Deutero-Canonical

BOOKS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT, a term applied in modern times to

denote those sacred books which, originally denominated ecelesiastical and
apocryphal, were not in the Jewish or Hebrew Canon, but, as being
contained in the old Greek versions, were publicly read in the early
Christian Church. See APOCRYPHA. For the suspected books of the New
Testament, See ANTILEGOMENA.

1. It is acknowledged by all that these books never had a place in the

Jewish Canon. The Roman Catholic professor Alber, of Pesth (who considers
them as of equal authority with the received books of the Hebrew Canon),
observes: 'The Deutero-canonical books are those which the Jews had not in
their Canon, but are, notwithstanding, received by the Christian Church,
concerning which, on this very account of their not having been in the
Jewish Canon, there has existed some doubt even in the Church" (institut.
Hermeneut. vol. 1, ch. 8, 9). Josephus, a contemporary of the apostles,
after describing the Jewish Canon (Apion, 1:8), which he says consists of
twenty-two books, remarks: "But from the reign of Artaxerxes to within our
memory there have been several things committed to writing which,
however, have not acquired the same degree of credit and authority as the
former books, inasmuch as the tradition and succession of the prophets
were less certain." It has been shown by Hornemann (Observat. ad illust.
doctr. de Canon. V. T. ex Philone) that, although Philo was acquainted with
the books in question, he has not cited any of them, at least with the view
of establishing any proposition.

2. Among the early Christian writers, Jerome, in his Prefaces, gives us

the most complete information that we possess regarding the authority of
these books in his time. After enumerating the twenty-two books of the
Hebrew Canon, consisting of the Law, the Prophets, and the Hagiographa,
he adds: "This prologue I write as a preface to the books to be translated by
us from the Hebrew into Latin, that we may know that all the books which
are not of this number are apocryphal; therefore Wisdom, which is
commonly ascribed to Solomon as its author, and the book of Jesus the son
of Sirach, Judith, Tobit, and the Shepherd, are not in the Canon." Again, in
the preface to his translation of the books of Solomon from the Hebrew, he
observes: "These three books (Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Canticles) only
are Solomon's. There is also the Book of Jesus the son of Sirach, and
another pseud-epigraphal book, called the Wisdom of Solomon; the former
of which I have seen in Hebrew, called not Ecclesiasticus, as among the
Latins, but the Parables; with which likewise have been joined Ecclesiastes
and the Song of Songs, that the collection might the better resemble the
books of Solomon both in matter and design. The second is not to be found
at all among the Hebrews, and the style plainly evinces its Greek original:
some ancient writers say it is a work of Philo the Jew. As, therefore, the
Church reads Judith and Tobit, and the books of Maccabees, but does not
receive them among the Canonical Scriptures, so likewise it may read these
two books for the edification of the people, but not as of authority for
proving any doctrines of religion (ad cedificationemplebis, nonc ad
1

auctoritatem ecclesiasticorun dogmatum confirmandam)." of Baruch he

says that he does "not translate it because it was not in Hebrew, nor
received by the Jews." He never translated Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, or
either of the books of Maccabees, and observes that "such books as are not
of the twenty-four letters are to be utterly rejected" (Praef. ad Ezram). In
his Preface to Judith he says, in like manner, "Among the Hebrews this
book is read among the hagiographa (or, according to some manuscripts,
apocrypha), whose authority is not judged sufficient to support disputed
matters." He adds, at the same time, that "the Council of Nice is said to
have included it in the catalogue of the holy Scriptures." We have, however,
no authority for supposing that the' Council of Nice ever formed such a
catalogue. There is no account of the matter in any of its acts which have
reached us. There is, indeed, a catalogue, as is observed by Mr. Jones,
attributed by Pappus, in his Synodicon, to this council, with this relation:
"That the bishops there assembled were, by a very extraordinary miracle,
convinced which were inspired and which were apocryphal books, after this
manner: Having put all the books that laid claim to inspiration under the
communion-table (th=| qei/a| trape/zh|) in a church, they prayed to
God that those which were of divine inspiration might be found above or
upon the table, and those which were apocryphal might be found under;
and, accordingly, as they prayed, it came to pass." This is universally
acknowledged to be a fable, and cardinal Bellarmine (De Verbo Dei) admits
that there could have been no canon determined on by the Nicene Council,
as in that case none would have ventured to reject it; but he supposes that
Jerome may have found in some. of its acts, now lost, some citation from
the book of Judith. Bellarmine further admits that in Jerome's time the
ecclesiastical books, although read in the churches, were neither in the
Jewish nor Christian Canon, inasmuch as no general council had yet
determined anything concernig them.

Rufinus made the same distinction with regard to the books of Scripture
that Jerome did. After enumerating the books of the Old and New
Testaments exactly according to the Jewish Canon, saying, "These are the
volumes which the fathers have included in the Canon, and out of which
they would have us prove the doctrines of our faith," he adds, "however, it
ought to be observed that there are also other books which are not
canonical, but have been called by our forefathers ecclesiastical, as the
Wisdom of Solomon, and another called the Wisdom of the Son of Sirach,
which among the Latins is called by the general name of Ecclesiasticus, by
which title is denoted not the author of the. book, but the quality of the
writing. of the same order is the book of Tobit, Judith, and the books of the
Maccabees. In the New Testament is the book of the Shepherd of Hermas,
which is called 'Two Ways, or the Judgment of Peter;' all which they would
have to be read in the churches, but not alleged by way of authority for
proving articles of faith. Other Scriptures they call apocryphal, which they
would not have to be read in churches" (In Symb. Apost.).

There have thus been three divisions made by the ancients, viz. the
Canonical Scriptures, the Ecclesiastical, and the Apocryphal; or, otherwise,
the Canonical and the Apocryphal, of which latter there are two kinds, viz.
those which, having nothing contrary to the faith, may be profitably read,
although not authentic, and those which are injurious and contrary to the
faith. It is, however, maintained by professor Alber that, when Jerome and
Rufinus said the ecclesiastical books were read for edification, but not for
confirming articles of faith, they only meant that they were not to be
employed in controversies with the Jews, who did not acknowledge their
authority. These fathers, however, certainly put them into the same rank
with the Shepherd of Hermas.
The earliest catalogue which we possess of the books of Scripture is that
of Melito, bishop of Sardis, preserved by Eusebius. From his statement,
written in the year 170, it seems evident that there had then been no
catalogue authorized by the Church or any public body. He enumerates the
books of the Jewish Canon only, from which, however, he omits the book of
Esther (q.v.).
The first catalogue of the Holy Scriptures, drawn up by any public body
in the Christian Church, which has come down to us, is that of the Council
of Laodicea, in Phrygia, supposed to be held about the year 365. In the last
two canons of this council, as we now have them, there is an enumeration
of the books of Scripture nearly conformable, in the Old Testament, to the
Jewish Canon. The canons are in these words:
"That private Psalms ought not to be said in the church, nor any books
not canonical, but only the canonical books of the Old and New Testament.
The books of the Old Testament which ought to be read are these:
1. Genesis;
2. Exodus;
3. Leviticus;
4. Numbers;
5. Deuteronomy;
6. Joshua, son of Nun;
7. Judges, with Ruth;
8. Esther;
9. 1 and 2 Kingdoms;
10. 3 and 4 Kingdoms;
11. 1 and 2 Remains;
12. 1 and 2 Esdras;
13. the book of 150 Psalms;
14. Proverbs;
15. Ecclesiastes;
16. Canticles;
17. Job;
18. the Twelve Prophets;
19. Isaiah;
20. Jeremiah and Baruch, the Lamentations and the Epistles;
21. Ezekiel;
22. Daniel."
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This catalogue is not, however, universally acknowledged to be genuine.

