Chapter 1 IE

Industrial Electronics
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Industrial Electronics and Automation
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
CONTROL DEVICE:
It is a device that governs the power delivered to an electric load.
Circuit control devices are used everywhere.
They are found in submarines, computers, aircraft, televisions, ships, space
vehicles, medical instruments, and many other places.
SWITCHES:
In electronics, a switch is an electrical component that can break anelectricalcircuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another.
Switches are classified according to their operation by the number of poles and
throws they have.
Pole is number of the movable part of the switch.
Throw is the number of different positions in which the switch can be set.
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Electronics Expansion
specification
of
and
abbreviation
abbreviation
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British
mains
wiring
name
American
electrical
wiring
name
Description
SPST
Single pole,
One-way
single throw
A simple on-off switch: The

two terminals are either
Two-way connected together or not
connected to anything. An
example is a light switch.
SPDT
Single pole,
Two-way
double throw
A simple changeover switch: C

Three-way (COM, Common) is connected
to L1 or to L2.
SPCO
SPTT, c.o.
Single pole
changeover
or
Single pole,
centre off or
Single Pole,
Triple Throw
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Symbol
IEC60617
Similar to SPDT. Some

suppliers use SPCO/SPTT for
switches with a stable off
position in the centre
and SPDT for those without.
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Double pole,
Double
Double pole
single throw
pole
Equivalent to
two SPST switches controlled
by a single mechanism
DPDT
Double pole,
double throw
Equivalent to two SPDT switches

controlled by a single
mechanism: A is connected to B
and D to E, or A is connected to
C and D to F.
DPCO
Double pole
changeover
or Double
pole, centre
off
Equivalent to DPDT. Some

suppliers use DPCO for switches
with a stable off position in the
centre and DPDT for those
without.
DPST
Intermediate Four-way
switch
switch
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DPDT switch internally wired for

polarity-reversal applications:
only four rather than six wires are
brought outside the switch
housing; with the above, B is
connected to F and C to E; hence
A is connected to B and D to C,
or A is connected to C and D to
B.
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Assignment:
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Label the switches as number of poles and throws.
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Switches can be classified in following 2 Categories.

1. Manual switches:
2. Automatic switches:
MANUAL SWITCHES:
A manual switch is a switch that is controlled by a person. In other words, a manual
switch is a switch that you turn on or off.
Examples:
1. Light switch
2. The
he ignition switch on a motor vehicle
3. Rotary channel selector on a television.
Manual switches can be classified in following classes.
TOGGLE SWITCH:
It is an example of manually operated switches.
It is used to energize low power electronic equipment.
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PUSH BUTTON SWITCHES:

These switches can be classified into two main categories.
MOMENTARY CONTACT:
It is actuated only when the switch is pressed down and
resets itself after release.
MAINTAINED CONTACT:
This switch is actuated even when the button is released.
ROTARY SWITCHES:
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A rotary switch is a mid contact switch part of

the schematic with the contacts arranged in a
full or partial circle. Instead of a pushbutton or
toggle, the mechanism used to select the
contact moves in a circular motion and must be
turned.
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KNIFE SWITCH:
Knife switches consist of a flat metal blade, hinged at one end, with an insulating
handle for operation, and a fixed contact. When the switch is closed, current flows
through the hinged pivot and blade and through the fixed contact. Such switches are
usually not enclosed. The parts may be mounted on an insulating base with terminals
for wiring, or may be directly bolted to an insulated switch board in a large assembly.
Since the electrical contacts are exposed, the
switch is used only where people cannot
accidentally come in contact with the switch.
Knife switches are made in many sizes from
miniature switches to large devices used to carry
thousands of amperes. In electrical transmission
and distribution, gang-operated switches are used
in circuits up to the highest voltages.
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AUTOMATIC SWITCHES:
An automatic switch is a switch that is controlled by a mechanical or electrical
device. You do nothave to turn an automatic switch on or off.
Examples:
1. Thermostat
2. Relay
3. Thedistributor in a motor vehicle. The distributor electrically turns on the spark plug
circuit at theproper time by responding to the mechanical rotation of a shaft.
4. The switch that turns on the light ina refrigerator when the door is opened is an
automatic switch.
Automatic switches can be classified in following categories.
1. Electromagnetically operated switches.
2. Electronically operated switches.
3. Mechanically operated switches.
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MECHANICALLY OPERATED SWITCHES:
These are actuated in the presence of any environmental/mechanical factor like

