COMMUNICATION AND LANGUAGE

communication the exchange of information and ideas: involves encoding, transmitting, and
decoding messages
W
paralinguistic behaviors are nonlanguage sounds (e.g., oohh, laugh) and
speech
modifications (e.g., variations in pitch, intonation, rate of delivery, pauses) that change
the form and meaning of the message
W nonlinguistic cues include body posture, facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, head
and body movement, and physical proximity
language a common system used by a group of people for giving meaning to sounds, words,
gestures, and other symbols to enable communication with one another
phonology
the study of the linguistic rules governing a language's sound system; the English
language uses approximately 45 different sound elements, called phonemes
morphology
how the basic units of meaning are combined into words; a morpheme is the
smallest element of language that carries meaning
syntax
the system or rules governing the meaningful arrangement of words into sentences
semantics
a system of rules that relate phonology and syntax to meaning; describes how
people use language to convey meaning
pragmatics
a set of rules (e.g., turn taking) governing how language is used
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.1

SPEECH
speech the behavior of producing a language code by making appropriate vocal sound
patterns
W Although not the only possible vehicle for expressing language (gestures, manual
signing, pictures, and written symbols can also be used), speech is a most effective
and efficient method.
W Speech is one of the most complex and difficult human endeavors.
W Speech sounds are the product of four separate but related processes:
respiration
breathing provides the power supply for speech
phonation
the production of sound when the vocal folds of the larynx are drawn
together by the contraction of specific muscles causing the air to
vibrate
resonation
the sound quality of the vibrating air is shaped as it passes through the
throat, mouth, and sometimes nasal cavities
articulation
the formation of specific, recognizable speech sounds by the tongue,
lips, teeth, and mouth

W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.2

NORMAL SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Birth to 6 Months
W first communicates by crying; different types of crying are selected via parental attention
W comfort sounds--coos, gurgles, and sighs--develop into babbling
W vowel sounds are produced earlier than consonants
W may react differently to loud and soft voices
W turns eyes and head in the direction of a sound
6 to 12 Months
W babbling becomes differentiated by end of first year and contains some of the phonetic elements of the meaningful speech of 2year-olds
W baby develops inflection--her voice rises and falls
W may respond appropriately to "no," "bye-bye," or her own name and may perform an action, such as clapping her hands, when told
to will repeat simple sounds and words, such as "mama"
12 to 18 Months
W by 18 months, says several words with appropriate meaning
W pronunciation is far from perfect (e.g., tup for cup, goggie for dog)
W communicates by pointing and perhaps saying a word or two
W responds to simple commands (e.g., "Give me the cup.")
18 to 24 Months
W echolaliarepeating the speech they hearis common; normal developmental phase
W great spurt in acquisition and use of speech
W receptive vocabulary grows rapidly and may reach 1,000 words by age 2
W understands concepts as "soon" and "later" and makes more subtle distinctions between objects, such as cats and dogs, and knives,
forks, and spoons

W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.4

NORMAL SPEECH AND LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (cont)

2 to 3 Years
W expressive vocabulary of up to 900 words, averaging 3 to 4 words per sentence
W participates in conversations
W identifies colors, uses plurals, and tells simple stories
W follows compound commands (e.g., "Pick up the doll and bring it to me.")
W uses most vowel sounds and some consonant sounds correctly
3 to 4 Years
W has lots to say, speaks rapidly, and asks many questions
W sentences become longer and more varied (e.g., "Cindy's playing in water.")
W understands children's stories and concepts as funny, bigger, and secret
W substitutes certain sounds, perhaps saying "baf" for bath, or "yike" for like.
W repetitions and hesitations (e.g., "b-b-ball," "l-l-little") are normal
4 to 5 Years
W vocabulary of over 1,500 words and uses sentences averaging 5 words in length
W begins to modify speech for the listener
W uses conjunctions such as if, when, and because
W recites poems and sings songs from memory
W may still have difficulty with some consonant sounds (e.g., /r/, /s/, /z/) and blends (e.g., "tr," "gl," "sk," "str")
After 5 Years
W typical 6-year-old uses most of the complex forms of adult English
W some consonant sounds and blends are not mastered until age 7 or 8
W grammar and speech patterns of child in first grade usually match those of her family, neighborhood, and region
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.5

DEFINING COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

When does a communication difference become a communication disorder? Emerick and
Haynes (1986) emphasize the impact that a communication pattern has on one's life and
suggest that a communication difference be considered a disability when any of these criteria
are met:
W the transmission and/or perception of messages is faulty
W the person is placed at an economic disadvantage
W the person is placed at a learning disadvantage
W the person is placed at a social disadvantage
W there is a negative impact upon the person's emotional growth
W the problem causes physical damage or endangers the health of the person
IDEA defines the speech or language impaired category of disability as:
a communication disorder, such as stuttering, impaired articulation, a language
impairment, or voice impairment which adversely affects... educational
performance