"Possibly learned men," says Lardner, "according to the different notions of
the party they have been engaged in, have been led to disregard the last
canon; some because of its omitting the apocryphal books of the Old
Testament, and others because it has not the book of Revelation." Basnage,
in his History of the Church, observes that "Protestants and Catholics have
equally disparaged this synod." "It is said," remarks Lardner, "that the
canons of this council were received and adopted by some General Councils
in after times; nevertheless perhaps it would be difficult to show that those
General Councils received the last canon, and exactly approved the
catalogue of said books therein contained, without any addition or
diminution, as we now have it" (see Mansi's Concilia, 2:574).
But, besides the Hebrew canon, the reader will have observed that there
were certain other books publicly read in the primitive Church, and treated
with a high degree of respect, although not considered, by the Hebrews,
from whom they were derived (see the passage above cited from Josephus),
as of equal authority with the former. These books seem to have been
included in the copies of the Septuagint, which was generally made use of
by the sacred writers of the New Testament. It does not appear whether
the apostles gave any cautions against the reading of these books, and it
has even been supposed that they have referred to them. Others, however,
have maintained that the principal passages to which they have referred
(for it is not pretended that they have cited them) are from the canonical
books. The following are the passages here alluded to:

Some of the uncanonical books, however, had not been extant more than
a hundred and thirty years at most at the Christian era, and could only have
obtained a place in the Greek Scriptures a short time before this period;
but the only copies of the Scriptures in existence for the first three

hundred years after Christ, either among the Jews or Christians of Greece,
Italy, or Africa, contained these books without any mark of distinction that
we know of. The Hebrew Bible and language were quite unknown to them
during this period, and the most learned were, probably, but ill informed on
the subject, at least before Jerome's translation of the Scriptures from the
original Hebrew. The Latin versions before his time were all made from the
Septuagint. We do not, indeed, find any catalogue of these writings before
the Council of Hippo, but only individual notices of separate books. Thus
Clement of Alexandria (Stromata, A.D. 211) cites the Wisdom of Solomon
and Ecclesiasticus, and Origen refers to several of these books, treating
them with a high degree of veneration. "There is," says Eusebius, "an epistle
of Africanus, addressed to Origen, in which he intimates his doubt on the
history of Susannah in Daniel, as if it were a spurious and fictitious
composition; to which Origen wrote a very full answer." These epistles are
both extant. Origen, at great length, vindicates these parts of the Greek
version for he acknowledges that they were not in the Hebrew from
the objections of Africanus, asserting that they were true and genuine, and
made use of in Greek among all the churches of the Gentiles, and that we
should not attend to the fraudulent comments of the Jews, but take that
only for true in the holy Scriptures which the seventy had translated, for
that this only was confirmed by apostolic authority. In the same letter he
cites the book of Tobit, and in his second book, De Principiis, he even
speaks of the Shepherd of Hermas as divinely inspired. Origen, however,
uses very different language in regard to the book of Enoch, the
Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the Assumption of Moses.
The local Council of Hippo, held in the year of Christ 393, at which
Augustine, afterwards bishop of Hippo, was present, formed a catalogue of
the sacred books of the Old and New Testament, in which the ecclesiastical
books were all included. They are inserted in the following order in its 36th
Canon, viz.:
"That nothing be read in the church besides the Canonical Scriptures.
Under the name of Canonical Scriptures are reckoned Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 4 books of Kings,
Riemains, Job, Psalms of David, 5 books of Solomon, 12 books of the
Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel, Tobit, Judith, Hesther, Esdras,
2 books, Maccabees, 2 books." [For the books of the New Testament, See
ANTILEGOMENA.] "But for the confirmation of this canon the churches
beyond the seas are to be consulted." The Passions of the Martyrs were also
permitted to be read on their anniversaries.
The third Council of Carthage, generally believed to have been held in
397, at which Aurelius, bishop of Carthage, presided, and at which
Augustine was present, consisting in all of forty-four bishops, adopted the
same catalogue, which was confirmed at the fourth Council of Carthage,
held in the year 419. The reference said to have been made from the third
Council of Carthage, held in 397, to pope Boniface, is a manifest
anachronism in the copies of the acts of this council (see L'Abbe's Concilia),
as the pontificate of Boniface did not commence before 417. It has

therefore been conjectured that this reference belongs to the fourth

council.
As St. Augustine had great influence at these Councils, it must be of
importance to ascertain his private sentiments on this subject. This
eminent man, who was born in 354, consecrated bishop of Hippo (the
present Bona) in 395, and died in 430, in the seventy-sixth year of his age,
writes as follows in the year 397:
"The entire Canon of Scripture is comprised in these books. There are 5 of
Moses, viz. Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; 1 of Joshua, 1
of Judges, 1 small book called Ruth, which seems rather to belong to the
beginning of the Kingdoms, the 4 books of the Kingdoms, and 2 of the
Remains, not following one another, but parallel to each other. These are
historical books which contain a succession of times in the order of events.
There are others which do not observe the order of time, and are
unconnected together, as Job, Tobit, Esther, and Judith, the 2 books of
Maccabees, and the 2 books of Ezra, which last do more observe the order of
a regular succession of events, after that contained in the Kingdoms and
Remains. Next are the Prophets, among which is 1 book of the Psalms of
David, and 3 of Solomon, viz. Proverbs, Canticles, and Ecclesiastes; for these
2 books, Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, are called Solomon's for no other reason
than because they have a resemblance to his writings: for it is a very general
opinion that they were written by Jesus the son of Sirach; which books,
however, since they are admitted into authority, are to be reckoned among
prophetical books.
The rest are the books of those who are properly called prophets, as the
several books of the 12 Prophets, which being found together, and never
separated, are reckoned 1 book. The names of which prophets are these:
Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah,
Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi. After these the four Prophets of large volumes,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, Ezekiel. In these 44 books is comprised all the
authority of the Old Testament" (De Doctr. Christ.). [For the New, See
ANTILEGOMENA; they are the same with those now received.]
It has, indeed, been maintained that Augustine altered his opinion on the
subject of the deutero-canonical books in his Retractions (see Henderson
On Inspiration, p. 495); but the only passage in this work bearing on the
subject, which we can discover, is that wherein he confesses his mistake in
terming Ecclesiasticus a prophetical book. Augustine has also been
supposed to have testified to the inferior authority of these books, from his
saying that one of them was read from the reader's place. "The sentiment
of the book of Wisdom is not to be rejected, which has deserved to be
recited for such a long course of years from the step of the readers of the
Church of Christ, and to be heard with the veneration of divine authority
from the bishop to the humblest of the laics, faithful, penitents, and
catechumens."