force, pressure, temperature etc.
Following are some types of these switches.
LIMIT SWITCH:
It is a switch that is actuated by a contact with an
object.
They are used
1. As safety devices to keep objects
between certain physical boundaries.
2. To sense the extreme position of
conveyors.
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MERCURY SWITCH:
A mercury switch (also known as a mercury tilt switch) is a switch whose purpose is
to allow or interrupt the flow of electric current in anelectrical circuit in a manner
that is dependent on the switch's physical position or alignment relative to the
direction of the "pull" of earths gravity, or other inertia.
Mercury switches consist of one or more sets of electrical contacts in a
sealed glass envelope which contains a bead
of mercury. The envelope may also contain air,
an inert gas, or a vacuum. Gravity is constantly
pulling the drop of mercury to the lowest point in
the envelope. When the switch is tilted in the
appropriate direction, the mercury touches a set
of contacts, thus completing the electrical circuit
through those contacts. Tilting the switch the
opposite direction causes the mercury to move
away from that set of contacts, thus breaking that
circuit. The switch may contain multiple sets of
contacts, closing different sets at different angles
allowing, for example, Single-Pole, DoubleThrow (SPDT) operation.
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PRESSURE SWITCH
A Pressure switch is
of switch that
contact
makes
when
form
electrical
certain
set pressure has been reached on its

input. This is used to provide
on/off
switching
a pneumatic or
from
hydraulic source.
The switch may be designed to

make contact either on pressure
rise or on pressure fall.
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SNAP ACTING SWITCH OR MICRO SWITCH:

A micro switch, also known as snap action switch is able to be actuated by very
little physical force, through the use of a tipping-point mechanism.
Common applications of micro switches
include computer mouse buttons and arcade
game joysticks and buttons. The produce very
rapidchange of contacts. They are very useful
in situations that require a fast opening or
closing
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ELECTROMAGNETICALLY OPERATED SWITCHES:

Electromagnetic relays:
An electromagnetic relay is a type of electrical switch controlled by
an electromagnet.
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The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi

multi-turn
turn coil, wound on an iron
ir core, to
form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it,
the core becomes temporarily magnetized.
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Relays are classified according to their use as POWERRELAYS or CONTROL

RELAYS.
Power relays are called CONTACTORS.
Control relays are usually known simply as relays.
The function of a contactor is to use a relatively small amount of electrical power to
control the switching of a large amount of power.
Every relay has maximum voltage and current ratings.
SOME RELAY TERMINOLOGIES:
PULL IN CURRENT:
It is the amount of current through the coil needed to operate the relay.
PULL IN VOLTAGE:
Voltage required producing pull in current.
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INRUSH CURRENT:
The higher current that flows due to very small amount of impedance is called
inrush current.
SEALED CURRENT:
When the armature is sealed and coil impedance reaches its maximum. In this
condition the current flow through is called the sealed current.
Note: Inrush current is usually 6 to 10 times the sealed current.
Ratting of large relays is also expressed in terms of volt amperes.
Inrush Volt ampere rating
Inrush Current =
coil voltage rating
Sealed Volt ampere rating

Sealed Current =
coil voltage rating
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Magnetic Motor Starters:

Magnetic starters usually are relays that work on a variation of solenoid principle.
Magnetic motor starters usually hhave
ave built in motor overload protection circuits.
Whereas a contactor, higher power relay does not have motor overload protection
built in.
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REED RELAY:
These relays are faster, more reliable and less arcing than the armature relay.A reed
relay is one or more reed switches controlled by an electromagnet. The contacts are
of magnetic material and the electromagnet acts directly on them without requiring
an armature to move them. Sealed in a long, narrow glass tube, the contacts are
protected from corrosion, and are usually plated with silver, which has very low
resistivity but is prone to corrosion
when
exposed,
rather
than
but
more
corrosion-resistant
resistive gold as used in the exposed

contacts of high quality relays.
Multiple reed switches can be
inserted into a single bobbin and
actuate simultaneously.
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MOTOR PROTECTION SWITCHES:

