Strain Measurement

Basics
If the rod has a cross sectional area Ac, and the load is applied only along the axis
of the rod, the normal stress is defines as

c= Fn/Ac
Where Ac = Cross sectional Area
Fn = tension applied to the rod normal to the area

The ratio of the change in length of the rod to the original length is the axial strain,
defined as

a=L/L
where a = Avg. strain over length L
L = change in length
Strain is a small and dimensionless quantity and is measured as microstrain ().
The relationship between uniaxial stress and strain is given as

a=Em* a or Em= a/ a
where Em is the modulus of elasticity and the relationship is called Hookes law.
Lateral Strain
When a load Fn is applied in the axial direction stretching the rod , the cross
sectional area reduces since the total mass must be conserved. Similarly, if a rod is
compressed in the axial direction, the cross sectional area would increase. This
change in area is expressed in terms of lateral strain. For a circular Rod, the lateral
strain is defined as the change in the diameter divided by the original diameter.
In the elastic range, there is a constant change in lateral strain as the axial strain
increases. The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is called Poissons Ratio.

Resistance Strain Gauges

These type of transducers are based on the fact that if a conductor is stretched
or compressed , its resistance will change, because of change in its length, area and
resistivity. The resistance R of a conductor of cross sectional area A, length L,
made of a material of resitivity is

R = L
A
Gauge factor (GF) or strain factor of a Strain gauge is the ratio of relative
change in electrical resistance to the mechanical strain , which is the relative
change in length.

R
L

Where R is change in resistance R due to axial strain Ea which is L / L . With

the application of mechanical strain, , L and A may change. As R is function of
these three variables.

Dividing by expression for R

Where ea is axial strain and et is transverse strain, we have Poissons ratio

defined by equation, where n is Poissons ratio

 Hence,

For metallic strain gauges the first two terms viz. (1 + 2 ) are higher than
the third term, while for semi-conductor strain gauges the third term due to
change in resistivity due to strain is much higher compared to (1 + 2).

Characteristics of a good strain gauge:

It should have good resolution
Be unaffected by ambient conditions.
Have a high frequency of response for dynamic strain measurement.

The strain gauge transducers are of two types:

Unbounded Strain Gauge

Bounded Strain Gauge

Unbounded Strain Gauges

In unbounded strain gauges, a resistance wire is stretched between two frames.
One being the moving frame and the other is fixed.
Typical dimensions of the wire are 25mm length and 25 m diameter.
The wires are preloaded which is greater than any compressive load.
The input motion would stretch 1 and 3 & reduce tension in the wires 2 and 4.
Motion in the opposite direction does the reverse.
The wires are connected in a Wheatstone bridge.
This can be used to measure very small motion in the order of 50m.
It can be used to measure force, pressure and acceleration.

Bonded Resistance Strain Gauges

They are used for measurement of physical variables like strain,
force, torque, pressure, vibration, etc.
These can be metallic or semi-conductor type of material and are in
the form of wire gauge or thin metal foils.
These gauges have paper or some other material backing, are
cemented or bonded to the surface, whose strain is to be measured.
Once bonded, the gauges undergo the same strain as that in the
member surface. These are very sensitive and when used with
electronic equipment strains as low as 10-7 may be measured.
Gauges made of copper nickel alloys have a gauge factor of 2-3,
while semiconductor gauges have gauge factors of 100-200.

Resistance Strain Gauge Bridges

Resistance strain gauges are part of a Wheatstone bridge. Any Change in
resistance is caused due to strain and can be recorded.

The resistance strain gauges are usually made a part of Wheatstone bridge so
that the change in its resistance due to strain can either be measured or made to
give an output which can be displayed or recorded. Two type of arrangements
are used viz.

Balanced bridge

Unbalance bridge

Balanced Strain Gauges

In the balanced bridge shown in the figure, the

strain gauge resistance R1 shown as rectangle,
forms one arm of the Wheatstone bridge, while
remaining arms of the bridge have resistances R 2,
R3 & R4. The bridge is excited by a dc source, with
voltage E.

The galvanometer used in the circuit has internal

resistance RG. When the bridge is balanced no
current flows through the galvanometer. In the
balanced condition

In the initial condition the bridge would be balanced, later if R 1 changes due to
strain, the bridge becomes unbalanced. This may be balanced again by changing
R4 (or R2), The change in which can be measured and used to indicate change in
R1, Which is related to the strain. This technique can only be used for measuring
static strains.

