The Arab Spring Explained: Revolutions and Protests in the Middle East

The Arab Spring (Arabic: , ar-rab al-arab) is a revolutionary wave of
demonstrations and protests (both non-violent and violent), riots, and civil wars in the Arab
world that began on 18 December 2010 and spread throughout the countries of the Arab League
and surroundings. While the wave of initial revolutions and protests had expired by mid-2012,
some refer to the ongoing large-scale conflicts in the Middle East and North Africa as a
continuation of the Arab Spring, while others refer to the aftermath of revolutions and civil wars
post mid-2012 as the Arab Winter.
By January 2015, rulers had been forced from power in Tunisia,[3] Egypt (twice),[4] Libya,[5] and
Yemen (twice);[6] civil uprisings had erupted in Bahrain[7] and Syria;[8] major protests had broken
out in Algeria,[9] Iraq,[10] Jordan,[11] Kuwait,[12] Morocco,[13] Israel[14] and Sudan;[15] and minor
protests had occurred in Mauritania,[16] Oman,[17] Saudi Arabia,[18] Djibouti,[19] Western Sahara,[20]
and Palestine. Weapons and Tuareg fighters returning from the Libyan Civil War stoked a
simmering conflict in Mali which has been described as "fallout" from the Arab Spring in North
Africa.[21]
The protests have shared some techniques of civil resistance in sustained campaigns involving
strikes, demonstrations, marches, and rallies, as well as the effective use of social media[22][23] to
organize, communicate, and raise awareness in the face of state attempts at repression and
Internet censorship.[24][25]
Many Arab Spring demonstrations have been met with violent responses from authorities,[26][27][28]
as well as from pro-government militias and counter-demonstrators. These attacks have been
answered with violence from protestors in some cases.[29][30][31] A major slogan of the
demonstrators in the Arab world has been Ash-sha`b yurid isqat an-nizam ("the people want to
bring down the regime").[32]
Some observers have drawn comparisons between the Arab Spring movements and the
Revolutions of 1989 (also known as the "Autumn of Nations") that swept through Eastern
Europe and the Second World, in terms of their scale and significance.[33][34][35] Others, however,
have pointed out that there are several key differences between the movements, such as the
desired outcomes and the organizational role of Internet-based technologies in the Arab
revolutions.[36][37][38]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Background
o 2.1 Causes
3 Overview
o 3.1 Summary of conflicts by country
4 Major events
o 4.1 Tunisia
o 4.2 Egypt
o 4.3 Libya
o 4.4 Yemen
o 4.5 Syria
o 4.6 Bahrain
5 Minor events
6 Aftermath
7 Analysis
o 7.1 Ethnic scope
o 7.2 Concurrent events
o 7.3 International reactions
o 7.4 Social media and the Arab Spring
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
Etymology
The term "Arab Spring" is an allusion to the Revolutions of 1848, which is sometimes referred to
as the "Springtime of Nations", and the Prague Spring in 1968. In the aftermath of the Iraq War it
was used by various commentators and bloggers who anticipated a major Arab movement
towards democratization.[39] The first specific use of the term Arab Spring as used to denote these
events may have started with the American political journal Foreign Policy.[40] Marc Lynch,
referring to his article in Foreign Policy,[41] writes "Arab Springa term I may have
unintentionally coined in a January 6, 2011 article".[42] Joseph Massad on Al Jazeera said the
term was "part of a US strategy of controlling [the movement's] aims and goals" and directing it
towards American-style liberal democracy.[40] Due to the electoral success of Islamist parties
following the protests in many Arab countries, the events have also come to be known as
"Islamist Spring" or "Islamist Winter".[43][44]
Background
Causes
The Arab Spring is widely believed to have been instigated by dissatisfaction with the rule of
local governments, particularly by youth and unions, though some have speculated that wide
gaps in income levels may have had a hand as well.[45] Numerous factors have led to the protests,
including issues such as dictatorship or absolute monarchy, human rights violations, political
corruption (demonstrated by Wikileaks diplomatic cables),[46] economic decline, unemployment,
extreme poverty, and a number of demographic structural factors,[47] such as a large percentage of
educated but dissatisfied youth within the entire population.[48][49] Also, some - like Slovenian
philosopher Slavoj iek - name the 20092010 Iranian election protests as an additional reason
behind the Arab Spring, although there is little documentation to support this assertion.[50]
Catalysts for the revolts in all Northern African and Persian Gulf countries have included the
concentration of wealth in the hands of autocrats in power for decades, insufficient transparency
of its redistribution, corruption, and especially the refusal of the youth to accept the status quo.[51]
Some protesters looked to the Turkish model as an ideal (contested but peaceful elections, fastgrowing but liberal economy, secular constitution but Islamist government).[52] More broadly,
increasing food prices and famine rates associated with climate change may have acted as
"stressors" that contributed to unrest in the region.[53][54]
Tunisia experienced a series of conflicts over the past three years, the most notable occurring in
the mining area of Gafsa in 2008, where protests continued for many months. These protests
included rallies, sit-ins, and strikes, during which there were two fatalities, an unspecified
number of wounded, and dozens of arrests.[55][56] In Egypt, the labor movement had been strong
for years, with more than 3,000 labor actions since 2004, and provided an important venue for
organizing protests and collective action.[57] One important demonstration was an attempted
workers' strike on 6 April 2008 at the state-run textile factories of al-Mahalla al-Kubra, just
outside Cairo. The idea for this type of demonstration spread throughout the country, promoted
by computer-literate working class youths and their supporters among middle-class college
students.[57] A Facebook page, set up to promote the strike, attracted tens of thousands of
followers and provided the platform for sustained political action in pursuit of the "long
revolution."[49] The government mobilized to break the strike through infiltration and riot police,
and while the regime was somewhat successful in forestalling a strike, dissidents formed the "6
April Committee" of youths and labor activists, which became one of the major forces calling for
the anti-Mubarak demonstration on 25 January in Tahrir Square.[57]
In Algeria, discontent had been building for years over a number of issues. In February 2008,
United States Ambassador Robert Ford wrote in a leaked diplomatic cable that Algeria is
'unhappy' with long-standing political alienation; that social discontent persisted throughout the
country, with food strikes occurring almost every week; that there were demonstrations every
day somewhere in the country; and that the Algerian government was corrupt and fragile.[58]
Some have claimed that during 2010 there were as many as '9,700 riots and unrests' throughout
the country.[59] Many protests focused on issues such as education and health care, while others
cited rampant corruption.[60]
In Western Sahara, the Gdeim Izik protest camp was erected 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) south-east of
El Aain by a group of young Sahrawis on 9 October 2010. Their intention was to demonstrate
against labor discrimination, unemployment, looting of resources, and human rights abuses.[61]
The camp contained between 12,000 and 20,000 inhabitants, but on 8 November 2010 it was
destroyed and its inhabitants evicted by Moroccan security forces. The security forces faced
strong opposition from some young Sahrawi civilians, and rioting soon spread to El Aain and
other towns within the territory, resulting in an unknown number of injuries and deaths. Violence
against Sahrawis in the aftermath of the protests was cited as a reason for renewed protests
months later, after the start of the Arab Spring.[62]
The catalyst for the current escalation of protests was the self-immolation of Tunisian Mohamed
Bouazizi. Unable to find work and selling fruit at a roadside stand, on 17 December 2010, a
municipal inspector confiscated his wares. An hour later he doused himself with gasoline and set
himself afire. His death on 4 January 2011[63] brought together various groups dissatisfied with
the existing system, including many unemployed, political and human rights activists, labor,
trade unionists, students, professors, lawyers, and others to begin the Tunisian Revolution.[55]
Overview
Main article: Timeline of the Arab Spring
The series of protests and demonstrations across the Middle East and North Africa that
commenced in 2010 has become known as the "Arab Spring",[64][65][66] and sometimes as the
"Arab Spring and Winter",[67] "Arab Awakening"[68][69][70] or "Arab Uprisings"[71][72] even though
not all the participants in the protests are Arab. It was sparked by the first protests that occurred
in Tunisia on 18 December 2010 in Sidi Bouzid, following Mohamed Bouazizi's self-immolation
in protest of police corruption and ill treatment.[73][74] With the success of the protests in Tunisia, a
wave of unrest sparked by the Tunisian "Burning Man" struck Algeria, Jordan, Egypt, and
Yemen,[75] then spread to other countries. The largest, most organised demonstrations have often
occurred on a "day of rage", usually Friday afternoon prayers.[76][77][78] The protests have also
triggered similar unrest outside the region.
As of September 2012, governments have been overthrown in four countries. Tunisian President
Zine El Abidine Ben Ali fled to Saudi Arabia on 14 January 2011 following the Tunisian
Revolution protests. In Egypt, President Hosni Mubarak resigned on 11 February 2011 after 18
days of massive protests, ending his 30-year presidency. The Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi
was overthrown on 23 August 2011, after the National Transitional Council (NTC) took control
of Bab al-Azizia. He was killed on 20 October 2011, in his hometown of Sirte after the NTC
took control of the city. Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh signed the GCC power-transfer
deal in which a presidential election was held, resulting in his successor Abd al-Rab Mansur alHadi formally replacing him as the president of Yemen on 27 February 2012, in exchange for
immunity from prosecution.
During this period of regional unrest, several leaders announced their intentions to step down at
the end of their current terms. Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir announced that he would not
seek re-election in 2015,[79] as did Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki, whose term ends in
2014,[80] although there have been increasingly violent demonstrations demanding his immediate
resignation.[81] Protests in Jordan have also caused the sacking of four successive governments[82]
[83]
by King Abdullah.[84] The popular unrest in Kuwait has also resulted in resignation of Prime
Minister Nasser Mohammed Al-Ahmed Al-Sabah cabinet.[85]
The geopolitical implications of the protests have drawn global attention,[86] including the
suggestion that some protesters may be nominated for the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize.[87] Tawakel
Karman from Yemen was one of the three laureates of the 2011 Nobel Peace Prize as a
prominent leader in the Arab Spring. In December 2011, Time magazine named "The Protester"
its "Person of the Year".[88] Another award was noted when the Spanish photographer Samuel
Aranda won the 2011 World Press Photo award for his image of a Yemeni woman holding an
injured family member, taken during the civil uprising in Yemen on 15 October 2011.[89]
Summary of conflicts by country
Government overthrown
Government overthrown multiple times
Civil war
Protests and
governmental changes
Major protests
Minor protests
Other protests and militant action outside the Arab world
Status of
Country Date started
Outcome
Death toll Situation
protests
Government
338[95]
Governmen
Tunisia 18
December overthrown on Overthrow of Zine El Abidine
t
2010
14 January
overthrown
Ben Ali; Ben Ali flees into exile
2011
in Saudi Arabia
Resignation of Prime
Minister Ghannouchi[90]
Dissolution of the
political police[91]
Dissolution of the RCD,