What the result of the reference from Africa to the "churches beyond the
seas" may have been, we can only judge from the letter which is said to
have been written on the subject by Innocent I, bishop of Rome, to St.
Exupere, bishop of Toulouse, in the year 405. In this letter, which, although
disputed, is most probably genuine, Innocent gives the same catalogue of
the books of the Old and New Testaments as those of the councils of Hippo
and Carthage, omitting only the book of Esther.
The next catalogue is that of the Roman Council, drawn up by pope
Gelasius and seventy bishops. The genuineness of the acts of this council
has been questioned by Pearson, Cave, and the two Basnages, but
vindicated by Pagi and Jeremiah Jones. The catalogue is identical with the
preceding, except in the order of the books.
Some of the most important manuscripts of the Holy Scriptures which
have descended to us were written soon after this period. The very ancient
Alexandrian MS. now in the British Museum contains the following books in
the order which we here give them, together with the annexed catalogue:
"Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth
8 books. Kingdoms, 4; Remains, 2 6 books. Sixteen Prophets, viz.
Hosea, 1; Amos, 2; Micah, 3; Joel, 4; Obadiah, 5; Jonah, 6; Nahum, 7;
Ambacum, 8; Zephaniah, 9; Haggai. 10; Zechariah, 11; Malachi. 12; Isaiah,
13; Jeremiah, 14; Ezekiel, 15; Daniel, 16; Esther; Tobit; Judith; Ezra, 2;
Maccabees, 4; Psalter and Hymns; Job; Proverbs; Ecclesiastes; Canticles;
Wisdom; Wisdom of Jesus Sirach; 4 Gospels; Acts, 1; 7 Catholic Epistles; 14
Epistles of Paul; Revelation; 2 Epistles of Clement; together... . books;
Psalms of Solomon." These books are equally incorporated in all the
manuscripts of the Latin Vulgate (which was originally translated from the
Septuagint). Those which Jerome did not translate from the Hebrew or
Greek, as Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, were adopted from the older Latin
version.
Although the Canon of Scripture seemed now to be so far settled by the
decrees of these councils, all did not conceive themselves bound by them;
and it is observed by Jahn (Introd.) that they were not otherwise to be
understood than "that the ecclesiastical books enumerated in this catalogue
were to be held as useful for the edification of the people, but not to be
applied to the confirmation of doctrines of faith." Such appears at least to
have been the sentiment of many eminent divines between this period and
the 16th century.

3. Bishop Cosin, in his excellent Scholastic History of the Canon,

furnishes to this effect a host of quotations from writers of the Middle Ages,
including Ven. Bede, John of Damascus, Alcuin, Peter Mauritius, Hugh de St.
Victor, cardinal Hugo de St. Cher, the author of the ordinary Gloss, and
Nicholas Lyranus. of these, some call the deutero-canonical books
"excellent and useful, but not in the Canon;" others speak of them as
"apocryphal, that is, doubtful Scriptures," as not having been "written in the
time of the prophets, but in that of the priests, under Ptolemy," etc. as not
"equalling the sublime dignity of the other books, yet deserving reception
for their laudable instruction," classing them with the writings of Jerome,
Augustine, Ambrose, and Bede, and making a marked distinction not only
7

between the Jewish and Christian Canons, but even between parts of the
deutero-canonical writings. Dr. Archibald Alexander also (Canon of the Old
and New Testament ascertained) cites several of the same authorities; he
has, however, in one instance, evidently mistaken Peter Lombard for Peter
Comestor, the author of Scholastic History. At the era of the Reformation
we find Faber, Stapulensis, and cardinal Cajetan expressing themselves to
the same effect, and the learned Sanctes Pagnini, in his translation of the
Bible from the original languages, published at Lyons in 1528 (the first Bible
that contained the division into verses with the present figures), dedicated
to pope Clement VII, distinguished the ecclesiastical books, which he says
were not in the Canon, by the term Hagiographa. For a description of this
rare work, see Chiristian Remembrancer, 4:419, in a treatise On the
division of verses in the Bible, by Rev. W. Wright, LL.D.

4. We now arrive at the period of the Reformation when the question of

the Canon of Scripture was warmly discussed. Long before this period (viz.
in 1380), Wickliffe had published his translation of the Bible, in which he
substituted another prologue for Jerome's; wherein, after enumerating the
"twenty-five" books of the Hebrew Canon, he adds: "Whatever book is in the
Old Testament, besides these twenty-five, shall be set among the
Apocrypha, that is, without authority of belief." He also, in order to
distinguish the Hebrew text from the Greek interpolations, inserted
Jerome's notes, rubricated, into the body of the text.
Although Martin Luther commenced the publication of his translation of
the Bible in 1523, yet, as it was published in parts, he had not yet made
any distinction between the two classes of books, when Lonicer published
his edition of the Greek Septuagint at Strasburg in 1526, in which he
separated the Deutero-canonical, or Apocryphal, books from those of the
Jewish Canon, for which he was severely castigated by Morinus (see Masch's
edition of Le Long's Bibliotheca Biblica , 2:268). Arias Montanus went still
further, and rejected them altogether. In 1534 the complete edition of
Luther's Bible appeared, wherein those books which Jerome had placed
inter apocrypha were separated, and placed by themselves between the
Old and New Testament; under the title "Apocrypha; that is, Books which
are not to be considered as equal to holy Scripture, and yet are useful and
good to read."
A few years after, the divines of the Council of Trent assembled, and
among the earliest subjects of their deliberation was the Canon of
Scripture. "The Canon of Augustine," says bishop Marsh, "I continued to be
the canon of the ruling party. But as there were not wanting persons,
especially among the learned, who from time to time recommended the
Canon of Jerome, it was necessary for the Council of Trent to decide
between the contending parties (Comparative View, p. 97). The Tridentine
fathers had consequently a nice and difficult question to determine. On the
8th of April, 1546, all who were present at the fourth session of the Council
of Trent adopted the Canon of Augustine, declaring," He also is to be
anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as
they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are
found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical,

and who knowingly and willfully despises the aforesaid traditions... "We are
informed by Jahn (Introduction) that this decree did not affect the
distinction which the learned had always made between the canonical and
deutero-canonical books, in proof of which he refers to the various opinions
which still prevail in his church on the subject, Bernard Lamy (Apparatus
Biblicus, 2:5) denying, and Du Pin (Prolegomena) asserting, that the books
of the second canon are of equal authority with those of the first. Those
who desire further information will find it in the two accounts of the
controversies which took place at the council on this subject one from
the pen of cardinal Pallavicini, the other by father Paul Sarpi, the two
eminent historians of the council. Professor Alber, to whom we have already
referred, having denied that any such distinction as that maintained by his
brother professor, Jahn, can lawfully exist among Roman Catholic divines,
insists that both canons possess one and the same authority. The words of
Bernard Lamy, however, cited by Jahn, are "The books of the second
canon, although united with the first, are not, however, of the same
authority" (Apparat. Bibl. 2:5, p. 333). Alber endeavors to explain this as
meaning only that these books had not the same authority before the
Canon of the Council of Trent, and cites a passage from Pallavicini to prove
that the anathema was "directed against those Catholics who adopted the
views of cardinal Cajetan" (2. 105). But, however this may be, among other
opinions of Luther condemned by the council was the following: "That no
books should be admitted into the Canon of the Old Testament but those
received by the Jews; and that from the New should be excluded the
Epistle to the Hebrews, those of James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and
the Apocalypse." The whole of the books in debate, with the exception of
3d and 4th Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasses, are considered as canonical
by the Council of Trent. But it must be recollected that the decision of the
Council of Trent is one by no means peculiar to this council. The third
Council of Carthage had considered the same books canonical. "The Council
of Trent," says bishop Marsh, "declared no other books to be sacred and
canonical than such as had existed from the earliest ages of Christianity,
not only in the Latin version of the Old Testament, but even in the ancient
Greek version, which is known by the name of the Septuagint.... In the
manuscripts of the Sept. there is the same intermixture of canonical and
apocryphal books as in the manuscripts of the Latin version" [although there
are in different manuscripts variations in the particular arrangement of
single books]. "The Hebrew was inaccessible to the Latin translators in
Europe and Africa during the first three centuries." The ecclesiastical books
were generally written within a period which could not have extended to
more than two centuries before the birth of Christ. In the choice of the
places which were assigned them by the Greek Jews resident in Alexandria
and other parts of Egypt, who probably added these books to the Sept.
version according as they became gradually approved of, they were
directed "partly by the subjects, partly by their relation to other writings,
and partly by the periods in which the recorded transactions are supposed
to have happened." Their insertion shows how highly they were esteemed
by the Greek Jews of Egypt; but whether even the Egyptian Jews ascribed
to them canonical and divine authority it would not be easy to prove
(Marsh's Comparative View).
9