Unbalanced Bridge

In the unbalanced bridge shown in the figure, the current through galvanometer
or voltage drop across it, is used to indicate the strain in the strain gauge. This
can be used to measure static as well as dynamic strain.

Wheatstone Bridge with a primary gauge

 Potential difference across galvanometer

Eo = EB-ED
Which can be shown to be

R3
R4

R1 R4 R2 R3

Eo E

R4 R2 R1 R3

( R1 R4 )( R2 R 3

Eo E

When R1 R2 R3 & R4 all are equal to R then initial E o =0 (balanced bridge) and
when R1 which is a strain gauge undergoes change in resistance due to strain we
can write
R 2 ( R R) R
R 2 R 2 RR
RR

2
2
4 R 2 RR
(2 R R)(2 R )
4( R) 2 RR

Eo Eo E

Since Eo =0, (Bridge is balanced initially)

Eo R / R

E
4 2R / R

Strain Gauge Bridge Arrangement

 Strain gauges can be arranged as quarter, half or full bridge, which means there
are strain gauges mounted at one, two or four arms of Wheatstone bridge.

Quarter Bridge Here the strain gauge constitutes one arm of the bridge and
since normally initial resistance of all the arms are equal the output voltage
caused by a change in resistance in the strain gauge can be calculated.

Half Bridge - Here the strain gauges are mounted in such a way that two
arms of Wheatstone bridge have strain gauges but the change in resistance is
+ve on one gauge and ve on another. Such as on top & bottom surface of a
vertically loaded cantilever beam such that one gauge is stretched and other
is compressed.

Full Bridge
This is even higher in sensitivity and it is also immune to temperature
effects.
Its drawback is that the gauge occupy a considerable space in this
arrangement. As a result the measurement gives an average strain value over
a rather large area which may not be desirable some times.

Temperature Effects on Strain Gauges

Variations in the ambient temperature affect the strain measurements by

wheatstone bridges in the following three ways:
1. Change in the gauge factor of the strain gauge
2. Temperature induced strain in the gauge element
3. Temperature induced resistance changes in long lead wires

Change in Gauge factor

The strain gauges being made of metals most of the times are greatly
affected by temperature. Gauge factor is greatly affected by temperature. A
slight change in temperature induces a strain in the metal strain gauge thus
causing a change in the gauge factor of the gauge.
Its more prominent in the Ni-chrome and Platinum Tungsten alloy strain
gauges while in case of some copper-nickel alloys like advance the gauge
factors are insensitive to temperature.

Temperature induced strain in the gauge element

A difference in the coeff. of expansion between gauge and the substrate

material may also generate spurious strain readings. While cross section area of
gauge is very small compared to substrate, the substrate thermal strain gets
transferred to the gauge.

Temperature induced resistance changes in the lead wires

Strain gauges are sometimes mounted at a distance from the measuring equipment.
This introduces the possibility of errors creeping in owing to temperature
variations, reduction in the sensitivity of bridge and lead wire resistance changes.

Temperature Compensation
As we now understand in addition to strain, temperature change also changes
resistance of a resistance strain gauge. Since it is inconvenient to calculate and
apply temperature correction, temperature compensation is made in the
experimental setup itself. This is done by
a) Using a dummy gauge, or by
b) Using more than one active gauge, with proper arrangement of gauges.

Using a dummy gauge

As shown in fig. gauge resistance R2 which is equal to R1 is bonded on a piece
of same material as the test specimen to which load is applied. The strain gauge
R2 is however not strained but is subjected to the same temperature change as
the test specimen
R1 Is the active gauge subjected to strain as well as temperature change while R2
is the dummy gauge, subjected only to temperature change. Since R1 & R2 are
from adjacent arms of the bridge, the output due to temperature change is zero
as both R1 & R2 change identically due to temperature

Using more than one active gauge

In this case R2 need not be a dummy gauge but may be suitably arranged on the
test specimen so that the it has a strain of opposite nature to that in R 1. In this
case system would be sensitive and temperature compensation would also be
ensured. Usually all four gauges of bridges are active as shown in the figure.

With adjacent arms having strains of signs as shown, opposite in nature the
signal enhancement would be maximum
and temperature compensation would also
be ensured. The resistances of all the arms
have to be equal.
Temperature compensation is necessary
when static strains are to be measured.
Since a change of temperature causes only
a drift in the output signals, which are
normally slow, hence for measurement of
dynamic strains temperature compensation
is not necessary.

