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THEORY OF STRUCTURES (Lecture Notes)

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Structural Analysis the prediction of the performance of a given structure under prescribed
loads and/ or other external effects, such as support movements and temperature changes.
Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) generally considered to be the originator of the theory of
structures.
Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering Projects
Structural Engineering the science and art of planning, designing and constructing safe
and economical structures that will serve their intended purposes.

Figure 1: Phase of a Typical Structural Engineering Project

1. Planning Phase this phase usually involves the establishment of the functional
requirements of the proposed structure, the general layout and dimensions of the
structure, consideration of the possible types of structures (e.g. rigid frame or truss) that
may be feasible and the types of materials to be used (e.g. structural steel, timber or
reinforced concrete)
2. Preliminary Structural Design in this phase, the sizes of the various members of the
structural system selected in the planning phase are estimated based on approximate
analysis, past experience and code requirements.
3. Estimation of Loads it involves determination of all the loads that can be expected to
act on the structure.
4. Structural Analysis the values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis of the
structure in order to determine the stresses or stress results in the members and the
deflections at various points of the structure.
5. Safety and serviceability checks the results of the analysis are used to determine
whether or not the structure satisfies the safety and serviceability requirements of the
design codes.
6. Revised Structural Design if the code requirements are not satisfied, then the
member sizes are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated until all the safety and
serviceability requirements are satisfied.
Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401
Source: Understanding Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, Philippine Edition

Classification of Structures
1. Tension Structures the members of tension structures are subjected to pure tension
under the action of external loads.
- Examples: Cables (Suspension Bridge) and Hangers

loading
conditions
Figure2:1:Single
Single cable
cable under
Figure
undertwo
twodifferent
different
loading
conditions

Figure 3: Suspension Bridge

2. Compression Structures these structures develop mainly compressive stresses under

the action of external loads.
- Examples: Columns and Arches
* Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads. When a
straight member is subjected to lateral loads and/ or moment in addition to axial
loads it is called a beam column.

Figure 4: Column
Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401
Source: Understanding Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, Philippine Edition

Figure 5: Arch

3. Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged

connections to form a stable configuration.
- Examples: Roof Truss and Bridge Truss

Figure 6: Plane Truss

4. Shear Structure are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral movements due to
wind loads and earthquake excitations.
- Example: Shear Wall

Figure 7: Shear Wall

5. Bending Structure these structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action
of external loads.
- Examples: Beams and Rigid Frames
* Beams is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.

Figure 8: Beam

* Rigid Frames are composed of straight members connected together either by

rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to from stable
configurations.

Figure 9: Rigid Frames

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401
Source: Understanding Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, Philippine Edition

Plane Structures if all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a single
plane.
Space Structures are analyzed as three-dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional
force systems.
Line Diagram the analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected for
analysis on this diagram, each member of the structure is represented by a line coinciding with
it centroidal axis.
Connections are commonly used to join members of structures.
Two types of Connection:
1. Rigid Connection a connection or joint prevents relative translations and rotations
of the member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a rigid
joint have the same translation and rotation.
2. Flexible, or Hinged Connection a connection or joint prevents only relative
translations of member ends connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to a
hinged joint have the same translation but may have different rotations.
Supports supports for plane structures are commonly idealized as either fixed supports,
which do not allow any movement; hinged supports, which can prevent translation but permit
rotation; or roller, or link supports, which can prevent translation in only one direction.

Figure 10: Framing of a Bridge

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Source: Understanding Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, Philippine Edition

Figure 11: Framing of a Multistory Building

LOADS ON STRUCUTURES
Types of Load
1. Dead Loads
2. Live Loads
3. Wind Loads
4. Earthquake Loads
Dead Load - are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently
on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all
other material and equipment permanently attached to the structural system. For example, the
dead loads for a building structure include the weights of frames, framing and bracing systems,
floors, roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and air-conditioning systems, plumbing,
electrical systems, and so forth.
Table 1: Unit Weights of Some Common Construction Materials

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Source: Understanding Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, Philippine Edition

Live Load - are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
structure. The codes use the term live loads to refer only to those variable loads caused by the
use of the structure. The magnitudes of design live loads are usually specified in building
codes.
Wind Load - are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind
loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
Earthquake Load derived from the sudden undulation of a portion of the earths surface,
earthquake.
Tributary Area (TA) is the loaded area of a particular structure that directly contributes to
the load applied to a particular member in the structure. It is best defined as the area bounded
by lines halfway to the next beam or to the next column.

Figure 12: Sample Floor Framing Plan

Prepared by: Engr. John Le Carre A. Enerlan, CIT University, CEA-CE_1401

Source: Understanding Structural Analysis by Aslam Kassimali, Philippine Edition