The following were the proceedings of the Anglican Church in reference

to this subject: In Coverdale's English translation of the Bible, printed in
1535, the deutero-canonical books were divided from the others and
printed separately, with the exception of the book of Baruch, which was
not separated from the others in this version until the edition of 1550. They
had, however, been separated in Matthew's Bible in 1537, prefaced with the
words, "the volume of the book called Hagiographa." This Bible contained
Olivetan's preface, in which these books were spoken of in somewhat
disparaging terms. In Cranmer's Bible, published in 1539, the same words
and preface were continued; but in the edition of 1549 the word
Hagiographa was changed into Apocrypha, which passed through the
succeeding editions into King James's Bible. Olivetan's preface was omitted
in the Bishop's Bible in 1568, after the framing of the canon in the Thirtynine Articles in 1562. In the Geneva Bible, which was the popular English
translation before the present authorized version, and which was published
in 1559, these books are printed separately with a preface, in which,
although not considered of themselves as sufficient to prove any point of
Christian doctrine, they are yet treated with a high degree of veneration.
In the parallel passages in the margin of this translation, references are
made to the deutero-canonical books. In the first edition of the Articles of
the Church of England, 1552, no catalogue of the "Holy Scripture" had yet
appeared, but in the Articles of 1562 the Canon of St. Jerome was finally
adopted in the following order: 5 books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1
and 2 Samuel; 1 and 2 Kings, 1 and 2 Chronicles, 1 and 2 Esdras, Esther,
Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Cantica, four Prophets the Greater,
twelve Prophets the Less, in the 6th Article it is declared that "in the name
of the Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical books of the Old
and New Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt in the
Church," and that "the other books (as Jerome saith) the Church doth read
for example of life and instruction of manners, but yet it doth not apply
them to establish any doctrine." The books which the article then
enumerates are 1 and 2 [3 and 4] Esdras, Tobias, Judith, the rest of the
book of Esther, Wisdom, Jesus the son, of Sirach, Baruch the Prophet, the
Song of the Children, the Story of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon, the Prayer
of Manasses, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. It is not, however, altogether correct,
in point of fact, in including in the number of books thus referred to by
Jerome as read by the Church for edification the third and fourth books of
Esdras. These books were equally rejected by the Church of Rome and by
Luther, who did not translate them. The Church of England further declares
that "all the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received,
we do receive and account them canonical." The Church of England has
herein followed the Councils of Hippo and Carthage. The phrase "of whose
authority was never any doubt in the Church," refers therefore more strictly
to the books of the Old Testament than the New, for we have already seen
that doubts did exist respecting the ANTILEGOMENA of the New Testament.
In the first book of Homilies, published in 1547, and the second in 1560,
both confirmed by the Thirty-fifth Article of 1562, the deutero-canonical
books are cited as "Scripture," and treated with the same reverence as the

10

other books in the Bible, and in the preface to the book of Common Prayer
they are alluded to as being "agreeable to" the Holy Scriptures.
The Helvetic Confession, dated 1st of March, 1566, has the following
expression respecting the apocryphal books: "We do not deny that certain
books of the Old Testament were named by the ancients apocryphal, by
others ecclesiastical, as being read in the churches, but not adduced for
authority in matters of belief; as Augustine, in the 18th book of the City of
God, ch. 38, relates that the names and books of certain prophets were
adduced in the books of Kings, but adds that these were not in the Canon,
and that those we have were sufficient for piety." The Confession of the
Dutch churches (dated the same year) is more full. After recounting the
canonical books, "respecting which no controversy existed," it adds, "We
make a distinction between these and such as are called apocryphal, which
may indeed be read in the Church, and proofs adduced from them, so far as
they agree with the canonical books; but their authority and force are by
no means such that any article of faith may be certainly declared from
their testimony alone, still less that they can impugn or detract from the
authority of the others." They add, as their reason for receiving the
canonical books, that "it is not so much because the Church receives them,
as that the Holy Spirit testifies to our consciences that they have come
from God; and chiefly on this account, because they of themselves bear
testimony to their own authority and sanctity, so that even the blind may
see the fulfillment of all things predicted in them, as it were with the
senses."
The Westminster Confession proceeded on the same principle, but
treated the books of the second canon with less ceremony. After
enumerating the canonical books (ascribing thirteen epistles only to Paul),
they proceed to say that "books called Apocrypha, not being of divine
confirmation, are no part of the Canon of Scripture, and therefore of no
authority in the Church of God, nor to be any otherwise approved or made
use of than other human writings." And again: "The authority of Holy
Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, depended not on
the testimony of any man or Church, but wholly upon God, the author
thereof, and therefore it is to be received because it is the Word of God.
We may be moved and induced by the Church to a high and reverent
esteem of the Holy Scriptures; and the heavenliness of the matter, the
efficacy of the doctrine, the majesty of the style, etc., are arguments
whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the Word of God; yet,
notwithstanding, our full persuasion and assurance of the infallible truth
and divine authority thereof is from the inward work of the Holy Spirit,
being witness by and with the Word in our hearts."
Luther (on 1 Cor 3:9,10) had declared that the touchstone by which
certain Scriptures should be acknowledged as divine or not was the
following: "Do they preach Jesus Christ or not?" And, among the moderns,
Dr. Twesten (Vorlesungen fiber die Dogmatik, 1829, 1:421 sq.) has
maintained a somewhat similar principle (see Gaussen's Theopneustia). The
Confession of Augsburg, dated in 1591, contains no article whatever on the
Canon of Scripture; nor do the Lutherans appear to have any other canon

11

than Luther's Bible. For the sentiments of the Greek Church, See ESDRAS;
See ESTHER; See MACCABEES.

5. We shall add a few words on the grounds and authorities adopted by

different parties for deciding whether a work is canonical or not. Mr.
Jeremiah Jones furnishes us with three different views on this subject. "The
first," he says, "is the opinion of the Papists, who have generally affirmed,
in their controversies with the Protestants, that the authority of the
Scriptures depends upon, or is derived from, the power of their Church. By
the authority of the Church, those authors plainly mean a power lodged in
the Church of Rome and her synods, of determination, what books are the
word of God, than which nothing can be more absurd or contrary to
common sense for, if so, it is possible, nay, it is easy for them to make a
book which is not divine to be so." And he maintains that "it is possible, on
this principle, that sop's fables, or the infidel books of Celsus, Julian, and
Porphyry, might become a part of the New Testament." But the fact must
not be lost sight of that the Church has never pretended to exercise a
power of this description. Bishop Marsh, referring to this subject, observes:
"That the Council of Trent assumed the privilege of raising to the rank of
canonical authority what was generally acknowledged to have no such
authority, is a charge which cannot be made without injustice; the power
of declaring canonical a book which has never laid claim to that title is a
power not exercised even by the Church of Rome. In this respect it acts like
other churches; it sits in judgment on existing claims, and determines
whether they are valid or not." From certain expressions of divines, who
have asserted that the Scriptures would have no authority whatever
without the testimony of the Church, it has been supposed that they
ascribed to the Church an arbitrary power over these divine books;
Bellarmine, therefore, has drawn a distinction between the objective and
subjective authority of the Scriptures, their authority in themselves, and
that which they have in respect to us. Thus Augustine said that he would
not believe the Gospel but for the authority of the Church, adding,
however, that the invitation of the Church was but the first step to his
complete illumination by the Spirit of God (Confessions, 2:8).
Another principle was that adopted by all the reformed communions
(except the Anglican Church), viz., to use Mr. Jones's words, that "there are
inward or innate evidences in the Scriptures, which, applied by the
illumination or testimony of the Holy Spirit, are the only true proofs of
their being the Word of God; or, to use the words of the French reformed
communion in its Confession, which harmonize with the methods adopted
by the Scotch and Belgian communions, that upon the internal persuasion
of the Spirit they knew the Canonical from Ecclesiastical, i. e. Apocryphal
books. This method Mr. Jones thinks to be of a very extraordinary nature.
"Can it be supposed," he asks, "that out of ten thousand books, private
Christians, or even our most learned reformers, should by any internal
evidence agree precisely on the number of twenty-seven, which are now
esteemed canonical, induced thereto by some characters those books
contain, of their being written by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost?" This he
conceives to be folly and madness, and an assumption of "immediate
inspiration." "It first supposes the books to be inspired, and then proves
12