the former ruling party of
Tunisia and liquidation of
its assets[92]
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
29
Ended in
Algeria December
January 2012
2010
Jordan
14 January Ended
2011
Outcome
Death toll
Release of political
prisoners[93]
Elections to a Constituent
Assembly on 23 October
2011[94]
20132014 protests
against the interim
Islamist-led government.
Adoption of a new
constitution
Lifting of the 19-year-old [98]

8
state of emergency[96][97]
3[103]
On February 2011, King

Abdullah II dismisses
Prime Minister Rifai and
his cabinet[99]
On October 2011,
Abdullah dismisses
Prime Minister Bakhit
and his cabinet after
complaints of slow
progress on promised
reforms[100]
On April 2012, as the

protests continues, AlKhasawneh resigned, and
the King appoints Fayez
al-Tarawneh as the new
Prime Minister of
Jordan[101]
On October 2012, King

Abdullah dissolves the
parliament for new early
Situation
Major
protests
Protests and
government
al changes
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
elections, and appoints

Abdullah Ensour as the
new Prime Minister of
Jordan[102]
Oman
17 January Ended in May

2011
2011
Economic concessions by
Sultan Qaboos[104][105]
Dismissal of ministers[106]
[107]
Egypt
26[109][110]
[111]
Protests and
government
al changes
Granting of lawmaking
powers to Oman's elected
legislature[108]
25 January Two
4,300+[139]
Two
2011
governments Overthrow of Hosni Mubarak,
government
overthrown (in who is later sentenced to life in
s
February 2011 prison for ordering the killing of
overthrown
(Mubarak
and July 2013). protesters. Protests over the
government
Ongoing
imposition of an Islamist-backed
overthrown
violence.
constitution by the Muslim
Morsi
Brotherhood and Mohamed
government
Morsi lead to a coup d'tat.
overthrown)
Minister(s) Nazif and
Shafik[112]
Assumption of power by
the Armed Forces[113]
Suspension of the
Constitution, dissolution
of the Parliament[114]
Disbanding of State
Security Investigations
Service[115]
Dissolution of the NDP,

the former ruling party of
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Egypt and transfer of its
assets to the state[116]
Prosecution of Mubarak,
his family and his former
ministers[117][118][119]
Lifting of the 31-year-old

state of emergency[120]
Democratic election held

to replace Mubarak as the
new president of Egypt;
Mohamed Morsi elected
and inaugurated[121]
Morsi removed by
military in a coup d'tat
following a second
revolution that came after
months of protests.[122]
Crackdown on the
Muslim Brotherhood and
other Islamists:
o Senior Islamist
figures have been
arrested and face
trial.[128]
o Violent dispersal
of pro-Morsi sitins on August 14,
2013.
o A court bans all
Muslim
Brotherhood
activities
nationwide and
its assets are
confiscated.[129]
The government
Death toll
Situation
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
eventually
designates the
group as a
terrorist
organization on
December 25,
2013.[130]
o Sentencing to
death of hundreds
of Muslim
Brotherhood
supporters.[131][132]
o Ongoing Islamist
unrest in response
to the coup.
Abdel Fattah el-Sisi

becomes president
following a second
election.
Sinai insurgency
Egyptian Armed Forces

