ANGELES UNIVERSITY FOUNDATION

Angeles City
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

C V E 5 2 3 : W AT E R R E S O U R C E S

RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT 1

LAYUG, MANUEL ALDANA

SUBMITTED BY

DR. LEOPOLDO L. CURA

SUBMITTED TO

NOVEMBER 18, 2014

DATE SUBMITTED

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Control of Water

03

03
2. Uses of Water

08

3. Quality of Water: Analysis and Management

09

4. Philippine Water Resources

18

5. Watershed Management and Engineering Interventions

21

A. Role of Hydrology and Hydraulics in Water Resources Engineering

22

B. Engineering Hydrology Aspects in Hydraulics Important Hydraulic Structures

25

6. References

28

CONTROL OF WATER

Water is one of our most important natural resources. Without it, there would be no life on earth.
The supply of water available for our use is limited by nature. Although there is plenty of water
on earth, it is not always in the right place, at the right time and of the right quality. Adding to the
problem is the increasing evidence that chemical wastes improperly discarded yesterday are
showing up in our water supplies today. Hydrology has evolved as a science in response to the
need to understand the complex water systems of the Earth and help solve water problems.
Hydrologists play a vital role in finding solutions to water problems, and interesting and
challenging careers are available to those who choose to study hydrology.
What is Hydrology?
Hydrology is the science that encompasses the occurrence, distribution, movement and
properties of the waters of the earth and their relationship with the environment within each
phase of the hydrologic cycle. The water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is a continuous process by
which water is purified by evaporation and transported from the earth's surface (including the
oceans) to the atmosphere and back to the land and oceans. All of the physical, chemical and
biological processes involving water as it travels its various paths in the atmosphere, over and
beneath the earth's surface and through growing plants, are of interest to those who study the
hydrologic cycle. There are many pathways the water may take in its continuous cycle of falling
as rainfall or snowfall and returning to the atmosphere. It may be captured for millions of years
in polar ice caps. It may flow to rivers and finally to the sea. It may soak into the soil to be
evaporated directly from the soil surface as it dries or be transpired by growing plants. It may
percolate through the soil to ground water reservoirs (aquifers) to be stored or it may flow to
wells or springs or back to streams by seepage. They cycle for water may be short, or it may take
millions of years. People tap the water cycle for their own uses. Water is diverted temporarily
from one part of the cycle by pumping it from the ground or drawing it from a river or lake. It is
used for a variety of activities such as households, businesses and industries; for irrigation of
farms and parklands; and for production of electric power. After use, water is returned to another
3

part of the cycle: perhaps discharged downstream or allowed to soak into the ground. Used water
normally is lower in quality, even after treatment, which often poses a problem for downstream
users. The hydrologist studies the fundamental transport processes to be able to describe the
quantity and quality of water as it moves through the cycle (evaporation, precipitation, stream
flow, infiltration, ground water flow, and other components). The engineering hydrologist, or
water resources engineer, is involved in the planning, analysis, design, construction and
operation of projects for the control, utilization, and management of water resources. Water
resources problems are also the concern of meteorologists, oceanographers, geologists, chemists,
physicists, biologists, economists, and political scientists, specialists in applied mathematics and
computer science, and engineers in several fields.
What Hydrologists Do?
Hydrologists apply scientific knowledge and mathematical principles to solve water-related
problems in society: problems of quantity, quality and availability. They may be concerned with
finding water supplies for cities or irrigated farms, or controlling river flooding or soil erosion.
Or, they may work in environmental protection: preventing or cleaning up pollution or locating
sites for safe disposal of hazardous wastes. Persons trained in hydrology may have a wide variety
of job titles. Scientists and engineers in hydrology may be involved in both field investigations
and office work. In the field, they may collect basic data, oversee testing of water quality, direct
field crews and work with equipment. Many jobs require travel, some abroad. A hydrologist may
spend considerable time doing field work in remote and rugged terrain. In the office,
hydrologists do many things such as interpreting hydrologic data and performing analyses for
determining possible water supplies. Much of their work relies on computers for organizing,
summarizing and analyzing masses of data, and for modeling studies such as the prediction of
flooding and the consequences of reservoir releases or the effect of leaking underground oil
storage tanks. The work of hydrologists is as varied as the uses of water and may range from
planning multimillion dollar interstate water projects to advising homeowners about backyard
drainage problems.

