C AUSES O F P IPE S TICKING AND

E FFECT O F F ILTER C AKE

T HICKNESS O N S TICKING F ORCE
by Iskander S. Hanna

Hanna is a petroleum engineer in the Materials Acquisition and Forecasting Unit of

the Drilling and Workover Services Department. Having joined Saudi Aramco in 1991,
he has 28 years combined experience in drilling operations, drilling engineering and
drilling materials in the United States, Europe, Middle East, Asia and North Africa.
Hanna holds a bachelors degree from the University of Zagreb in Croatia, a masters
degree from Tulane University in New Orleans, and a Ph.D. from Kennedy-Western
University in Boise, Idaho all three in petroleum engineering. He has published and
presented numerous technical and professional papers.

ABSTRACT
There are many causes of pipe sticking. It is desirable to identify the
type of sticking so that the most effective method of recovery may be
used. By understanding the causes of pipe sticking and implementing
good drilling practices, such as good mud and filter cake properties,
pipe and drill string movement, wiper trips, taper type and spiral
bottom hole assembly, controlling penetration rate and minimizing
contact area, the sticking problems can be reduced or completely
eliminated, resulting in enormous savings.
This paper describes the effect of filter cake thickness on the
contact area between pipe and filter cake. It computes the amount of
sticking force and the required pulling force to free the pipe. It also
compares the sticking force required to free the pipe with and without
using casing centralizers.
By implementing a simple calculation method and using developed
tables for determining the pipe/filter cake contact area, the force
required for pulling the pipe free, including the calculated pipe body
and joint strength safety factors, can be determined.

DISCUSSION
Let us visualize the conditions in the rock surrounding the borehole. When a well is drilled with rotary tools and a drilling mud,
the usual practice is to maintain the weight of the mud at such a
value that the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column exceeds the
pressure of the fluids in the formations penetrated.
Keeping the differential pressure toward the formation prevents
the formation fluids from flowing into the wellbore causing the
well to blowout. However, such a drilling practice usually alters the
fluid content of the formation near the wellbore because the filtrate from the mud displaces some of the original fluids in the
pores of the rock by a process known as invasion.
Most water-base muds contain solids in suspension and chemicals in solution. When the mud tries to flow into the pores of the
wellbore rock, only the filtrate enters leaving a deposit of mud
cake on the face of the rock in the borehole. The mud cake left in
the borehole may be thick or thin, tough or weak depending on
the type of the mud system.
Mud Filter Cake

Formation

Mud Filter Cake

Mud

High Fluid Loss Mud

Mud Filter Cake

Drill Pipe
or
Drill Collar

Lowering the water loss of the drilling fluid will aid in the prevention of sticking. Use of low water loss muds reduces the initial
contact area because these muds have a thin, hard filter cake, compared to a thick, soft filter cake developed by a high water loss
mud. The pipe circumference cannot be embedded as deeply, and
therefore the sticking force is reduced (fig. 1). Moreover, low water
loss muds have a reduced filtration rate, which reduces the rate of
deposition of solids along the pipe-cake interface, minimizing the
increase in the friction coefficient. Reducing the friction coefficient,
or the stickiness of the mud, affects the sticking.
The friction controls the ease with which the pipe can be
dragged across the mud cake. Additives, such as oil or lubricity
agents, can reduce the cake friction.
The potential effect of the filter cake on the contact area is
critical. The area of contact may be more than doubled by thickening the filter cake. This is the prime reason for controlling the
high-temperature, high-pressure filtration rate. The thickness of
the filter cake is the primary concern.
Filter cakes during normal drilling generally reach an equilibrium
thickness. This means that the rate of erosion by the circulating
fluid equals the rate of deposition of new solids in the filter cake.
This concept of cake erosion shows the importance of making
short trips during long bit runs.
There are many causes of pipe sticking. It is desirable to identify
the type of sticking so that the most effective method of recovery
may be used.
By understanding the causes of pipe sticking and implementing
good drilling practices such as
1. Good mud and filter cake properties,
2. Pipe and drill string movement,
3. Wiper trips every 500 ft,
4. Taper type and spiral bottom hole assembly,
5. Controlling penetration rate and
6. Minimizing contact area,
sticking problems can be reduced or completely eliminated.
The depth of invasion is influenced by several factors. These
factors are:

Water loss of the mud

The higher the water loss the greater the invasion.

