MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING, NITW

143506

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

WARANGAL, TELANGANA-506004

A report
On
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC COMPARATORS
Submitted By
UDAY KUMAR KESHOJU
ROLL NO.143506
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

Submitted To
Dr. VENKAIAH N
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CONTENTS
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1. Introduction to comparators
1.1.Classification
1.2.Characteristics

2. Introduction to electrical comparators

2.1. Advantages
2.2. Disadvantages
2.3. Principle of operation
3. Applications

12

3.1. Electromechanical measuring instruments (LVDT)

3.2. Electricheck gauges
3.3. Electrolimit gauges
4. The Electronic comparator
4.1.
4.2.

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Electronic gauging
Electronic measuring equipment

5. Problems

18

6. References

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1.INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATORS:
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Comparators can give precision measurements, with consistent accuracy by

eliminating human error. They are employed to find out, by how much the
dimensions of the given component differ from that of a known datum. If the
indicated difference is small, a suitable magnification device is selected to obtain
the desired accuracy of measurements. It is an indirect type of instrument and used
for linear measurement. If the dimension is less or greater than the standard, then
the difference will be shown on the dial. It gives only the difference between actual
and standard dimension of the workpiece. For example : To check the height of the
job H2 ,with the standard job of height H1

Fig no.1. example for a comparator measurement

Initially, the comparator is adjusted to zero on its dial with a standard job in
position as shown in Figure(a). The reading H1is taken with the help of a plunger.
Then the standard job is replaced by the work-piece to be checked and the reading
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H2 is taken. If H1and H2 are different, then the change i~ the dimension will be
shown on the dial of the comparator. Thus difference is then magnified 1000 to
3000 X to get the clear variation in the standard and actual job.

In short, Comparator is a device which

(1) Picks up small variations in dimensions.
(2) Magnifies it.
(3) Displays it by using indicating devices, by which comparison can be made with
some standard value.

1.1. CLASSIFICATION:
1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears pinions, linkages, levers, springs etc.
2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator works by using high pressure
air, valves, back pressure etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using lens, mirrors, light
source etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up, step down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using amplifier, digital signal etc.
6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of the above types can
give the best result.

1.2.

Characteristics of Good Comparators:

2. It should be compact.
3. It should be easy to handle.
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4. It should give quick response or quick result.

5. It should be reliable, while in use.
6. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
7. Its weight must be less.
8. It must be cheaper.
9. It must be easily available in the market.
10.It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
11.The design should be robust.
12.It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform response.
13.It should have less maintenance.
14.It should have hard contact point, with long life.
15.It should be free from backlash and wear

2. INTRODUCTION

TO

ELECTRICAL

AND

ELECTRONIC

COMPARATORS:

Electrical comparators give a wide range of advantages. As we know,

components like levers, gears, racks and pinions, activate mechanical devices. The
accuracy and life of the instruments are affected as they are subjected to wear and
friction

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Fig no.2. Sample diagram of electrical comparator

Electrical comparators have no moving parts. Thus a high degree of

reliability is expected from these instruments. Generally there are two important
applications of electrical comparators: 1. Used as measuring heads 2. Used for
electrical gauging heads, to provide usual indication to check the dimensions
within the limits laid down. The first application is very important when there is a
requirement for precise measurement for e.g. Checking or comparison of workshop
slip gauges against inspection slip gauges. The second application is used to
indicate with a green light if a dimension is within the limits. A red lamp indicates
an undersize dimension; a yellow lamp indicates an oversize dimension. So the
operator is not required to be aware of the actual tolerances on the dimension. After
setting the instrument correctly, all that needs to be done is to place the component
under the plunger of the gauging head. The signal lamps provide in standard
positive indication of the acceptability of the dimension under test
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2.1 Advantages:
1. Measuring units can be remote from indicating units.
2. Variable sensitivity which can be adjusted as per requirement.
3. No moving parts, hence it can retain accuracy over long periods.
4. Higher magnification is possible as compared to mechanical comparator.
5. Compact sizes of probes arc available.

2.2. Disadvantages:

1. The accuracy of working of these comparators is likely to be affect due to

temperature and humidity.
2. It is not a self contained unit; it needs stabilized power supply for its
operation.
3. Heating of coils can cause zero drifts and it may alter calibration.
4. It is more expensive than mechanical comparator.

