failure after Flexural failure,
C: Bond failure for Round longitudinal bars, X: Not failure
Table 2. Variations of experimental parameters

Types
D
aB
(mm) (N/mm2)
pwf
(%)
pwjEfd
(N/mm2)
a/D
p,
(%)
min.200- 16-45 0 . 0 1 240.7- 0.40.0max.

700
0.89
1231
6.0
2.5
0.6
frequent 200- 2 1 - 3 0 0 . 0 4 1001.51.00.1range
300
0.10
400
2.0
1.5
0.2
Note D: Column and beam depth, <rB: Concrete strength,
pWf Sheet reinforcement ratio, Efd: Sheet Modulus
a/D: Shear span to depth ratio, p,: Tensile reinforcement
ratio, n: Axial stress ratio N/(bD&B)

700
3
3 400
-----;
* 300
2000
Carbon Sheet
O Carbon Strand
Aramid Sheet
A Other Sheet
""/"
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
S
a
| 200
U
8-100
(3
5000
Carbon Sheet
0 Carbon Strand
Aramid Sheet
A Other Sheet
...j^:..
i*....
0
100
:
: s
>V
:...ur
^
;
.'"!
x
,500
': *
1000
I600
200
'
300
400
500
600
700
Nominal Strength (N/mm)
Nominal Modulus (kN/mm)

(a) Tensile Strength
(b) Modulus of Elasticity
Figure 1. Mechanical Properties of Continuous Fiber Sheet
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Ultimate Shear Capacity
The ultimate shear capacity of regular RC column and beam strengthened
with continuous fiber sheets can be calculated using the equation specified
in AIJ Guideline 20021, that is,
Ql=b-jl-'L(pw-eTw)-cott
ton0-(}-P)-b-D-vcrB/2M(l)
where
tan0 = y ( L / Z ) ) 2 + l
P = {{\ +
-LID]
cot <f>)-Z(pw-cjwj\l{vGB)
(2)
(3)
in which b = width of the section, d = overall depth of the section, L = clear

span of the member, j , = distance between the top and bottom bars, aB =
concrete strength, v = 0.7-cr^/200 (in N/mm2) = effective concrete
compressive strength ratio, $ = angle of the compressive strut in the truss
mechanism, and cot^ =min. of (2.0, jl/(Dtand), {v-crB/^(pw
-o-^-lf5).
The shear contribution of the continuous fiber sheet is estimated using
the following equation:
(/>* O = P Wys + P*r E/d tfd (N/mm2)
(4)
with
efd =0.009-0.0002
=
where 'Y{pv-a'w)
Pwf>f E^fd
(5)
effective shear reinforcement amount, pm = the
reinforcement ratio of steel hoops, pWf = the reinforcement ratio of

continuous fiber sheets, Efd = modulus of elasticity of continuous fiber
sheets, <JS = yield strength of steel hoops, and sfd = effective fiver strain.
Figure 2 shows the average fiber strains at maximum loads reported in
the compiled database. The observed fiber strain at maximum shear is
usually less than its potential elongation capacity because of the elastic
property of fiber reinforcement. The effectiveness of fibers decreases with
an increase of reinforcement amount. The effective fiber strain in Equation
(5) is derived from Figure 2. However, it should be noted that the influence
of characteristic natures of each fiber type, such as the small elongation
capacity, the poor resistance against direct shear and the smaller strength at
the bent portions should be taken into account, as appropriate.
25
I 20
: (10" 3 ) I
--
y = -0.2189x + 10.93
S 15
a
"2 10
"*-i__
t
U
Xi 5
: *
.
. . .
....
10
.... I.... i ... .

15
20
25
30
Figure 2. Observed Average Fiber Strain at Maximum Shear
Figure 3 compares the calculated strength Qsu with the experimental

maximum shear loads Qmax of the 87 specimens with wrapping continuous
fiber sheets, which failed in shear before frexural yielding. For all the
specimens, the average ratio of QmJQsu is m= 1.08 with a standard
deviation IT =0.15.
1450
FRPRCS-6:
Codes and
Standards
600
;
;
400
Ol
200 -
Carbon Sheet: 45
O Carbon Strand: 11
AAramidSheet:23
X Others: 8
200
(kN)
S'A :
O)
;
- ,' i '
Figure 3. Comparisons between

Calculated and Measured Shear Strengths
A-f*-ai*"-
Carbon Sheets: 45
O Carbon Strand: 11
A Aramid Sheet: 23
X Others: 8
600
400
' i '
10
M ' ' ' 1' ' ' '
20
30
P Y/fEfllOB
40
Figure 4. Effects of
Shear reinforcement amount
Ultimate Splitting Bond Capacity