launch anti-terror military
operations in the Sinai.
Increase in violence and

attacks by insurgents
since the ouster of Morsi.
[133]
Yemen
27 January Two
2011
governments Overthrow of Ali Abdullah
overthrown (in Saleh; Saleh granted immunity
February 2012 from prosecution
and January
2015).
Ongoing
Minister Mujawar
violence.
Resignation of MPs from
2000+[143]
Two
government
s
overthrown
(Saleh
government
overthrown
Al-Hadi
government
overthrown)
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
the ruling party[140]
Occupation of several
areas of Yemeni territory
by al-Qaeda and Houthi
rebels
Restructure of the
military forces by
sacking several of its
leaders[141]
Approval of Saleh's
immunity from
prosecution by Yemeni
legislators[142]
Presidential election held

to replace Saleh as the
new president of Yemen;
Abd Rabbuh Mansur AlHadi elected and
inaugurated
Al-Hadi overthrown by
Houthi rebels on 22
January 2015
28 January Ended in
2011
March 2011
28 January
Ended
Somalia
2011
2[144]
Djibouti
Sudan
30 January
Ongoing
2011
President Bashir
announces he will not
seek another term in
2015[145]
200+[147]
President Bashir
nevertheless chosen as
Ruling Party candidate
for 2015 election [146]
Minor
protests
Minor
protests
Major
protests
Country
Iraq
Date started
Status of
protests
23
Ended January
December
2014
2012
Bahrain 14 February Ongoing

2011
Outcome
Prime Minister Maliki

announces that he will
not run for a 3rd term;[148]
Resignation of provincial
governors and local
authorities[149]
Two-third wage increase

for Sahwa militia
members
Release of 3,000
prisoners,[150] including
600 female prisoners
Crackdown by Security
Forces results in renewed
violence in Anbar
ISIS launches offensives

in northern Iraq capturing
Mosul and large swathes
of territory
Regional and extraregional hegemonic

powers including Iran
and the United States
enter the war on the side
of the Iraqi government
to defeat ISIS
Death toll
250+[151]
120[157]
King Hamad[152]
Release of political
prisoners[153]
Negotiations with Shia

representatives[154]
Situation
Civil war
and
government
al changes
Sustained
civil
disorder and
government
changes
Country
Libya
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
GCC intervention at the

request of the
Government of Bahrain
Head of the National

Security Apparatus
removed from post[155]
Formation of a
committee to implement
BICI report
recommendations[156]
Death toll
Situation
17 February Government
25,000
Governmen
[160]
2011
overthrown on Overthrow of Muammar
30,000+
t
23 August
overthrown
Gaddafi; Gaddafi killed by rebel
2011
forces
Government defeated by
armed revolt with UNmandated military
intervention[158]
Assumption of interim
control by the National
Transitional Council
Beginning of sporadic
low-level fighting and
clashes[159]
Elections to a General
National Congress on 7
July 2012
General National
Congress unable to block
elections and suffer
landslide electoral defeat
and return of civil strife
to Libya
Evacuation of various
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
diplomatic missions to
Libya by numerous
countries
Kuwait
Morocco
Second Civil War.

Islamist armed groups
take control of Benghazi
and Tripoli International
Airport and fighting
continues with Islamist
Militias claiming to have
captured Tripoli
Minister Nasser
Mohammed Al-Ahmed
Al-Sabah[161]
Ended in
19 February
December
2011
2012
Ended in
20 February
MarchApril
2011
2012
Mauritan 25 February
Ended
2011
Ended in
27 February
December
Lebanon
2011
2011
11 March Ended
Saudi
2011
Arabia
Dissolution of the
Parliament[162]
Political concessions by
King Mohammed VI;[164]
Referendum on
constitutional reforms;
Respect to civil rights

and an end to
corruption[165]
0[163]
Protests and
government
al changes
6[166]
Protests and
government
al changes
3[167]
ia
0
24[173]
King Abdullah[168][169]
Male-only municipal
Minor
protests
Protests and
government
al changes
Minor
protests
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
elections held 29
September 2011[170][171]
Syria
15 March
2011
Ongoing
King Abdullah
announces women's
approval to vote and be
elected in 2015 municipal
elections and to be
nominated to the Shura
Council[172]
191,000+[18 Ongoing
2]
civil war
Release of some political
[174][175]
prisoners
Dismissal of Provincial
Governors[176][177]
Resignation of the
Government[178]
End of Emergency Law
Resignations from
Parliament[179]
Large defections from the

Syrian army and clashes
between soldiers and
defectors[180]
Formation of the Free

Syrian Army
The Free Syrian Army

takes controls of large
swathes of land across
Syria.
Battles between the

Syrian government's
army and the Free Syrian
Army in many
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
governorates.
Iranian
Khuzestan
Israel
15 April
2011
Ended on 18
April 2011
15 May
2011
Ended on 5
June 2011
Formation of the Syrian

National Council[181]
Syria suspended from the

Arab League
Several countries
recognize Syrian
government in exile
Kurdish fighters enter the

war by mid-2013
12
Arab demonstrations on
67[183][184]
the borders of Israel
Minor protests.
Citizens
complained
Arrests made in the name of
about the royal national security and some
UAE
family and
activists had their nationality
asked for the revoked. Some activists deported.
introduction of [185][186]
a parliament
system.
Palestine 4
Ended
0
September
Then Palestinian prime
2012
minister Salam Fayyad
states that he is "'willing
to resign"[187]
Fayyad resigns on 13
April 2013 but because of
political differences
between him and the
Palestinian president
Mahmoud Abbas over the
Major
protests
Major
protests
Minor
protests
Minor
protests
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
finance portfolio[188]
Total death 223,335

toll and other 228,339+
consequences (Internation
: al estimate,
ongoing, >
80% in
Syria)
Six
govern
ments
overthr
own
(Egypt
twice
and
Yemen
twice)
Five
protests
leading
to
govern
mental
change
s
Five
minor
protests
Five
major
protests
One
civil
disorde
r
leading
to
govern
mental
change
s
Two
civil
Death toll
Situation
Country
Date started
Status of
protests
Outcome
Death toll
Situation
wars
Major events
Tunisia
Main article: Tunisian Revolution
Protesters in downtown Tunis on 14 January 2011

Following the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi in Sidi Bouzid, a series of increasingly
violent street demonstrations through December 2010 ultimately led to the ousting of longtime
President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali on 14 January 2011. The demonstrations were preceded by
high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[189] lack of freedom of speech and other forms of
political freedom,[190] and poor living conditions. The protests constituted the most dramatic wave
of social and political unrest in Tunisia in three decades,[191][192] and have resulted in scores of
deaths and injuries, most of which were the result of action by police and security forces against
demonstrators. Ben Ali fled into exile in Saudi Arabia, ending his 23 years in power.[193][194]
A state of emergency was declared and a caretaker coalition government was created following
Ben Ali's departure, which included members of Ben Ali's party, the Constitutional Democratic
Rally (RCD), as well as opposition figures from other ministries. However, the five newly
appointed non-RCD ministers resigned almost immediately.[195][196] As a result of continued daily
protests, on 27 January Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi reshuffled the government,
removing all former RCD members other than himself, and on 6 February the former ruling party
was suspended;[197] later, on 9 March, it was dissolved.[198] Following further public protests,
Ghannouchi himself resigned on 27 February, and Bji Cad Essebsi became Prime Minister.
On 23 October, citizens voted in the first post-revolution election to elect representatives to a
217-member constituent assembly that would be responsible for the new constitution.[199] The
leading Islamist party, Ennahda, won 37% of the vote, and managed to elect 42 women to the
Constituent Assembly.[200]
Egypt
Main articles: Egyptian Revolution of 2011 and Egyptian Crisis (201114)