Strain gauge arrangements for axial load

In fig (a) a strain gauge R1 is bonded on the elastic member to measure axial
strain in the member. The system is not compensated for temperature and ouput
is due to change in R1 only In fig
(b) the two active gauges R1 & R2
are placed at right angles. This is
known as Poisson's arrangement.
Here when R1 changes due to axial
tensile strain R2 changes due to
transverse compressive strain in
the member.
The compressive strain is n times
the tensile strain, where n denotes
Poissons ratio. The signal
enhancement
factor
(bridge
constant) is (1+), since the two
resistances R1 & R2 have strains of
opposite nature. The system is
compensated for temperature
since temperature changes would
affect R1 & R2 identically, thereby producing no output.
In fig (c) both R1 & R3 are subjected to axial tensile strain of same amount but
they are in opposite arms of the bridge. It would give signal enhancement factor
(K) of 2 and would not have temperature compensation. This arrangement
would need two dummy gauges for temperature compensation.
Fig (d) four active gauges are used, R 2 & R4 arranged at right angles to R1 & R3.
This would give signal enhancement factor (k) of 2(1+) and would be
compensated for temperature variation.

Strain gauge arrangements for bending load

A force P can be measured using an elastic cantilever as shown. The strain
gauges are mounted at the root of the cantilever, where bending strains are
Maximum. As shown in the top fig. R1 & R3 have tensile strain and R2 & R4
have compressive strain. The bridge arrangement would give signal
enhancement factor of 4 and would ensure temperature compensation.
Alternatively in the bottom fig R1 & R2 are arranged in Poissons arrangement.
Same is the case with R3 & R4. With the bridge arrangement the adjacent arms
have strains of opposite nature which are unequal in magnitude. The
arrangement would give a signal enhancement factor of 2(1+n), where n is
Poissons ratio.

Strain gauge arrangements for torsion

A cylindrical bar subjected to torsion has principal strain direction at 45 o to the

longitudinal axis of the bar. The strain gauges R 1 & R2 are mounted as Shown, at
an angle of 45o to the longitudinal axis but at right angle to each Other. If resistance
R2 increases (+D R2 ) the resistance R1 will decrease
(-D in
R1).
However
resistance
Strain
circular
shafts
changes due to axial strain and temperature will be positive for both gauges R 1 &
R2 and thus compensate each other. Signal enhancement factor (or gauge constant
is 2 in this case)
Additionally strain gauges R3 & R4 are mounted placed on opposite side
diametrically, thus effect of bending will be compensated.
(or gauge constant
is 4
Strain in noncircular
shafts
in this case)

Strain Gauge Rosettes

When more than one type of loading exists such as bending and torsion.
orientation of the principle stress axis is not known. In such situation principal
strain can be measured only if the strain gauge is located on the principle stress
axis. The method used in such cases to ascertain principle strains and stresses is
by using three strain gauge arrangement for measurement The arrangement is
called strain gauge rosette.
In case the principal strain directions are known, for such cases two gauge
rosette can be used. However for the general case of plane stress, when such
directions are not known, a three gauge rosette is normally employed.
Sometimes a fourth direction gauge is used as a check.

Two types of three gauge rosettes viz. Rectangular and Delta types are shown in
the above fig. Also the four gauge rosette viz. T-Delta type is shown.
Since the direction of principal strains on the test object are generally not
known, the gauges are mounted in any direction in practice. From the measured
strain the strain in any direction can be computed from methods in solid
mechanics (Strength of materials/ mechanics of materials)

Force & Torque measurement using strain

The force is the product of mass & acceleration. So once acceleration is

measured, it is easy to calculate the force knowing the mass of the
accelerating body. But there are also may types of direct force measuring
transducers, called Load Cells to measure force directly. Load cell often
consists of an elastic member and deflection sensor.

Various types of load cells are

a) Strain Gauge load cells
b) Hydraulic load cells
c) Pneumatic load cells
d) Inductive & reluctance based load cells
e) Magnetoelastic load cells
f) Piezoelectric load cells
g) Fibre-optic load cells
h) Resonant wire load cells
The most common type of force transducer is the strain gauge load cell. A load cell
for measuring compressive force is shown in the fig. The length of the load sensing
member is made short so that it does not buckle under the maximum allowable
load.

