Speed of Sound Versus Temperature

Using PVC Pipes Open at Both Ends

Michael E. Bacon, Thiel College, Greenville, PA

n this paper we investigate the speed of sound in air as

a function of temperature using a simple and inexpensive apparatus. For this experiment it is essential that
the appropriate end corrections be taken into account. In
a recent paper1 the end corrections for 2-in i.d. (5.04-cm)
PVC pipes open at both ends were investigated. The air column resonance was excited using a paddle as in Blue Man
Group pipes.2 The open end end correction is given by
0.6133r in accordance with recent experiments3 and detailed
theoretical calculations.4 This correction amounted to
1.56 cm for the 2-in PVC pipe used. However, the paddle
end correction was found to be influenced by the transient
position of the paddle during the excitation process. The
paddle end correction was found to be 1.94 cm.
Previous experiments5 involving the speed of sound as a
function of temperature have involved more sophisticated
and expensive equipment. We believe our approach is ideally
suited for experimentation at the high school and undergraduate level. Since the accurate accounting for the end corrections at the open end and the paddle end are essential
aspects of the experiment, we have included an appendix that
contains additional information on the end effects.

Explanatory and predictive framework

(basic theory)
We begin with the well-known expression for the speed of
sound, c, as a function of temperature:
c = 331.3(1 + Tc/273)1/2 .

(1)

.
In the speed of sound versus temperature experiments
reported below, this equation is written as

(
)
c

(
)

Experiment and results

The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. The PVC pipe
(L0 = 66.1 cm) is held in a vertical position using a retort
stand. For display purposes, the paddle used to excite the
resonance of the air column is shown wedged in the clamp of
the retort stand. Data are recorded and analyzed using a LabQuest6 data logger and data analyzer shown to the right.
The pipe was clamped vertically as shown, with a clearance of roughly 20 cm from the floor. Even though the end
correction for the open end of our pipe is 1.56 cm, any
surface up to about 6 cm from the open end has an effect on
the resonance frequency (see appendix). The pipe was tapped
(as with drumming) at the top end using a paddle made from
soft material. This excited the resonant frequency of the air
column. The sound pressure was measured using the built-in
microphone of the LabQuest. The LabQuest was triggered
with a trigger setting of 3 units. Ambient sound pressure was
Table I.

Tc +/- 0.2 (oC)

(2)

Substituting the exact expression for c [Eq. (1)] into

,
the expression for the fundamental frequency of a pipe that
is open at both ends, yields

(
)
c

.

(3)

For open pipes, excited as in the Blue Man Group manner,

L can be written as L = L0 + DO + DP, where L0 is the physical
length of the pipe. DO is the end correction for the open end
and DP is the end correction for the paddle end. Substituting for L in Eq. (3) yields
DOI: 10.1119/1.4745687

(5)

and fit to the data of f versus Tc using a nonlinear leastsquare fitting routine, with K as an adjustable parameter.

Tc is the temperature of air in degrees Celsius. At room temperature, where the temperatures are in the 20 C range, the
first two terms of a binomial expansion lead to another wellknown expression for c (see, for example, Ref. 5), indicating
a linear dependence of speed on temperature.
c < 331.3 + 0.607Tc .

(4)

Resonant
frequency
f +/- 0.2 Hz

4.2

240.0

8.2

241.9

9.8

242.0

15.0

244.4

21.1

246.8

21.4

246.8

22.1

247.1

25.8

248.3

Fig. 1. Simple apparatus for

a speed of sound versus
temperature experiment.

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351

Appendix

248

f = K(1+T/273)0.5/(2(L0+DL)
L0 = 0.661 m

246

DL = 0.035 m
Fitted K = 331.1 +- 0.2 m/s

244

242

240

238
0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

Temperature (oC)

Fig. 2. Resonant frequency of air in a PVC pipe (2-in i.d.) vs temperature. The physical length of the pipe was 66.1 cm.

around 2.5 units. Sound pressure was recorded for one second at 8000 samples per second. The signal sound pressure
was significant over only about 0.3 s. The experiment was
carried out in several different rooms, all of which had different but stable ambient temperatures. The apparatus was left
in each room for approximately half an hour before data were
taken. Temperature was monitored by a liquid-in-glass thermometer with a least count of 0.2 C and with a temperature
probe connected to the LabQuest. The LabQuest thermometer and the liquid-in-glass thermometer agreed to within
0.2 C. The resonant frequency (f ) was measured by taking
the FFT of the sound pressure signal using the built-in capability of the LabQuest. The sound pressure signal was then
downloaded to a computer and analyzed using Logger Pro.6
The two measurements of the frequency agreed to within
0.2 Hz. Typically Logger Pro gave two readings of the peak
frequency whereas LabQuest gave just one. Temperature and
resonant frequency are tabulated in Table I. The data points
of frequency versus temperature are plotted in Fig. 2.
Equation (5) was fit to the data using a nonlinear leastsquare routine in a scientific spreadsheet and the variable
parameter K determined. The curve fit is shown by the solid
line. The value of K was found to be 331.1 +/- 0.2 m/s, in excellent agreement with the theoretical value of 331.3 m/s. As
can be seen the curve fit is very close to linear, as expected on
the basis of Eq. (2).