See also: 2013 Egyptian coup d'tat
Celebrations in Tahrir Square after Omar Suleiman's statement concerning Hosni Mubarak's
resignation
Inspired by the uprising in Tunisia and prior to his entry as a central figure in Egyptian politics,
potential presidential candidate Mohamed ElBaradei warned of a "Tunisia-style explosion" in
Egypt.[201]
Protests in Egypt began on 25 January 2011 and ran for 18 days. Beginning around midnight on
28 January, the Egyptian government attempted, somewhat successfully, to eliminate the nation's
Internet access,[25] in order to inhibit the protesters' ability use media activism to organize through
social media.[202] Later that day, as tens of thousands protested on the streets of Egypt's major
cities, President Hosni Mubarak dismissed his government, later appointing a new cabinet.
Mubarak also appointed the first Vice President in almost 30 years.
The U.S. embassy and international students began a voluntary evacuation near the end of
January, as violence and rumors of violence escalated.[203][204]
On 10 February, Mubarak ceded all presidential power to Vice President Omar Suleiman, but
soon thereafter announced that he would remain as President until the end of his term.[205]
However, protests continued the next day, and Suleiman quickly announced that Mubarak had
resigned from the presidency and transferred power to the Armed Forces of Egypt.[206] The
military immediately dissolved the Egyptian Parliament, suspended the Constitution of Egypt,
and promised to lift the nation's thirty-year "emergency laws". A civilian, Essam Sharaf, was
appointed as Prime Minister of Egypt on 4 March to widespread approval among Egyptians in
Tahrir Square.[207] Violent protests however, continued through the end of 2011 as many
Egyptians expressed concern about the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces' perceived
sluggishness in instituting reforms and their grip on power.[208]
Hosni Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib al-Adli were convicted to life in prison on
the basis of their failure to stop the killings during the first six days of the 2011 Egyptian
Revolution.[209] His successor, Mohamed Morsi, was sworn in as Egypt's first democratically
elected president before judges at the Supreme Constitutional Court.[210] Fresh protests erupted in
Egypt on 22 November 2012. On 3 July 2013, the military overthrew the replacement
government and President Morsi was removed from power.[211]
Libya
Main article: Libyan Civil War (2011)
Thousands of demonstrators gather in Bayda

Anti-government protests began in Libya on 15 February 2011. By 18 February the opposition
controlled most of Benghazi, the country's second-largest city. The government dispatched elite
troops and militia in an attempt to recapture it, but they were repelled. By 20 February, protests
had spread to the capital Tripoli, leading to a television address by Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, who
warned the protestors that their country could descend into civil war. The rising death toll,
numbering in the thousands, drew international condemnation and resulted in the resignation of
several Libyan diplomats, along with calls for the government's dismantlement.[212]
Amidst ongoing efforts by demonstrators and rebel forces to wrest control of Tripoli from the
Jamahiriya, the opposition set up an interim government in Benghazi to oppose Colonel
Muammar Gaddafi's rule.[213][214] However, despite initial opposition success, government forces
subsequently took back much of the Mediterranean coast.
On 17 March, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was adopted, authorising a nofly zone over Libya, and "all necessary measures" to protect civilians. Two days later, France, the
United States and the United Kingdom intervened in Libya with a bombing campaign against
pro-Gaddafi forces. A coalition of 27 states from Europe and the Middle East soon joined the
intervention. The forces were driven back from the outskirts of Benghazi, and the rebels mounted
an offensive, capturing scores of towns across the coast of Libya. The offensive stalled however,
and a counter-offensive by the government retook most of the towns, until a stalemate was
formed between Brega and Ajdabiya, the former being held by the government and the latter in
the hands of the rebels. Focus then shifted to the west of the country, where bitter fighting
continued. After a three-month-long battle, a loyalist siege of rebel-held Misrata, the third largest
city in Libya, was broken in large part due to coalition air strikes. The four major fronts of
combat were generally considered to be the Nafusa Mountains, the Tripolitanian coast, the Gulf
of Sidra,[215] and the southern Libyan Desert.[216]
In late August, anti-Gaddafi fighters captured Tripoli, scattering Gaddafi's government and
marking the end of his 42 years of power. Many institutions of the government, including
Gaddafi and several top government officials, regrouped in Sirte, which Gaddafi declared to be
Libya's new capital.[217] Others fled to Sabha, Bani Walid, and remote reaches of the Libyan
Desert, or to surrounding countries.[218][219] However, Sabha fell in late September,[220] Bani Walid
was captured after a grueling siege weeks later,[221] and on 20 October, fighters under the aegis of
the National Transitional Council seized Sirte, killing Gaddafi in the process.[222]
Yemen
Main article: Yemeni Revolution
Protests in Sana'a
Protests occurred in many towns in both the north and south of Yemen starting in mid-January
2011. demonstrators initially protested against governmental proposals to modify the constitution
of Yemen, unemployment and economic conditions,[223] and corruption,[224] but their demands
soon included a call for the resignation of President Ali Abdullah Saleh,[224][225][226] who had been
facing internal opposition from his closest advisors since 2009.[227]
A major demonstration of over 16,000 protesters took place in Sana'a on 27 January 2011,[228] and
soon thereafter human rights activist and politician Tawakel Karman called for a "Day of Rage"
on 3 February.[229] According to Xinhua News, organizers were calling for a million protesters.[230]
In response to the planned protest, Ali Abdullah Saleh stated that he would not seek another
presidential term in 2013.[231] On 3 February, 20,000 protesters demonstrated against the
government in Sana'a,[232][233] others participated in a "Day of Rage" in Aden[234] that was called
for by Tawakel Karman,[229] while soldiers, armed members of the General People's Congress,
and many protestors held a pro-government rally in Sana'a.[235] Concurrent with the resignation of
Egyptian president Mubarak, Yemenis again took to the streets protesting President Saleh on 11
February, in what has been dubbed a "Friday of Rage".[236] The protests continued in the days
following despite clashes with government advocates.[237] In a "Friday of Anger" held on 18
February, tens of thousands of Yemenis took part in anti-government demonstrations in the major
cities of Sana'a, Taiz, and Aden. Protests continued over the following months, especially in the
three major cities, and briefly intensified in late May into urban warfare between Hashid
tribesmen and army defectors allied with the opposition on one side and security forces and
militias loyal to Saleh on the other.[238]
After Saleh pretended to accept a Gulf Cooperation Council-brokered plan allowing him to cede
power in exchange for immunity only to back away before signing three separate times,[239][240] an
assassination attempt on 3 June left him and several other high-ranking Yemeni officials injured
by a blast in the presidential compound's mosque.[241] Saleh was evacuated to Saudi Arabia for
treatment, but he handed over power to Vice President Abd al-Rab Mansur al-Hadi, who has
largely continued his policies[242] and ordered the arrest of several Yemenis in connection with the
attack on the presidential compound.[241] While in Saudi Arabia, Saleh kept hinting that he could
return any time and continued to be present in the political sphere through television appearances
from Riyadh starting with an address to the Yemeni people on 7 July.[243] On Friday 13 August, a
demonstration was announced in Yemen as "Mansouron Friday" in which hundreds of thousands