Surface Water
Most cities meet their needs for water by withdrawing it from the nearest river, lake or reservoir.
Hydrologists help cities by collecting and analyzing the data needed to predict how much water
is available from local supplies and whether it will be sufficient to meet the city's projected
future needs. To do this, hydrologists study records of rainfall, snowpack depths and river flows
that are collected and compiled by hydrologists in various government agencies. They inventory
the extent river flow already is being used by others.
Managing reservoirs can be quite complex, because they generally serve many purposes.
Reservoirs increase the reliability of local water supplies. Hydrologists use topographic maps
and aerial photographs to determine where the reservoir shorelines will be and to calculate
reservoir depths and storage capacity. This work ensures that, even at maximum capacity, no
highways, railroads or homes would be flooded.
Deciding how much water to release and how much to store depends upon the time of year, flow
predictions for the next several months, and the needs of irrigators and cities as well as
downstream water-users that rely on the reservoir. If the reservoir also is used for recreation or
for generation of hydroelectric power, those requirements must be considered. Decisions must be
coordinated with other reservoir managers along the river. Hydrologists collect the necessary
information, enter it into a computer, and run computer models to predict the results under
various operating strategies. On the basis of these studies, reservoir managers can make the best
decision for those involved.
The availability of surface water for swimming, drinking, industrial or other uses sometimes is
restricted because of pollution. Pollution can be merely an unsightly and inconvenient nuisance,
or it can be an invisible, but deadly, threat to the health of people, plants and animals.
Hydrologists assist public health officials in monitoring public water supplies to ensure that
health standards are met. When pollution is discovered, environmental engineers work with
hydrologists in devising the necessary sampling program. Water quality in estuaries, streams,
rivers and lakes must be monitored, and the health of fish, plants and wildlife along their
5

stretches surveyed. Related work concerns acid rain and its effects on aquatic life, and the
behavior of toxic metals and organic chemicals in aquatic environments. Hydrologic and water
quality mathematical models are developed and used by hydrologists for planning and
management and predicting water quality effects of changed conditions. Simple analyses such
as pH, turbidity, and oxygen content may be done by hydrologists in the field. Other chemical
analyses require more sophisticated laboratory equipment. In the past, municipal and industrial
sewage was a major source of pollution for streams and lakes. Such wastes often received only
minimal treatment, or raw wastes were dumped into rivers. Today, we are more aware of the
consequences of such actions, and billions of dollars must be invested in pollution-control
equipment to protect the waters of the earth. Other sources of pollution are more difficult to
identify and control. These include road deicing salts, storm runoff from urban areas and
farmland, and erosion from construction sites.
Groundwater
Groundwater, pumped from beneath the earth's surface, is often cheaper, more convenient and
less vulnerable to pollution than surface water. Therefore, it is commonly used for public water
supplies. Groundwater provides the largest source of usable water storage in the United States.
Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and
lakes, including the Great Lakes. In some areas, ground water may be the only option. Some
municipalities survive solely on groundwater.
Hydrologists estimate the volume of water stored underground by measuring water levels in local
wells and by examining geologic records from well-drilling to determine the extent, depth and
thickness of water-bearing sediments and rocks. Before an investment is made in full-sized wells,
hydrologists may supervise the drilling of test wells. They note the depths at which water is
encountered and collect samples of soils, rock and water for laboratory analyses. They may run a
variety of geophysical tests on the completed hole, keeping and accurate log of their observations
and test results. Hydrologists determine the most efficient pumping rate by monitoring the extent
that water levels drop in the pumped well and in its nearest neighbors. Pumping the well too fast
could cause it to go dry or could interfere with neighboring wells. Along the coast, over-pumping
6

