Professional Documents
Culture Documents
07 Chemical Reactions
Contents
1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
2
2
3
5
5
5
5
5 Aqueous Reactions
5.1 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions
5.2 Precipitation Reactions . . . . . .
5.3 Acid-Base Reactions . . . . . . .
5.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions .
.
.
.
.
6
6
6
8
10
6 Solution Stoichiometry
6.1 Concentration of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Dilution of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Stoichiometry in Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
13
13
14
14
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
References
References of these notes
General Chemistry, 10th ed, by Ralph H. Petrucci, F. Geoffrey Herring,
Jeffy D. Madura, and Carey Bisonnette.
Chemistry: The Central Science, 13th ed., by Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene
LeMay Jr., Bruce E. Bursten, Catherine J. Murphy, Patrick M. Woodward,
and Matthew W. Stoltzfus.
Chemical Equations
Chemical reactions are written down in chemical equations. These
equations show what substances reactcalled the reactantsand which
substances are formedcalled the products.
The reactants are written on one side, and the products on the other, with
an arrow pointing from reactants to products showing the path of the
reaction.
A+B
reactants
C+D
products
Reaction Conditions
The Greek capital letter delta, , means that a high temperature is required.
E.g.,
2 Ag2 O(s)
4 Ag(s) + O2 (g)
Other more explicit statement of reaction conditions can be written
350 C, 340 atm
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry refers to quantitative measurements and relationships
involving substances and mixtures of chemical interest.
The balanced chemical equation
2 H2 (g) + O2 (g) 2 H2 O
means that
2x molecules H2 reacts with x molecules O2 to produce 2x molecules H2 O
molecules moles
Stoichiometry Examples PHMB 10e, Examples 4-3 to 4-5, pp 117-118
1. How many moles of CO2 are produced in the combustion of 2.72 mol of
triethylene glycol, C6 H14 O4 , in an excess of O2 ?
2. What mass of CO2 is formed in the reaction of 4.16 g triethylene glycol,
C6 H14 O4 , with an excess of O2 ?
3. What mass of CO2 is consumed in the complete combustion of 6.86 g of
triethylene glycol, C6 H14 O4 ?
ANSWERS
1. 16.3 mol CO2
2. 7.31 g O2
3. 11.0 g O2
Combining Other Factors PHMB 10e, Examples 4-6 and 4-7, pp 121-122
Given the reaction
2 Al(g) + 6 HCl(aq) 2 AlCl3 (aq) + 3 H2 (g)
1. An alloy used in aircraft structures consists of 93.7% Al and 6.3% Cu by
mass. The alloy has a density of 2.85 g/cm3 . A 0.691 cm3 piece of the
alloy reacts with an excess of HCl(aq). If we assume that all the Al but
none of the Cu reacts with HCl(aq), what is the mass of H2 obtained?
2. A hydrochloric acid solution consists of 28.0% HCl by mass and has a
density of 1.14 g/mL. What volume of this solution is required to react
completely with 1.87 g Al?
ANSWERS:
1. 0.207 g H2
2. 23.8 mL HCl solution
3
2.2
Limiting Reactants
actual yield
100%
theoretical yield
Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Yields PHMB 10e, Example 4-14, p 133
Billions of kilograms of urea, CO(NH2 )2 , are produced annually for use as
a fertilizer using the reaction
NH3 (g) + CO2 (g) CO(NH2 )2 (s) + H2 O(l)
The typical starting reaction mixture has a 3:1 mole ratio of NH3 to CO2 . If 47.7
g urea forms per mole of CO2 that reacts, what is the
1. theoretical yield;
2. actual yield; and
3. percent yield?
ANSWERS:
1. theoretical yield = 60.1 g CO(NH2 )2
2. actual yield = 47.7 g CO(NH2 )2
3. percent yield = 79.4%
Adjusting Reactants PHMB 10e, Example 4-15, p 134
When heated with sulfuric or phosphoric acid, cyclohexanol, C6 H11 OH, is
converted to cyclohexene, C6 H10 . The chemical equation is
C6 H11 OH(l) C6 H10 (l) + H2 O(l)
If the percent yield is 83%, what mass of cyclohexanol must we use to obtain
25 g of cyclohexene?
ANSWER: 37 g C6 H11 OH
Combination Reactions
A combination reaction is a chemical reaction in which two or more
substances combine to form a single product.
A+B C
For example, magnesium metal burns brilliantly in air to produce magnesium
oxide
2 Mg(s) + O2 (g) 2 MgO(s)
Decomposition Reaction
In a decomposition reaction one substance undergoes a reaction to produce
two or more other substances.