of Yemenis called for Ali Abdullah Saleh to go. The protesters joining the "Mansouron Friday"
were calling for establishment of "a new Yemen".[244] On 12 September, Saleh issued a
presidential decree while still receiving treatment in Riyadh authorizing Vice President Abd alRab Mansur al-Hadi to negotiate a deal with the opposition and sign the GCC initiative.[245]
On 23 September, three months since the assassination attempt, Saleh returned to Yemen
abruptly, defying all earlier expectations.[246] Pressure on Saleh to sign the GCC initiative
eventually led to his signing of it in Riyadh on 23 November, in which Saleh agreed to step down
and set the stage for the transfer of power to his vice-president.[247] A presidential election was
then held on 21 February 2012, in which Hadi (the only candidate) won 99.8 percent of the vote.
[248]
Hadi then took the oath of office in Yemen's parliament on 25 February.[249] By 27 February,
Saleh had resigned from the presidency and transferred power to his successor, however he is
still wielding political clout as the head of the General People's Congress party.[250] The
replacement government was overthrown by Houthi rebels on 22 January 2015.
Syria
Main article: Syrian Civil War
Anti-government demonstrations in Baniyas
Protests in Syria started on 26 January 2011, when a police officer assaulted a man in public at
"Al-Hareeka Street" in old Damascus. The man was arrested right after the assault. As a result,
protesters called for the freedom of the arrested man. Soon a "day of rage" was set for 45
February, but it was uneventful.[251][252] On 6 March, the Syrian security forces arrested about 15
children in Daraa, in southern Syria, for writing slogans against the government. Soon protests
erupted over the arrest and abuse of the children. Daraa was to be the first city to protest against
the Ba'athist government, which has been ruling Syria since 1963.[253]
Thousands of protestors gathered in Damascus, Aleppo, al-Hasakah, Daraa, Deir ez-Zor, and
Hama on 15 March,[254][255][256] with recently released politician Suhair Atassi becoming an
unofficial spokesperson for the "Syrian revolution".[257] The next day there were reports of
approximately 3000 arrests and a few martyrs, but there are no official figures on the number of
deaths.[258] On 18 April 2011, approximately 100,000 protesters sat in the central Square of Homs
calling for the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad. Protests continued through July 2011,
the government responding with harsh security clampdowns and military operations in several
districts, especially in the north.[259]
On 31 July, Syrian army tanks stormed several cities, including Hama, Deir Ez-Zour, Abu
Kamal, and Herak near Daraa. At least 136 people were killed, the highest death toll in any day
since the start of the uprising.[260]
On 5 August 2011, an anti-government demonstration took place in Syria called "God is with
us", during which the Syrian security forces shot the protesters from inside the ambulances,
killing 11 people consequently.[261]
By late November early December, the Baba Amr district of Homs fell under armed Syrian
opposition control. By late December, the battles between the government's security forces and
the rebel Free Syrian Army intensified in Idlib Governorate. Cities in Idlib and neighborhoods in
Homs and Hama began falling into the control of the opposition, during this time military
operations in Homs and Hama stopped.
By mid-January the FSA gained control over Zabadani and Madaya. By late January, the Free
Syrian Army launched a full-scale attack against the government in Rif Dimashq, where they
took over Saqba, Hamoreya, Harasta and other cities in Damascus's Eastern suburbs. On 29
January, the fourth regiment of the Syrian Army led by the president's brother Maher al-Assad
and the Syrian Army dug in at Damascus, and the fighting continued where the FSA was 8 km
away from the Republican palace in Damascus. Fighting broke out near Damascus international
airport, but by the next day the Syrian government deployed the Republican Guards. The military
gained the upper hand and regained all land the opposition gained in Rif Dimashq by early
February. On 4 February, the Syrian Army launched a massive bombardment on Homs and
committed a huge massacre, killing 500 civilians in one night in Homs. By mid-February, the
Syrian army regained control over Zabadani and Madaya. In late February, Army forces entered
Baba Amr after a big military operation and heavy fighting. Following this, the opposition forces
began losing neighborhoods in Homs to the Syrian Army including al-Inshaat, Jobr, Karm elZaytoon and only Homs's old neighborhood's, including Al-Khalidiya, Homs|al-Khalidiya,
remained in opposition hands.
By March 2012, the government began military operations against the opposition in Idlib
Governorate including the city of Idlib, which fell to the Army by mid-March. Saraqib and
Sarmin were also recaptured by the government during the month. Still, at this time, the
opposition managed to capture al-Qusayr and Rastan. Heavy fighting also continued in several
neighborhoods in Homs and in the city of Hama. The FSA also started to conduct hit-and-run
attacks in the pro-Assad Aleppo Governorate, which they were not able to do before. Heavy-tosporadic fighting was also continuing in the Daraa and Deir ez-Zor Governorates.
By late April 2012, despite a cease-fire being declared in the whole country, sporadic fighting
continued, with heavy clashes specifically in Al-Qusayr, where rebel forces controlled the
northern part of the city, while the military held the southern part. FSA forces were holding onto
Al-Qusayr, due to it being the last major transit point toward the Lebanese border. A rebel
commander from the Farouq Brigade in the town reported that 2,000 Farouq fighters had been
killed in Homs province since August 2011. At this point, there were talks among the rebels in
Al-Qusayr, where many of the retreating rebels from Homs city's Baba Amr district had gone, of
Homs being abandoned completely. On 12 June 2012, the UN peacekeeping chief in Syria stated
that, in his view, Syria has entered a period of civil war.[262]
Bahrain
Main article: Bahraini uprising (2011present)
Over 100,000 of Bahrainis taking part in the "March of Loyalty to Martyrs", honoring political
dissidents killed by security forces
The protests in Bahrain started on 14 February, and were initially aimed at achieving greater
political freedom and respect for human rights; they were not intended to directly threaten the
monarchy.[7][263](pp1623) Lingering frustration among the Shiite majority with being ruled by the
Sunni government was a major root cause, but the protests in Tunisia and Egypt are cited as the
inspiration for the demonstrations.[7][263](p65) The protests were largely peaceful until a pre-dawn
raid by police on 17 February to clear protestors from Pearl Roundabout in Manama, in which
police killed four protesters.[263](pp734) Following the raid, some protesters began to expand their
aims to a call for the end of the monarchy.[264] On 18 February, army forces opened fire on
protesters when they tried to reenter the roundabout, fatally wounding one.[263](pp778) The
following day protesters reoccupied Pearl Roundabout after the government ordered troops and
police to withdraw.[263](p81)[265] Subsequent days saw large demonstrations; on 21 February a progovernment Gathering of National Unity drew tens of thousands,[263](p86)[266] whilst on 22 February
the number of protestors at the Pearl Roundabout peaked at over 150,000 after more than
100,000 protesters marched there and were coming under fire from the Bahraini Military which
killed around 20 and injured over 100 protestors.[263](p88) On 14 March, GCC forces (comprising
mainly of Saudi and UAE troops) were requested by the government and entered the country,[263]
(p132)
which the opposition called an "occupation".[267]
King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa declared a three-month state of emergency on 15 March and
asked the military to reassert its control as clashes spread across the country.[263](p139)[268] On 16
March, armed soldiers and riot police cleared the protesters' camp in the Pearl Roundabout, in
which 3 policemen and 3 protesters were reportedly killed.[263](pp1334)[269] Later, on 18 March, the
government tore down Pearl Roundabout monument.[263](pp150)[270] After the lifting of emergency
law on 1 June,[271] several large rallies were staged by the opposition parties.[272] Smaller-scale
protests and clashes outside of the capital have continued to occur almost daily.[273][274] On 9
March 2012, over 100,000 protested in what the opposition called "the biggest march in our
history".[275][276]
The police response has been described as a "brutal" crackdown on peaceful and unarmed
protestors, including doctors and bloggers.[277][278][279] The police carried out midnight house raids
in Shia neighbourhoods, beatings at checkpoints, and denial of medical care in a "campaign of
intimidation".[280][281][282][283] More than 2,929 people have been arrested,[284][285] and at least five
people died due to torture while in police custody.[263](p287,288) On 23 November 2011, the Bahrain
Independent Commission of Inquiry released its report on its investigation of the events, finding
that the government had systematically tortured prisoners and committed other human rights
violations.[263](pp415422) It also rejected the government's claims that the protests were instigated by
Iran.[286] Although the report found that systematic torture had stopped,[263](pp417) the Bahraini
government has refused entry to several international human rights groups and news
organizations, and delayed a visit by a UN inspector.[287][288] More than 80 people had died since
the start of the uprising.[289]
Minor events
Main article: Arab Spring concurrent incidents
During the Arab Spring, protests flared up in the rest of the region, some becoming violent, some
facing strong suppression efforts, and some resulting in small to moderate political changes.
Aftermath
Main article: Arab Winter
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article
by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (August 2014)
Arab Winter[290] or Islamist Winter,[291] is the term for the wide-scale violence and instability,
evolving in the aftermath of the Arab Spring protests in Arab World countries. The Arab Winter
is characterized by extensive civil wars, general regional instability, economic and demographic
decline of the Arab League and overall religious wars between Sunni and Shia Muslims. As of
summer 2014, the Arab Winter has produced about quarter a million deaths and millions of
refugees.
Analysis
Ethnic scope
Many analysts, journalists, and involved parties have focused on the protests as being a uniquely
Arab phenomenon, and indeed, protests and uprisings have been strongest and most widereaching in majority-Arabic-speaking countries, giving rise to the popular moniker of Arab
Springa play on the so-called 1968 Prague Spring, a democratic awakening in what was then
communist Czechoslovakiato refer to protests, uprisings, and revolutions in those states.[292][293]
[294]
However, the international media has also noted the role of minority groups in many of these
majority-Arab countries in the revolts.
Bahrain's Shia protesters shot by security forces, February 2011