can cause saltwater intrusion. By plotting and analyzing these data, hydrologists can estimate the
maximum and optimum yields of the well.
Polluted ground water is less visible, but more insidious and difficult to clean up, than pollution
in rivers and lakes. Ground water pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes
on land. Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills,
industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process wastewater from mines, oil field brine pits, leaking
underground oil storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems. Hydrologists
provide guidance in the location of monitoring wells around waste disposal sites and sample
them at regular intervals to determine if undesirable leachate--contaminated water containing
toxic or hazardous chemicals--is reaching the ground water. In polluted areas, hydrologists may
collect soil and water samples to identify the type and extent of contamination. The chemical
data then are plotted on a map to show the size and direction of waste movement. In complex
situations, computer modeling of water flow and waste migration provides guidance for a cleanup program. In extreme cases, remedial actions may require excavation of the polluted soil.
Today, most people and industries realize that the amount of money invested in prevention is far
less than that of cleanup. Hydrologists often are consulted for selection of proper sites for new
waste disposal facilities. The danger of pollution is minimized by locating wells in areas of deep
ground water and impermeable soils. Other practices include lining the bottom of a landfill with
watertight materials, collecting any leachate with drains, and keeping the landfill surface covered
as much as possible. Careful monitoring is always necessary.

PHILIPPINE WATER RESOURCES

Water is an essential element to our everyday existence. Its role is vital in the sustenance of all
life forms, as well as in agricultural, industrial, households, recreational and environmental
activities. As population continues to rise, so does the demand for fresh water too. Water is a
major factor shaping the natural environment. It has a long-term influence on the vegetation,
fauna, and shape of the landscape and on various ecosystems.

1,830 sq kilometers of Philippine rivers and lakes cover 61% of the countrys total land
area

50,000 sq kilometers of groundwater reservoir is recharged by rain and seepage from

river and lakes

421 principal river basins, of which 20 are considered major river basins

53,943 million cubic meters estimated annual discharge of Cagayan river, the longest and
largest river in the Philippines, with a ground water reserve of 47,895 million cubic
meters

79 lakes mostly utilized for fish production

86% of piped-water supply systems that use groundwater as a source

146 billion cu.m estimated amount of the countrys water supply

6.1 million liters per second (lps) total allocation of water for different uses

1.06 million lps surface water allocated for power generation in region 2, the largest in
the entire country

12, 879 lps groundwater allocated for municipal use in region 4, the largest in the entire
country

207 million cu meters projected water consumption in metro manila by 2010

59 natural lakes and more than 100,000 ha of freshwater swamps

There are four major groundwater reservoirs (Cagayan, 10,000 km2; central Luzon, 9,000
km2; Agusan, 8,500 km2; Cotabato, 6,000 km2) which, when combined with smaller
reservoirs already identified, would aggregate to an area of about 50,000 km2

A survey of surface water storage potential has identified sites for 438 major dams and
423 smaller dams
8

As estimated 146,000 mcm total water resource potential

438 major dams and 423 smaller dams (total of 861 impounding dams and reservoir sites)
identified sites of water surface water storage potential

QUALITY OF WATER: ANALYSIS AND MANAGEMENT

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics
of water. It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or more
biotic species and or to any human need or purpose. It is most frequently used by reference to a
set of standards against which compliance can be assessed. The most common standards used to
assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking water.
Standards
In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how
the water will be used. In the case of natural water bodies, they also make some reasonable
estimate of pristine conditions. Different uses raise different concerns and therefore different
standards are considered. Natural water bodies will vary in response to environmental
conditions. Environmental scientists work to understand how these systems function, which in
turn helps to identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental and policymakers
work to define legislation with the intention that water is maintained at an appropriate quality for
its identified use.
The vast majority of surface water on the planet is neither potable nor toxic. This remains true
when seawater in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. Another general
perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not.
In fact, water quality is a complex subject, in part because water is a complex medium
intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial

and commercial

activities

(e.g. manufacturing, mining, construction, transport) are a major cause of water pollution as
are runoff from agricultural areas, urban runoff and discharge of treated and untreated sewage.
Categories
The parameters for water quality are determined by the intended use. Work in the area of water
quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in
the environment.
Human Consumption
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa
and bacteria; inorganic contaminants such as salts and metals; chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides; and radioactive contaminants.
Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as
sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, the use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse
(which may lower the level of the water).
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) limits the amounts of certain
contaminants in tap water provided by US public water systems. The Safe Drinking Water
Act authorizes EPA to issue two types of standards: primary standards regulate substances that
potentially affect human health, and secondary standards prescribe aesthetic qualities, those that
affect taste, odor, or appearance. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations
establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same protection for
public health. Drinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be expected to contain at
least small amounts of some contaminants. The presence of these contaminants does not
necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk.
In urbanized areas around the world, water purification technology is used in municipal water
systems to remove contaminants from the source water (surface water or groundwater) before it