C A+B
For example, many metal carbonates decompose to form metal oxides and
carbon dioxide when heated
4.2
Displacement Reactions
Displacement Reactions
In a displacement reaction, an element reacts with a compound, displacing
an element from it.
A + BX AX + B
Some examples are
Zn(s) + 2 HBr(aq) ZnBr2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Mn(s) + Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) Mn(NO3 )2 (aq) + Pb(s)
4.3
Combustion Reactions
Combustion Reactions
A combustion reaction is a chemical reaction that proceeds with evolution
of heat and usually also a flame.
most combustion involves reaction with oxygen, as in the burning of a
match.
For example, the combustion of propane, C3 H8 , a gas used for cooking, is
described by the equation
C3 H8 (g) + 5 O2 (g) 3 CO2 (g) + 4 H2 O(g)
5 Aqueous Reactions
5.1
Solutions
A homogeneous mixture (or solution) is a mixture of elements and/or
compounds that has a uniform composition and properties within a given
sample.
However, the composition and properties may vary from one sample to
another.
The solvent is the solution component in which one or more solutes are
dissolved.
Usually the solvent is present in greater amount than are the solutes and
determines the state of matter in which the solution exists.
A solute is a solution component that is dissolved in a solvent.
A solution may have several solutes, with the solutes generally present
in lesser amounts than is the solvent.
Electrolytes
An electrolyte is a substance that provides ions when dissolved in water.
A strong electrolyte is a substance that is completely ionized in solution.
E.g., NaCl.
A weak electrolyte is a substance that is only partially ionized in solution
in a reversible reaction. E.g., CH3 COOH.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that is essentially non-ionized, both in the pure
state and in solution. E.g., CH3 OH.
5.2
Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation Reaction
A precipitate is an insoluble solid that deposits from a solution as a result
of a chemical reaction.
A reaction in which one of the products is a precipitate is called a
precipitation reaction.
An example is the formation of PbI2 , a water-insoluble yellow solid.
2 KI(aq) + Pb(NO3 )2 (aq) 2 KNO3 (aq) + PbI2 (s)
Net Ionic Equations
A net ionic equation represents a reaction between ions in solution in such
a way that all nonparticipant (spectator) ions are eliminated from the equation.
The equation must be balanced both atomically and for net electric charge.
Net Ionic Equations: An Example
Given the reaction
AgNO3 (aq) + NaI(aq) AgI(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Since the strong electrolytes dissociate in water
+
+
NO
(aq)
+
Na
(aq) + I (aq) AgI(s) +
Na
(aq) +
NO
(aq)
Ag+ (aq) +
3
3
Removing the spectator ions, we get the net ionic equation
Ag+ (aq) + I (aq) AgI(s)
Predicting Precipitation Reactions
To predict whether a precipitate forms when we mix aqueous solutions of
two strong electrolytes
1. note the ions present in the reactants,
2. consider the possible cation-anion combinations, and
3. use tables or guidelines to determine if any of these combinations is
insoluble.
A Solubility Guideline
Follow the lower-numbered guideline when two guidelines are in conflict.
This leads to the correct prediction in most cases.
1. Salts of group 1 cations (with some exceptions for Li+ ) and the cation are
soluble.
2. Nitrates, acetates, and perchlorates are soluble.
3. Salts of silver, lead, and mercury(I) are insoluble.
4. Chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble.
5. Carbonates, phosphates, sulfides, oxides, and hydroxides are insoluble
(sulfides of group 2 cations and hydroxides of Ca 2+ , Sr 2+ , and Ba 2+ are
slightly soluble).
6. Sulfates are soluble except for those of calcium, strontium, and barium.
Acids
Sour taste
Provide H+ ions
React with active metals
to give H2
Produce CO2 when added
to limestone (CaCO3 )
Neutralize bases
Bases
Bitter taste
Provide OH ions
Slippery feeling
Neutralize acids
important exceptions
None
None
Compounds of Ag+ , Hg22+ , and Pb 2+
Compounds of Sr 2+ , Ba 2+ , Hg22+ , and Pb 2+
important exceptions
Compounds of NH+4 , the alkali metal cations,
Ca 2+ , Sr 2+ , and Ba 2+
Compounds of NH+4 , the alkali metal cations
Compounds of NH+4 , the alkali metal cations,
Ca 2+ , Sr 2+ , and Ba 2+
5.3
Acid-Base Reactions
Acids
An acid can be defined as a substance that provides hydrogen ions (H+ ) in
aqueous solution.
Based on the Arrhenius theory of acids.