Industrial motor protection is based on two conditions. Excessive line current and
high motor temperature.
FUSE:
A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-section
compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical terminals,
and (usually) enclosed by a non-conducting and noncombustible housing. The fuse is arranged in series to
carry all the current passing through the protected
circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat
due to the current flow.
It is less costly but disposable.
Have been recognized as the best short circuit
protection.
A good fuse should respond to an increase in current within a few milliseconds.
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PACKAGES AND MATERIALS:

Fuses come in a vast array of sizes and styles to serve in many applications,
manufactured in standardized package layouts to make them easily interchangeable. Fuse
bodies may be made of ceramic, glass, plastic, fiberglass, molded mica laminates, or
molded compressed fiber depending on application and voltage class.
Cartridge (ferrule) fuses have a cylindrical body terminated with metal end caps.
Some cartridge fuses are manufactured with end caps of different sizes to prevent
accidental insertion of the wrong fuse rating in a holder, giving them a bottle shape.
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MOTOR SHORT-CIRCUIT PROTECTOR (MSCP):

It responds faster than a fuse.
It is also used in motor starters to remove power from the starter in the event
of a short circuit.
CIRCUIT BREAKER:
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect
an electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
It protects by unlatching a breaker switch.
Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can
be
reset
(either
manually
or
automatically) to resume normal

operation.
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MECHANISMS OF CIRCUIT BREAKING:

1. ELECTROMAGNETIC
2. THERMAL
3. BOTH
BLOW APART CIRCUIT BREAKER:
Circuit breakers have very slow response
time for motor protection.
Blow apart design responses overcurrent
with in 2ms.
Under short circuit conditions, a small
blow-apart
electromagnetic
force
is
created, which helps open the contacts
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Manual Motor Starters:

It is a special switch used to start or stop DC/AC motors.
When overload relay trips (because of motor overheating), the starter mechanism
unlatches and the contacts
open which removes power
from the motor.
On reset the contacts are
reclosed.
Uses
in
Conveyers,
Compressors,
Pumps,
Blowers,
Fans
and
small
Machine tools.
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EMR Load Types:

Incandescent Lamps:
The Cold Resistance of a tungsten filament lamp is extremely low resulting in inrush
currents as much as 15 times the steady-current. Such high inrush currents can cause
contacts to erode rapidly or even weld.
Capacitive Load:
The charging current to a capacitive circuit can be very high. The capacitor at first
acts as a short circuit and the current is limited only by the circuit resistance.
Motors:
A motor load draws high inrush current, at standstill, the motor input impedance is very
low. When the motor starts to rotate, it develops an internal counter emf that tends to
reduce the current. Depending on the mechanical load the starting time may be very high
or very low and the inrush current will continue for the duration of the starting time.
When the motor is de-energized, a high-voltage inductive kick will seen by the contacts.
This inductive kick tends to produce an arc that can wear away the contact.
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Inductors, Solenoids and Contactor Coils:

These loads are highly inductive and do not usually produce high inrush currents. In
fact, they may actually limit the rise of inrush current because of their inductance.
When highly inductive loads are turned off, the magnetic field in the coil collapses.
The stored energy in this magnetic field must be dissipated across the open contacts,
which will cause arcing.
DC Loads:
DC loads are more difficult to turn off than AC loads, because the voltage in a DC
load never passes through zero. As the contacts open, an arc is struck and may be
sustained by the applied voltage.
Arcing:
Contact arcing is more common in DC than AC circuit interruption. The AC voltage
goes through zero and extinguishes any arcing that occurs and any metal transfer is
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generally eliminated. While DC arcing or spark discharge is damaging and cause

metal to transfer from negative contact to positive contact.
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Arcing Elimination Techniques:

Shunting inductive load by a capacitor
When the circuit to an inductive load is opened, much of the energy stored in the
load must be dissipated as arcing at the contacts unless some alternative means of
energy absorption is provided. Some of the load energy is dissipated as heat in the
load resistance, in eddy current losses in its magnetic circuit, and in the distributed
capacitance of the coil winding. For dc circuits, a number of simple solutions are
available to lessen or inhibit contact arcing.
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VARISTOR:
A varistor is an electronic component with a "diode
"diode-like"
like" nonlinear currentvoltage
current
characteristic.
Varistors are often used to protect circuits against excessive transient voltages by
incorporating them into the circuit in such a way that, when triggered, they will
shunt the current created by the high voltage away from the sensitive components.
A varistor is also known as Voltage Dependent Resistor or VDR.
VDR A varistors
function is to conduct significant
significantly
ly increased current when voltage is excessive.
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METAL OXIDE VARISTOR:

The most common type of varistor is the Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV). This
contains a ceramic mass of zinc oxide grains, in a matrix of other metal oxides
(such as small amounts of bismuth, cobalt, manganese) sandwiched between
two metal plates (the electrodes).
A varistor remains non-conductive as a shunt mode device during normal
operation when voltage remains well below its "clamping voltage".
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SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONIC SWITCHES:

These are semiconductor devices replacing mechanical switches rapidly.
These are used in many types of circuits to control larger voltages and Currents.
Many of these use 480 volt ac three-phase circuits and they may control over 50 A.
Control of these large voltages and currents by solid-state devices was difficult until
the last few years when larger solid-state devices were developed. Prior to this,
engineers designed systems using several smaller devices in parallel to provide the
capacity to control the larger currents.
Advantages:
An electronic switch has many advantages over EMRs.

Faster
Cheaper
More energy efficient
No contact bounce
Not acceleration-sensitive or vibration-sensitive
Works better in hostile environments
Explosion proof
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Disadvantages:
Beside of these some disadvantages are also there
Highly temperature sensitive
No multiple switching can be done (i.e. only single pole single through)
Applications:
Rectifiers
Alarms
Motor controls
Heating controls
Lighting controls
Power supplies
Inverters
Choppers
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THYRISTORS:
The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of

alternating N and P-type material, then, has a total of three junctions.
They act as bi-stable switches, The ON state (conducting) and the OFF state
(not conducting).
Basic thyristor is a simple two terminal device also called Shockly diode.
The PNPN structure can be represented by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a PNP transistor and an NPN transistor,
They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current
pulse, and continue to conduct while they are forward biased.
Modern power electronics began with advent of thyristors.
Some sources define silicon controlled rectifiers and thyristors as
synonymous.
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Other sources define thyristors as a larger set of devices with at least four
layers of alternating N and P-type material, including:
1. Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
2. Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
3. Triode AC switch (TRIAC)
4. Static Induction Transistor/Thyristor (SIT/SITh)
5. MOS Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
6. Distributed Buffer - Gate Turn-off Thyristor (DB-GTO)
7. Integrated gate commutated thyristor (IGCT)
SCR was first commercially made thyristor in 1957.
It had ability of carrying current of 25A and blocking voltage of 300V.
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Two transistor Equivalent of Thyristor
Characteristic Curve of Thyristor

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Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR):

An SCR (silicon-controlled rectifier) is a 4-layer PNPN device similar to the 4-layer
diode except with three terminals: anode, cathode, and gate.
Basic Construction and Symbol of SCR

The basic purpose of the SCR is to function as a switch that can turn on or off small
or large amounts of power. It performs this function with no moving parts that wear
out and no points that require replacing.
SCR is very important member of thyristor family.
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From the construction and operational point of view SCR is a four layer, three
terminals, minority carrier semi-controlled device.
It can be turned on by a current signal but cannot be turned off without interrupting
the main current.
It can block voltage in both directions but can conduct current only in one direction.
During conduction it offers very low forward voltage drop due to an internal latchup mechanism.
They have lower switching speed that makes them not useful in high frequency
applications involving a DC circuit.
They can be used in AC power applications where current naturally goes to 0.
low conduction loss
Reverse Blocking Capability
Very Low power for control
High power applications (upto 50MW)
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TWO TRANSISTORS ANALOGY:
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The anode is at the emitter of the PNP transistor (Q2), and the cathode is at the
emitter of the NPN transistor (Q1). The gate is connected to base of Q2. Since the
anode is the emitter of the PNP, it must have a positive voltage to operate, and since
the cathode is the emitter of the NPN transistor, it must be negative to operate.
When a positive pulse is applied to the gate, it will cause collector current Ic to flow
through the NPN transistor (Q1). This current will provide bias voltage to the base of
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the PNP transistor (Q2). When the bias voltage is applied to the base of the PNP
transistor, it will begin to conduct Ic which will replace the bias voltage on the base
that the gate signal originally supplied. This allows the gate signal to be a pulse,
which is then removed since the current through the SCR anode to cathode will flow
and replace the base bias on transistor Q1.
The device starts working by regenerative process within microseconds. It is known
as latching.
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CHARACTERISTIC CURVE:
Characteristic curves of SCR
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Turning ON the SCR:

1. Using a positive pulse on gate:
Gate turn-on voltage:
The gate to cathode voltage required to turn ON the SCR is known as gate turn-on
turn
voltage (VGT). VGT ranges from 1 to 3 V.
Gate turn-on Current:
The amount of gate to cathode current needed to
turn the device ON is known as gate turn
turn-on
current (IGT). IGT ranges from 1 to 150 mA.
Gate Triggering of the SCR (DC
DC operation):
As SCR is forward-from
from anode to cathode. Assume
that gate voltage (VG) is 0 V.
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If we close the switch (S), no current flows in the absence of gate current (IG).
Assume that gate turn on voltage (VGT) is 0.6 V and IGT is 20 mA.
By Kirchhoffs Law, VG is,
VG= VGK + VRG
By this equation we can find the gate voltage necessary to fire SCR.
GATE POWER:
Maximum gate power of the SCR should not be exceeded.
The gate power (PG) can be found by the following equation:
PG = IGVG
MAXIMUM DEVICE CURRENT:
We can find the maximum current through the device as:
=
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Latching Current:
The amount of anode current necessary to keep the device on after the switching
from off state and after the trigger has been removed. The latching current value is
normally 2 to 3 times the holding current value.
HOLDING CURRENT:
It is the amount of current required to keep the SCR on after removal of gate
pulse.. Once current falls below the holding current for an appropriate period
of time, the device will switch "off".
Anode Current:
It is the current flow through SCR. By Ohms Law,
IA =
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2. Increasing Anode to Cathode Voltage from a certain Value (Breakover

method):
BREAKOVER VOLTAGE:
Amount of voltage required to turn ON SCR without gate pulse is known as
breakover voltage.
FORWARD BLOCKING REGION:
When SCR is forward
rward biased, very little current flows, this region is called forward
blocking region.
RATE EFFECT TURN ON METHOD:
If a quickly rising voltage is applied between
the anode and gate of an SCR, charge current
flows through the device, if this current is hi
high
enough, it can trigger the SCR into conduction.
It is called critical rate of rise or
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This method is usually prevented because the device may turn on when we do not
want it by this effect. Firing by exceeding the critical rate of voltage rise is
prevented by the addition of an RC Snubber circuit.
Critical Rate of Current Rise:
Critical rate of current rise is expressed in
amperes per microsecond. For example; the
critical rate of current rise of the 2N1595 is
about 25 A/s.
Exceeding the value from critical rate may
destroy the device.
One method used to prevent current damage is shown below. The inductor L in the
anode lead opposes any change in the current, thus slowing down the rise of anode
current.
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TURN ON TIME:
The pulse width on gate must be long enough to allow the anode current to build up
to the latching current value. The time it takes the anode current to build up the
latching current level is called turn on time.
Duty Cycle:
The duty cycle is equal to the time the pulse is on divided by the pulse period,
Duty cycle =
The average gate power dissipation (PG(av)) is the duty cycle times the peak pulse
power (PP(pk)),
PG(av) = (duty cycle)(PP(pk))
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TURNING OFF SCR (Commutation):

If a forward bias is established on SCR and a positive pulse is supplied t its gate then
it turns ON and gate terminal losses its control.
The only way to turn OFF SCR is to reduce anode current below holding current or
make Anode more negative w.r.t Cathode.
Turning OFF SCR is known as commutation.
In AC signal applications SCR turns off at the end of every positive half.
This is
known as Natural or line Commutation.

In DC circuits following techniques are used.
1. Diverting the anode current to an alternate path or Shorting the anode and
cathode.
2. Apply a reverse voltage across SCR.
3. Forcing the Anode current to 0.
4. Momentarily reducing supply voltage to zero.
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1. REDUCING ANODE CURRENT:

It is very simple method to turn OFF SCR. The anode current can be interrupted
by either a momentary series or parallel switching arrangement,
Note: We can reduce anode current using a variable resistor as well but its
impractical.
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COMMUTATION CAPACITOR METHOD:
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FORCE COMMUTATION:
The forced commutation method basically requires momentarily forcing
current through the SCR in the direction opposite to the forward conduction
so that the net forward current is reduced below the holding value.
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AC LINE COMMUTATION:
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SOME SCR APPLICATIONS:

ON-OFF CONTROL OF CURRENT:
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AN OVER-VOLTAGE PROTECTION CIRCUIT(CROWBAR):
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Half-Wave Power Control
The SCR turns off when the anode current falls below the holding current value.
This circuit is sometimes called the half-wave controlled rectifier.
Reverse biased diode prevents potentially damaging current from flowing from the
gate during the negative half cycle.
The distance between A and B, in degrees is called the firing angle (fire).
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The SCR is conducting between B and C, this angle is called conduction angle
(cond).
The firing angle range between 10 and 90.
Decreasing R2, allows more gate current to flow, thus firing the SCR earlier in the
cycle.
Average load voltage can be calculated as:
=
(1 +
The average power can be calculated from Ohms law,

=
Therefore,
So, equation for firing angle now becomes,

=
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
FULL-WAVE
WAVE SCR CIRCUIT:
This circuit is a full-wave
wave phase control.
It can control both halves of the input
AC. The average load in this circuit is,
SCR PHASE-CONTROL
CONTROL IN AC CIRCUIT:
Here a capacitor has been added between R2
and cathode of the SCR.
The delayed voltage rise across the capacitor
allows the SCR to fire past the 90o point.
This circuit can control the SCR firing angle
Chapter 1
Page | 55

o
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
between 15 and 170o.
TRIAC:
The TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor device for controlling current. It is
effectively a development of the SCR but unlike the SCR which is only able to
conduct in one direction, the TRIAC is a bidirectional device.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Characteristic Curve:
Chapter 1
Page | 57
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
TRIAC OPERATION:
4 Quadrants operation
Chapter 1
Internal structure
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
AC Power Control Using TRIAC:
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
ADVANTAGES:
Can switch both halves of an AC waveform

Single component can be used for full AC switching
DISADVANTAGES:
A TRIAC does not fire symmetrically on both sides of the waveform

Switching gives rise to high level of harmonics due to non-symmetrical switching
More susceptible to EMI problems as a result of the non-symmetrical switching
Care must be taken to ensure the TRIAC turns off fully when used with inductive
loads
TRIAC APPLICATIONS:
Chapter 1
Domestic light dimmers

Electric fan speed controls
Small motor controls
Control of small AC powered domestic appliances.
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Triac in AC circuit:
The triac can control current fflow
low through a load driving both halves of the input
cycle.
Phase control can be achieved by varying R2. Increasing R2 causes the capacitor to
charge up more slowly, thus firing triac later in the cycle.
This increase firing angle thus delivers less energy to the load.
By decreasing R2 firing angle decreases thus delivers more energy to load.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Gate-Controlled Switch (GCS):

The gate-controlled switch (GCS) or gate-turnoff SCR (GTO), turns on like a
normal SCR. But unlike the SCR, it may be turned off by a negative trigger voltage.
One problem with GCS is that 10 to 20 times more gate current is needed to turn off
the GCS than to turn it on. But an advantage is that GCS is used in DC circuits
without commutation capacitor and other extra components.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Silicon-Controlled
Controlled Switch (SCS):
The SCS has two gates: an anode gate (AG) and a cathode gate (KG).
The electrical equivalent of SCS is just the basic SCR circuit with both transistor
bases accessible to trigger pulses.
SCS is used in logic applications and in counters and lamp drivers.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
BREAK OVER DEVICES:

In break-over devices, there are usually no gate structures. They are triggered by placing
a voltage across the device, high enough to break over the middle junction.
Shockley Diode:
The Shockley diode (of four-layer
layer diode) is a unidirectional thyristor used as a break
break-over
device. Its structure is similar to SCR without the gate.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Relaxation Oscillator using a Shockley Diode:
The oscillator period is calculated by using the following equation:
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
DIAC:
Diac is the bidirectional part of the thyristor family. Like Shockley diode Diac does
not have a gate.
The Diac is similar to triac with no gate leads available.
It is used most often to trigger a tr
triac into conduction.
It may also be used in the same relaxation oscillator circuit as Shockley diode.
Chapter 1
Page | 66
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR:
A unijunction transistor (UJT) is a semiconductor device that has only one junction.
The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is
formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon.
Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and
it is heavily doped.
The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called
interbase resistance.
It is not strictly a thyristor.
It is often used to trigger an SCR or triac.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
B2
+
Eta-point
V1 VBB
RB2
VD
E
+
Ve
VBB
A
Ie
RB1
V1 VBB
RB1
RB1 RB 2
VBB
VP VBB VD
B1
Equivalent Circuit of UJT

Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Characteristic Curve:
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
UJT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR:

Ve
VBB
R
E
B2
Vp
R2
VP
VV
Ve
B1
Capacitor
charging
1=RC
T
R1 vo
Capacitor
VBB+V
discharging
2=R1C
Vv
t
Vo
STEPS OF OPERATION:
As voltage is applied to the circuit since emitter is at 0V potential UJT is reverse biased
and no current flows through it. Capacitor C charges via R. Charging rate is determined
by values of R and C.
As VC reaches VP UJT is fired and Emitter to Base1 junction becomes forward biased.
Now Capacitor C is discharged through the path C, Emitter, Base1,R1 and GND.
As VC decreases to Valley voltage UJT is turned off and Capacitor is charged again. This
charging and discharging produces a saw tooth wave.
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Expression for period of oscillation T:
VC V final Vinitial V final e
RC
At t T ,
VC VP , Vinitial VV , V final VBB
VP VBB VV VBB e
RC
VBB VV
T RC ln
V
BB
P
if V V ,
V
BB
1
VBB
T RC ln
RC ln V
V
V
1 P
P
BB
VBB
If VD<< VBBthen VP = VBB so
1
T RC ln
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Design:
1. Condition for turning ON
VBB I P R VP
VBB VP
R
IP
Condition for turning OFF
VBB IV R VV
VBB VV
R
IV
Chapter 1
and
RB 2
104
VBB
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
PROGRAMMABLE UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR (PUT):

The Programmable Unijunction Transistor behaves much like a unijunction transistor
(UJT), but is "programmable" via external resistors (that is, you can use two resistors to
set its stand off ratio).
Note that the name is a bit of a misnomer -- as a thyristor, it is a four layer device, unlike
a true unijunction transistor which has but two layers.
CONSTRUCTION:
PUT consist of 4 layers and three junctions of semi conductor.
It is much similar than SCR but there is only one difference that it has an ANODE gate.
Chapter 1
Page | 73
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Q: HOW TO Set
PUT RELAXATION OSCILLATOR:
Chapter 1
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
Syed Mamnoon Akhter
SOLID STATE RELAY:

It is an electronic equivalent of electromagnetic relay.
A Solid State Relay (SSR) is an electronic switch that works without moving parts.
They primarily consist of a low current control and a high current load, which are
isolated optically or with transformers using a thyristor to do switching.
CONSTRUCTION:
A DC voltage turns on
LED. The diode turns
on the phototransistor.
It
activates
zero
crossing detector that
turns on TRIAC when
AC voltage crosses
zero level.
Chapter 1
Page | 75
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Syed Mamnoon Akhter
ADVANTAGES:
SSRs are a faster alternative to electromechanical relays because their switching

time is dependent on the time required to power the LED on and off. Approximately
1 ms and 0.5 ms respectively.
Because there are no mechanical parts, their life expectancy is higher than an
electromechanical relay.
SSRs are completely silent in their operation given their purely electronic nature.
SSRs are useful for high-voltage applications because the LED actuation provides a
galvanic isolation barrier between the control circuitry and the MOSFET.
It is more resistant to shock and vibration.
DISADVANTAGES:
Chapter 1
Because the connection is made via a transistor instead of physical metal, as in

electromechanical relays, the contact resistance for an SSR is greater.
Page | 76

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Industrial Electronics

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

A simple on-off switch: The

A simple changeover switch: C

Similar to SPDT. Some

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Equivalent to two SPDT switches

Equivalent to DPDT. Some

DPDT switch internally wired for

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Label the switches as number of poles and throws.

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Switches can be classified in following 2 Categories.

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

PUSH BUTTON SWITCHES:

A rotary switch is a mid contact switch part of

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

MECHANICALLY OPERATED SWITCHES:

These are actuated in the presence of any environmental/mechanical factor like

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

set pressure has been reached on its

The switch may be designed to

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

SNAP ACTING SWITCH OR MICRO SWITCH:

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

ELECTROMAGNETICALLY OPERATED SWITCHES:

The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Relays are classified according to their use as POWERRELAYS or CONTROL

Syed Mamnoon Akhter

Industrial Electronics and Automation

Syed Mamnoon Akhter