Discussion and conclusion

This simple and inexpensive experiment can be easily
performed by high school students and beginning undergraduates. As can be seen from Fig. 2, the agreement between
theory and experiment is better than 1%, providing the end
corrections at both ends of the pipe are properly accounted
for.

In order to obtain accurate results for the speed of sound

experiment described, it is important to make sure the end
effects are accounted for properly. Providing the open end
is not obstructed in any way, its end correction is 0.6133r 4,
where r is the radius of the PVC pipe. For the 2-in pipe used
in the experiments described above, this correction is
1.56 cm. We have found that any obstructing surface (for
example, the floor) that is closer than about 10 cm from the
open end affects the resonant frequency. Using the setup
shown in Fig. 3, one can investigate this effect experimentally.
Figure 4 shows the resonant frequency (f ) versus the distance (d) of a plywood board from the open end of the 2-in
PVC pipe for a temperature of 19.4 C. The dashed curve is a
smooth curve fit to the data. The resonant frequency without
obstruction is 246.3 Hz. As can be seen, with the board at a
distance up to about 6 cm, the resonant frequency is affected.
The presence of the plywood board obviously changes the
boundary conditions at the open end. A quantitative expla-

Fig. 3. Apparatus used to study

the resonant frequency of air
in a PVC pipe (2-in i.d.) as a
function of the distance (d) of a
plywood board from the open
end.

246

Resonant frequency f (Hz)

Resonant Frequency (Hz)

250

245
244

Length of 2 inch i.d. PVC pipe = 66.1 cm

Temperature = 19.4 oC
speed of sound = 342.9 m/s @ 19.4 oC
resonant frequency at d equals infinity = 246.3 Hz

243
242
241
240
239

Distance of plywood board from open end of pipe d (cm)

Fig. 4. Plot of the resonant frequency of air in a PVC pipe (2-in

i.d.) vs the distance (d) of a plywood board placed near the open
end of the pipe.

352

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End correction at paddle end (DP) (m)

Look Whats New

0.026

0.024

Fit to: DP = a ebr

a = 0.011 m

in The Physics Store!

b = 21.5 m-1
0.022

0.020

0.018

0.016
0.015

0.020

0.025

0.030

0.035

0.040

radius of PVC pipe (r) (m)

Fig. 5. End correction of the paddle end of PVC pipes as a function of radius.

nation of this behavior could prove to be a challenging exercise even for upper-level undergraduates. Another interesting
phenomenon that may be worth further experimentation is
the radial dependence of the paddle end correction. Figure
5 shows the dependence of the paddle end end correction
on the radius of the PVC pipe.
References

1. M. E. Bacon and Steven Torok, An experimental investigation

of the end effects for Blue Man Group pipes, Phys. Teach. 49,
152154 (March 2011).
2. Blue man Group, www.blueman.com/experience/
instruments.
3. Matthew Krumm and Sam Matteson, Frequency dependence
of end corrections for a pipe of circular cross section, 2009
Spring Meeting of the Texas Section of the APS, AAPT, and
SPS meeting, Abstract: M3.00003, April 24 (2009). Also private communication Sam Matteson, September 2009.
4. Harold Levine and Julian Schwinger, On the radiation of
sound from an unflanged circular pipe, Phys. Rev. 73 (4),
383406 (1948). See also N. H. Fletcher and T. D. Rossing, The
Physics of Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Springer, New York,
1999).
5. S. Valasco, F. L. Roman, A. Gonzalez, and J. A. White, A computer assisted experiment for the measurement of the temperature dependence of the speed of sound in air, Am. J. Phys. 72,
276279 (Feb. 2004); Rand S. Worland and D. David Wilson,
The speed of sound in air as a function of temperature, Phys.
Teach. 39, 5357 (Jan. 1999); and P. J. Ouseph and James J.
Link, Variation of speed of sound in air with temperature,
Am. J. Phys. 52(7), 661 (July 1984).
6. Vernier Software, 13979 SW Millikan Way, Beaverton, OR
97005; www.vernier.com.
Mike Bacon obtained his BSc (honors) degree from the University of Natal
(now the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal) in South Africa and his PhD from
Colorado State University. His initial work was in plasma spectroscopy
and plasma physics. For the past 35 years he has enjoyed working with
undergraduates on a variety of undergraduate research projects. He spent
1993-1995 in Lesotho as a Fulbright Scholar. He has taught in South
Africa, Lesotho and the United States. He enjoys traveling, particularly in
the Southern Hemisphere and snorkeling in the Caribbean.
mbacon@thiel.edu

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