Closed loop (feedback) control system: a system that compares the output and

reference input.
Open loop: system where the output has no effect on the control action.

6. rewrite equation

(PID controller)
P (Kp) improve the output response (reduce rise time, reduce steady state
error)
I (Ki/s) eliminate steady state error
D (Kd s) reduce the overshoot

7. the linearized model ( is often dropped)

Obtaining time response c(t)
1. obtain the math model of system, G(s) 2. Express the output system as C(s)
= G(s) R(s) where R(s) is the reference input 3. use partial fraction expansion
to factor C(s) 4. take inverse LT to get c(t)

Complex function

c(t) = forced (c(t)) + natural (c(t)) = trans(c(t)) + ss(c(t))

K(s z1)(s z2 )...(s zm)

G(s)
(s p1)(s p2)...(s pn )

zeros: s = -zm

poles: s = -pm

t f(t)

1
1/s
1/s2
1/s3

e-at
Sin t
Cos t
t e-at

1/(s+a)
/ (s2 + 2)
s / (s2 + 2)
1 / (s+a)2

-F(s)
sF(s) f(0-)

e-at f(t), shifting

F (s+a)
F(s) / s

f (t )dt

FVT

transient ct(t):

steady state css(t):

K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...(s z m ) N (s )

( s p1)( s p 2)...(s pn ) D(s )

characteristic equation: D(s) = 0

The poles/zeros have to be in pair of they are complex poles/zeros.
the poles determine the stability of a system, the general nature of transient
response and the shape of the dynamic response.
The zeros determine the magnitude and sign of each transient mode,
establish the shape of the transient and the steady state value of the output.
(1)
stable system TF with poles only in the LHP
(2)
unstable TF with min. 1 pole in RHP and/or more than 1 pair of poles
on imaginary axis
(3)
marginally stable the oscillation of the output continues forever
subjected to I.C. TF with only 1 pair of poles on imaginary axis
(point O is marginally stable).

relates steady state behaviour of f(t) to sF(s) in the

neighborhood of s = 0. IVT
Remarks on poles and zeros:
If points at infinity are included, TF would have: n finite poles, m finite
zeros and (n-m) infinite zeros.
Highest power of s in denominator of TS order of the system
TF: full description of dynamic characteristics of the system, independent of
magnitude and nature of input, doesnt reveal any information about internal
structure of the system.
Obtaining TF for dummies:
1. apply knowledge in physiscs, dynamics (Newtons law) to obtain
differential equations of the system
2. identify the input and output of each sub-systems.
3. take LT of the equations of sub-systems and re-arrange as main input &
output.
4. assume zero I.C., obtain the Transfer Functions.
Remember this, dont play2!! OLTF vs CLTF
Given a system G(s) with feedback function H(s)
OLTF = G(s) H(s) CLTF -ve (+ve) feedback =

Where

touches P1.

s1.2 =

b b 2 4ac
2a

Methods of determining stability: 1. Routh Hurwitz (algebraic) 2. Root Locus

plot (graphical) 3. Nyquist diagram (graphical)
Rouths for beginners:
1. write the char. Equations of system, D(s) = a0 s3 + a1 s2 + a2 s1 +...+ an = 0

G (s)
1 G (s) H (s)

cofactor of P1, obtained from by removing the loops that

1La LbLc Ld LeLf ...

c1

b1

b1 a3 a1b2
b1

a1 a 2 a 0 a3
a1

b2

a1 a 4 a 0 a5
a1

ba a b
c2 1 5 1 3
b1

1st order system TF:

2. unit step R(s) = 1/s

char: (i) At t = T, c(T) = 0.632
(ii) for t >= 4T, remains within 2% of its final value
(iii) slope decreases from 1/T at t = 0 to zero at t = infinity
(iv) the steady state value css (t) = K
(v) definition of T (time constant): the time the responses takes to reach 63.2%
of its steady state value (K)
(vi) large T sluggish response, small T fast

F = k (x1 x2)