Differential pressure
The differential pressure from mud column to formation usually
has some effect on the extent of invasion.

Time

Low Fluid Loss Mud

Fig. 1. Effect of mud filter cake thickness on initial contact area

The length of time the formation has been exposed to the mud
column is one of the important factors controlling invasion. The
longer it is exposed to the mud column, the greater a formation
will invade.

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

29

Porosity

Key seat sticking

A high porosity rock will invade less deeply than a rock with
lower porosity.

In deviated wells, the subsequent rotation of the pipe and particularly the hard-banded tool joints in the area of the dogleg wear
a lot in the wellbore that is smaller than the gauge hole. When
pulling the pipe out of the hole, the larger drill collars are pulled
up into the key seat and stuck. Drillers usually pull harder as they
observe the pipe tending to stick. This, of course, makes the
situation worse.

Permeability
Usually the permeability of the mud cake is so low that it controls
the flow of filtrate into the formation.

TYPES OF FORMATION PRESSURE

The term formation pressure is the pressure in the formation caused
by the hydrostatic head of the fluid in the pore space (IADC 1980
and McLure 1983). In a closed formation, this pressure is caused
by the fluid bearing the weight of the overburden rocks. Formation
fluid pressures are divided into:

Cement sticking

Normal formation pressure

Cement sticking can occur due to mechanical failure in equipment,

a leak, human error or intentional cementing in an attempt to contain a blowout or correct lost circulation. Many times when
cement sticking occurs, premature or flash setting is blamed. The
cuttings produced in drilling cement will readily stick the pipe if
they are allowed to settle out of the fluid.

The normal formation pressure is assumed to be the pressure

caused by the formation fluid.

Blowout sticking

Formations that have abnormally high pressure are considered to

be closed reservoirs.

When formation pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the

mud, it causes shale, sand, mud or other formation materials and,
in some cases, even drill pipe protector rubbers, to be blown up
the hole, which sometimes bridges over and sticks the pipe.

Subnormal formation pressure

Sloughing hole sticking

If the formation pressure gradient is less than the calculated normal

hydrostatic pressure, the pressure is said to be subnormal.

Shale sections which swell can break off into the hole, lodging
around the tool joints, drill collars or the bit, causing the drill
string to become stuck.

Abnormally high formation pressure

PIPE STICKING
Common causes

Undergauge hole sticking

There are many causes of pipe sticking. It is desirable to identify

the type of sticking so that the most effective method of recovery
may be used. Some common types of pipe sticking are:

A bit that has become worn under size by an abrasive formation

may cause this problem. Also, an expanding formation such as salt
flow, shale deforming or swelling of clay may cause this problem.

Mechanical sticking

Lost circulation sticking

Pipe may be mechanically stuck by packers, anchor-catchers, junk

lost in the hole, multiple strings which have wrapped around each
other, and crooked pipe that has been dropped or corkscrewed.
When casing collapses, the tubing is stuck in the collapsed section.

This problem occurs in formations ranging from shallow unconsolidated sands to formations that may be fractured by excessive mud
weights used. Lost circulation may be controlled by the use of the
proper drilling fluid even after the drill string has become stuck
and is being washed over.

Mud sticking
Usually caused by the settling out of solids in the mud. Casing
leaks can allow shale and mud to enter the casing and stick the
tubing and other equipment. Cuttings produced when drilling a
well must be circulated out sufficiently to keep the hole clean;
otherwise, they will accumulate and cause sticking. Insufficient
mud systems are frequently the cause of sticking in drilling wells.
In some cases, wells have been drilled with clear water, and any
mud used is that which was produced by cuttings. This native
mud can cause sudden sticking over a long interval.

30

Differential pipe sticking

This is caused by a high hydrostatic pressure creating differential force
that holds the pipe in a thick filter cake across a permeable zone.
Differential sticking occurs only across a permeable zone, such
as sand, and the friction resistance may be a function of the filter
cake thickness. The sticking force can be calculated by the
following equation:

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

Fs = P Ac Cf

contact area in square inches per inch of pipe length is increased

from 2.3745 inches to 3.3595 inches, a difference in cake thickness
of 1.0205 inch or a 29% increase in contact area. It has been general
practice to report the filter cake thickness as 2/32 inch. However,
the above calculations show the importance of measuring the filter
cake thickness accurately and the effect of the cake thickness on
the sticking force calculations. Therefore, it is very important to
measure the filter cake thickness as accurately as possible.