10

is distributed to homes, businesses, schools and other users. Water drawn directly from a stream,
lake, or aquifer and that has no treatment will be of uncertain quality.
Industrial and domestic use
Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic
purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium and
magnesium which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulphate and
soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers. Hard water may be softened to remove these
ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations. Hard water may be preferable to
soft water for human consumption, since health problems have been associated with excess
sodium and with calcium and magnesium deficiencies. Softening decreases nutrition and may
increase cleaning effectiveness.
Environmental water quality
Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as
lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to
different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic substances and
high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for non-drinking
purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, and rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These
conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. Modern
water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a
minimum, retention of current quality standards.
There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine or pre-industrial
conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a
water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long as
the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the landscape
changes

(e.g., land

development, urbanization, clear

cutting in

forested

areas)

in

the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant
11

challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining
healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations of species and
protecting human health.
Sampling and measurement
The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of
water quality indicators. The most accurate measurements of water quality are made on-site,
because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made onsite and in direct contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity, and oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.
Sample collection

More complex measurements are often made in a laboratory requiring a water sample to be
collected, preserved, transported, and analyzed at another location. The process of water
sampling introduces two significant problems. The first problem is the extent to which the
sample may be representative of the water source of interest. Many water sources vary with time
and with location. The measurement of interest may vary seasonally or from day to night or in
response to some activity of man or natural populations of aquatic plants and animals. [7] The
measurement of interest may vary with distances from the water boundary with
overlying atmosphere and underlying or confining soil. The sampler must determine if a single
time and location meets the needs of the investigation, or if the water use of interest can be
satisfactorily assessed by averaged values with time and/or location, or if critical maxima and
minima require individual measurements over a range of times, locations and/or events. The
sample collection procedure must assure correct weighting of individual sampling times and
locations where averaging is appropriate. Where critical maximum or minimum values
exist, methods must be applied to observed variation to determine an adequate number of
samples to assess probability of exceeding those critical values.

12

The second problem occurs as the sample is removed from the water source and begins to
establish chemical equilibrium with its new surroundings - the sample container. Sample
containers must be made of materials with minimal reactivity with substances to be measured;
and pre-cleaning of sample containers is important. The water sample may dissolve part of the
sample container and any residue on that container, or chemicals dissolved in the water sample
may sorbs onto the sample container and remain there when the water is poured out for analysis.
Similar physical and chemical interactions may take place with any pumps, piping, or
intermediate devices used to transfer the water sample into the sample container. Water collected
from depths below the surface will normally be held at the reduced pressure of the atmosphere;
so gas dissolved in the water may escape into unfilled space at the top of the container.
Atmospheric gas present in that air space may also dissolve into the water sample. Other
chemical reaction equilibria may change if the water sample changes temperature. Finely divided
solid particles formerly suspended by water turbulence may settle to the bottom of the sample
container,

or

solid

phase

may

form

from

biological

growth

or chemical

precipitation. Microorganisms within the water sample may biochemically alter concentrations
of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and organic compounds. Changing carbon dioxide concentrations
may alter pH and change solubility of chemicals of interest. These problems are of special
concern during measurement of chemicals assumed to be significant at very low concentrations.

Sample preservation may partially resolve the second problem. A common procedure is keeping
samples cold to slow the rate of chemical reactions and phase change, and analyzing the sample
as soon as possible; but this merely minimizes the changes rather than preventing them. A useful
procedure for determining influence of sample containers during delay between sample
collection and analysis involves preparation for two artificial samples in advance of the sampling
event. One sample container is filled with water known from previous analysis to contain no
detectable amount of the chemical of interest. This sample, called a "blank," is opened for
exposure to the atmosphere when the sample of interest is collected, then resealed and
transported to the laboratory with the sample for analysis to determine if sample holding
procedures introduced any measurable amount of the chemical of interest. The second artificial
sample is collected with the sample of interest, but then "spiked" with a measured additional
13

