Early Embryological Origin of Tissues

Fertilization and Implantation

Early embryonic development starts with Gametogenesis.

The process of Gametogenesis includes 4 stages:
The formation of gametes and their migration to the
gonads. Gametes are derived from germ cells that appear
in the wall of the yolk sac (4th week of embryonic
development)
They migrate to the gonads in the 5th week of
development
Gametes undergo mitosis to increase their number
They undergo
Th
d
meiosis
i i to
t reduce
d
th i number
their
b off
chromosomes
They undergo
Th
d
cytodifferentiation
t diff
ti ti to
t complete
l t structural
t
t
l
and functional maturation

MITOSIS
The genetic purpose of mitosis is to produce two
daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell.

Events (Stages) of mitosis

Each chromosome replicate its deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA). In this stage, chromosomes are long and
diffusely spread through the nucleus.
Prophase
Chromosomes coil,
contract and condense.

Metaphase
Chromosomes line up in
the equatorial plane.

Anaphase
p
Chromosomes divide at
the centromere and the
chromatids move to
opposite poles of the
spindle.
Telophase
Chromosomes uncoil and
lengthen, the nuclear
envelope reforms, and the
cytoplasm divides
divides.
Each daughter
g
cell receives half of all doubled chromosome
material and thus maintains the same number of
chromosomes as the mother cell.

MEIOSIS
The cell division that takes
place in the germ cells to
generate male and female
gametes (i.e. sperm and
egg cells)

MEIOSIS
Results in 4 sex cells, or gametes.
Unlike the cells created by mitosis, gametes are not
identical to the parent cells
cells.
p
g
In males,, meiosis is referred to as spermatogenesis
because sperm cells are produced.
IIn females,
f
l
it iis called
ll d oogenesis
i because
b
ova, or eggs,
are produced.

Meiosis
First meiotic division
Homologous chromosomes approach each other
Homologous chromosomes pair
Paired chromosomes interchange chromatid fragments
Double structured chromosomes pull apart

S
Second
d meiotic
i ti division
di i i
Double structured chromosomes split at the centromere
At completion of division, chromosomes in each of the
four daughter cells are different from each other

Mitosis produces 2 daughter cells from each parent cell.

Meiosis results in 4 sex cells or gametes in male and 1 in
females.

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogonia are the cells from which sperm cells arise.
Spermatogonia divide mitotically to produce type A
spermatogonia (which are stem cells that produce more
spermatogonia) and Type B spermatogonia (that gives rise
to primary spermatocytes)
Primary spermatocytes divide by meiosis to give
secondary spermatocytes which in turn divide to form
spermatids
p
((secondary
y meiotic division))
Spermatids differentiate into sperm cells

Spermatogenesis

Male gonads

Spermatic cord
Blood vessels
and nerves
Ductus (vas)
deferens
Head of epididymis
Efferent ductule
Rete testis
Straight tubule
B d off epididymis
Body
idid i
Duct of epididymis
Tail of epididymis
(a)

Testis
Seminiferous
tubule
Lobule
Septum
Tunica albuginea
Tunica vaginalis
Cavity of
tunica vaginalis

Figure 27.3a

Spermatogenesis requires a special environment that is

created by a somatic cell type
type, the Sertoli cells
cells.
They surround germ cells, communicate with them in a
paracrine fashion,
fashion and separate them from the rest of the
body (blood-testis-barrier).

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

An endocrine system has evolved as a master control
system over spermatogenesis.
The control is exerted by two hormones that regulate
Sertoli cell functions via specific receptors expressed by
Sertoli but not by germ cells
Sertoli,
cells.
Hence, Sertoli cells form the main interface between
hormones and g
germ cells.
The two hormones are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
from the pituitary, and male sex steroids (androgens) that
are produced in the testis by Leydig cells under the
control of another pituitary hormone, luteinizing hormone
(LH)

Spermiogenesis
The transformation of spermatids into sperm

Major events:
*Condensation of the nucleus and the chromosomes
Golgi apparatus gives rise to the acrosome
*Golgi
*A prominent flagellum grows out of the centriolar region
*Mitochondria
*Mit
h d i arrange in
i a spiral
i l fashion
f hi around
d the
th
proximal part of the flagellum.
*Reorganization of the cytoplasm which streams away
from the nucleus.