In Tunisia, the country's small Jewish minority was initially divided by protests against Ben Ali
and the government, but eventually came to identify with the protesters in opposition to the
regime, according to the group's president, who described Jewish Tunisians as "part of the
revolution".[295][296] While many in the Coptic minority in Egypt had criticized the Mubarak
government for its failure to suppress Islamic extremists who attack the Coptic community, the
prospect of these extremist groups taking over after its fall caused most Copts to avoid the
protests, with then-Pope Shenouda III of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria calling for
them to end.[297] The international media pointed to a few Copts who joined the protests.[298][299]
Because the uprisings and revolutions erupted first in North Africa before spreading to Asian
Arab countries, and the Berbers of Libya[300] participated massively in the protests and fighting
under Berber identity banners, some Berbers in Libya often see the revolutions of North Africa,
west of Egypt, as a reincarnated Berber Spring.[301][302][303] In Morocco, through a constitutional
reform, passed in a national referendum on 1 July 2011, among other things, Amazigha
standardized version of the three Berber languages of Moroccowas made official alongside
Arabic.[304] During the civil war in Libya, one major theater of combat was the western Nafusa
Mountains, where the indigenous Berbers took up arms against the regime while supporting the
revolutionary National Transitional Council, which was based in the majority-Arab eastern half
of the country.[305][306]
In northern Sudan, hundreds of non-Arab Darfuris joined anti-government protests,[307] while in
Iraq and Syria, the ethnic Kurdish minority has been involved in protests against the government,
[308][309]
including the Kurdistan Regional Government in the former's Kurdish-majority north,
where at least one attempted self-immolation was reported.[310][311][312]
Concurrent events
Main article: Impact of the Arab Spring
The regional unrest has not been limited to countries of the Arab world. The early uprisings in
North Africa were inspired by the 20092010 uprisings in the neighboring state of Iran;[313][314]
these are considered by many commentators to be part of a wave of protest that began in Iran,
moved to North Africa, and has since gripped the broader Middle Eastern and North African
regions, including additional protests in Iran in 20112012.[315]
In the countries of the neighboring South Caucasusnamely Armenia,[316] Azerbaijan,[317] and
Georgia[318]as well as some countries in Europe, including Albania,[319] Croatia,[320] and Spain;
[321]
countries in sub-Saharan Africa, including Burkina Faso,[322] and Uganda;[323][324] and countries
in other parts of Asia, including the Maldives[325] and the People's Republic of China,[326]
demonstrators and opposition figures claiming inspiration from the examples of Tunisia and
Egypt have staged their own popular protests. The protests in the Maldives led to the resignation
of the President.
The bid for statehood by Palestine at the UN on 23 September 2011 is also regarded as drawing
inspiration from the Arab Spring after years of failed peace negotiations with Israel. In the West
Bank, schools and government offices were shut to allow demonstrations backing the UN
membership bid in Ramallah, Bethlehem, Nablus and Hebron; echoing similar peaceful protests
from other Arab countries.[327]
The 15 October 2011 global protests and the Occupy Wall Street movement, which started in the
United States and has since spread to Asia and Europe, drew direct inspiration from the Arab
Spring, with organizers asking U.S. citizens "Are you ready for a Tahrir moment?"[328] The
protesters have committed to using the "revolutionary Arab Spring tactic" to achieve their goals
of curbing corporate power and control in Western governments.[329]
Also, the Occupy Nigeria protests beginning the day after Goodluck Jonathan announced the
scrap of the fuel subsidy in oil-rich Nigeria on 1 January 2012, were motivated by the Arab
people.[330]
The Tunisian Revolution also brought about important changes to the intersection of art and
politics in post-2011 Tunisia.
International reactions
Main article: International reactions to the Arab Spring
U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry shakes hands with Bahraini Crown Prince Salman bin Hamad
Al-Khalifa, Washington, D.C., on June 6, 2013
Protests in many countries affected by the Arab Spring have attracted widespread support from
the international community, while harsh government responses have generally met
condemnation.[331][332][333][334] In the case of the Bahraini, Moroccan, and Syrian protests, the
international response has been considerably more nuanced.[335][336][337][338]
Some critics have accused Western governments and media, including those of France, the
United Kingdom, and the United States, of hypocrisy in the way they have reacted to the Arab
Spring.[339][340][341] Noam Chomsky accused the Obama administration of endeavoring to muffle