amount of the chemical of interest at the time of collection. The blank and spiked samples are
carried with the sample of interest and analyzed by the same methods at the same times to
determine any changes indicating gains or losses during the elapsed time between collection and
analysis.
Testing in response to natural disasters and other emergencies
Inevitably after events such as earthquakes and tsunamis, there is an immediate response by the
aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide
the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subsequent recovery. Access to
clean drinking water and adequate sanitation is a priority at times like this. The threat of disease
increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in squalid
conditions, and without proper sanitation.
After a natural disaster, as far as water quality testing is concerned there are widespread views on
the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. The key basic water
quality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of
fecal contamination, free chlorine residual, pH, turbidity and possibly conductivity/total
dissolved solids. There are a number of portable water test kits on the market widely used by aid
and relief agencies for carrying out such testing.
After major natural disasters, a considerable length of time might pass before water quality
returns to pre-disaster levels. For example, following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami the
Colombo-based International Water Management Institute (IWMI) monitored the effects of
saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a
half years after the event. IWMI developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by
saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the World Health Organization as part
of its series of Emergency Guidelines.

Chemical analysis
14

The simplest methods of chemical analysis are those measuring chemical elements without
respect to their form. Elemental analysis for dissolved oxygen, as an example, would indicate a
concentration of 890,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of water sample because water is made of
oxygen.

The

method

selected

to

measure

dissolved

oxygen

should

differentiate

between diatomic oxygen and oxygen combined with other elements. The comparative simplicity
of elemental analysis has produced a large amount of sample data and water quality criteria for
elements sometimes identified as heavy metals. Water analysis for heavy metals must consider
soil particles suspended in the water sample. These suspended soil particles may contain
measurable amounts of metal. Although the particles are not dissolved in the water, they may be
consumed by people drinking the water. Adding acid to a water sample to prevent loss of
dissolved metals onto the sample container may dissolve more metals from suspended soil
particles. Filtration of soil particles from the water sample before acid addition, however, may
cause loss of dissolved metals onto the filter. The complexities of differentiating similar organic
molecules are even more challenging.
Making these complex measurements can be expensive. Because direct measurements of water
quality can be expensive, ongoing monitoring programs are typically conducted by government
agencies. However, there are local volunteer programs and resources available for some general
assessment. Tools available to the general public include on-site test kits, commonly used for
home fish tanks, and biological assessment procedures.

Real-time monitoring
Although water quality is usually sampled and analyzed at laboratories, nowadays, citizens
demand real-time information about the water they are drinking. During the last years, several
companies are deploying worldwide real-time remote monitoring systems for measuring water
pH, turbidity or dissolved oxygen levels.

Drinking water indicators

15

The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:

Alkalinity

Color of water

pH

Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), etc.)

Dissolved metals and salts: sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium

Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium,

and Giardia lamblia; see Bacteriological water analysis

Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)

Dissolved

organics: colored

dissolved

organic

matter (CDOM), dissolved

organic

carbon (DOC)

Radon

Heavy metals

Pharmaceuticals

Hormone analogs
Environmental indicators
Physical indicators

Water Temperature

Total dissolved solids

16

(TDS)

Odor of water

Color of water

Taste of water

Specifics Conductance or EC, Electrical Conductance, Conductivity

Total suspended solids (TSS)

Transparency or Turbidity

Chemical indicators

pH

Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Dissolved oxygen (DO)

Total hardness (TH)

Heavy metals

Nitrate

Orthophosphates

Pesticides

Surfactants

Biological indicators
17

Ephemeroptera

Plecoptera

Mollusca

Trichoptera

Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Coliform bacteria

USES OF WATER

Water is one of the most vital natural resources for all life on Earth. The availability and quality
of water always have played an important part in determining not only where people can live,
but also their quality of life. Even though there always has been plenty of fresh water on Earth,
water has not always been available when and where it is needed, nor is it always of suitable
quality for all uses. Water must be considered as a finite resource that has limits and boundaries
to its availability and suitability for use.