Spermiogenesis

Oogenesis
In females, most of gametogenesis occurs during
embryonic development.
Primordial germ cells migrate into the ovaries at week 4
of development and differentiate into oogonia (46,2n).
Oogonia enter meiosis I and undergo DNA replication to
form primary oocytes (2n,4C).
All primary oocytes are formed by the fifth month of fetal
life and remain dormant in prophase of meiosis I until
puberty.
puberty

During a womans ovarian cycle ONE oocyte is selected

to complete meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte
(1n,2C) and a first polar body.
After ovulation the oocyte is arrested in metaphase of
meiosis II until fertilization.
At fertilization, the secondary oocyte completes meiosis
II to form a mature oocyte (23,1N) and a second polar
body.
body

Oogenesis

Suspensory
ligament of ovary
Ovarian blood
vessels

Uterine (fallopian) tube

Mesosalpinx
Mesovarium
Broad
ligament

Mesometrium
Ovarian ligament
Body of uterus
Ureter
Uterine blood vessels
Isthmus
Ut
Uterosacral
l li
ligamentt
Lateral cervical
(cardinal) ligament
Lateral fornix
Cervix

Lumen (cavity)
Fundus
of uterus of uterus
Ovary

Uterine
tube
Ampulla
Isthmus
Infundibulum
Fimbriae

Round ligament of uterus

Endometrium
Wall of uterus
Myometrium
Perimetrium
Internal os
Cervical canal
External os
Vagina

Oogenesis

Tunica
albuginea
Degenerating corpus
luteum (corpus
albicans)
Germinal
epithelium
Primary
follicles

Ovarian
ligament

Cortex

Oocyte

Granulosa cells
Late secondary follicle
Mesovarium and
blood vessels
Vesicular
(Graafian)
follicle
Antrum
Oocyte
y

Zona
pellucida

Theca
folliculi
Ovulated
oocyte
Corpus luteum
Corona
Developing
radiata
corpus luteum
(a) Diagrammatic view of an ovary sectioned to reveal the follicles in its interior
Medulla

Figure 27.11a

Fertilization
The process by which the sperm (male gamete) and
the oocyte (female gamete) unite to give rise to a
zygote.
zygote
The zygote has 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Occurs in the ampullary region of the uterine tube

NOT ADJUSTED FOR SIZE

Fertilization involves the following stages:

Penetration of the corona radiata by the sperm
Penetration of the zona pellucida
Acrosome of sperm releases trypsin like enzyme
Fusion of the oocyte and sperm cell membranes
E membrane
Egg
b
d
depolarizes
l i
(N
Na diffuses
diff
in,
i Ca
C out)
t)
Cortical granules released
Zona hardens to prevents multiple fertilizations
Secondary oocyte divides
Polar body formed, egg and sperm nuclei fuse
The resulting cell is called zygote
18 - 36 hours after fertilization the zygote cleaves

Changes in the ovum after fertilization:

The oocyte membrane becomes impenetrable by other
spermatozoa and the zona pellucida alters its structure
and composition to prevent sperm binding and
penetration
The oocyte
y finishes its second meiotic division
Metabolic activation of the egg

The main results of fertilization:

Restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes
Determination of sex
Initiation of cleavage

Cell Cleavage
The fertilized ovum
(zygote) undergo a
number of mitotic
divisions.
The cells becomes smaller with
each cleavage division and is
known as blastomeres.
The 16 cell stage is termed the morula (3 days)
The cells of the morula are " PLURIPOTENT"
Morula
M
l enters
t
the
th uterine
t i cavity
it att 3 days
d
BUT DOES
NOT ATTACH

Implantation
Compaction (inner cell mass vs. outer cell mass)
Implantation occurs at the sixth day of development