The ultimate splitting bond capacity of regular RC columns and beams
strengthened with continuous fiber sheets can be calculated using the
equation specified in AIJ Guideline 2002', that is,
G 6 = r t o - I ^ - y r + t a n < 9 - ( l - ^ ) - 6 - Z ) - v - C T / > / 2 (N) (6)
where
tan0 =
y(L/D)2+\-L/Dj
/?A ={rAu L^/(Z>-sin^-cos<z>)}/(V-fTB)
(7)
(8)
in which rbu = bond splitting strength, E ^ = t o t a l nominal perimeter of the

bars, and j , = distance between the compressive and tensile longitudinal
bars.
Shear strength governed by the splitting bond failure Qsub can be
evaluated by replacing the first term of Equation (1) with Equation (6). The
splitting bond strength rbu is given by the equation proposed by Fujii and
Morita3, ignoring the effect of continuous fiber sheet wrapping on splitting
bond, that is,
rA!,=rC0 + r (N/mm)
(9)
TCO=
(0.117*,. +0.163)7^7
r, = 9 . 5 1 - ^ ^ 7
(10)
(n>
in which rcu = bond strength without stirrups, rst = additional bond

strength due to stirrups, b, = - , b = width of cross section, dh =
Tdb
longitudinal bar diameter, <JB = concrete strength, pw '= shear reinforcement
ratio, and N = number of longitudinal bars.
The splitting bond contribution of the continuous fiber sheet is
estimated using the following equation:
P^Pj+r-^-P*
(12)
-500^LPw/
(13)
Es
where pws' = shear reinforcement ratio of steel hoops, pWf = shear
reinforcement ratio of continuous fiber sheets, Efd = modulus of elasticity of
continuous fiber sheets, Es = modulus of elasticity of steel hoops, and K =
reduction factor.
Researches on the splitting bond capacity of a RC member strengthened
with continuous fiber sheets are limited at present. According to
experimental investigations on splitting bond behavior; (a) splitting bond
capacities are increased by continuous fiber sheets wrapping; (b) the
contribution of continuous fiber sheets differs from that of steel hoops in
that the splitting bond capacity gain increases linearly with increasing
elastic modulus of the sheets; and (c) the effect on reinforcement depends
on the width of the column and beam, and the diameter and the number of
longitudinal bars.
In the guidelines, it was decided to evaluate the splitting bond capacity
and shear capacity simply by adding the contribution by the continuous
fiber sheet to those for conventional RC design by considering the above
qualitative characteristics.
The contribution of the continuous fiber sheets indicated by Equation
(12) is in proportion to the elasticity modulus of the sheets. Furthermore, as
the shear reinforcement ratio of the continuous fiber sheets is increased, the
contribution decreases, as indicated in Equation (13) based on Kakus'
experimental results 4.

Figure 5 compares the calculated strength Qsub and the experimental
maximum shear loads Qmax of 30 specimens, which failed in splitting bond
before flexural yielding. For all the specimens, the average ratio of
QmJQsub is m= 0.96 with standard deviation <x = 0.07.
600
1.8
1.6
1.4
400
j-*^
^J -
Q*200
9''
s
s
' "
-:-^JV_i& *
^4-o-
|0.8
0.4
0.2
0
-1l-J
200
600
400
Carbon Sheet: 22 .
O Carbon Strand: 4
A Aramid Strand: 1
X Others: 3
%.6
Carbon Sheet: 22
0 Carbon Strand: 4
A Aramid Sheet: 1
X Others: 3
1
'
S 1.2
l
.
. ,
10
30
20
p wfEfl/cTB
Figure 5. Comparisons between

Calculated and Measured Bond Strengths
Figure 6. Effects of
Shear reinforcement amount
Ductility of Strengthened Columns and Beams

The ductility index F is a function of the ductility factor /j., which is
used when designing the strengthening of columns and beams. It is
expressed by the following relationships obtained from a tri-linear
degrading loop model:
F = tj2M-l
(14)
where
1
(15)
0.75(1 + 0.05^)
The ductility factor /u of regular RC columns, and beams, strengthened
with continuous fiber sheets, can be calculated using the equation specified
in AIJ Guideline 20021, that is,
^ = 10
V ximu
0.9
, where 1 < /u < 5
(16)
The ultimate capacity (Qsuo) is calculated from the minimum value of

shear capacity (Qsu) and splitting bond capacity (QSUb)- The flexural strength
(Qmu) was calculated by the Japanese usual practical equation. Whenever
the axial force exceeds the balanced axial force, Qmu should be the shear
force associated to the balanced moment. Figure 7 shows the relationships
between the ductility factors and the calculated shear to flexural strength
ratios (QsuJQmu) for flexurally failed specimens subjected to load reversals
in the elastic range. There is a tendency that the larger the ratio QsuJQmm the
larger is the value of //ex .
: Carbon Sheet: 24
; 0 Carbon Strand: 1
: A Aramid Sheet: 14
- O - -;
*
:
.:
0.6
Figure 7. Measured Ductility

vs.Calculated Shear to
Flexural strength ratio
%*&-'-
fgte- /
....jp.
A : '
0.8
!
1.2
I Qmu
.......
1.4
1.6
Figure 8. Relationship between ductility ratio