The total pulling force necessary to pull the pipe free is calculated
as follows:
Ft = Fs + Wtb + Drag

Area of contact versus filter cake thickness

The filter cake thickness, in thirty-seconds of an inch (nearest 1/32
inch), is determined from the API fluid loss run for 30 minutes.
The calculations in table 1 are derived from fig. 5 and can be used
to determine the contact area between the pipe and the filter cake
(i.e., length of sticking line in square inches per inch of pipe
length). Fig. 8 shows the equations that were derived and used
as the basis for table 1. It should be noted from table 1 that for a
9-5/8 inch 12.25 inch configuration, by misinterpreting the filter
cake thickness of 2/32 inch instead of 1/32 inch (for example), the

Mud properties
Mud weight is an important factor for differential sticking.
Reducing the mud weight to a safe level will minimize the differential pressure. However, the mud weight can be reduced only a
certain amount and still maintain pressure control of the well
(Gatlin 1960).

TABLE 1.
CONTACT AREA VERSUS FILTER CAKE THICKNESS, SQUARE INCHES PER INCH OF PIPE LENGTH
Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t =

1/32

2/32

3/32

4/32

5/32

6/32

7/32

8/32

12/32

16/32

24/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t =

0.0313

0.0625

0.09375

0.125

0.1563

0.1875

0.2188

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.75

32/32
1

Size of Pipe (In) D1 =

D1

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

9.625

Size of Hole (In) D2 =

D2

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

a = (D2/2) - t

6.0937

6.0625

6.03125

5.9687

5.9375

5.9062

5.875

5.75

5.625

5.375

5.125

b = D1/2

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

4.8125

c = (D2-D1)/2

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

0.9698

0.939703154

0.909786642

0.8801

0.8504

0.821

0.7916

0.7625

0.6475

0.5349

0.3172

0.1095
83.6847

COS A = (b2+c2-a2)/(2xbxc)
A = Angle in Degrees

14.1169

19.9982

24.5241

28.3456

31.7448

34.815

37.6647

40.3149

49.6466

57.6629

71.5063

A=

Angle in Rad.

0.2467

0.349035052

0.428026576

0.5389

0.5541

0.6076

0.6574

0.7036

0.8665

1.0064

1.248

1.4606

Width of Contact (In) X =

A x 2 x (D1/2)

2.3745 3.359462376 4.119755797 5.1867

5.3327

5.8485

6.3272

6.7724

8.34

9.6867

12.012

14.058

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t =

1/32

2/32

3/32

4/32

5/32

6/32

7/32

8/32

12/32

16/32

24/32

32/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t =

0.0313

0.0625

0.09375

0.125

0.1563

0.1875

0.2188

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.75

Size of Pipe (In) D1 =

D1

Size of Hole (In) D2 =

D2

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

a = (D2/2) - t

4.2187

4.1875

4.1563

4.125

4.0937

4.0625

4.0312

3.875

3.75

3.5

3.25

b = D1/2

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

3.5

c = (D2-D1)/2

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

0.75

COS A = (b2+c2-a2)/(2xbxc)

0.8862

0.8396

0.7933

0.7472

0.7015

0.6563

0.6112

0.5667

0.3917

0.2222

0.1

0.4

A = Angle in Degrees

27.5999

32.9039

37.5047

41.6497

45.4534

48.9855

52.3227

55.4819

66.9418

77.1604

84.2608

66.4218

A=

Angle in Rad.

0.4817

0.5743

0.6546

0.7269

0.7933

0.855

0.9132

0.9683

1.1684

1.3467

1.4706

1.1593

Width of Contact (In) X =

A x 2 x (D1/2)

3.372

4.02

4.5821

5.0885

5.5532

5.9847

6.3924

6.7784

8.1785

9.4269

10.2944

8.115
32/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t =

1/32

2/32

3/32

4/32

5/32

6/32

7/32

8/32

12/32

16/32

24/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t =

0.0313

0.0625

0.09375

0.125

0.1563

0.1875

0.2188

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.75

Size of Pipe (In) D1 =

D1

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

7.25

Size of Hole (In) D2 =

D2

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

9.875

a = (D2/2) - t

4.9062

4.875

4.8438

4.8125

4.7812

4.75

4.7187

4.6875

4.5625

4.4375

4.1875

3.9375

b = D1/2

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

c = (D2-D1)/2

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

1.3125

COS A = (b2+c2-a2)/(2xbxc)
A = Angle in Degrees

0.9676

0.9356

0.9037

0.8719

0.8404

0.8091

0.778

0.7471

0.6256

0.5074

0.2808

0.0673

14.6199

20.6827

25.3533

29.3173

32.8214

35.9906

38.9251

41.6579

51.2726

59.51

73.6928

86.1398

A=

Angle in Rad.