2 & 5 inner
i
cellll mass
3 & 4 Outer cell mass

At about 7 DAYS g
gestation A BLASTOCYST implants
p
into the uterine wall.
The TROPHOBLAST CELLS erode the uterine lining
and form pockets called LACUNAE.
The TROPHOBLAST is now termed THE CHORION
The TROPHOBLAST and later THE CHORION secrete
HCG
HCG prevents immune attack from the mother.
HCG maintains THE CORPUS LUTEUM
SH and LH from pituitary supressed - no menses
corpus luteum of ovulation - regresses if no pregnancy

Oogenesis

Role of hormones on the female reproductive

system
The pituitary gland produces FSH (Follicle
stimulating hormone) and LH (Luteinizing hormone).
hormone)
These two hormones affect processes in the ovary.
FSH stimulates the development of follicles fluid
fluid
filled sacs that contain an egg cell.
LH stimulates follicles to become mature,
mature release
their egg (ovulation) and then develop into a
structure called the corpus luteum.

The ovary produces estrogen and progesterone.

These two hormones stimulate the development of
female secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty.
They also stimulate the development of the uterus
lining that is needed during pregnancy.

 Effects of hormones (FSH , LH, Progesterone,

estrogen)on
t
) th
the ovaries:
i
One of the effects of FSH and LH on the ovaries is
to increase the production and secretion of another
reproductive hormone by the follicle cells of
ovaries.
The
Th hormone
h
i estrogen.
is
t
E t
Estrogen
enters
t
th blood
the
bl d
stream. Its target tissue is the endometrium of the
uterus. The result is the highly
g y vascularized
endometrium.
Another effect of FSH and LH is the production of
structures within the ovaries called the Graffian
follicles.

 A spike in the level of FSH and LH leads to ovulation.

(release of oocyte from the Graffian follicle) This
enters the fallopian tube soon after ovulation.
The outer ring of follicle cells remains within the
ovary. The cells of this outer ring begins to divide
and fill in the area left by ovulation and this forms a
glandular
l d l structure
t
t
k
known
as corpus luteum.
l t
Corpus luteum is hormonally active and produces a
hormone-progesterone.
hormone
progesterone. Progesterone is a hormone
that maintains the thickened, highly vascular
endometrium and the embryo will be able to
implant.
implant
Estrogen levels rise to a peak and stimulate LH
secretion by
y the p
pituitary
y gland.
g

 High levels of estrogen and progesterone are a

negative
g
feedback signal
g
to the hypothalamus.
yp
The
hypothalamus does not produce GnRH when these
hormone levels are high. So FSH and LH remain at a
level not conducive to the production of another
Graffian Follicle during this time.
IF there is no pregnancy, the corpus luteum begins
to break down and then there is a decline in both
progesterone and estrogen levels. As both of these
levels fall, the highly vascular endometrium can no
longer be maintained. The capillaries and small
blood vessels begin to rupture and menstruation
begins.
begins
The drop in progesterone and estrogen levels also

g
the hypothalamus
yp
to begin
g secreting
g GnRH
signals
and thus normal menstrual cycle begins.

Menstrual cycle and fertility

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is secreted by the
pituitary gland of the brain and stimulates the
d
development
l
t off a primary
i
follicle.
f lli l
Primary follicle cells secrete oestrogen which in turn
increase the secretion of FSH in a positive feedback.
The oestrogen thickens the lining of the uterus in
preparation for a fertilised egg.
The peak of oestrogen secretion at day 12 causes the
pituitary to release a surge of LH. This loosens the now
mature egg which is released in ovulation
LH reduces
d
the
th secretion
ti off Oestrogen
O t
LH stimulates the empty follicle to develop into the
corpus
p luteum

 Progesterone and oestrogen together stop any more LH and

FSH being secreted from the pituitary
pituitary. (negative feedback)
This prevents further follicle development or ovulation.
g
maintains the lining
g of the thickened
Progesterone
endometrium in preparation for the implantation of a fertilised
egg.
If implantation does not take place then the Corpus luteum
degenerates and fails.
The progesterone production stops.
The endometrium breaks down and the 'menstrual period'
begins
The inhibition of FSH and LH by
y ovarian hormones has been
removed and so they begin their secretions again of FSH.
A new cycle has begun.