and Qsuo/Qmu for Shear and Splitting
Bond failed after Flexural Failure
Selecting the 39 specimens that failed in shear or splitting bond after

load reversals in the plastic range, the QsuJQmu vs. //ex relationships were
plotted in Figure 8. The analysis gave Equation (16) for the prediction of
ductility.
CONCLUSIONS
The shear provisions provided by the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ)
for the retrofitted regular RC members with continuous fiber sheets are
presented, and the following findings were obtained:
(a) The guideline states the principle of design to prevent a shear failure and
to secure ductility rather than reinforcing the columns and beams for
ultimate strength
(b) The ductility depends on the ultimate flexural capacity and the ultimate
shear capacity with consideration of the splitting bond capacity, and is
estimated by seismic capacity evaluation standards.
(c) Shear and splitting bond strength can be predicted by previous
equations for RC members. Consideration of the modulus of elasticity
and the effective strain of continuous fiber sheets seems essential.
(d) The effective strain to evaluate the shear strength and the reduction
factor to evaluate the splitting bond strength are defined based on the
compiled database. Existing equations for conventional RC are
extended to incorporate the contribution of the continuous fiber sheets.
ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
This is a part of the research activity of AIJ committee chaired by Dr. Shiro
Morita, Professor Emeritus, Kyoto University.
REFFERENCES
1. "Design and Construction Guideline of Continuous Fiber Reinforced
Concrete", Architectural Institute ofJapan, March 2002
2. "Design Guidelines for Earthquake Resistant Reinforced Concrete
Buildings Based on Ultimate Strength Concept 1990", Architectural
Institute of Japan, March 1990 (English version, 1994)
3. Morita,S. and Fujii,S., "Bond Capacity of Deformed Bars due to
Splitting of Surrounding Concrete", 'Bond in Concrete', International
Conference at Paisley, Scotland, 1982, pp.331-341.
4. Kono, S., Matsuno, K. and Kaku, T., "Experimental Study on BondSlip Behavior of Longitudinal Bars in RC Beams Confined with FRP
Sheets", 'FRPRCS4', Baltimore, October 1999, pp.333-345.

DESIGN PROCEDURE OF NSM FRP REINFORCEMENT

FOR STRENGTHENING OF RC BEAMS
L. DE LORENZIS' AND A. NANNI2
'Dept. of Innovation Engineering, University ofLecce, 73100 Lecce, Italy
2
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Missouri - Rolla, 65409 Rolla (MO), USA
Near-surface mounted (NSM) fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)
reinforcement has been found to perform efficiently as a flexural/shear
strengthening technology for reinforced concrete (RC) members, while
offering some additional practical advantages with respect to the most
widespread technique of externally bonded laminates. This paper presents a
design procedure for flexural and shear strengthening or RC beams with
NSM FRP reinforcement, as well as for detailing aspects such as anchorage
length. The design equations account for debonding mechanisms critical
for NSM reinforcement. Experimental results and analytical studies
currently available on this topic are used as basis and support to the
proposed equations, and areas of lacking knowledge are pointed out.
INTRODUCTION
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)-based techniques for repair and
strengthening of structures have been rapidly gaining popularity worldwide.
Beside the most widespread technology of externally bonded wet-lay up or
pre-cured FRP laminates, near-surface mounted (NSM) FRP reinforcement
has been found to perform efficiently as a flexural/shear strengthening
technology for reinforced concrete (RC) and prestressed concrete (PC)
members, while offering some additional practical advantages1.
The experimental data available thus far on flexural/shear strengthening
of RC and PC beams with NSM FRP rods is relatively limited1"5. As
indicated by the experimental evidence, failure of the strengthened beams
may occur by the mechanisms accounted for by the conventional RC theory,
as well as by debonding of the NSM bar(s). Reliable models to estimate the
ultimate load associated to debonding mechanisms are needed for a safe
design of FRP strengthening systems.
This paper presents a design procedure for flexural and shear
strengthening of RC beams with NSM FRP reinforcement, as well as for the
anchorage length. The design equations account for "traditional" failure
mechanisms, as well as for debonding mechanisms critical for NSM
reinforcement. Experimental results and analytical studies currently
available on this topic are used as basis and support to the proposed
equations, and areas of lacking knowledge are pointed out.
FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING
Background
Two debonding failure modes have been experimentally recorded on beams
strengthened in bending with NSM FRP rods. Beams strengthened with
sandblasted NSM bars may fail by debonding at the bar-epoxy interface2,
whereas those strengthened with ribbed or spirally wound NSM bars are
susceptible to failure by concrete cover delamination2'3'5. The latter
mechanism is common to beams strengthened with externally bonded steel
plates or FRP laminates.
A large number of models have been proposed to predict the debonding
strength of beams strengthened in bending with steel plates or FRP
laminates bonded to their tension face. A comprehensive survey has recently
assessed the accuracy and safety of many different models by comparing
their predictions with a wide experimental database6. A class of models are
the so-called "concrete tooth models", based on the concept of a concrete
tooth between two adjacent cracks behaving like a cantilever under the
horizontal shear stresses acting at the interface of the beam with the
reinforcement bonded to the tension face. In particular, the model by Raoof
and Hassanen was found to provide reasonably accurate estimates of the
debonding strength6. Although the model, by its nature, is suited to predict
failure by cover delamination, prediction of the ultimate load of beams
failed by other types of debonding was also found rather accurate.
As follows, the model is modified for the case of NSM FRP
reinforcement and, on the basis on bond test results obtained elsewhere7, is
applied to the beams tested in previous studies2'5.
Preliminary model for the debonding strength
The minimum stabilized crack spacing, lmim can be computed by:
where Ae is the area of concrete in tension,/!, the concrete tensile strength, us