that they are so because they are so." This is only an argument, says bishop
Burnet, to him that feels it, if it he one at all. "For my part," said the
celebrated Richard Baxter, "I confess I could never boast of any such
testimony or light of the Spirit, nor reason neither, which, without human
testimony, would have made me believe that the book of Canticles is
canonical and written by Solomon, and the book of Wisdom apocryphal and
written by Philo. Nor could I have known any historical books, such as
Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, etc. to
be written by divine inspiration, but by tradition, etc.
The third method is that approved of by Mr. Jones, viz. that tradition, or
the testimony of the ancient Christians, preserved in their writings, is the
best method of determining this subject. "This," adds Mr. Jones, "is the
method the first Christians constantly made use of to prove, against the
heretics, the truth of the sacred books, viz. by appealing to that certain
and undoubted tradition which assured them they were the writings of the
persons whose names they bear. Thus we knew that Ovid, Virgil, or Livy
wrote the books under their names." To this, we think, might have been
added internal evidence and the application of critical skill. The chief
objection which has been urged against this method is, that it leaves the
canonicity of each book to the decision of every private individual, which is
inconsistent with the idea of a canon. Certain it is that the ancient Church,
in deciding on the present Canon, exhibited a wonderful theological tact,
as the books which it has handed down as canonical, and these alone, are
generally the same which, after having undergone the strictest ordeal that
the learning and acumen of modern times have been. enabled to apply to
them, are acknowledged by the best critics to be authentic. In fact, the
Church has adopted the same methods for this purpose which Mr. Jones has'
considered to be the only ones satisfactory to private individuals. Christians
are thus in possession of the highest degree of satisfaction. Mr. Gaussen
(Theopneustia, p. 340) admits that the principle laid down by the reformed
churches is untenable, and he substitutes for it "for the Old Testament, the
Testimony of the Jews, and for the New, the Testimony of the Catholic
Church; by which he understands, the general consent, in regard to the
former, of all Jews, Egyptians and Syrians, Asiatics and Europeans, ancient
and modern, good and bad;" and by the testimony of the Catholic Church he
understands "the universal consent of ancient and modern churches Asiatic
and European, good and bad: that is, not only the sections which have
adhered to the Reformation, but the Greek section, the Armenian section,
the Syrian section, the Roman section, and the Unitarian section." And in p.
342, 315, he ascribes entire infallibility to both Jewish and Christian
churches in respect to the Canons of Scripture. "The Jews could not
introduce a human book into the Old Testament and neither the Council of
Trent, nor even the most corrupt and idolatrous churches, could add a
single apocryphal book to the New.... . . It was not in their power not to
transmit them intact and complete. In spite of themselves it was so
ordered," etc.
The question, however, in dispute is not so much with regard to the
Jewish Canon, regarding which no controversy exists, as whether there is or
13

is not sufficient testimony to the fact how far our Savior and his apostles
gave the stamp of their authority to any books not contained in this Canon.
We have no certain evidence as to the authority on which, or the time
when, the Jewish Canon was collected, See EZRA, or of the cause of its
closing, and our best evidence in favor of the canonicity of the Hebrew
Scriptures rests on the authority of Christ as contained in the Scriptures of
the New Testament. (Comp. in addition to the works already cited Vicenzi's
Introductio in Scrip. Deutero-canon. Rome, 1842; Keerl, Die
Apokryphenfrage aufs Neue beleuchtet, Lips. 1855; Stier, Letztes Wort
iuber die Apokryphen, Lpz. 1855; Stowe, in the Biblioth. Sacra, April, 1854.
Wahl has published an excellent Clavis Librorum V. T. Apoc. philologica,
Lips. 1853). See CANON.

14

Antilegomena
(a)ntilego/mena, contradicted or disputed), an epithet applied by
the early Christian writers to denote those books of the New Testament
which, although known to all the ecclesiastical writers, and sometimes
publicly read in the churches, were not for a considerable time atdmitted
to be genuine, or received into the canon of Scripture. These books are so
denominated irn contradistinction to the homologoumena
(o\mologou/mena), or universally acknowledged writings. The
following is a catalogue of the Antilegomena: The Second Epistle of Peter;
the Epistle of James; the Epistle of Jude; the Second and Third Epistles of
John; the Apocalypse, or Revelation of John; the Epistle to the Hebrews.
The earliest notice which we have of this distinction is that contained in
the Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius, who flourished A.D. 270-340. He
seems to have formed a triple, or, as it appears to some, a quadruple
division of the books of the New Testament, terming them

1, the homologoumena (received);

2, the antilegomena (controverted);
3, the notha (spurious); and
4, those which he calls the utterly spurious, as being not only spurious
in the same sense as the former, but also absurd or impious.
Among the spurious he reckons the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of
Hermas, the Revelation of Peter, the Epistle of Barnabas, and the
Instructions of the Apostles. He speaks doubts fully as to the class to which
the Apocalypse belongs, for he himself includes it among the spurious: he
then observes that some reject it, while others reckon it among the
acknowledged writings (homologoumena). Among the spurious writings he
also enumerates the Gospel according to the Hebrews. He adds, at the
same time, that all these may be classed among the antilegomena. His
account is consequently confused, not to say contradictory. Among the
utterly spurious he reckons such books as the heretics brought forward
under pretense of their being genuine productions of the apostles, such as
the so-called Gospels of Peter, Thomas, and Matthias, and the Acts of
Andrew, John, and the other apostles. These he distinguishes from the
antilegomena, as being works which not one of the ancient ecclesiastical
writers thought worthy of being cited. Their style he considers so remote
from that of the apostles, and their contents so much at variance with the
genuine doctrines of Scripture, as to show them to have been the
inventions of heretics, and not worthy of a place even among the spurious
writings. These latter he has consequently been supposed to have
considered as the compositions of orthodox men, written with good
intentions, but calculated by their: titles to mislead the ignorant, who
might be disposed to account them as apostolical productions, to which
honor they had not even a dubious claim. (See Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. 3, 5,