2.3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF ELECTRICAL COMPARATORS:

These comparators depend for their operation on Wheatstone bridge circuit. In
d.c.circuit, a change of balance of the electrical resistance in each arm of the bridge
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is caused by the displacement of an armature relative to the arm under the action of
the measuring plunger. Once out of balance is caused in the bridge, it is measured
by a galvanometer graduated to read in units of linear movement of plunger. This
circuit is operated by battery. For the bridge to balance, the ratios of the resistances
in two arms must be equal. If alternating current is applied to the bridge, the
inductance and capacitance of the arms must also be accounted for along with
resistance. In actual measuring instruments, one pair of inductances is formed by a
pair of coils in the measuring head of the instrument. The movement of the plunger
displaces an armature, thus causing a variation in the inductance of a pair of coils
forming one arm of a.c. bridge.

Fig no. 3. Wheatstone bridge circuit

Fig. No. 4. Schematic diagram of electrical comparator

Electrical comparator:
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The arm carries the armature and the inductance in the coils is dependent upon the
displacement of the armature relative to the coils. There are other refinements in
actual instrument such as an electrical method of zero adjusting and a switch to
change the magnification. The amount of unbalance caused by movement of
measuring plunger is amplified and shown on a linear scale. Magnifications of the
order of x 30,000 are possible with this system. Commonly used instruments are
Electrichek, Electricator,Electrigage, Electrolimit and Electronic Measuring
Equipment. A brief description of a few of these are given below
3. APPLICATIONS:
3.1.Electromechanical measuring system:
Electrical comparators are also known as electromechanical measuring systems as
these employ an electro-mechanical device which converts a mechanical
displacement into electrical signal.
Figure shows a block diagram of an electro-mechanical measuring system.

Fig no. 5. A block diagram of an electro-mechanical measuring system

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Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is the most popular electromechanical device used to convert mechanical displacement into electrical signal.
It, in effect, is a transformer consisting of three symmetrically spaced coils
carefully wound on an insulated bobbin. It works on mutual inductance principle
and consists of a primary coil wound on an insulating form (bobbin) and two
identical secondaries symmetrically spaced from the primary. AC carried excitation
is applied to the primary and two secondaries are connected externally in a series
opposition circuit. The lead wires exit through an opening in the outer shield,
usually in the end-cover washers. A cylindrical shield of ferromagnetic material is
spun over the metallic end-washer after the windings have been vacuum
impregnated with a potting compound suitable for the application environment.
The finished transformer there after becomes quite impervious to humidity or
ordinary magnetic influences. The device thus also becomes extremely rugged and
reliable. There is a non-contacting magnetic core, made from a uniformly dense
cylinder of nickel-iron alloy, carefully annealed to improve and homogenise its
magnetic permeability, which moves in the centre of these coils wound on the
insulating form and the motion of this core varies the mutual inductance of each
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secondary to the primary, which determines the voltage induced from the primary
to each secondary. If the core is centered in the middle of the two secondary
windings, then voltage induced in each secondary winding will be identical and
180 out-of-phase, and the net output will be zero. If the core is moved off middle
position, then the mutual inductance of the primary with secondary will be greater
than the other, and a differential voltage will appear across the secondaries in
series. For offcentre displacements within linear range of operation, the output is
Fig.no.6
essentially
a linear

Fig. No. 7.Schematic Arrangement of LVDT

(core-shown in the middle position).

Fig. No. 8. Circuit diagram of LVDT

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Fig. No. 8. Phase referenced output voltage of LVDT.

Fig. No. 9. Absolute value of output voltage of LVDT.

function of core displacement. The various unique features of LVDT are : Due to
no physical contact between the core and coil its mechanical components do not
wear out; as a result the friction is absent and true infinite resolution with no
hysteresis is obtained. The small core mass and the lack of friction enhance
response capabilities for dynamic measurements and thus it becomes very
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suitable for taking measurements for on-line machining. Further as it is not

affected by overload, its reliability is high.

Advantages of LVDT
Some of the advantages of LVDT are given below.

It gives higher output for small change in magnetic core position.

It is highly sensitive transducer which can be used form the range of
50mv/mm to 300mv/mm.
It can operate over a temperature range from -650C to 600C.
Application of LVDT
These are some main applications of the LVDT.

It is used to control the jet engine in aircrafts

It is used for the measurement of the thickness and weight in the steel mils.
It is used for the measurement of the weight on the highways.

3.2. Electricheck Gauges.

This gauge simply shows whether the dimension of a component falls within a
predetermined tolerance range without measuring the actual dimensions. It can also
be used as an automatic check on machines in operation to stop the tool when the
dimension is out of prescribed limits. It employs reed mechanism in its measuring
head and reeds are caused to bend when the floating (movable) block is moved.
The bending movement causes the extension arm to break an electric circuit.
Electric contacts control signal to indicate whether the dimension is within
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tolerance or not. The gauge has first to be set by precision slip gauges to the
maximum and minimum limits of tolerance.
3.3.Electrolimit Gauges.
It combines mechanical gauging with electrical magnification by Wheatstone
bridge. The degree of magnification of instrument is adjustable and arrangements
for zero setting are also provided. This gauge eliminates the errors due to sense of
feel in taking measurements and provides the accuracy needed for statistical
quality control. It has wide range of applications and speed of gauging process is
increased very much by its use.

