CHAPTER 1

The Real Number System

Mathematics is an integral part of the study of engineering regardless of which branch of
engineering is chosen. Engineers apply their knowledge of the principles of mathematics in
finding solutions to problems and improve existing technologies or develop new ones.
This book deals with the application of mathematics to engineering and allied courses.
These applications start with some real world problems that are solved by first writing
appropriate equations or other mathematical relationships that describe the problem. The
properties of algebra are then used to simplify these relationships and solve the equations,
producing a solution to the real-world problem.
Since algebra is so vital in the study of mathematics, we begin with the basic principles
governing it, the theories of set, and the real number system.
1.1.

SETS

German Mathematician Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp

Cantor (1845 - 1918), when about thirty, created a new mathematical
concept, the set, and subsequently developed set theory. This set
theory, an outgrowth of his studies on infinity, has become a milestone
in the development of mathematics. This enables us to describe in a
very precise way collections of numbers that share a common property.
Recently, its use in stating the solutions to certain types of engineering
problems has been greatly emphasized. Consequently, new terms and
new symbols relating to sets have been developed. Thus, we introduce
our study of algebra with an elementary treatment of sets.
Figure 1. Georg Cantor

1.1.1.The Basic Concepts of a Set

A set is a collection of objects that is well defined; that is, the collection is specified in
such a way that we can tell whether any given object is or is not in the collection. An object in a
set is called an element of the set. Capital letters, such as A, R, N and so on, are often used to
represent sets and lowercase letters such as a, r, n and so on, are used to indicate the elements of
the set.
The expression A = {a, b, c} is read A is the set whose elements are a, b and c. To
indicate the a is an element of set A, we write a A. On the other hand, the symbol d A
means, d is not an element of set A.
A set can be specified in two ways: (1) by listing the elements in the set (list or roster
method), or, (2) by stating a property that determines the elements in the set (description or rule
method). In each case, braces { } are used. For example, the set consisting of the numbers 5, 10,
and 15 can be denoted by either
1

{5, 10, 15} or {x | x = 5n; where n = 1, 2, 3}

The latter is read the set of all numbers x such that x = 5n, where n = 1, 2, 3). The
symbol | is read as such that.
EXAMPLE 1

Let D = the set of all numbers x such that x 2 = 5. Set D may be described by
either the Roster or the Rule Method.
Roster Method: D = {-5, 5}
Rule Method:
D = {x | x2 = 25}

If each element of set A is also an element of set B, we say that A is a subset of set B, and
we write A B. For example {3, 5} {3, 5, 7}.
If two sets have exactly the same elements (the order of listing does not matter), the sets
are said to be equal and we write A = B.
A set without any elements is called the empty or null set. The symbols and {}
represent the empty or null set. It is useful to note is a subset of every set.
EXAMPLE 2

Let X = {-3, 0, 5}, Y = {0, 5, -3}, and Z = {0, 5}. Then each of the following
statements is true.
ZX

ZY

X=Y

XY

XZ

The set of all subsets of a set, including the set itself and the empty set is called a power
set. For example, the power set of the set {1, 2, 3} is {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2},
{3}, }. The power set of set A is written as P(S). The number of subsets from a given set that
will compose the power set is 2n sets, where n is the number of elements present in the given set.
Cardinality is the term given to the number of elements present in the given set. In a
given set A, its cardinality is denoted as
ten its cardinality is,

| A| . For example, A = {black, brown, blue, green},

| A|=4 .

1.1.2. Sets Operations and Venn Diagrams

The union of sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all elements formed by placing
all the elements of A and all of the elements of B into one set (the same element is not repeated).