15

25.) The same historian has also preserved the testimony of Origen, who, in
his Commentary on John (cited by Eusebius), observes: "Peter, upon whom
the Church of Christ is built, against which the gates of hell shall not
prevail, has left one epistle undisputed; it may be, also, a second, but of
this there is some doubt. What shall we say of him who reclined on the
breast of Jesus, John, who has left one Gospel, in which he confesses that
he could write so many that the whole world could not contain them? He
also wrote the Apocalypse, being commanded to conceal, and not to write,
the voices of the seven thunders. He has also left us an epistle consisting of
very few lines (sti/xoi); it may be also a second and third are from him,
but all do not concur in their genuineness; both together do not contain a
hundred st'chi" (for the signification of this word, see Christian
Remembrancer, 3, 465 sq.). And again, in his Homilies, "The epistle with
the title 'To the Hebrews' has not that peculiar style which belongs to an
apostle who confesses that he is but rude in speech, that is, in his
phraseology. But that this epistle is more pure Greek in the composition of
its phrases, every one will confess who is able to discern the difference of
style. Again, it will be obvious that the ideas of the apostle are admirable,
and not inferior to any of the books acknowledged to be apostolic. Every
one will confess the truth of this who attentively reads the apostle's
writings. . . . . I would say, that the thoughts are the apostle's, but that the
diction and phraseology belong to some one who has recorded what the
apostle has said, and as one who has noted down at his leisure what his
master dictated. If, then, any Church considers this epistle as coming from
Paul, let him be commended for this, for neither did these eminent men
deliver it for this without cause: but who it was that really wrote the
epistle God only knows. The account, however, that has been current
before our time is, according to some, that Clement, who was bishop of
Rome, wrote the epistle; according to others, that it was written by Luke,
who wrote the Gospel and the Acts: (Euseb. Hist. Eccles. 6, 25).
Upon other occasions Origen expresses his doubts in regard to the
antilegomena, as, where, in his commentary on John's Gospel, he speaks of
the reputed (ferome/nh) Epistle of James, and in his commentary on
Matthew, where he uses the phrase, "If we acknowledge the Epistle of
Jude;" and of the Second and Third Epistles of John he observes, that "all
do not acknowledge them as genuine;" by which epithet, we presume, he
means written by the person to whom they are ascribed. It is remarkable
that Eusebius (2:23; 3:25) classes the Epistle of James, the Acts of Paul, the
Shepherd of Hermas, and the Epistle of Barnabas, at one time with the
spurious, and at another with the antilegomena. By the word spurious, in
this instance at least, he can mean no more than that the genuineness of
such books was disputed; as, for instance, the Gospel of the Hebrews,
which was received by the Ebionites as a genuine production of the
Evangelist Matthew. This is the work of which Jerome made a transcript, as
he himself informs us, from the copy preserved by the zeal of Pamphilus in
the Caesarean Library. He also informs us that he translated it into Greek,
and that it was considered by most persons as the original Gospel of
Matthew (Dialog. contra Pelag. 3, 2, and Comment. in Matthew 12).
Whether the Shepherd of Hermas was ever included among the
16

antilegomena seems doubtful. Eusebius informs us that "it was disputed,

and consequently not placed among the homologoumena. By others,
however, it is judged most necessary, especially'to those who need an
elementary introductions hence we know that it has been already in public
use in our churches, and I have also understood, by tradition, that some of
the most ancient writers have made use of it" (3:3). Origen speaks of The
Shepherd as "commonly used by the Church, but not received as divine by
the unanimous consent of all." He therefore cites it, not as authority, but
simply by way of illustration (lib. 10, in Epist. ad Roman.). Eusebius further
informs us that in his own time there were some in the Church of Rome who
did not regard the Epistle to the Hebrews as the production of the Apostle
Paul (Paul 6:25; 3:3). Indeed, it was through the influence of Jerome that
the Church of Rome, at a much later period, was with much difficulty
brought to acknowledge it as canonical. "The most ancient Latin or Western
Church did not rank it among the canonical writings, though the epistle was
well known to them, for Clement of Rome has quoted from it many
passages. It is true that some Latin writers in the fourth century received
it, among whom was Jerome himself; yet even in the time of Jerome the
Latin Church had not placed it among the canonical writings" (Marsh's
Michaelis, 4, 266). "The reputed Epistle to the Hebrews," says Jerome, "is
supposed not to be Paul's on account of the difference of style, but it is
believed to have been written by Barnabas, according to Tertullian, or by
Luke the Evangelist; according to others, by Clement, afterward bishop of
the Roman Church, who is said to have reduced to order and embellished
Paul's sentiments in his own language; or at least that Paul, in writing to
the Hebrews, had purposely omitted all mention of his name, in
consequence of the odium attached to it, and wrote to them eloquently in
Hebrew, as a Hebrew of the Hebrews, and that what he thus eloquently
wrote in Hebrew was still more eloquently written in Greek, and that this
was the cause of the difference in style" (Ex Catalog.). And again, in his
epistle to Dardanus, "I must acquaint our people that the epistle which is
inscribed 'To the Hebrews' is acknowledged as the Apostle Paul's, not only
by the Churches of the East, but by all the Greek ecclesiastical writers,
although most [of the Latins?] conceive it to be either written by Barnabas
or Clement, and that it matters nothing by whom it was written, as it
proceeds from a churchman (ecclesiastici viri), and is celebrated by being
daily read in the churches. But if the custom of the Latins does not receive
it among canonical Scriptures, nor the Greek Churches the Apocalypse of
St. John, I, notwithstanding, receive them both, not following the custom
of the present age, but the authority of ancient writers; not referring to
them as they are in the habit of doing with respect to apocryphal writings,
and citations from classical and profane authors, but as canonical and
ecclesiastical." "Peter also," says Jerome, "wrote two epistles called
Catholic; the second of which is denied by most on account of the
difference of style (Ex Catalog.). Jude is rejected by most in consequence
of the citation from the apocryphal book of Enoch. Notwithstanding, it has
authority by use and antiquity, and is accounted among the Holy Scriptures"
(Ibid.) and in his Letter to Paulinus: "Paul wrote to seven churches, but the
Epistle to the Hebrews is by most excluded from the number;" and in his
commentary on Isaiah, he observes that "the Latin usage does not receive
17

the Epistle to the Hebrews among the canonical books." Contemporary with
Jerome was his antagonist Ruffinus, who reckons fourteen epistles of Paul,
two of Peter, one of James, three of John, and the Apocalypse.
It seems doubtful whether, antecedent to the times of Jerome and
Ruffinus, any councils, even of single churches, had settled upon the canon
of Scripture, and decided the question respecting the antilegomena, for the
removal of doubts among their respective communities; for it seems
evident that the general or oecumenical council of Nice, which met in the
year 325, formed no catalogue. The first catalogue, indeed, which has
come down to us is that of an anonymous writer of the third century. He
reckons thirteen epistles of Paul, accounts the Epistle to the Hebrews the
work of an Alexandrian Marcionite, mentions the Epistle of Jude, two of
John, and the revelations of John and Peter, saying, with respect to them,
that "some among us are opposed to their being read in the church" (see
Hug's Introduction, 14). But soon after the council of Nice public opinion
turned gradually in favor of the antilegomena, or controverted books; for
we then find them for the first time cited without any marks of doubt as to
their canonicity. Thus, in the year 348, Cyril of Jerusalem enumerates
fourteen epistles of Paul and seven Catholic epistles. Gregory of Nazianzus,
who, according to Cave (Historia Literaria), was born about the time of the
Nicene Council, and died in 389, enumerates all the books now received
except the Apocalypse. Epiphanius, who was chosen bishop of Constantia in
A.D. 367 or 368, and composed his catalogue of ecclesiastical writers in
392, cites, in his Panarium, the different books of the New Testament in a
manner which shows that he received all that are in the present canon. of
the Apocalypse he says that it was "generally or by most received;" and,
speaking of the Alogians, who rejected all John's writings, he observes, "If
they had rejected the Apocalypse only, it might have been supposed that
they had acted from a nice critical judgment, as being circumspect in
regard to an apocryphal or mysterious book; but to reject all John's writings
was a sign of an anti-Christian spirit." Amphilochius also, bishop of Iconium,
in Lycaonia, who was contemporary with Epiphanius, and is supposed to
have died soon after the year 394, after citing the fourteen epistles of Paul,
in his Iambics, adds, "But some say the Epistle to the Hebrews is spurious,
not speaking correctly, for it is a genuine gift. Then the Catholic epistles, of
which some receive seven, others only three, one of James, one of Peter,
one of John; while others receive three of John, two of Peter, and Jude's.
The Revelation of John is approved by some, while many say it is spurious."
The eighty-fifth of the Apostolical Canons, a work falsely ascribed to
Clement of Rome, but written at latest in the fourth century, enumerates
fourteen epistles of Paul, one of Peter, three of John, one of James, one of
Jude, two of Clement, and the (so-called) Apostolical Constitutions,
among the canonical books of Scripture. This latter book, adds the pseudoClement, it is not fit to publish before all, "because of the mysteries
contained in it." The first council that is supposed to have given a list of the
canonical books is the much agitated council of Laodicea, supposed to have
been held about the year 360 or 364 by thirty or forty bishops of Lydia and
the neighboring parts; but the fifty-ninth article, which gives a catalogue of
the canonical books, is not generally held to be genuine. Its genuineness,