1 > 2
T = k (1 - 2) dont look T direction

3. unit impulse R(s) = 1

Unit ramp, 1/s2
Unit step, 1/s
Unit impulse, 1

Electromechanical system
(e.g. armature control dc servomotor)

note: T = K (Ia)
Ra = armature resistance; La = armature inductance
Ia = armature current; If = field current
ea = applied armature volt; eb = back emf
Linearization: the math model for the nonlinear system, near the operating
point of x = x_ and y = y_. ( _ means bar)Example:
1.The EOM:
Mx + B x + fK(x) = fa(t)
2. to find operating point, replace fa(t) by fa_ and x by x_.
3. we get, M x_ + B x_ + fK(x_) = fa_(t)
4. noting that x_ = x_ = 0 = fa_, we get fK(x_) = 0
5. thus the operating point is at x_=0 and fK(x_) = 0

remarks: two 2nd order system having same but different n will exhibit same
overshoot and oscillatory pattern but different speed of response
= 1 (critically damped) has the fastest response.
Performance characteristics of control system are given in terms of: (1) unit
step response of 2nd order, underdamped (2) transient response parameters
these parameters are:
1. delay time (td); time to reach half of steady state
2. rise time (tr) time to cross 100% tr = (-)/ d
3. peak time (tp) time to reach 1st peak of overshoot = /d
4. max. overshoot (Mp)
5. settling time (ts) = 4T (for 2%criterion) = 3T (4%criterion)
time constant T = 1/ time constant of an underdamped 2nd
6.
order system.
Note: Mp and tr cant be made small simultaneously
For rapid transient response, n must be large
To limit Mp and to make ts small, shouldnt be too small.
The steady state error component due to D(s)

Type of controllers
Kp

(P)

u(t) = Kp e(t)

(I)

u(t) = Ki

e(t )dt

Kp(1+
(1/Tis))

u(t) = Kp e(t) + (Kp/Ti)

Kp(1+Td s)
PD
controller

u(t) = Kp e(t) + Kp Td
(de/dt)

Improve
transient resp,
reduce ess
Increase system
type by 1
Ti : integral time

Too high will

lead
to
instability
More
oscillatory,
eliminate ess
PI controller

Increase
damping (effect
of D), tends to
increase stability

Amplify high
frequency
signals, lead
to saturation

e(t )dt

If the controller only I (instead of PI), the system will always be unstable due to
RHP poles.

The dominant closed loop poles: the closed loop poles nearest to jw-axis
(dominate the transient response) & become the most important among other
poles.
input
ess formula
Step
1/ (1+Kp)
Ramp
1/ Kv
parabolic
1/Ka
K static position/velocity/acceleration error constant
K value
Step
Ramp
Parabolic

Type 0
Constant
0
0

1
Infinity
Constant
0

2
Infinity
Infinity
constant

Design assumptions:
1. 2nd order system 2. dominant pair of poles 3. there are no system zeros on
the RHP
Methods: 1. Root Locus 2. Frequency response

c(t) = t T + T e t/T
c(t) = 1- e t/T
c(t) = (1/T) e t/T

System compensation: 1. Gain compensation (K) 2. dynaminc compensation

(Lead or Lag)

T=b(1-2)
F=b(x1-x2)
Note: 1. for inertia part (translational/rotational) the Force (Torque) is
different, x () is same.
2. for damping and spring the Force (Torque) is the same, x () is different
gear train: w2/w1 = r1/r2 = N1/N2 and T 1w1 = T 2 w2
electrical systems:
R = V/I
ZR = R
I = C (dV/dt); Farad
ZC = 1/Cs
V = L (dI/dt); Henry
ZL = Ls

(approx.)

Lower order approximation

Poles in the expanded form of C(s) (= G(s) R(s)) i.e. after partial fraction
expansion which have very small residue , contribute little to transient response
thus can be neglected.

C (s )
K

R (s ) Ts 1

Block Diagram Reduction guidelines

1.
the product of TF in the feedforward direction must remain the same at
any time.
2.
the product of TF around the loop must always same.
3.
the CLTF relationship often is very useful.
4. the parallel branching TFs simply add G1 and G2 !!(slide 4.49)

x1 > x2

c(t ) 1 exp( 2 1 ) n t )

Ki/s

3. make the Rouths array till only 1 element left in the last 2 rows of 1st
column.
>0
4. special case 1: the 1st element of any row is zero replace 0 with
- if the sign above 0 () = below it there are a pair of imaginary roots
- if not the same there is a sign change.
5. special case 2: entire row of zero, meaning: there exist pairs of roots which
are mirror images wrt imaginary axis.
Solution: take the row above the zero row as the auxiliary polynomial P(s)
1. the mirror image roots could be obtained from roots of P(s) = 0 2.
continue the Rouths by taking dP(s)/ds factors.

various responses of input:

1.unit ramp response, R(s) = 1/s2
char: (i) for long t, the steady state error = T (constant throughout)
(ii) the smaller the T, smaller error
(iii) no velocity error since the gradient for input r(t) and output c(t) are same.