18

Figure 1. Offstream uses (depicted on the left) are those in which water is removed from its
source, either by pumping or diversion. Instream uses (depicted on the right) are those in which
water remains in place, and typically refers to stream (rather than groundwater). Where water
supply is limited, conflicts may result between and among the various uses.
The balance between supply and demand for water is a delicate one. The availability of usable
water has and will continue to dictate where and to what extent development will occur. Water
must be in sufficient supply for an area to develop, and an area cannot continue to develop if
water demand far outstrips available supply. Further, a water supply will be called upon to meet
an array of offstream uses (in which the water is withdrawn from the source) in addition to
instream uses (in which the water remains in place). Figure 1 represents the demands on water as
a tug-of-war among the various offstream and instream uses.
Traditionally, water management in different countries focused on expanding or manipulating
their country's supplies of fresh water to meet the needs of users. A number of large dams were
built during the early twentieth century to increase the supply of fresh water for any given time
and place. This era of building large dams has passed. In the twenty-first century, the finite water
supply and established infrastructure require that demand be managed more effectively within
the available sustainable supply. Water-use information can be used to evaluate the impacts of
population growth and the effectiveness of alternative water management policies, regulations,
and conservation activities.
Categories of Water use

19

Commercial water use includes fresh water for motels, hotels, restaurants, office buildings, other
commercial facilities, and civilian and military institutions. Domestic water use is probably the
most important daily use of water for most people.
Domestic use includes water that is used in the home every day, including water for normal
household purposes, such as drinking, food preparation, bathing, washing clothes and dishes,
flushing toilets, and watering lawns and gardens.
Industrial water use is a valuable resource to the nation's industries for such purposes as
processing, cleaning, transportation, dilution, and cooling in manufacturing facilities. Major
water-using industries include steel, chemical, paper, and petroleum refining. Industries often
reuse the same water over and over for more than one purpose.
Irrigation water

use

is

water

artificially

applied

to

farm,

orchard,

pasture,

and horticultural crops, as well as water used to irrigate pastures, for frost and freeze protection,
chemical application, crop cooling, harvesting, and for the leaching of salts from the crop root
zone. Nonagricultural activities include self-supplied water to irrigate public and private golf
courses, parks,
Livestock water use includes water for stock animals, feed lots, dairies, fish farms, and other
nonfarm needs. Water is needed for the production of red meat, poultry, eggs, milk, and wool,
and for horses, rabbits, and pets. Livestock water use only includes fresh water.
Mining water use includes water for the extraction of naturally occurring minerals; solids, such
as coal and ores; liquids, such as crude petroleum; and gases, such as natural gas. The category
includes quarrying, milling (such as crushing, screening, washing, and flotation), and other
operations as part of mining activity. A significant portion of the water used for mining, about 32
percent, is saline.
Public Supply water use refers to water withdrawn by public and private water suppliers, such as
county and municipal water works, and delivered to users for domestic, commercial, and
industrial purposes.

20

Thermoelectric Power water use is the amount of water used in the production of electric power
generated with heat. The source of the heat may be from fossil fuels, nuclear fission, or
geothermal. Fossil fuel power plants typically reuse water. They generate electricity by turning
a turbine using steam power. After the steam is used to turn the turbines, it is condensed back to
water by cooling it. The condensed water is then routed back to the boiler, where the cycle
begins again.

WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND ENGINEERING INTERVENTIONS

What is a watershed?

A watershed is simply the geographic area through which water flows across the land and drains
into a common body of water, whether a stream, river, lake, or ocean. The watershed boundary
will more or less follow the highest ridgeline around the stream channels and meet at the bottom
or lowest point of the land where water flows out of the watershed, the mouth of the waterway.

Much of the water comes from rainfall and storm water runoff. The quality and quantity of storm
water is affected by all the alterations to the land--mining, agriculture, roadways, urban
21

development, and the activities of people within a watershed. Watersheds are usually separated
from other watersheds by naturally elevated areas.

Why are watersheds important?

Watersheds are important because the surface water features and storm water runoff within a
watershed ultimately drain to other bodies of water. It is essential to consider these downstream
impacts when developing and implementing water quality protection and restoration actions.
Everything upstream ends up downstream. We need to remember that we all live downstream
and that our everyday activities can affect downstream waters.

Watershed Management

Management of the environment has been primarily focused on specific issues such as air, land,
and water. Most efforts have resulted in decreasing pollutant emissions to air and water,
improved landfills, remediation of waste sites and contaminated groundwater, protection of rare
and endangered species, design of best management practices to control water and contaminant
runoff, and much more.

What is still a continuing problem for our waters are nonpoint source pollution and habitat
degradation? These are the problems that are responsible for most of the water quality use
impairments throughout. These are typically complex problems that are difficult to manage.
Both nonpoint pollution and habitat degradation generally cross program purviews. To establish
a method to tackle these remaining problems managements must come together to better
understand the interactions between the environmental components and the actions that can be
taken by all towards the goal of ecosystem integrity.