the revolutionary wave and stifle popular democratization efforts in the Middle East.[342]
The International Monetary Fund said oil prices were likely to be higher than originally forecast
due to unrest in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), major regions of oil production.[343]
Starting in 2010 global investors have significantly reduced their stakes in MENA region
holdings since December 2010 resulting in significant declines in region-linked stock indexes.[344]
According to Gallup surveys in 26 African countries in 2013, 70% in Sub-Saharan Africa
reported that they had not followed Arab Spring events closely at all. Among Africans who did
pay attention, majorities in most African countries said that the Arab Spring has had more of a
negative effect on their own country.[345]
Kenan Engin, a German-Kurdish political scientist, identified the new uprising in Arab and
Islamic countries as the "fifth wave of democracy" because of evident features qualitatively
similar to the "third wave of democracy" in Latin America that took place in the 1970s and
1980s.[346][347]
Social media and the Arab Spring

In the wake of the recent events occurring in Syria, Egypt and Tunisia, a considerable amount of
attention has been focused on the concept of democracy and collective activism, which continues
to unravel in front of Western eyes across mass media.
Equally important has been the role of social media and digital technologies in allowing citizens
within areas affected by 'the Arab Uprisings' as a means for collective activism to circumvent
state-operated media channels.[348]
Nine out of ten Egyptians and Tunisians responded to a poll that they used Facebook to organize
protests and spread awareness.[349] Furthermore, 28% of Egyptians and 29% of Tunisians from
the same poll said that blocking Facebook greatly hindered and/or disrupted communication.
The influence of social media on political activism during the Arab Uprisings has been much
debated.[22][23][350] Some critics have argued that digital technologies and other forms of
communicationvideos, cellular phones, blogs, photos and text messages have brought about
the concept of a 'digital democracy' in parts of North Africa affected by the uprisings.[351] Others
have claimed that in order to understand the role of social media during the Arab Uprisings, it
must be first be understood that in the context of high rates of unemployment and corrupt
political regimens led to dissent movements within the region.[352][353]
Revolutions that were previously started on Facebook alone were rapidly quashed by secret
police in those countries, so much so that in Egypt a prominent activist group always had "Do
not use Facebook or Twitter" on the front and backs of their revolutionary material.[354]
Further evidence that suggests an important role of social media on the uprisings is that social
media use more than doubled in Arab countries during the protests. Some research have shown
how collective intelligence, dynamics of the crowd in participatory systems such as social media,
have the immense power to support a collective action such as foment a political change.[355][356]
The graph depicting the data collected by the Dubai School of Government illustrates this sharp
increase in Internet usage. The only discrepancy in the trend is with the growth rate in Libya.[349]
The report proposes a reasonable argument that explains such discrepancy: many Libyans fled
the violence, and therefore moved their social media usage elsewhere.
This influx of social media usage indicates the kind of people that were essentially powering the
Arab Spring. Young people fueled the revolts of the various Arab countries by using the new
generation's abilities of social networking to release the word of uprising to not only other Arab
nations, but nations all over the world. As of 5 April 2011, the amount of Facebook users in the
Arabian nations surpassed 27.7 million people,[349] indicating that the constant growth of people
connected via social media acted as an asset where communication was concerned.
Others have argued that television, specifically the constant live coverage by Al Jazeera and the
sporadic live coverage by BBC News and others, was highly important for the Egyptian
Revolution of 2011 as the cameras provided exposure and prevented mass violence by the
Egyptian government in Tahrir Square, as opposed to the lack of such live coverage and the more
widespread violence in Libya.[357] The ability of protesters to focus their demonstrations on a
single area and be covered live was fundamental in Egypt, but was not possible in Libya, Bahrain
and Syria.
Different sorts of media such as image and video were also used to portray the information.
Images surfaced that showed current events, which illustrated what was going on within the
Arabian nations. The visual media that spread throughout the Internet depicted not only singular
moments, but showed the Arabian nations' history, and the change that was to come.[358] Through
social media, the ideals of rebel groups, as well as the current situations in each country received
international attention. It is still debated whether or not social media acted as a primary catalyst
for the Arab Spring to gain momentum and become an internationally recognized situation.
Regardless, it has still played a crucial role in the movement.
See also
Arab Winter
Arab Revolt
Atlantic Revolutions
Colour revolution
Democracy in the Middle East
List of modern conflicts in North Africa
List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
List of ongoing armed conflicts
List of ongoing protests
Protests of 1968
Revolutions of 1820
Revolutions of 1830
Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 191723
Revolutions of 1989
War on Terror
Women in the Arab Spring
Middle East portal
Africa portal
Politics portal
Social movements portal
2010s portal
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Further reading
Aa. Vv. (2011), The New Arab Revolt: What Happened, What It Means, and What Comes
Next, Council on Foreign Relations, Foreign Affairs, Maggio-Giugno.
Abaza, M. (2011), Revolutionary Moments in Tahrir Square, American University of

Cairo, 7 May 2011, www.isa-sociology.org.
Abdih, Y. (2011), Arab Spring: Closing the Jobs Gap. High youth unemloyment
contributes to widespread unrest in the Middle East Finance & Development, in Finance
& Development (International Monetary Fund), Giugno.
Anderson, L (MayJune 2011). "Demystifying the Arab Spring: Parsing the Differences
between Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya". Foreign Affairs 90 (3).
Beinin, J. Vairel, F. (2011), (a cura di), Social Movements, Mobilization, and