Rotational
Moment of inertia (kg.m2)

1 2
sin d t tan 1

Classification of control system based on OPEN LOOP TF!!

sN, type 0 if N=0, etc.
As the type number is increased, accuracy improved yet stability worse.

La = sum of all individual loops

Lb Lc = sum of products of combinations of 2 non-touching loops etc.
Steps: 1. listing all the P 2. listing all the L 3. express the 4. express all the
1 for every P (i.e. 3 Ps = 3 s) 5. Masons gain formula

Mathematical modelling
translational
Mass (kg)

1 2

G1-controller, G2 plant

2.

Signal flow graphs & Masons gain for beginners

(at the end of 2nd page)
highlights:
- node = sytem variable
- branch = the associated TF/gain
- path (P) connecting input to output without crossing any branches twice.
- Loop (L) closed path, could be anywhere, cant against traffic
Masons Gain Formula output P P ...

input

marginally stable
abc formula

e n t

3. critically damped, = 1
- the system has 2 real poles at the same location on Re-axis (either LHP or
RHP)
- c(t) = 1 e-n t (1+ n t)
4. overdamped, >1
- the system has 2 real and unequal (distinct) poles
- can be approximated by neglecting the furthest poles from Im-axis
-

G (s)

Laplace Transform

d
f (t )
dt

c(t ) 1

let TF given by

they may be exist double/multiple pole i.e. (s+p1)k

Definition:
(t) impulse
u(t) step
t u(t) ramp
t2 u(t)

Sketching Root Locus for dummies:

2nd order system

most of the system modelled by Newtons 2nd law belong to 2nd order system
TF is given:
2

n
C (s)

R ( s ) s 2 2 n s n 2

The dynamic behaviour of the 2nd order system described in terms of damping
ratio () and undamped natural frequency (n)
The char. Equation roots are given by s
j
1.2

1. make the C.E.: 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0

2. seeing G(s) H(s) , find the zeros and the poles
list down: the starting pts (open loop poles of GH) and the ending pts (open loop
zeros of GH). Note: it may end at infinity (no finite zeros)
3. Locate the zeros and poles on the s-plane (o-zeros & x- poles). Note: RL has
N branches, where N is the degree of characteristics polynomial
4. find angle of departure for each poles (the starting pts)
departure = 180 poles + zeros
read: stand on the other poles/zeros and see the particular poles
5. determine the asymptotes of RL and intersection of RL on real axis (n=
number of poles, m = number of finite zeros)

Cos = ; where = angle of the roots of C.E.

2nd order with step response (R(s) = 1/s)
1. undamped ( = 0)
- the response would be oscillatory and continue indefinitely
- system has complex conjugate poles that lie on Im-axis
- c(t) = 1- cos n t
2. underdamped (0<<1)
- the transient response is exponential decay oscillation
- the system poles are complex and lie in LHP

180 o ( 2k 1)
nm
poles zeros note: N poles = N asymptotes

asymptotes =

nm

6. ask Do you expect any collision? break in/ break out on real axis

break out: between 2 open loop poles

break in: between 2 open loop zeros, only if theres finite zeros.
How to find? Roots of dK/ds = 0 (from C.E.) note if the roots are
complex, no break in/break out exist.
7. find where the RL may cross Im-axis using: a) Rouths for marginally stable
b) substitute s=jw in C.E. solving K and w.