the average bond strength between concrete and steel reinforcing bars, EOs
the total perimeter of the steel bars, Uf the average bond strength between
NSM FRP bars and surrounding material, EOf the total perimeter of the FRP
bars. Eq. (1) is an extension of the classical expression of the minimum
NSM FRP Reinforcement for Strengthening 1457
crack spacing in reinforced concrete, based on the assumption of a uniform

distribution of bond stresses at both steel-to-concrete and NSM bar-toconcrete interfaces. For the typical values of minimum crack spacing, the
average bond strength Uf can be reasonably approximated by the local bond
strength, and the latter should be known from literature data or experimental
tests. The maximum stabilized crack spacing is twice the minimum, i.e.
'm<=2 Lm- For the case of an RC beam with a single layer of steel tension
reinforcement, Ae is twice the distance from the centroid of the tension
reinforcement to the base of the RC beam multiplied by the beam width.
Moreover, it is assumed, as in the original model6, that:
,=0.28^"(inMPa)
(2)
and that:
fc = 0 . 3 6 7 / ^ (in MPa)
(3)
fcu being the concrete cube compressive strength.
The model assumes that failure of the concrete tooth between two
adjacent cracks occurs when the stress at point A (Figure 1) exceeds the
concrete tensile strength. Such stress can be determined as follows:
^=77(Tl
TO
where MA =m7idblh' and IA=bl3/\2.IA

is the moment of inertia of the
tooth, MA is the moment at the base of the tooth, / is the crack spacing
(minimum or maximum), h' is the distance from the base of the steel tension
reinforcement to the centroid of the NSM reinforcement, ris the shear stress
at the interface between NSM FRP bars and surrounding material, n is the
number of NSM bars, db is their diameter, b is the width of the beam.
Substituting MA and IA in equation (4) and assuming that at the instant of
debonding is aA = fch the value of r at which delamination of the concrete
cover occurs is as follows:
_ fJ
&
del ~ six
(5)
6/2 nndb
Within the shear span of the beam (for a beam under four-point
bending), the shear stress r is balanced by the axial stress o/ in the NSM
bars. At the location under the point load at delamination is:
P
4 -L,FTdel- ~,2bLJ
(6)
a fdel
2,,fct
db
2>nndb h'
where Lp is the effective length of the NSM bars in the shear span over
which equivalent shear stresses at the interface of the bars with the

surrounding material may be assumed to remain constant. The expression of
Lp is the means through which empirical calibration has been conducted in
the original model for externally bonded steel plates, and in its subsequent
modifications6. Of the different expressions proposed for Lp, the most recent
ones give Lp as the smaller of the plate length in the shear span, Lpi, and an
equivalent length Lp2 function of lmi. The latter function, calibrated with test
data, had a parabolic form for low values of lmim followed by a linear
expression. In analogy with the original model and until more experimental
data becomes available, it is herein suggested to take Lp for NSM bars as the
smaller of the bar length in the shear span, Lpi, and an equivalent length LP2
given by:
,2
,,
. n :, , ên__
(7a)
Lp2 =1.86/^ n -127/ m i n +2436
if /min <50mm
Lp2 =736 mm
if L: > 50 mm
(7b)
Hence, the minimum and the maximum stress in the FRP required to
cause flexural cracking and failure of a tooth can be determined from
equation (6) with / taken as lmi or lmax, respectively.
point A
Concrete tooth
NSM FRP bar
Figure 1. Concrete tooth model
Comparison with experimental results and discussion