A. Role of Hydrology and Hydraulics in Water Resources Engineering

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Hydrology & Hydraulics

The study of water, including its properties and behaviour, entails the application of hydrologic
and hydraulic principles and methods. Hydrologic analyses are performed to quantify the
volumetric flow rate of water draining from a watershed (i.e., drainage area) over time. The
amount of water that flows from a watershed depends on the characteristics of the watershed
(e.g., size, land cover, antecedent moisture, and steepness) and the presence of water (e.g., the
intensity and duration of a precipitation event, rate of snowmelt, or regulation from a dam).
Hydraulic analyses are performed to determine the depth of flow, flow velocity, and forces from
flowing water on a surface or at hydraulic structures. These studies are necessary components in
the hydraulic design and analysis of structures.
Hydrologic and hydraulic analyses are performed for hazard mitigation and forensic
investigations, when developing reservoir management plans, and when performing FEMA
floodplain mapping. These analyses are becoming increasingly relevant to businesses and
governments when projecting long-term water availability for purposes of developing plans to
ensure adequate water supplies are available for their needs. These same principles are
cornerstones to the technical approaches for habitat management and restoration.
Hydrology and Water Resources
Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water throughout earth, and
thus addresses both the hydrologic cycle and water resources. Measurement is fundamental for
assessing water resources. Research in this field provides a better understanding of the processes
involved in the hydrologic cycle, and insight for environmental engineering, policy and planning.
Particularly noteworthy for the department are our research achievements in numerical and
physical models for water and sediment flow in rivers and reservoirs.
Research topics in hydrology

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Hydrology in cold climate

Rainfall-runoff modeling

Hydrology for hydropower operation

Floods

Environmental impacts of river regulations

Clean water and sustainable infrastructure

By 2025 one third of humanity almost three billion people will face severe water scarcity.
This has been described as the single greatest threat to health, the environment and global food
security. Water is fundamental for life, is by far the most important food item, and is a
commodity that modern societies rely on in many aspects including potable water, agricultural
water, industrial water and recreational water. Water is essential and preservation of its safety in
quantity and in quality is critical to the sustainable development of any society.
In 2002, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights affirmed that sufficient,
affordable, physically accessible, safe and acceptable water for personal and domestic uses is a
fundamental human right of all people and a prerequisite to the realization of all other human
rights.
Water resources in developing countries
The research group is significantly active in developing countries, both in terms of research and
training. The main focus is on hydropower development and water resources management often
in combination. In East Africa we are working in several countries, while focusing on Tanzania,
Ethiopia and Uganda. Here as in most developing countries, good water management means
finding the optimal use for limited water resources, sharing water between irrigation,
hydropower, and water supply.
Climate change and water
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The predicted changes in climate are expected to profoundly affect water and water
infrastructure. We are currently studying the effect of climate change on river morphology,
hydropower resources, floods, and dam safety. We conduct research in cold climates and the
Arctic region, given that the climatic change is predicted to be greatest in these regions.

Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

Water resources engineering is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle -- the distribution
and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans. Surface runoff is
measured as the difference between precipitation and abstractions, such as infiltration (which
replenishes groundwater flow), surface storage and evaporation. Applications include the
management of the urban water supply, the design of urban storm-sewer systems, and flood
forecasting. Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water
flowing in an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel (river, lake, ocean). Civil
engineers are primarily concerned with open channel flow, which is governed by the
interdependent interaction between the water and the channel. Applications include the design of
hydraulic structures, such as sewage conduits, dams and breakwaters, the management of
waterways, such as erosion protection and flood protection, and environmental management,
such as prediction of the mixing and transport of pollutants in surface water. Hydroelectricpower development, water supply, irrigation and navigation are some familiar applications of
water resources engineering involving the utilization of water for beneficial purposes. More
recently, concern for preserving our natural environment and meeting the needs of developing
countries has increased the importance of water resources engineering.
Civil engineers play a vital role in the optimal planning, design and operation of water resource
systems. Job opportunities in hydrology and water resources are quite varied. Positions are
available in large and small consulting firms, and at all levels of government (municipal,
provincial and federal). Particularly in Quebec, due to its abundant water resources, hydrology
has played an important role in the social and economic development of the province.
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B. Engineering Hydrology Aspects in Hydraulics Important Hydraulic Structures

The Soil Conservation Service has been installing structural measures to control soil erosion
since its beginning. Structural measures included check dams, gully control, terraces, waterways,
etc. Knowledge of peak discharge, simple pipe flow, and channel hydraulics was needed to
design and install each structural measure built. Basic pipe flow and open channel theory could
be found in standard textbooks and hydraulics handbooks, such as Kings Hydraulics Handbook.