Step 2a: Lag compensator (dynamic)

Why? We want to keep transient response (achieve desired and wpm)

1 s zc
s pc

Format: Gc(s) =
PD controller design
PD is one type of lead compensator.
form: Gc(s) = Kc (s + zc) with desired complex closed loop poles s0
1.
2. put open loop poles of G(s) and s0 at s-plane.
3. angle criterion: (G(so) Gc(so)) = 180
4. find contribution of all initial open loop poles/zeros (achtung: double
poles!!)
(G(so)) = zeros -poles
5. find Gc(so) from angle criterion: Gc(so) +G(so) = -180
6. draw 3 = Gc(so) on s-plane find zc=/tan 3+
7. find Kc =
(substitute s= so)

1
1
G ( s ) ( s zc)

1 (s pc)
G ( s) ( s zc)

Lag compensator design

1. form: Gc(s) = Kc (s+zc)/(s+pc) with zc>pc and desired s0
2. put open loop poles & so on s-plane
3. finding zc/pc ratio from desired Kv or Kp and assume Kc =1
type 0: Kp = K z1
zc type 1: Kv = K z1
zc

p1 p 2

p1

pc

Kc

pc

4. choosing zc & pc near the origin to keep contribution of Gc(s) small

enough (<5o)
5. checking the phase contribution of Gc(s) (should be <5)
6. additional part: finding roots of the new C.E; it should have:
- complex conjugate pair almost same with so
- settling time (ts) calculated from real pole nearest to origin, as the dominate
closed loop poles (ts = 4/)
PD
Increase
Speed up transient
response
Tends to amplify high
frequency noise
Doesnt improve ess

lead
Same as PD
Same as PD
Solve this problem
same

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Given
K ( s z1 )
G( s)
( s p1)(s p 2)
Then for s = jw

G ( jw)
And G(jw) =

General form

5. second order G(s) =

1
s 2 2 n s n

G dB start 0 dB, slope 40 dB start at n

* G =

2 w
tan 1 2 n 2
n w

(for w <=n) =

2 w
180 tan 1 2 n 2
w n

(for w>= n)

Lead compensator design

By equal angle contribution from zero&pole
1.form: Gc(s) = Kc (s + zc)/ (s+pc) with zc<pc and desired s0
2.put open loop poles of G(s) and s0 at s-plane.
3. find angle contribution of Gc(s) (which is zc - pc)
4. could simply choose zc (near origin) or
Ogatas way : zc= tan [/2-/2]+ pc= tan [/2 + /2]+
5. connect so to origin make line parallel to Re-axis crossing so bisect the
angle of origin-so-infinity
6. find zc & pc by draw Gc(s) to the left and right of bisecting line. (use
trigonometry)
(substitute s=so)
7.find Kc =

Kc

1.
2.
3.

K w 2 z1

Lag
so never change
Keep the dynamic
response
ts become longer
(=lagging)
Reduce ess

w 2 p12 w 2 p 2 2

w
w
w

tan 1 tan 1 tan 1

z
p2
p1

K ( s z1 )( s z 2 )...( s z m )
G ( s)
s ( s p1)( s p 2)...( s p n )

system type number; relative degree (k) = +n m

Step by step Bode plots:

1. substitute s= jw
2. find equation of magnitude of G(jw) 20 log G(jw) G dB
3. find equation of phase G (see the *) combine linearly!!
4. find corner frequency
5. choose the range; typically [0.01 1000]
6. mark the start, ending and corner frequencies (w=a or w= n for 2nd order)
7. for dB, draw line before corner frequency keep adding the slope each
time corner freq is passed.
8. for G, mark 1 decade above & below each corner freq draw
contribution of each individual functions of G(s) superposition them.
Make use of low frequency line (dB plot)

2.
3.

listed all the design & initial specifications

assume Gc = -5 till 12 degree (typical 6o)
calculate the the phase of compensated system (G1)
G1 = 2 180 + Gc
choose appropriate 2, (from required design)
with G1, find from graph, w = new phase margin freq, wpm
with w= wpm, look G dB on graph G(w) = 20 log
let zc = 0.1 w, find pc=zc/ and

Step 2b: Lead compensator (dynamic)

Why? We want to speed up the transient response (also get desired and wpm)
Format: Gc(s) =

6. multiplication by a /division by a
G dB shift up by 20 log a / shift down by 20 log a
G not affected at all.

1.

4.
5.
6.
7.

where zc > pc

1 s zc
s pc

where zc < pc

1.
2.
3.

listed all the design & initial specifications

assume Gc = +5 till +12 degree (typical 10o)
calculate the max phase
m = 2- 1(current) + Gc (2 and 1 are given/specified)

4.

calculate ,

5.

find Gc dB at m, given by Gc dB =

6.

find for the compensated system G1, G1 dB = - Gc dB look for

corresponding w (w= m), the frequency where m occurs.