Symbolically, A B = {x | x A or x B}. Venn diagrams are useful aids in visualizing set

relationships. The union of 2 sets is illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. A B is the shaded region

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A B, is the set of all elements in set A that
are also in set B. Symbolically, A B = {x | x A and x = B}. This relationship is easily
visualized in the Venn diagram shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. A B is the shaded region

If A B = , then the sets A and B are said to be disjoint; this is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4. A B =

The set of all elements under consideration is called the universal set U. The complement
of A (relative to U), denoted by A`, is the set of elements in U that are not in A (see Figure 5).
Symbolically, A` = {x U | x A}. Moreover, the complement of B with respect to A is
designated by A-B, or A \ B, where A - B = {x| x A and x B}.
U
A

Figure 5. The complement of A is A`

EXAMPLE 3

If X = {4, 5, 7}, Y = {3, 6, 9}, and Z = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7}, then

Y Z = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9,}
Y Z = {3, 6}
XY=
Z-X = {3, 6}

EXAMPLE 4

Solution

From a survey of 100 fifth year engineering students, the researcher found that
seventy of them owned calculators, fifty owned personal computers, and forty
owned both calculators and personal computers.
(a) How many students owned either a calculator or a personal computer?
(b) How many students owned neither a calculator nor a personal computer?
(c) How many students owned a calculator but not a personal computer?
(d) How many students owned both a calculator and a personal computer?
Venn diagrams are very useful for this type of problem. If we let
U = set of students in the sample (100)
C = set of students who own calculators (70)
P = set of students who own personal computers (50)
C P = set of students who own calculators and personal computers (40)
U
30

40

10
20

From the figure, the answers are as follows:

(a) 30 + 40 + 10 = 80
(b) 100 80 = 20
(c) 30
(d) 40
1.1.3 Cartesian Product of Two Sets
A new set can be constructed by associating every element of one set with every element
of another set. This is called the Cartesian product of two sets. The Cartesian product of two
sets A and B, denoted by A B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is a member
of A and b is a member of B.
Examples:

{1, 2} {red, white} = {(1, red), (1, white), (2, red), (2, white)}.

{1, 2, green} {red, white, green} = {(1, red), (1, white), (1, green), (2, red), (2,
white), (2, green), (green, red), (green, white), (green, green)}.
{1, 2} {1, 2} = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}.
Some basic properties of Cartesian products:
A = .
A (B C) = (A B) (A C).
(A B) C = (A C) (B C).
|A B| = |B A| = |A| |B|.
Exercise 1.1
A

Operations on Sets

Indicate true (T) if the statement is correct and false (F) if otherwise.
1. 4 {2, 3, 4}

2. 5 {2, 3, 4}

3. {3, 4} {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

4. {2, 3, 4} = {4, 2, 3}

5. {2, 3, 4} {4, 2, 3}

6. {3, 4} {2, 3, 4}

7. {2, 3, 4}

8. = {0}

9. { } {1}

10. { } {1, 2, 3}

In Problems 9 14 write the resulting sets using the listing method.

9. {5, 7, 9} {6, 7, 8}

10. {7, 9, 11} {8, 9, 10}

11. {5, 7, 9} {6, 7, 8}

12. {7, 9, 11} {8, 9, 10}

13. {5, 7, 9} {6, 8, 10}

14. {3, 4, 7, 8} {5, 6, 9}

15. {9, 10, 11} {8, 9, 10, 11}

16. {5, 7, 9, 11} {x | x is a prime number}

17. {2, 4, 6, 8} {1, 5, 10, 11}

18. {x | x is a prime number} {y | 10 > y > 1}

19. { 3, 4, 5, 6} {0, 5, 9}

20. {a, b, c, d} { e, f, g, h}

Give what is required for Problems 15 and 16 using the Roster Method. In Problems 21
28, write the resulting sets using the listing method.
21.
22.
23.
25.
27.
28.

For U = {-3, -2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3} and A = {-2, 0, 1}, find A`

For U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7}, find B`
{x | x 8 =0}
24. {x | x + 3 = 0}
2
{x | x = 49}
26. {x | x2 = 1}
{x | x is a prime number between 1 and 9, inclusive}
{x | x is an odd number between 1 and 9, inclusive}

In Problems 29 40 refer to the accompanying Venn diagram. How many elements are in
the indicated sets?
U
AB
28
41
11
20

29. U
33. A B

30. B
34. A B

31. A`
35. A` B

37. (A B)`
38. (A B)`
39. A` B`
41. If C = {2, 3, 4, 5} and D = {4, 5, 6, 7}, find:
a) {x | x C or D}
b)
CD
42. For sets C and D in Problem 35, find:
a) {x | x C and x D}
b)
CD

32. B`
36. A B`
40. U`

43. For Q = {1, 2, 3, 4}, R = {2, 4, 6}, and S = {3, 4, 5, 6}, find Q (R S).
44. For sets Q, R, and S in Problem 37, find Q (R S).
45. How do sets , {0}, and {} differ from one another?
46. How many subsets does each of the following sets have?
a) {k} b) {k, m} c) {k, m, n} d) A set with n element
D

For Problems 47-50, determine the cardinality of their power sets, and determine the
power sets of sets with cardinality less than or equal to 5.
47.
49.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.