The proportioning of structural measures was based on simple manual hydraulic calculations and
simplifying assumptions, such as "the hydraulic grade line is parallel to channel bottom" and
"uniform flow conditions". While the simplifying assumptions may not always exist, the impact
of hydraulic errors generally was minor. The determination of the discharge or flow was based
on regional variations of the rational equation or rules of thumb, such as assuming one cubic foot
per second of flow for every acre of drainage area. As the agency grew, the number of designs
increased. The need to develop standard procedures and working tools also increased. Hydraulic
tools, such as Manning's slide rule, began to appear because standard hydraulic equations could
be solved in a systematic manner. The growth of hydrologic working tools was hindered because
the stream flow data needed to develop and verify any model or working tool was either nonexistent or limited. In the 1930's, Yarnell began to publish rainfall data in a systematic manner
for limited locations. The locations were generally major cities. The combination of a lack of
good working tools and simplifying assumptions led to the development of conservative design
criteria.

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The need to develop working tools and peak flow estimating procedures caused universities to
increase their research role. As a result, experimental watersheds were established. As more
engineers were hired, more working tools were being developed on a local, as-needed basis
initially; the role of hydraulics and hydrology in the authorized watershed program was limited
because accelerated installation of land treatment measures received the major emphasis. As
monies were appropriated for construction of structural measures such as floodwater retarding
dams, sediment control structures and channel improvement, the need for detailed hydrologic
and hydraulic procedures on the larger watersheds became evident. Simple shortcut procedures
would no longer work because of structure size and possible serious damage if a structure should
fail. Infiltration studies were initiated to determine losses on a watershed basis. Watershed loss
rates and assumed hydrograph shape allowed engineers to develop peak flow estimates for small
watersheds and to route hydrographs through floodwater retarding structures. Simple manual
backwater calculations were used to design channel improvements and emergency spillways.
The same manual calculations were used to estimate the area flooded at selected downstream
locations. Regionalization of limited stream flow data was used to estimate peak flow at selected
locations in a watershed. The reduction in peak flow in selected downstream locations because of
floodwater retarding structures was assumed to be equal to the percent of the drainage area
controlled. More and more engineers became involved in the planning and design phase of the
authorized watersheds. These engineers and those associated with the experimental watershed
efforts began to develop detailed hydraulic and hydrologic procedures.

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A hydraulic structure is structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water, which
disrupts the natural flow of water. They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the
flow. An example of a hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate of
the river in order to power turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any
body of water where there is a need for a change in the natural flow of water.

Hydraulic structures may also be used to measure the flow of water. When used to measure the
flow of water, hydraulic structures are defined as a class of specially shaped, static devices over
or through which water is directed in such a way that under free-flow conditions at a specified
location (point of measurement) a known level to flow relationship exists. Hydraulic structures
of this type can generally be divided into two categories: flumes and weirs. Hydraulic structures
are anything that can be used to divert, restrict, stop, or otherwise manage the natural flow of
water. They can be made from materials ranging from large rock and concrete to obscure items
such as wooden timbers or tree trunks. A dam, for instance, is a type of hydraulic structure used
to hold water in a reservoir as potential energy, just as a weir is a type of hydraulic structure
which can be used to pool water for irrigation, establish control of the bed (grade control) or, as a
new innovative technique, to divert flow away from eroding banks or into diversion channels for
flood control.

REFERENCES:

http://www.denr.gov.ph/index.php/component/content/article/19.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_quality

http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Tw-Z/Uses-of-Water.html
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http://www.dep.wv.gov/WWE/watershed/Pages/watershed_management.aspx
http://www.ntnu.edu/ivm/research/hydrology
http://www.mcgill.ca/civil/undergrad/areas/water
http://water.usgs.gov/edu/hydrology.html

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