18

indeed, has been questioned by both Roman Catholic and Protestant

historians. In his Introduction to the Old Testament Jahn refers to this
canon as the work of "an anonymous framer." Among the canonical books
included in the pretended fifty-ninth canon of this council are the seven
Catholic epistles, viz., one of James, two of Peter, three of John, one of
Jude; fourteen of Paul, in the following order, viz., Romans, 1 and 2
Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, and 2
Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. The
Apocalypse is not named. Jerome and Augustine, whose opinions had great
influence in settling the canon of Scripture, essentially agreed in regard to
the books of the New Testament. St. Augustine was present in the year 393
at the council of Hippo, which drew up a catalogue of all the books of
Scripture, agreeing in all points, so far as the New Testament was
concerned, with the canon universally received, with the exception,
perhaps, of the Hebrews, for the ancient doubt still appears through the
wording of the acts of this council. They commence with enumerating only
thirteen epistles of Paul, and then add one, by the same author, to the
Hebrews." They then mention two of Peter, three of John, one of James,
and the Apocalypse, with a proviso that the churches beyond the sea be
consulted with respect to this canon. And to the same effect the council of
Carthage, held in the year 397, having adopted the same catalogue, the
bishops assembled in council add, "But let this be known to our brother and
fellow-priest (consacerdoti) Boniface [bishop of Rome], or to the other
bishops of those parts, that we have received those [books] from the
fathers to be read in the church." The same catalogue is repeated in the
epistle of Innocent I, bishop of Rome, to St. Exupere, bishop of Toulouse, in
the year 404, which, by those who acknowledge its genuineness, is looked
upon as a confirmation of the decrees of Hippo and Carthage. It was still
more formally confirmed in the Roman synod presided over by Pope
Gelasius in 494, "if, indeed," to use the words of the learned Roman
Catholic Jahn, "the acts of this synod are genuine" (see his Introduction).
But, however this may be, the controversy had now nearly subsided, and
the antilegomena were henceforward put on a par with the acknowledged
books, and took their place beside them in all copies of the Scriptures.
Indeed, subsequently to the eras of the councils of Hippo and Carthage, we
hear but a solitary voice raised here and there against the genuineness of
the antilegomena. Theodore; bishop of Mopsuestia, for instance, the
celebrated Syrian commentator and preacher, who died about A.D. 428, is
accused by Leo of Byzantium of having "abrogated and antiquated the
Epistle of James, and afterward other Catholic epistles" (see Canisii
Thesaurus, 1, 577). And Cosmas Indicopleustes, so called from the voyage
which he made to India about the year 535 to 547, in his Christian
Topography, has the following observations in reference to the authority of
these books: "I forbear to allege arguments from the Catholic epistles,
because from ancient times the Church has looked upon them as of
doubtful authority. . . . Eusebius Pamphilus, in his Ecclesiastical History,
says that at Ephesus there are two monuments, one of John the Evangelist,
and another of John, an elder, who wrote two of the Catholic epistles, the
second and third inscribed after this manner, 'The elder to the elect lady,'
and 'The elder to the beloved Gaius,' and both he and Irenaeus say that but
19

two are written by the apostles, the first of Peter, and the first of John . . .
. Among the Syrians are found only the three before mentioned, viz., the
Epistle of James, the Epistle of Peter, and the Epistle of John; they have
not the rest. It does not become a perfect Christian to confirm any thing by
doubtful books, when the books in the Testament acknowledged by all
(homologoumena) have sufficiently declared all things to be known about
the heavens, and the earth, and the elements, and all Christian doctrine."
The most ancient Greek manuscripts which have come down to our times
contain the Antilegomena. From this circumstance it is extremely probable
that the copies from which they were transcribed were written after the
controversies respecting their canonicity had subsided. The Alexandrian
manuscript in the British Museum (now generally admitted to have been
written in the fourth or early in the fifth century) contains all the books
now commonly received, together with some others, with a table of
contents, in which they are cited in the following order: "Seven Catholic
epistles, fourteen of Paul, the Revelation of John, the First Epistle of
Clement, the Second Epistle of Clement, and the Psalms of Solomon (which
latter have, however, been lost from the MS.)." (It is observable that
Eusebius classes the First Epistle of Clement among the Homologoumena,
or universallyreceived books; but by this he probably meant no more than
that it was acknowledged by all to be the genuine work of Clement.) The
order of all the epistles is the same as in our modern Bibles, except that
the Epistle to the Hebrews is placed afterthe Second Epistle to the
Thessalonians. In the Vatican manuscript B, which, in respect of antiquity,
disputes the precedence with the Alexandrian, the Apocalypse is wanting,
but it contains the remaining antilegomena. (The omission of this last book
may be owing simply to the loss of the last part of the codex, in
consequence of which the concluding chapters of the Hebrews, and the
whole of 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon are likewise missing.) The
Syrian canon of the New Testament did not include all the antilegomena.
All the manuscripts of the Syrian version (the Peshito, a work of the second
century) which have come down to us omit the Second Epistle of Peter, the
Second and Third of John, that of Jude, and the Apocalypse. Nor are these
books received to this day either by the Jacobite. or Nestorian Christians.
These are all wanting in the Vatican and Medicean copies, written in the
years 548 and 586, and in the beautiful manuscript of the Peshito,
preserved in the British Museum, and the writing of which was concluded at
the monastery of Bethkoki, A.D. 768, on 197 leaves of vellum, in the
Estrangelo character.
In the inquiring age immediately preceding the Reformation the
controversy respecting the antilegomena was revived, especially by
Erasmus and Cardinal Cajetan; by the latter, however, upon principles so
questionable as to expose him to the charge of assailing the authority of
the Epistle to the Hebrews with the same weapons which the Emperor
Julian had employed to impugn the authority of Matthew's Gospel. The
doubts thus raised were in a great measure silenced by the decree of the
council of Trent, although there have not been wanting learned Roman
Catholic divines since this period who have ventured to question at least
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the Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews. It is well known that
Luther, influenced in this instance not so much by historicocritical asby
dogmatical views, called the Epistle of James "an epistle of straw" (epistola
straminea). He also wished the antilegomena to be distinguished from the
other books in his translation of the Bible. In consequence of this, the
Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistles of James and Jude, and the Apocalypse
have no numbers attached to them in the German copies of the Bible up to
the middle of the seventeenth century; and it is observed by Tholuck
(Commentary on Hebrews, in Biblical Cabinet) that "the same plan should
have been adopted with respect to second Peter and second and third John,
but it did not seem proper to detach them from the Homologoumena which
belonged to them. Thus he wished at the same time to point out what were
the "right noble chief books of Scripture." We are informed by Father Paul
Sarpi ([Hist. of the Council of Trent, bk. 2, ch. 43, t. 1, p. 235; and ch.
476, p. 240) that one of the charges collected from the writings of Luther
in this council was "that no books should be admitted into the canon of the
Old Testament which were not in the canon of the Jews, and that from the
New should be excluded the Epistle to the Hebrews, the Epistle of James,
the Second Epistle of Peter, the Second and Third of John, and the
Apocalypse." Tholuck states that the "Evangelical Churches, both Lutheran
and Reformed, adopted the same canon with respect to the New Testament
as that of the council of Trent" (Comment. on Heb. vol. 1, Introd., ch. 1,
3, note b). Some, or all, of the antilegomena have been again impugned in
recent times, especially in Germany. See each in its place. See Canon ((of
Scripture).