Determine the Cartesian products of the given pair of sets.

57.
58.
59.
60.

1.2

A = {5, 7, 9, 11}
48. B={blue, white, yellow, green}
C = {q, w, e, r, t, y}
50. D={a, s, d}
E = {plate, spoon, fork, food}
F = {Chairman, President, Vice President, Secretary}
G = {CE, ECE, EE, SE}
H = {Plants, Animals, Protists, Fungi, Archaebacteria, Eubacteria}
I = {ChE, ME, PkgE}
J = {atoms, buildings, diodes, generators, motors, laminates, codecs}

R = {k, q, j, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1} and A = {spade, heart, clover, diamond}

B = {red, white, black} and C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
D = {x, y, z} and E = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3}
F = {x, y} and {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

THE SET OF REAL NUMBERS

6

Originally, a number meant one of the counting numbers: 1, 2, 3, Today, however, the
inventiveness of mathematics has given us many other collections or sets of numbers for our
study and use. They are
1. The set of natural numbers, or counting numbers, usually denoted as N
example: {1, 2, 3, }
2. The set of whole numbers, which consists of 0 and natural numbers,
example: {0, 1, 2, 3, }
3. The set of integers, which consists of 0, the positive integers, and negative integers, usually
denoted as Z.
example: {, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, }
4. The set of rational numbers, which consists of those numbers expressible as fractions whose
numerator is an integer and whose denominator is a non-zero integer, usually denoted as Q
5. The set of real numbers, which consists of the first 4 sets and also the set of irrational
numbers, usually denoted as R
m

Rational numbers are numbers that can be expressed in the form of ratio, n , where m and n are
integers, with n 0. Rational numbers have two possible forms when expressed as decimal
expansions
1. terminating, such as (5/4) = 1.25
2. repeating, such as (2/3) = 0.666, (3/11) = 0.2727
A repeating decimal, such as 0.666, is often written as 0.6 , where the bar indicates
the number or numbers that repeat. To show that the repeating decimal 0.6 is rational, express it
in the form
Let

using the following steps:

N = 0.66666 (1)

100N = 66.66666 (2)

Subtract equation (1) from equation (2)
66 6 2

N = 99 9 3

99 N = 66;
All decimal expansions that neither repeats nor terminates are irrational numbers.
Examples:

3 1.73205 ... ; = 3.141592624;

7

3 0.912931183 ...

The set of rational numbers and the set of irrational numbers have no elements in
common and are said to be mutually exclusive. They are both subsets of real numbers.
In summary, the real number system can be categorized as rational and irrational
numbers. Natural numbers are subsets of whole numbers. Whole numbers are subsets of integers.
Natural numbers, whole numbers, and integers are all rational numbers. You may refer to the
following figure, Figure 6.
PROPER

FRACTIONS

MIXED

REAL NUM BERS

IMPROPER

TERMINATING
RATIONAL NUMBERS
DECIMALS
REPEATING
IRRATIONAL NUMBES

NEGATIVE NUMBERS
INTEGERS

NATURAL NUMBERS
WHOLE NUMBERS
ZERO

Figure 6. The Real Number System

Exercise 1.2
A

True or False
1. 1000 N
3.

2. -127 (whole nos.)

3 R

4. 99 Z

5. 64 (whole nos.)
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
B

6. 240 Z

2 R

The natural numbers are a subset of the integers.

The whole numbers are a subset of the natural numbers.
If a number is rational, then it is an integer.
If a number is an integer, then it is rational.
Zero (0) is an integer.

Identify the following numbers. Which is natural? whole? integer? irrational? rational?
1. -6;

0;

11
2

0.625;

25
3

22.34 ;
8

6 23

85
17

3
4 ; -3;

8
27 ;

27 ;
25 ;
8 ;
2. 5;
. 3;
Show that each decimal can be written as a quotient of 2 integers.