In the arrangement shown gauge 1 & 3 measure direct strain owing to the force and
gauges 2 & 4 measure transverse strain, which is related to axial strain by the
Poissons ratio n. Thus the bridge arrangement is Poisson arrangement.

Thus for this arrangement Knowing Youngs modulus of the load cell material, the
corresponding stress value and hence the force can be calculated.

Various shapes of elastic elements are used in load cells. The choice of shape
depends on a number of factors including the range of force to be measured,
dimensional limits, final performance and production costs. Capacity of strain
gauge load cells range from 5 N to 50 MN. Following fig and table show various
load cells and their typical capacities.

Bending Load Cells

A bending beam load cell is configured such that the sensing element of the load
cell functions as a cantilever beam. Strain gauges are mounted on the top and

bottom of the beam to measure normal or bending stresses. The distribution of

shear and normal stress in a cantilever beam type load cell is shown in the fig. In
the linear elastic range of the load cell, the bending stresses are linearly related to
the applied load.

In a shear beam load cell the beam cross section is that of an I-beam. The resulting
shear stress in the web is nearly constant. Thus placement of strain gauge anywhere
on the web gives reasonable accuracy. Fig shows such load cell with shear stress
distribution in beam.

Proving Ring

The Proving Ring has long been the

standard for calibrating material testing
machines and is, in general the means
whereby accurate measurement of large
static loads may be obtained. A ring type
load cell can be employed as a local
force standard because of the high
degree of precision and accuracy
possible with this arrangement of
transducer and elastic element. If the
elastic element is approximated as a
right circular cylinder, the relationship
between applied force and deflection is
given by.
The application of the proving ring
involves measuring the deflection of the
proving ring in the direction of the
applied force. Typical methods for this
displacement measurement include
displacement
transducers,
which
measure overall displacement (Method
1) and strain gauges (Method 2) as
shown in the fig.
Usually tool steel, stainless steel, aluminium or beryllium copper is used for
fabrication of the elastic element. The aim is that the material should exhibit a
linear relationship between the applied force (input) and the strain (output) with
low hysteresis and low creep in the working range. There should also be a high
level of repeatability. To achieve these, it is usual to apply a special heat treatment,
like sub zero cycle, to the material.

The strain gauge load cells have following advantages

Since it is a full bridge measurement automatically there is temperature
compensation.
The sensitivity is 2 (1+) times that can be achieved by a single active strain
gauge in a bridge.
It is not sensitive to any off centre force applied to it, because the gauges are
symmetrically placed. e.g. bending stresses due to off centre force on gauge 1 &
gauge 3 will be off opposite sign and will cancel each other.

Torque Measurement using strain gauge

Torque and mechanical power measurements are often associated with the
energy conversion process that serve mechanical and electrical power to the
world. The measurement of torque is important in a variety of applications,
including sizing of load carrying shafts. It is also crucial aspect of measurement
of shaft power.
Torque meter : These can be of strain gauge type or magnetostrictive type of
magnetoelastic type
Strain Gauge type Torque meters : In these type of torque meters, strain
gauge elements usually are mounted in pairs, each subtending an angle of 45 o to
the shaft axis, on one side of the shaft. The shafts acts as an elastic element to
sense the torsional strain.
The maximum stress in a circular shaft subject to torque T occurs on the outer
surface and it is given by torsion formula
t max= TRo / J
Where J is Polar moment of inertia.
For a shaft in pure torsion there are no normal stresses. The principle stresses
lie along a line which makes a 45o angle with the axis of the shaft

As a result of torsion one gauge in a pair measures increase in length (under

tension) and the other one measures decrease in length (compression).
As shown in the fig. another pair is mounted on the opposite side of the shaft. As
shaft is rotating the torque sensor can be connected to the bridge using slip rings
and carbon brushes. The normal carbon brushes, are susceptible to wear in
operation. Therefore In research sometimes mercury brushes are used instead of
normal carbon brushes.

Sensors on the rotating shaft can also be connected to power source and signal
conditioning electronics via a transformer as shown in fig. The excitation voltage
for the strain gauge is inductively coupled and the strain gauge output is converted
to a modulated pulse frequency. The maximum speed such arrangement can handle
is 15000 rpm. The system is susceptible to noise and errors induced by the
alignment of transformer primary to secondary coils.
Instead of rotary transformer, the infrared torque sensor is often utilised as a
contactless method to get the torque signal from rotating sensor.