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DEUTERO-CANONICAL, BOOKS
(du-ter-o-ka-non'-i-kal): A term sometimes used to designate certain
books, which by the Council of Trent were included in the Old Testament,
but which the Protestant churches designated as apocryphal (see
APOCRYPHA ), and also certain books of the New Testament which for a long
time were not accepted by the whole church as Scripture. Webster says the
term pertains to "a second Canon or ecclesiastical writing of inferior
authority," and the history of these books shows that they were all at times
regarded by a part of the church as being inferior to the others and some of
them are so regarded today. This second Canon includes Tobit, Judith,
Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, 2 Esdras, 1 Maccabees and 2 Maccabees of the Old
Testament, and Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 John 1,3 John, Jude, and
Revelation of the New Testament.
1. The Old Testament Books: The Old Testament books under
consideration were not in the Hebrew Canon and they were originally
designated as apocryphal. The Septuagint contained many of the
apocrphyal books, and among these were most of those which we have
designated deutero-canonical. The Septuagint was perhaps the Greek Bible
of New Testament times and it continued to be the Old Testament of the
early church, and hence, these books were widely distributed. It seems,
however, that they did not continue to hold their place along with the other
books, for Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in his Festal Epistle in 367
gave a list of the books of the Bible which were to be read, and at the close
of this list he said: "There are also other books besides these, not
canonized, yet set by the Fathers to be read to those who have just come
up and who wish to be informed as to the word of godliness: Wisdom,
Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, the so-called Teaching of the Apostles, and
the Shepherd of Hermas."
Jerome also made a distinction between the apocrphal books and the
others. In his Preface, after enumerating the books contained in the
Hebrew Canon, he adds: "This prologue I write as a preface to the books to
be translated by us from the Hebrew into Latin, that we may know that all
the books which are not of this number are apocrphyal; therefore Wisdom,
which is commonly ascribed to Solomon as its author, and the book of Jesus
the son of Sirach, Judith, Tobit and the Shepher are not in the Canon."
Rufinus made the same distinction as did Jerome. He declared that "these
books are not canonical, but have been called by our forefathers
ecclesiastical." Augustine included these books in his list which he
published in 397. He begins the list thus: "The entire canon of Scripture is
comprised in these books." Then follows a list of the books which includes
Tobit, Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 2 Esdras, Wisdom and
Ecclesiasticus, and it closes with these words: "In these 44 books is
comprised all the authority of the Old Testament." Inasmuch as these books
were regarded by the church at large as ecclesiastical and helpful, and
Augustine had given them canonical sanction, they rapidly gained in favor

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and most of them are found in the great MSS. See CANON OF THE OLD
TESTAMENT .
2. The New Testament Books: It is not probable that there was any
general council of the church in those early centuries that set apart the
various books of the New Testament and canonized them as Scripture for
the whole church. There was no single historical event which brought
together the New Testament books which were everywhere to be regarded
as Scripture. These books did not make the same progress in the various
provinces and churches. A careful study of conditions reveals the fact that
there was no uniform New Testament canon in the church during at least
the first 3 centuries The Ethiopic church, for example, had 35 books in its
New Testament, while the Syrian church had only 22 books.
From an early date the churches were practically agreed on those books
which are sometimes designated as the protocanonical, and which Eusebius
designated as the homologoumena. They differed, however, in regard
to the 7 disputed books which form a part of the so-called deutero-canon,
and which Eusebius designated as the antilegomena. They also differed
in regard to other ecclesiastical writings, for there was no fixed line
between canonical and non-canonical books. While there was perhaps no
council of the church that had passed on the books and declared them
canonical, it is undoubtedly true that before the close of the 2nd century
all the books that are in our New Testament, with the exception of those
under consideration, had become recognized as Scripture in all orthodox
churches.
The history of these seven books reveals the fact that although some of
them were early used by the Fathers, they afterward fell into disfavor. That
is especially true of Hebrews and Revelation. Generally speaking, it can be
said that at the close of the 2nd century the 7 books under consideration
had failed to receive any such general recognition as had the rest; however,
all, with perhaps the exception of 2 Peter, had been used by some of the
Fathers. He was freely attested by Clement of Rome and Justin Martyr;
James by Hermas and probably by Clement of Rome; 2 John, 3 John and
Jude by the Muratorian Fragment; Revelation by Hermas and Justin Martyr
who names John as its author. See CANON OF THE NEW TESTAMENT .
Jerome, who prepared the Vulgate (Jerome's Latin Bible, 390 A.D. - 405
A.D.) in the closing years of the 4th century, accepted all 7 of the doubtful
books, yet he held that 2 John and 3 John were written by the Presbyter,
and he intimated that 2 Peter and Jude were still rejected by some, and he
said the Latins did not receive He among the canonical Scriptures, neither
did the Greek churches receive Augustine, who was one of the great
leaders during the last part of the 4th century and the first part of the 5th,
accepted without question the 7 disputed books. These books had gradually
gained in favor and the position of Jerome and Augustine practically settled
their canonicity for the orthodox churches. The Council of Carthage, held in
397, adopted the catalogue of Augustine. This catalogue contained all the
disputed books both of the New Testament and the Old Testament.

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Since the Reformation. - The Canon of Augustine became the Canon of

the majority of the churches and the Old Testament books which he
accepted were added to the Vulgate, but there were some who still held to
the Canon of Jerome. The awakening of the Reformation inevitably led to a
reinvestigation of the Canon, since the Bible was made the source of
authority, and some of the disputed books of the New Testament were
again questioned by the Reformers. The position given the Bible by the
Reformers led the Roman church to reaffirm its sanction and definitely to
fix the books that should be accepted. Accordingly the Council of Trent,
which convened in 1546, made the Canon of Augustine, which included the
7 apocphyal books of the Old Testament, and the 7 disputed books of the
New Testament, the Canon of the church, and it pronounced a curse upon
those who did not receive these books. The Protestants at first followed the
example of Rome and adopted these books which had long had the sanction
of usage as their Bible. Gradually, however, the questioned books of the Old
Testament were separated from the others. That was true in Coverdale's
translation, and in Matthew's Bible they were not only separated from the
others but they were prefaced with the words, "the volume of the book
called Hagiographa." In Cranmer's Bible, Hagiographa was changed into
Apocrypha, and this passed through the succeeding edition into the King
James Version.
(from International Standard Bible Encyclopaedia, Electronic Database
Copyright 1996, 2003, 2006 by Biblesoft, Inc. All rights reserved.)_

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