4.THE ELECTRONIC COMPARATOR:

It is based on the principle of application of frequency modulation or radio
oscillation. A special ratio oscillator is used which produces impulses of a definite
value at a definite frequency. The frequency is controlled by the measuring head.
When the measuring head is applied to the part to be measured, the frequency of
the instrument oscillator is modified because of the variation of the dimension
from that of the preset standard. The modified frequency is annuled by suitable
controls to restore it back to the basic value. The measuring instrument dial is
graduated directly in terms of the physical standards of length which compare
with the electronic standards of wavelength. By using various adaptors to suit the
work, the comparator can be put to many applications such as external and
internal gauging, flatness, testing, thickness gauging, tube wall thickness,
measurement of electro-plate coating, gauging on curved or flat surfaces etc., to a
very high limit of measuring precision. In Figure below, the comparator is shown
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being used as a thickness gauge. With high frequencies, it is extremely sensitive

to such variables, as temperature, mechanical and electrical changes. Using
different frequencies, the sensitivity of the instrument can be easily changed and
it is achieved by providing a multi-position switch.

Fig.No. 10. Electronic comparator

APPLICATIONS:
4.1. Electronic gauging:
The electronic Gauging System is designed to fulfill the increasing demand for
equipment particularly suited to the accuracy and versatility required by up-to-date
engineering practice.
Principle of Operation: The principle of operation is shown figure below. The
movement at the probe tip actuates inductance transducer which is supplied with
an alternating current from the oscillator.

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Principle of operation in electronic gauging

The transducer converts this movement into an electrical signal which is then
amplified and fed via an oscillator to the demodulator. The current in D.C. form,
then passes to the meter and the probe tip movement is displayed as a linear
measurement. Various measuring and control units can be incorporated which
provide for an extremely wide range of single or multiple measurements to be
made simultaneously. Figure shows another design of electronic indicator capable
of reading better than 1micron. It consists of a gauging head and an amplifier. The
mechanical movement of the contact probe alters the output or voltage of the gauge
head proportional to displacement. The small alteration in voltage is amplified by
means of a sensitive meter, calibrated in terms of units of length. Switching
selection enables a convenient range of magnification. Such an instrument
has many functional advantages like high magnification, range of magnifications,
light gauging force (40 grams or less), rugged construction, immediate response,
unlimited applicability to inspection procedures.
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4.2.Electronic Measuring Equipment:

This provides a reliable means for making external and internal measurements with
a remarkable accuracy and ease. This equipment employs a highly dependable
Wheatstone bridge circuit in the form of a strain gauge. Due to the deflection of
gauging point because of change of dimension, a minute change is experienced in
the electrical resistance of the bridge circuit. This creates voltage signals which are
amplified and they in turn operate the indicating meter. It can be used for a variety
of internal and external measurements and special attachments are provided to
make it more versatile.

Fig.No. 11. Electronic indicator

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5. Problems:
Solved example 1: In Wheatstone bridge P = 9 ohm, Q = 11 ohm, R = 4 ohm and S
= 6 ohm. How much resistance must be put in parallel to the resistance S to
balance the bridge
(A) 24 ohm (B) 44/9 ohm

(C) 26.4 ohm (D) 18.7 ohm

Solution: (C) (For balancing bridge)

S' = 411/9 = 44/9 1/S' = 1/r + 1/6
9/44 1/6 = 1/r r = 132/5 = 26.4

Wheatstone Bridge
The following unbalanced Wheatstone Bridge is constructed. Calculate the output
voltage across points C and D and the value of resistor R4 required to balance the
bridge circuit.

For the first series arm, ACB

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For the second series arm, ADB

The voltage across points C-D is given as:

The value of resistor, R4 required to balance the bridge is given as:

We have seen above that the Wheatstone Bridge has two input terminals (A-B)
and two output terminals (C-D). When the bridge is balanced, the voltage across
the output terminals is 0 volts. When the bridge is unbalanced, however, the output
voltage may be either positive or negative depending upon the direction of
unbalance.
REFERENCES:
1. Jain, R.K. (2009). Engineering Metrology. New Delhi: Khanna Publishers
2. Metrology by Bewoor,Tata McGraw-Hill Education, 2009
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3. http://what-when-how.com/metrology/electrical-and-electronic-comparatorsmetrology/
4. http://elearning.vtu.ac.in/18/enotes/10ME42/Unit3-KVSRR.pdf
5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparator

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