Equation (7) was calibrated based on the upper bound of OfM using test
results of beams BFG4, BRl-a and BRl-b tested in previous studies2'5 and
then verified against results of the remaining beams BFC3, BFC4, BR2-a
and BR2-b. The bond strength of the NSM FRP bars introduced in the
equations, Uf, was taken as the local bond strength obtained from bond tests
and modeling reported elsewhere7. Comparison between experimental
results and theoretical predictions obtained by the conventional RC theory
and the proposed model (upper bound) is summarized in Table 1. It appears
that the model is able to accurately predict failure mode and ultimate load of
the beams. Further studies are needed to assess the validity of the model on
a wider experimental database.
Table 1. Comparison between experimental and theoretical results
Theor.
Theor.
Experimental
(proposed model,
(conventional
%
upper bound)
theory)
Beam
Ultimate
Ultimate Failure Error Ultimate ,, .,
Failure
Failure
load
load
load
mode
mode
mode
(kN)
(kN)
(kN)
BFC3
BFC4
BFG4
BRl-a
BRl-b
BR2-a
BR2-b
203.6
226.0
196.9
84.7
125.1
97.3
135.4
DBY
DBY
DBY
DBY
CCY
DBY
CCY -DB
223.9
290.7
216.0
95.4
121.7
113.5
134.2
FRY
FRY
CCY
CCY
CCY
CCY
CCY
-10.0
-28.6
-9.7
-12.6
2.7
-16.6
0.9
210.0
194.0
198.3
84.5
121.7
97.0
134.2
DBY
DBY
DBY
DBY
CCY
DBY
CCY
%
Error
-3.1
14.2
-0.7
0.2
2.7
0.3
0.9
CCY = Concrete crushing after steel yielding; DBY = Debonding after steel
yielding; FRY = fiber rupture after steel yielding.
The model, in this form, can be applied to beams under four-point
bending whereas other loading schemes would require recalibration of the
equivalent length Lp. The presence of the epoxy (or other encapsulating
material for the NSM bars) was neglected. Predictions of the model are
sensitive to the values of lmi and Lp, whose expressions are then most
critical. While the use of equation (1) is a reasonable simplification for
design purposes, it is questionable whether the local bond strength of NSM
bars is appropriate or a reduced value (closer to the average bond strength)
should be used. However, using a larger bond strength results in a smaller
value of lml, hence, in a lower strength of the concrete tooth and in more
conservative predictions.
Note that the model applies rather well also to beams BFC3 and BFC4,
although they failed by debonding at the bar-epoxy interface rather than by
cover delamination. As calibration has been conducted on the upper bound,
the comparison with the experimental results is good with the upper bound
prediction, while the lower bound would result in a very conservative
estimate.
Proposed design procedure

The proposed equations for computing the moment capacity of an RC crosssection strengthened in bending with NSM FRP rods are as follows:
(a) Obtain uf (local bond strength of NSM bars) from literature data or by
running bond tests with short bonded lengths with the same type of bar,
concrete strength, groove-filling material and groove depth to bar diameter
ratio to be used in the beams;
(b) Compute l^ from equation (1) and lmax as twice lml;
(c) Compute (Tfdeimaxfromequation (6) taking l=lmax\
(d) Compute the nominal ultimate moment with the conventional RC theory
using for the NSM bars an effective tensile strength equal to:
fueff
mln Cr
/ > >e/max )
(8)
where oyu is the tensile strength of the FRP bar.

(e) Compute the design ultimate moment of the cross-section by multiplying
the nominal ultimate moment by a reduction factor fy. As suggested in
ACI4408 for beams strengthened with externally bonded laminates, an
additional reduction factor y// should affect the FRP contribution, to account
for the novelty of this strengthening technique. Hence, the design moment
should be as follows:
0M=tf[Ms+iyfMf\
(9)
where Ms and Aâre the contributions to the moment capacity given by steel
and FRP, respectively. For i//fi a value of 0.85 as suggested by ACI4408 is
recommended.
(f) Check serviceability. This phase presents no difference with respect to
the case of externally bonded laminates.
SHEAR STRENGTHENING
A design approach for computing the shear capacity of RC beams
strengthened in shear with NSM FRP rods was proposed by the authors in a
previous study1. Such approach includes two equations that may be used to
obtain the FRP contribution to the shear capacity and suggests taking the
lowest of the two results. The proposed design equations are briefly
summarized below. For more details, refer to the original paper.
(a) Compute dr!l. A reduced value is used for the height of the cross-section
containing shear reinforcement in the form of NSM rods:
dml=dr-2-c
(10)
where dr is the height of the shear-strengthened part of the cross-section and

c is the concrete cover of the longitudinal reinforcement. In the case of
vertical NSM rods, dr coincides with the length of the FRP rods. This
reduction approximately accounts for the height of the Morsch truss being
lower than the total height of the beam. It can be assumed that the axis of the
upper strut is situated on the resultant of the compressive stresses and the
axis of the lower tie coincides with that of the longitudinal steel.
(b) Compute VIF. V1F is the FRP shear strength contribution related to bondcontrolled shear failure in the most unfavorable crack position It is
computed using the following assumptions:
i. inclination angle of the shear cracks constant and equal to 45 degrees;
ii. even distribution of bond stresses along the FRP rods at ultimate;
iii. the ultimate bond stress is reached in all the rods intersected by the
crack at ultimate.
Vw=2-K-db-urLmnan
(11)
The value of Llol min depends on dml, on the spacing s of the rods and on
their inclination. For vertical rods:
L
m mm = d ,
-S
if
-=*- < 5 < d ,
L,olmm=2-de,-4-sif^<s<^-
(12a)
(13a)
For 45-degree inclined rods:

A0,m, = (2dml -s)^.if^L
Llolmm = 2j2(d, -
< , < 2dml (12b)
)if^<s<^
(13b)
(c) Check if calculation of VTF is necessary. If:

dmt< 0 . 0 0 2 ^ ^ uf
or dnel<J2-
0.001^^
uf
(14a,b)
for vertical and 45-degree rods, respectively, calculation of V2F is not

necessary. If (14) is not satisfied, V2F has to be computed. In equation (14),
Eb is the elastic modulus of the NSM FRP bars.
(d) Compute Vw (if necessary). V2F is the FRP shear strength contribution
corresponding to a maximum FRP strain of 4000 \xs. This limit is suggested
to maintain the shear integrity of the concrete. V2F has to be computed in
the most unfavorable crack position, that it the position in which it is
minimum. It can be shown that, for vertical rods, the minimum value is:
V1F=2-K-db-uf-L,
if
V2F=2-7r-db-uf-Tr3'df"e'~4'S\f
d
In the case of 45-degree rods, it is:
V2F=2-7t-db-ufL,
^L<s<dne,
(15a)
<s<d"el
2
(15b)
if dml < s < 2dnel
(16a)
d e
"'
4
V2F=2-vdb-urTr3-d"*>-2-Sif^<s<dnel
(16b)
In the previous equations, Li is the effective length of an FRP rod

crossed by the crack corresponding to a strain of 4000 ue, and is given by:
L,,=0.001-^-*-
(17)
(e) Compute VFRP = min (Vw, Vw)-
(f) Check that limits on VFRP are satisfied. Limits on the value of VFRP and of
the sum (Vs + VFRP) indicated by ACI4408 should be extended to the case of
NSM strengthening, as their rationale is of general validity.
(g) Compute the shear capacity of the beam. The nominal shear strength of
an RC beam strengthened with an FRP system can be computed as the sum
of the shear strength of the concrete, the shear strength provided by the steel
shear reinforcement, and the contribution of the FRP reinforcement8:
Vn=K+Vs+VFRP
(18)
The design shear strength is obtained by applying a strength reduction
factor, (4, to the nominal shear strength. As indicated by ACI4408, the
reduction factor ^ = 0.85 given in ACI 318 should be maintained for the
concrete and steel terms, and an additional reduction factor vj/f should be
applied to the FRP contribution, to account for the novelty of this
strengthening technique:
<t>V=<l>s[Vc+Vs+YsVFRF]
(19)
Factor ^should not exceed 0.85.
ANCHORAGE LENGTH
Background
Extensive experimental and analytical investigations on bond of NSM FRP
reinforcement in concrete has been conducted in previous studies . Results
made available the calibrated local bond-slip relationship and, consequently,
the entire curve of the bond failure load as a function of the embedment
length for different types of FRP bars. Each curve is valid for a given
concrete to groove-filling material tensile strength ratio, and for a given
groove depth to bar diameter ratio. However, the trend of change of the local
bond strength with these variables has been enucleated elsewhere, and the
experimental data available, being referred to low concrete strength, should
be safely applicable to practical cases.
Based on the limit state philosophy, a design approach for the anchorage
length of NSM FRP bars in concrete is suggested as follows:
(a) Check that Ps<Ph At service load level, it should be required that the
free-end slip is zero and that the bar is anchored using only the ascending
portion of the bond-slip relationship. This poses a limit to the service load
that can be applied to the bar, Ps, which must be less than or equal to Pi. The
value off;, being function of the calibrated local bond-slip relationship, is
also available from previous studies.
(b) Find the anchorage length at the ULS, L^^ i.e. the embedment length
needed to anchor the bar under the design load at the ULS, Pu. In order to
account for uncertainties in the bond behavior, the curves of the bond failure
load as a function of the embedment length should be scaled homotetically
by an appropriate reduction factor. Entering the reduced curve with the
factored load, Pu, the corresponding anchorage length at the ULS can be
found.
(c) Find the anchorase length at service, Ln^.
For Ps < Pl, the embedment length needed is9:
l-a
An additional check to be performed at service load level is that the

loaded-end slip is not larger than a limiting value compatible with aesthetic
and/or durability requirements. This limit has been proposed as 0.4 mm by
previous researchers9. As the value of sm found for NSM reinforcement is
always less than 0.4 mm, this condition is automatically satisfied as soon
as the service load is less than or equal to Pj.
(d) Compute the anchorase length. Finally, the anchorage length of the bar
should be the maximum of LaiU and LaiS.

CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposed a design procedure for flexural and shear strengthening
of RC beams with NSM FRP reinforcement, as well as for the anchorage
length. The design equations account for "traditional" failure mechanisms,
as well as for debonding mechanisms critical for NSM reinforcement.
Predictions of the models which are the basis of the proposed design
procedures have been compared with experimental results either in this
(flexural strengthening) or in previous studies (shear strengthening1 and
anchorage length7), showing a reasonably good correlation. Further research
is needed to assess the validity of the proposed procedures on a wider
experimental database and to clarify other behavioural aspects of beams
strengthened with NSM FRP reinforcement, such as those related to
serviceability and to long-term performance.
REFERENCES
1. De Lorenzis, L., and Nanni, A. (2001), "Shear Strengthening of RC Beams with
Near Surface Mounted FRP Rods," ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 98, No. 1.
2. De Lorenzis, L., Nanni, A., La Tegola, A. (2000), "Flexural and Shear
Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Structures with Near Surface Mounted FRP
Rods", Proceedings ofACMBS-III, Ottawa, Canada, August 15-18, pp. 521-528.
3. Rizkalla, S., and Hassan, T. (2001) "Various FRP Strengthening Techniques for
Retrofitting Concrete Structures", CICE 2001 Conference proceedings, Hong Kong.
4. Taljsten, B., and Carolin, A. (2001), "Concrete Beams Strengthened with Near
Surface Mounted CFRP Laminates", Proceedings FRPRCS-5, Cambridge, UK, C.
Burgoyne, Ed., pp. 107-116.
5. De Lorenzis, L., Micelli, F., and La Tegola, A. (2002): "Passive and Active Near
Surface Mounted FRP Rods for Flexural Strengthening of RC Beams", Proceedings
ofICCI'02, San Francisco.
6. Smith, ST., and Teng, J.G. (2002), "FRP-strengthened RC beams. I: review of
debonding strength models", Engineering Structures, Vol. 24, pp. 385-395.
7. De Lorenzis, L. (2002), "Anchorage Length of Near-Surface Mounted FRP Rods
for Concrete Strengthening-Analytical Modeling and Design Approach", submitted
for publication on ACI Structural Journal.
8. American Concrete Institute Committee 440 (2002), "Guide for the design and
construction of externally bonded FRP systems for strengthening concrete
structures", ACI440.2R-02, 45 pp.
9. Cosenza, E.; Manfredi, G.; and Realfonzo, R. (1996), "II calcolo della lunghezza
di ancoraggio per barre in plasticafibro-rinforzata(FRP)", Atti del Congresso CTE,
Naples, Italy, Nov. 1996 (in Italian).
Author Index
Abdelrahman, A. 663
Adhikary, B.B. 457
Agyei.B.B. 935
Ait-Mokhtar, A. 833
AlChami, G. 623
Alhozaimy, A.M. 823
Al-Mahaidi, R. 247
Almusallam, T.H. 823
Al-Saidy, A.H. 1269
Al-Salloum, Y.A. 823
Alsayed, S.H. 823
Altan,M.O. 673
Alwis, K.G.N.C. I l l
An,L. 995
Anderson, A.H. 1301
Araujo, A.F. 1003
Araiijo, A.S. 477
Arora, D. 1067
Asakura, T. 1157
Ashraf,M. 457
Bakht,B. 923,945
Balafas, I. 1391
Balaguru, P. 367
Balendra, T. 1127
Balendran, R.V. 1047
Bank, L.C. 1067, 1301
Banthia, V. 945
Barbato, M. 387
Benlloch, J. 337
Benmokrane, B. 737, 1291, 1311,
1341
Biddah,A. 715
Bittencourt, T.N. 173
Blaschko.M. 205
Boulay,C. 913
Bousias, S.N. 527
Bradford, N.M. 705
Briere, F. 1341
Burgoyne, C.J. 111,1013,1391
Camata, G. 267,307
Carolin.A. 467,1371
Carter, J.W. 1301
Casadei, P. 1097
Choi.M.C. 955
Chu.W. 759
Ciupala,M.A. 643, 1117
Clement, J.L. 913
Codato, D. 1239
Cosenza, E. 653, 1361
Crawford, J.E. 1199
Dai.J.G. 143
Davies.J.M. 217
Davies, P. 347
De Lorenzis, L. 571, 581, 795,
975, 1351, 1455
Dejke.V. 833
Delmas, Y. 497
Delpak,R. 347
Deng, Y. 875
Denton, S.R. 1147
Desgagne.G. 1311,1341
Desiderio, P. 843
Diagana, C.497
Dieter, D.A. 1301
Dietsche, J.S. 1301
Dos Santos, A.C. 173
Ebead.U.A. 427,437
Ehrlacher, A. 407
El Maaddawy, T. 855
El-Hacha, R. 895
Elremaily, A.F. 79
El-Salakawy, E.F. 737,1291,
1311, 1341
Ergun, B. 673
Erki.M.A. 895
Fakhri,P. 913
Fam, A.Z. 685
Fardis, M.N. 527
Feng, P. 1401
Ferracuti, B. 163
Ferreira, AJ.M. 695
Foret, G. 407
Foster, S.J. 1177
Fujisaki, T. 1435
Fukai, S. 1435
Fukuyama, H. 133, 507, 1435
Furuta.T. 133,507
Galati.N. 1219
Gale,L. 955
Gallagher, B. 1301
Gedalia, B. 497
Gettu, R. 173
Gonenc, O. 1067
Gottardo, R. 1239
Grace, N.F. 1281
Grando, S. 1229
Gremel, D. 1067
Gu, X.L. 1107,1259
Guadagnini, M. 517
Guan, H. 1381
Guglielmo, E. 1361
Guimaraes, G.B. 1003
Hadi,M.N.S. 487,613
Hamad, B.S. 633
Hanamori, N. 885
Harada, T. 89
Harajli, M.H. 633