7.

find zc & pc from: zc = (pc) and

1 sin m
1 sin m

sin m

or

1
1

20 log

m zc pc

note: if Kv, Kp or Ka already satisfied Kc =1

additional thing: after finish the design, plot the compensated system
KcGcG(s)!!
Kc
Reduce ess (main)

Lag
Resulting cross over freq.
< wpm
More plot

Lead
Higher than wpm
More calculation

Refer to Masons gain

type 0: Kp can be found when slope of dB is 0dB/dec @ low frequency

(correspond to 20 log Kp)
type 1: project initial line of 20 dB/dec until cut 0 dB w = Kv
type 2: project initial line of 40 dB/dec until cut 0dB Ka = w2

II. Polar plot

Mapping of s-plane to G-plane for s=jw

Addition

general guidelines: (refer to basic form at FR above)

1.
starting (w = 0) check . If = 0 (start from finite on axis), otherwise
from infinity in 0,-90, -180 or 270 direction
2.
ending (w= infinity) check (+n m). If = 0 (end at finite on axis),
otherwise end at origin from 0,-90, -180 or 270 direction
3.
crossing real axis? set Im[G(jw)] = 0 find w.
4.
crossing imaginary axis? set Re[G(jw)] = 0 find w.
5.
to know where the polar plot locate , substitute w = 0.

1/G

Nyquist Stability criterion

GH(jw) < 1 when GH(jw) = -180
Z=N+P
Z = number of RHP zeros of GH(s) inside the countour
P = typically 0; number of RHP poles of GH(s)
N= number of clockwise encirclements of Nyquist diagram of F(s) about (-1,0)
of GH-plane.
Z>0 closed loop system is unstable (intersection on left (-1,0) = encirclement)
Z=0 closed loop system is stable (intersection on right (-1,0) = no
encirclement)
Important property: the gain (K) and point of intersection are proportional.

1/G

I. Bode plots
1.
2.

magnitude plot: 20 log G(jw) = dB vs w (rad/s) multiple of

20dB/dec
phase plot : G(jw) vs w (rad/s) multiple of 45o/dec

Bode plots for standard functions

1. G(s) = 1/s
G dB slope = -20dB/dec and G @ -90o with slope 0o/dec
* G contribution 90o
2. G(s) = 1/s2
G dB slope = -40dB/dec and G @ -180o with slope 0o/dec

Gain margin, Kg
increase in G dB when G=-180 to make the closed loop system unstable. (we
want to make G dB crossing 0 dB line)
How? 1) locate w which G= -180 2) w = wgm, gain margin freq 3) see
corresponding G dB 4) thus, Kg = - G dB
Phase margin,
Additional phase lag added to G when G dB = 0 to make the closed loop
system unstable. (we want to make G crossing the 180 line)
How? 1) locate w which G dB = 0 dB 2) w = wpm, phase margin freq 3) see
corresponding G 4) thus, = G + 180
Note: * small damping means low * low wpm means slow response
In Bode plot -- Stable vs unstable closed loop: (Kg and +ve) vs (Kg and
ve)
For other combination, refer to Nyquist stability criterion.

3. G(s) = 1/(s+a)
G dB slope = -20dB/dec (start from a rad/s) and G slope -45o/dec
between 0.1 a and 10a.
* G contribution: tan-1(w/a)

Relationship between b (closed loop bandwidth), wpm, wn, and for 2nd
order

w pm n 2 2 4 2 1

for the others, refer to appendix

Good design criterion: i. High gain at low frequency (small ess) ii. wpm< wgm
(stable system iii. Slope at wpm approx. 20 dB/dec iv. Low gain @high
frequency (high noise reduction)

4. G(s) = s+a
G dB mirror wrt to 0dB and G mirror wrt to 0o
* G contribution: +tan-1(w/a)

dB

Step 1: Gain (static) compensation using Kc

Use 1reduce ess: 1. given required Kp, Kv or Ka 2. calculate initial Kp, Kv or
Ka (refer to formula of lag compensator design) 3. Kc = Kv2/Kv1 4. shift G
dB by G = 20 log Kc.
Use 2 improve transient response: 1. for specified %O.S. or , find desired
2. locate w on G plot that gives desired 3. make the G dB =0, by adding
4. find Kc, G = 20 log Kc

G
1/G