W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.6

SPEECH DISORDERS
A childs speech is considered impaired when it deviates so far from the speech of other people of
the same age and cultural group that it
W calls attention to itself,
W interferes with communication, or
W causes the speaker or his listeners to be uncomfortable
articulation disorders malfunction or improper use of the complicated system of muscles, nerves,
and organs resulting in four kinds of speech sound errors:
substitution saying one sound for another (e.g., "doze" for those)
distortion
producing unfamiliar, nonstandard speech sounds (e.g., "schleep," "zleep," or
"thleep" for sleep)
omission
leaving out a sound in a word (e.g., "cool" for school)
addition
adding extra sounds (e.g., "buhrown" for brown)
fluency disorders interruptions in the flow of speech, characterized by atypical rate, rhythm, and
repetitions in sounds, syllables, words, and phrases
cluttering
speech is very rapid with extra sounds or mispronounced sounds; speech is
garbled to the point of unintelligibility
stuttering
repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds, especially at the beginning of words;
complete verbal blocks
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.7

SPEECH DISORDERS (cont)

stuttering (con't.)
W cause remains unknown
W more common among males than females
W regardless of what language is spoken, about 1% of the general population has a stuttering
problem
W considered a disorder of childhood; typically begins between ages of 3 and 5, rarely begins past
the age of 6
W appears to be related to the setting or circumstances of speech
W most people who stutter are fluent about 95% of the time; may not stutter when singing,
talking to their pets, or reciting a poem in unison with others
W all children experience some dysfluencies in the course of developing normal speech patterns; it
is important not to overreact and insist on perfect speech
voice disorders abnormal production and/or absences of vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance,
and/or duration
phonation
voice sounds breathy, hoarse, husky, or strained; in severe cases, there is no voice at
all
resonance
either too many (hypernasality) or not enough (hyponasality) sounds coming out
through the air passages of the nose
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.8

LANGUAGE DISORDERS
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) defines a language
disorder as
impaired comprehension and/or use of spoken, written, and/or other symbol
systems. The disorder may involve (1) the form of language (phonology,
morphology, and syntax), (2) the content of language (semantics), and/or (3)
the function of language in communication (pragmatics) in any combination
(1993, p. 40).
receptive language disorder difficulty in understanding language
W may be unable to learn the days of the week in proper order or may find it
impossible to follow a sequence of commands, such as "Pick up the paint
brushes, wash them in the sink, and then put them on a paper towel to dry."
expressive language disorder difficulty in expressing oneself through language
W may have a limited vocabulary for his age, be confused about the order of
sounds or words ("hostipal," "aminal," "wipe shield winders"), and use tenses and
plurals incorrectly ("Them throwed a balls").

W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.9

ASSESSING COMMUNICATION DISORDERS

A comprehensive evaluation to detect the presence of a communication disorder would
likely include the following components.
articulation test assesses the frequency and types of speech errors the child is making
hearing test determines whether a hearing problem is causing the communication
disorder
auditory discrimination test determines whether the child is hearing sounds correctly
vocabulary and language development test determines the amount of vocabulary the
child has acquired; an overall language test, which assesses the child's understanding and
production of language structures, is also frequently used
language samples provides an accurate example of the child's expressive speech and
language; child may be asked to describe a picture, tell a story, or answer open-ended
questions
observation in natural settings provides samples of the child's speech and language
competence in various social contexts

W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.10

NATURALISTIC INTERVENTIONS FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING

Naturalistic interventions (also called milieu teaching strategies)occur in real or
simulated activities that naturally occur in the home, school, or community environments
in which a child normally functions. They involve:
structuring the environment to create numerous opportunities for desired child responses
(e.g., holding up a toy and asking, "What do you want?"), and
structuring adult responses to a child's communication (e.g., the child points outside and
says, "Go wifth me," and the teacher says, "OK, I'll go with you.").
Kaiser (in press) suggests six strategies for creating naturalistic opportunities for
language teaching:
W interesting materials
W out of reach
W inadequate portions
W choice-making
W assistance
W unexpected situations
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.11

AUGMENTATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE COMMUNICATION

augmentative and alternative communication (ACC) a diverse set of strategies and
methods to assist individuals who are unable to meet their communication needs through
speech or writing
ACC has three components:
a representational symbol set or vocabulary
W a means for selecting the symbols
W a means for transmitting the symbols
Each of the three components of ACC may be unaided and aided.
Unaided techniques do not require a physical aid or device; they include oral speech,
gestures, facial expressions, general body posture, and manual signs.
Aided techniques involve an external device or piece of equipment such as a
communication board or computerized speech synthesizer.
W. L. Heward, Exceptional Children, 6e, 2000 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.

T 9.12