Hashem, Y. 663
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Fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforcement has

been used in construction as either internal or
external reinforcement for concrete structures in
the past decade. This book provides the latest
research findings related to the development, design
and application of FRP reinforcement in new
construction and rehabilitation works. The topics
include FRP properties and bond behaviour,
Reinforcement for
externally bonded reinforcement for flexure, shear

and confinement, FRP structural shapes, durability,
member behaviour under sustained loads, fatigue
loads and blast loads, prestressed FRP tendons,
structural strengthening applications, case studies,
and codes and standards.
ISBN 981-238-401-4(set)
ISBN 981-238-972-5
9 "789812"384010"
9 "789812"389725"
World Scientific
www. worldscientific. com
5300 he

9812384014

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Reinforcement for

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Kimg Hwee TAN

National University of Singapore, Singapore

8-1 0 July, 2003

NewJersey London Singapore Hong Kong

The planning and preparation works for FRPRCS-6 in effect began

Rostdsy from Germany, and Professor H. Okamura from Japan. All of

Kiang Hwee Tan

FRPRCS-6 Organizing Committees

International Steering Committee

International Scientific Committee

K.H. Tan, Singapore (Chairman)

Progress and Prospects of FRP Reinforcements: Survey of

Durability Design of GFRP Rods for Concrete Reinforcement

New Types of Continuous Fiber Reinforcements for Concrete

FRPMATERIALS AND PROPERTIES

Performance of ThermoplasticFiber Reinforced Polymer Rebars

Experimental Study on Poissons Ratio for FRP Tendons

Stress-Strain Model for FRP-Confined Concrete for Design

Accelerated Techniques to Predict the Stress-Rupture

Bond Strength between Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Laminates

Local Bond Stress-Slip Relations for FRP Sheets-Concrete

Bilinear Stress Slip Bond Model: Theoretical Background and

Non Linear Bond-Slip Law for FRP-Concrete Interface

Experimental Analysis of Interface between CFRP

FRP Adhesion in Uncracked and Cracked Concrete Zones

Neural Network Prediction of Plate End Debonding in FRPPlated RC Beams

Bond Behaviour of CFRP Strips Glued into Slits

Reinforcing Effects of CFRP and AFRP Sheets with Respect to

Flexural Behaviour of RC Beams Externally Reinforced with

Strength and Failure Mechanism of RC T-Beams Strengthened

Effect of Beam Size on Interfacial Shear Stresses and Failure

Debonding Failure of RC Structural Members Strengthened

Effect of End Wrapping on Peeling Behaviour of

An Experimental Study on Debond-Control of AFRP for

Tests on RC T-Beams Strengthened in Flexure with a Glued and

Parametric Studies of RC Beams Strengthened in Flexure with

Concrete Cover Failure or Tooth Type Failure in RC Beams

Influence of Material Properties of FRPs on Strength of

Ductility of Reinforced Concrete Beams Strengthened with

A Review of Ductility Determination of FRP Strengthened

A Semi-EmpiricalApproach for the Prediction of Deflections of

Crack Widths in RC Beams Externally Bonded with CFRP

Numerical Simulations for Strengthened Structures with

Fibre-Section FE of FRP-Strengthened RC Beam in Flexure,

Interaction between Internal Bars and External FRP

Strengthening of RC Two-way Slabs with Composite Materials

Evaluation of Externally Bonded CFRP Systems for the

Flexural Strengthening of Two-way Slabs Using FRPs

Tensile Properties of Concrete in FRP Strengthened

Effective Shear Strengthening of Concrete Beams using FRP

Behaviour of Concrete Structures Strengthened in Shear with

Strengthening of RC T Beams in Shear with Carbon Sheet

Strength Analysis of Sheared Beams Retrofitted with

Shear Performance with Externally Bonded Carbon Fibre

Evaluation of Shear Capacity of RC Columns Strengthened by

Shear Design Equations for FRP RC Beams

Strengtheningof Corrosion-DamagedRC Columns with FRP

Shear Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Decks using

Stress-Strain Relationship for FRP-Confined Concrete Prisms

Concrete Cylinders Confined by CFRP Sheets Subjected to

Concrete Cylinders Confined by Prestressed CFRP Filament

Concrete Confined with Fiber Reinforced Cement Based Thin