1.

0.22

5. 0. 52

1.3

2.
6.

1.7

3.

2.125

4.

0.45

0. 235

7.

0.3 17

8.

2.3 6

16

THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

The set of real numbers, R, together with the operations of addition and multiplication is
called the real number system. The basic rules of algebra for this system enable us to express
mathematical facts in simple, concise forms and to solve equations to find answers to
mathematical questions.
The rules in algebra and in all fields of mathematics are called axioms and theorems.
Axioms or postulates are statements that we agree to use without considering their truth or falsity.
Theorems, on the other hand, are statements that have been proven based on previously
established statements, such as other theorems, and previously accepted statements, such
as axioms.
The axioms of the real number system with respect to the operations of addition and
multiplication are listed below. Variables a, b, and c denote real numbers. By knowing the axioms
of real numbers, we will have a better understanding of the underlying basic principles on the
way we simplify arithmetic and algebraic expressions.
1.3-1

Axioms of the Real Number System

1) Commutative Axiom
The sum or product of two numbers is the same in whatever order they are added or
multiplied.
a. Commutative Axiom of Addition
a+b=b+a
b. Commutative Axiom of Multiplication
ab = ba
2) Associative Axiom
The sum or product of three or more numbers is the same in whatever way the numbers are
grouped.
a. Associative Axiom of Addition
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
b. Associative Axiom of Multiplication
a(bc) = ab(c)
3) Identity Axiom
a. Identity Axiom of Addition - there is a unique real number 0 (called zero or the additive
identity) such that
9

a + 0 = a and 0 + a = a
b. Identity Axiom of Multiplication - There is a unique real number 1 (called one or the
multiplicative identity) such that
a1=1a
4) Inverse Axiom
a. Inverse Axiom of Addition - For each real number a there is a real number -a (called
the additive inverse of a or the negative of a) such that
a + (-a) = 0 and (-a) + a = 0
b. Inverse Axiom of Multiplication - For each real number a 0, there is a real number
denoted by (1/a), and called the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a, such that
a (1/a) = 1 and (1/a) a = 1
5) Distributive Axiom
The product of a number and the sum of other numbers is the same as the sum of the products
obtained by multiplying each of the other numbers by the first number.
a(b + c) = ab + ac
(b + c)a = ba + ca
EXAMPLE 5

Identify the axioms of the real numbers that justifies each statement:
(a) (17 50) 2 = 17 (50 2) = 17 100 = 1700
(b) 3 + y2 = y2 + 3
(c) [y + (z + 1)] x = yx + (z + 1) x
(d) (z + 1) + [-(z + 1)] = 0

(e) (a + 1) a 1 = 1

Answers

(a) associative axiom (b) commutative axiom (c) distributive axiom (d) additive
inverse axiom (e) multiplicative inverse axiom

1.3-2 Other Axioms

1. Axioms of Zero
3. Axioms for Negatives
a. -(-a) = a
a. a 0 = 0
b. (-a)b = -(ab) = a(-b)
b. If (a/b) = 0, then a = 0
c. (-a)(-b) = ab
c. If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0
d. -a = (-1)a
2.
4. Axioms of Equality
a. Reflexive Axiom
a=a
b. Symmetric Axiom
If a = b, then b = a
c. Transitive Axiom
If a = b, and b = c, then a = c
d. Addition Axiom
If a = b, then a + c = b + c
10

e. Multiplication Axiom
f. Substitution Axiom

If a = b, then ac = bc
If a = b c; b = 3; c = 2; then a = 3 2

5.
6. Exercise 1.3
7.
8. A Find the additive inverse and the multiplicative inverse for each number.
9. 1.
13 2.
4.8
3. 25
4.
2
5
10. 5.
2 5 6.
14
7. 9
11. B Determine whether the following are true or false.
12. 1.
(x + y) z = xz + yz
2.
yz
x y

13. 3.
(x + y) z = z z
4.
(x y)

8.