Contestation in the Middle East and North Africa, Stanford, CA, Stanford University
press.
Brownlee, Jason; Masoud, Tarek; Reynolds, Andrew (2013). The Arab Spring: the
politics of transformation in North Africa and the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Browers, Michaelle (2009). Political Ideology in the Arab World: Accommodation and
Transformation. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-76532-9.
Cohen, R. (2011), A Republic Called Tahrir, in New York Times.
Dabashi, Hamid. The Arab Spring: The End of Postcolonialism (Palgrave Macmillan;
2012) 182 pages
Darwish, Nonie (28 February 2012). The demon We Don't Know: The Dark Side of
Revolutions in the Middle East. John Wiley & Sons.
Gardner, David (2009). Last Chance: The Middle East in the Balance. London: I.B.
Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-041-5.
Gause, F. G. (2011), Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of
Authoritarian Stability, in Foreign Affairs, July/August.
Goldstone, Jack A.; Hazel, John T., Jr. (14 April 2011). "Understanding the Revolutions
of 2011: Weakness and Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies". Foreign Affairs.
Haddad, Bassam; Bsheer, Rosie; Abu-Rish, Ziad, eds. (2012). The Dawn of the Arab
Uprisings: End of an Old Order?. London: Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-3325-0.
Kaye, Dalia Dassa (2008). More Freedom, Less Terror? Liberalization and Political
Violence in the Arab World. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. ISBN 978-0-83304508-9.
Lutterbeck, Derek. (2013). Arab Uprisings, Armed Forces, and Civil-Military Relations.
Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 39, No. 1 (pp. 2852)
Ottaway, Marina; Choucair-Vizoso, Julia, ed. (2008). Beyond the Faade: Political
Reform in the Arab World. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International
Peace. ISBN 978-0-87003-239-4.
Pelletreau, Robert H. (24 February 2011). "Transformation in the Middle East:

Comparing the Uprisings in Tunisia, Egypt and Bahrain". Foreign Affairs.
Phares, Walid (2010). Coming Revolution: Struggle for Freedom in the Middle East. New
York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-7837-9.
Posusney, Marsha Pripstein; Angrist, Michele Penner, ed. (2005). Authoritarianism in the
Middle East: Regimes and Resistance. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. ISBN 1-58826-317-7.
Struble, Jr., Robert (22 August 2011). "Libya and the Doctrine of Justifiable Rebellion".
Catholic Lane.
United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations. Subcommittee on

International Operations and Organizations, Human Rights, Democracy, and Global
Women's Issues. (2012). Women and the Arab Spring: Joint Hearing before the
Subcommittee on International Operations and Organizations, Human Rights,
Democracy, and Global Women's Issues and the Subcommittee on Near Eastern and
South and Central Asian Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States
Senate, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, First Session, November 2, 2011. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. G.P.O.
External links
Find more about
Arab Spring
at Wikipedia's sister projects
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
Quotations from Wikiquote
Right to Nonviolence
Arab Spring, Christian Fall? The situation of Christian minorities in the Middle East
after the Arab Spring
United States Institute of Peace
Civil Movements: The Impact of Facebook and Twitter
The first anniversary of the Arab Spring What kind of change have taken place since
then
Middle East Constitutional Forum
Live blogs
Middle East at Al Jazeera
Middle East protests at BBC News
Arab and Middle East protests live blog at The Guardian
Middle East Protests at The Lede blog at The New York Times
Middle East protests live at Reuters
Ongoing coverage
A (Working) Academic Arab Spring Reading List collected peer-reviewed academic

articles on the impact of social media on the Arab Spring
Constitutional Transitions Timeline Collected legal and political changes and short
analysis at Middle East Constitutional Forum
Unrest in the Arab World collected news and commentary at Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace
Issue Guide: Arab World Protests, Council on Foreign Relations
Middle East protests collected news and commentary at The Financial Times
Unrest in the Arab World collected map, news and commentary at CNN
Arab and Middle East unrest collected news and commentary at The Guardian
Arab and Middle East unrest interactive timeline collected news and commentary at
The Guardian
Rage on the Streets[dead link] collected news and commentary at Hurriyet Daily News and
Economic Review
Middle East Unrest collected news and commentary at The National
Middle East Uprisings[dead link] collected news and commentary at Showdown in the Middle
East website
The Arab Revolution collected news and commentary at Spiegel.de
The Middle East in Revolt collected news and commentary at Time
Other
The Arab SpringOne Year Later: The CenSEI Report analyzes how 2011's clamor for
democratic reform met 2012's need to sustain its momentum. The CenSEI Report, 13
February 2012
Interface journal special issue on the Arab Spring, Interface: a journal for and about
social movements, May 2012
"The Shoe Thrower's index (An index of unrest in the Arab world)". The Economist. 9
February 2011.
"Interview with Tariq Ramadan: 'We Need to Get a Better Sense of the Trends within
Islamism'". Qantara.de. 2 February 2011.
Sadek J. Al Azm, "The Arab Spring: Why Exactly at this Time?" Reason Papers 33 (Fall
2011)
Tracking the wave of protests with statistics, RevolutionTrends.org
Arab uprisings: 10 key moments from BBC Middle East Editor Jeremy Bowden (10
December 2012)
Can the Arab Spring present a real threat to Europe?

The Arab Spring Explained: Revolutions and Protests in the Middle East

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The Arab Spring (Arabic: , ar-rab al-arab) is a revolutionary wave of

o 3.1 Summary of conflicts by country

Summary of conflicts by country

Dissolution of the RCD,

Lifting of the 19-year-old [98]

On February 2011, King

On April 2012, as the

On October 2012, King

elections, and appoints

17 January Ended in May

Dissolution of the NDP,

Lifting of the 31-year-old

Democratic election held

Abdel Fattah el-Sisi

Egyptian Armed Forces

Increase in violence and

Resignation of MPs from

the ruling party[140]

Presidential election held

Bahrain 14 February Ongoing

Prime Minister Maliki

Two-third wage increase

ISIS launches offensives

Regional and extraregional hegemonic

Negotiations with Shia

GCC intervention at the

Head of the National

Second Civil War.

Respect to civil rights

End of Emergency Law

Large defections from the

Formation of the Free

The Free Syrian Army

Battles between the

Formation of the Syrian

Syria suspended from the

Kurdish fighters enter the

Total death 223,335

Protesters in downtown Tunis on 14 January 2011

Main articles: Egyptian Revolution of 2011 and Egyptian Crisis (201114)

Main article: Libyan Civil War (2011)

Thousands of demonstrators gather in Bayda

demonstration was announced in Yemen as "Mansouron Friday" in which hundreds of thousands

Bahrain's Shia protesters shot by security forces, February 2011

Spring.[339][340][341] Noam Chomsky accused the Obama administration of endeavoring to muffle

Social media and the Arab Spring

Democracy in the Middle East

List of modern conflicts in North Africa

List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

List of ongoing armed conflicts

List of ongoing protests

Women in the Arab Spring

Middle East portal

Social movements portal

"Tunisia's Ben Ali flees amid unrest". Al Jazeera. 15 January 2011.

"Protester killed in Bahrain 'Day of Rage'". Reuters. 14 February 2011.

"Thousands protest in Jordan". Al Jazeera. 28 January 2011. Retrieved 12 June

"Morocco King on holiday as people consider revolt". Afrol. 30 January 2011.

Sherwood, Harriet. "Israeli protests: 430,000 take to streets to demand social

"Sudan police clash with protesters". Al Jazeera. 30 January 2011. Retrieved 25

"Mauritania police crush protest doctors announce strike". Radio Netherlands

Manson, Katrina (20 February 2011). "Pro-democracy protests reach Djibouti".