0.2552

0.361

0.4425

0.5117

0.5728

0.6282

0.6794

0.7271

0.8949

1.0386

1.2862

1.5034

Width of Contact (In) X =

A x 2 x (D1/2)

1.8499

2.6171

3.2081

3.7097

4.1531

4.5541

4.9254

5.2712

6.4879

7.5302

9.3248

10.8998

Table 1 is continued on the following page

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

31

Filter cake property

Rearrangement of this equation is useful for plotting purposes:

When evaluating mud filtration, three stages of filtration should be

evaluated (Gatlin 1960):
1. The initial surge period: before any appreciable cake is
formed, Vs + Vx (fig. 2).
2. The transition period: after a filter cake is initiated but before
it becomes uniform, i.e., the period during which the cake
surface is irregular and is under unequal pressure gradients at
different points.
3. The constant pressure gradient period: filtration volume
varies linearly with the square root of time. Quantitative
analysis of the water loss in each stage is given by the following equation:

t/V = m V + n
A plot of t/V vs. V becomes linear when m becomes constant in
stage 3 of the filtration process (fig. 3). The surge loss Vs is obtained
as the magnitude of V when t/V = 0. Careful analysis of the original
data will also allow determination of the corresponding surge ts,
where ts = t t (see below). Since stage 3 is completely governed
by the permeability of the filter cake, the above equation may be
rewritten in terms of the surge corrected volume V and time t:
t/V = m V
Where
t = t ts
V = V Vs

t = m V2 + n V

TABLE 1.
continued from previous page
Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t=

1/32

2/32

3/32

4/32

5/32

6/32

7/32

8/32

12/32

16/32

24/32

32/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t=

0.0313

0.0625

0.09375

0.125

0.1563

0.1875

0.2188

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.75

Size of Pipe (In) D1=

D1

Size of Hole (In) D2=

D2

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

8.5

a = (D2/2) - t

4.2187

4.1875

4.1563

4.125

4.0937

4.0625

4.0312

3.875

3.75

3.5

3.25

b = D1/2

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

c = (D2-D1)/2

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

1.75

COS A= (b2+c2-a2)/(2xbxc)
A= Angle in Degrees

0.9697

0.9397

0.91

0.8804

0.851

0.8219

0.7929

0.7643

0.6518

0.5429

0.3357

0.1429

14.1397

19.9934

24.4973

28.3145

31.684

34.7271

37.5405

40.1565

49.3236

57.1217

70.384

81.7868

A=

Angle in Rad.

0.2468

0.349

0.4276

0.4942

0.553

0.6061

0.6552

0.7009

0.8609

0.997

1.2284

1.4274

Width of Contact (In) X=

A x 2 x (D1/2)

1.2339

1.7448

2.1378

2.4709

2.7665

3.0305

3.276

3.5043

4.3043

4.9848

6.1422

7.1372

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t=

1/32

2/32

3/32

4/32

5/32

6/32

7/32

8/32

12/32

16/32

24/32

32/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t=

0.0313

0.0625

0.09375

0.125

0.1563

0.1875

0.2188

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.75

Size of Pipe (In) D1=

D1

Size of Hole (In) D2=

D2

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

12.25

a = (D2/2) - t

6.0937

6.0625

6.03125

5.9687

5.9375

5.9062

5.875

5.75

5.625

5.375

5.125

b = D1/2

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

c = (D2-D1)/2

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

3.625

COS A= (b2+c2-a2)/(2xbxc)
A= Angle in Degrees

0.9789

0.958

0.9371

0.9164

0.8957

0.8752

0.8548

0.8345

0.7543

0.6759

0.5241

0.3793

11.7903

16.6695

20.4259

23.5974

26.4

28.9293

31.2663

33.4378

41.0347

47.4788

58.3897

67.7089

A=

Angle in Rad.