7
-5

z (x + y) = xz +

z z

x y

14. C Tell which properties of real numbers are the following illustrated.
15. 1. (1/2 + 1/4) + (1/4) = (1/2) + (1/4 +
26. 11. (3 + 2)(-4) = 3(-4) + 2(-4)
1/4)
27. 12. 1 5 5
16. 2. (-8) + [-(-8)] = 0
28. 13. (3 + 7)(5 + 6) = (3 + 7)(5) + (3 + 7)
17. 3. 4[(-12)6] = [4(-12)] 6
(6)
18. 4. 25(2x + 6y) = 50x + 150y
29. 14. (1/9)(9)=1
19. 5. (-2)(-3) = (-3)(-2)
30. 15. + (- ) = 0
20. 6. (2/7)(7/2) = 1
31. 16. x(y + 0) + z = xy + z
21. 7. (2 + 3) + 5 = 2 + (3 + 5)
32. 17. {5 + [(-6)(1)]} + 7 = {5 + (-6)} + 7
22. 8. [(1)(2)](3) = [(2)(1)](3)
33. 18. [(m + 3)2] p = [2(m + 3)] p
23. 9. (a + 2) + = + (a + 2)
34. 19. (a + b) + [-(a + b)] = 0
24. 10.
25.

(3) 13 w 3 13 (w)

35. 20.

11

(x y) x 1 y 1

,xy

D Board Examination Problems

2 (93 OCT EE BOARD)
3
In a class of 40 students, 27 like Calculus and 25 like Chemistry. How many like
both Calculus and Chemistry?
4
a. 10
b. 11
c. 12
d. 13
Ans. c
5

6
7
8

(94 FEB GE BOARD)

A survey of 100 persons revealed that 72 of them had eaten at restaurant P and
that 52 of them had eaten at restaurant Q. Which of the following could not be the
number of persons in the surveyed group who had eaten at both P and Q?
a. 20
b. 22
c. 24
d. 26
Ans. c

10 (97 APR EE BOARD)

11
A toothpaste firm claims that in a survey of 54 people, they are using either
Colgate, Hapee or Close-Up brand. The following statistics were found: 6 people used all
the three brands, 5 used only Hapee and Close-Up, 18 used Hapee or Close-up, 2 used
Hapee, 2 used only Hapee and Colgate, 1 used Close-up and Colgate, and 20 used only
Colgate. Is the survey worth paying for?
12
13

a. neither yes or no
b. yes
Ans. c

c. no
d. either yes or no

14

15 (98 MAR EE BOARD)

16
In a certain community of 1,200 people, 60% are literate. Of the males, 50% are
literate and of the females 70% are literate. What is the female population?
17
a. 850
b. 500
c. 550
d. 600
Ans. d
18

19 (98 MAR EE BOARD)

20
In a commercial survey involving 1,000 persons on brand preferences, 120 found
to prefer brand X only, 200 prefer brand Y only, 150 prefer brand Z only, 370 prefer
either brand X or Y but not Z, 450 prefer brand Y or Z but not X, and 420 prefer either
brand Z or X but not Y. How many persons have no brand preference, satisfied with any
of the three brands?
21

a. 80
Ans. b

b. 230

c. 180

d. 130

22

23 (98 NOV ECE BOARD)

24
In a club of 40 executives, 33 likes to smoke Marlboro and 20 like to smoke
Philip Morris. How many like both?
25
a. 13
b. 10
c. 11
d. 12
Ans. a
26

27 (99 APR EE BOARD)

28
Given the universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10} and the following sets M =
{1, 4, 7, 10}, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and L = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Determine the set NOT (M AND N
AND L) by enumerating its members.
29
a. {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10}
c. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
30
b. {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10}
d. {1, 2, 3, 4}
Ans. c

31 (01 APR EE BOARD)

32
A survey of 500 T.V. viewers has the following results: 285 watch football
games; 45 watch football and basketball games; 195 watch hockey games; 70 watch
football and hockey games; 115 watch basketball games; 50 watch hockey and basketball
games
33
50 do not watch any of the three games. How many watch basketball games
only?
34
a. 50
b. 40
c. 30
d. 60
Ans. b
35

36 (03 OCT ME BOARD)

37
In a PSME meeting, coffee and cake were served during the
break. Of the 50 people who attended the meeting, 30 ate cake while 34 took coffee. If
there were 22 people who had both cake and coffee, how many had neither coffee nor
cake?
38
a. 5
b. 8
c. 6
d. 7
Ans. b