HCl(g) + H2 O(l) H3 O+ (aq) + Cl (aq)
HCl(aq) H+ (aq) + Cl (aq)
Strong and Weak Acids
Strong acids have a strong tendency for producing H+ ions. They
are molecular compounds that are almost completely ionized into and
accompanying anions when in aqueous solution.
HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4 , HNO3 , H2 SO4
Weak acids are molecular compounds that have a weak tendency for
producing H+ ions; weak acids are incompletely ionized in aqueous solution.
CH3 COOH(aq) H+ (aq) + CH3 COO (aq)
Bases
The Arrhenius definition of a base is a substance that produces hydroxide
ions (OH ) in aqueous solution.
NaOH(aq) Na+ (aq) + OH (aq)
A strong base is a base that is completely ionized in aqueous solution.
LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2 , Sr(OH)2 , Ba(OH)2
A weak base is a base that is partially ionized in aqueous solution in a
reversible reaction.
NH3 (aq) + H2 O(l) NH+4 (aq) + OH (aq)
Ion-Product Constant of Water
Dissociation of water
H2 O H+ + OH
The ion-product constant for water, Kw
Kw = [H+ ][OH ] = 1.0 1014 at 25 0 C (or Kw = [H3 O+ ][OH ])
A solution for which [H3 O+ ] = [OH ] is said to be neutral.
pH
pH is the negative logarithm of the hydronium ion concentration.
pouvoir hydrogene which means hydrogen power
Equations of pH
pH = -log [H3 O+ ] (or pH = -log[H+ ])
pOH = -log [OH ]
pH + pOH = 14
pH < 7.0
pH = 7.0
pH > 7.0
solution is acidic
solution is neutral
solution is basic
Neutralization Reactions
In a neutralization reaction, an acid and a base react in stoichiometric
proportions, so that there is no excess of either acid or base in the final solution.
HCl(aq)
acid
+
+
NaOH(aq)
base
NaCl(aq)
salt
+
+
H2 O(l)
water
5.4
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
An oxidation-reduction (or redox) reaction is one that involves a
simultaneous oxidation and reduction of reactants.
A reduction process is one in which electrons are gained and the
oxidation state of some atom decreases.
Oxidation is a process in which electrons are lost and the oxidation state
of some atom increases.
An oxidation state relates to the number of electrons an atom loses, gains, or
shares in combining with other atoms to form molecules or polyatomic ions.
Oxidation State Change
Given the reaction below with the oxidation states
Fe2 O3 (s)
Fe = +3
O = -2
3 CO(g)
C = +2
O = -2
2 Fe(l)
Fe = 0
3 CO2 (g)
C = +4
O = -2
Zn(s)
Cu (aq) + 2 e
Zn(s) + Cu 2+ (aq)
2+
Zn 2+ (aq) + 2 e
Cu(s)
Zn 2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
12
13
6 Solution Stoichiometry
6.1
Concentration of Solutions
Molarity
Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
M=
M=
moles solute
volume (L) solution
n
V
n = MV
6.2
Dilution of Solutions
Solution Dilution
The principle of dilution is that the same amount of solute is present in
concentrated solution (small volume) as in the larger volume of a diluted
solution.
n = MV
V1 M1 = V2 M2
6.3
Stoichiometry in Solutions
14
7 Titrations
Titrations
and
Calculations
for
Acid-Base
Titrations
Titration is a procedure for carrying out a chemical reaction between two
solutions by the controlled addition (from a buret) of one solution to the other.
The equivalence point of a titration is the condition in which the
reactants are in stoichiometric proportions. They consume each other,
and neither reactant is in excess.
An indicator is an added substance that changes color at the equivalence
point in a titration.
Titration of Vinegar PHMB 10e, Example 5-9, p 179
Vinegar is a dilute aqueous solution of acetic acid produced by the bacterial
fermentation of apple cider, wine, or other carbohydrate material. The legal
minimum acetic acid content of vinegar is 4% by mass. A 5.00 mL sample of
a particular vinegar is titrated with 38.08 mL of 0.1000 M NaOH. Does this
sample exceed the minimum limit? (Vinegar has a density of about 1.01 g/mL)
ANSWER: 4.53 %, it exceeds the minimum limit
Standardizing a Solution PHMB 10e, Example 5-10, p 180
A piece of iron wire weighing 0.1568 g is converted to Fe 2+ (aq) and requires
26.24 mL of a KMnO4 (aq) solution for its titration. What is the molarity of the
KMnO4 (aq)?
5 Fe 2+ (aq) + MnO4 (aq) + 8 H+ (aq) 5 Fe 3+ (aq) + Mn 2+ (aq) + 4 H2 O(l)
ANSWER: 0.02140 M KMnO4
15