0.2058

0.2909

0.3565

0.4119

0.4608

0.5049

0.5457

0.5836

0.7162

0.8287

1.0191

1.1817

Width of Contact (In) X=

A x 2 x (D1/2)

1.0289

1.4547

1.7825

2.0593

2.3038

2.5246

2.7285

2.918

3.581

4.1433

5.0955

5.9087

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t=

1/32

2/32

3/32

4/32

5/32

6/32

7/32

8/32

12/32

16/32

24/32

32/32

Thickness of Filter Cake (In) t=

0.0313

0.0625

0.09375

0.125

0.1563

0.1875

0.2188

0.25

0.375

0.5

0.75

Size of Pipe (In) D1=

D1

Size of Hole (In) D2=

D2

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

a = (D2/2) - t

8.7187

8.6875

8.6563

8.625

8.5937

8.5312

8.5

8.375

8.25

7.75

b = D1/2

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

c = (D2-D1)/2

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

6.25

COS A= (b2+c2-a2)/(2xbxc)
A= Angle in Degrees

32

0.9825

0.9651

0.9478

0.9305

0.9133

0.8961

0.879

0.862

0.7945

0.728

0.598

0.472

10.7337

15.1763

18.5927

21.4871

24.0411

26.3467

28.4776

30.4581

37.3919

43.281

53.2732

61.8358

A=

Angle in Rad.

0.1873

0.2649

0.3245

0.375

0.4196

0.4598

0.497

0.5316

0.6526

0.7554

0.9298

1.0792

Width of Contact (In) X=

A x 2 x (D1/2)

0.9365

1.3244

1.6225

1.8751

2.098

2.2992

2.4851

2.658

3.2631

3.777

4.649

5.3962

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

A plot of t/V vs. V becomes linear when m = constant. Hence

the filtration loss during stage 2, Vx, may be obtained as the linearly
extrapolated intercept at t/V = 0 (fig. 3). The importance of this
procedure lies in the fact that additives which improve stage 3
behavior do not necessarily improve losses during other stages.
The surge loss of stage 1 is dependent on the rapidity with which
the mud solids bridge surface and internal pore openings. A mud
which contains properly sized solids for a particular sand may be
expected to bridge more quickly and efficiently than one which is
deficient in some critical sizes.

Area of contact between filter cake and pipe

The contact area between the filter cake and pipe is an important
factor. The area of contact represents the total area of the pipe
covered by filter cake across which the pressure differential is
effective. The area of contact is affected by the following
(Stewart and Moore 1986):
1. Length of sticking interval
2. Hole size and pipe size
3. Thickness of the filter cake
4. External stabilization of the pipe

Pipe movement
Moving the pipe at all times will reduce the sticking, since it prevents
the pipe from being embedded in the wall cake. In addition, quick
action after the pipe becomes stuck is essential to prevent further
sticking in other zones that would not ordinarily cause problems.
18.0

Amount of differential pressure

Differential pressure exists when the equivalent circulating density
(ECD) is greater than the formation pore pressure. One method
utilized to minimize this effect is to drill with minimum mud
weights. The problem of minimizing the differential pressure is
often complicated by long sections of open hole, where the formation pore pressures are substantially different. For this reason, a
given mud weight may be necessary to control the pore pressure
in one open formation, and this will impose a large pressure
differential across another open formation.
Differential pressure sticking is recognized as a potential
problem when the differential pressure reaches a given level in a
specific area. Field studies have been used to establish values for
the amount of differential pressure that can be tolerated before
sticking occurs. These values are as follows (Stewart):
Across normal pressured zones: 2,000 to 2,400 PSI.
Across abnormal pressured zones: 3,100 to 3,300 PSI.
However, wells have been drilled across subnormal pressured
zones (depleted sands) with a differential pressure as high as 4,720
PSI, successfully (Hanna and Hollister 1989).
The maximum overbalance pressure depends on the type of the
wellbore as shown in fig. 4. Straight holes can tolerate higher overbalance pressure than deviated holes.

Bottom-hole assembly
The bottom-hole assembly shape is a very important parameter
and is one that can be changed easily. Large, externally flush drill
160

16.0

150
140

12.0
Vc @ 30 min.
10.0

8.0

6.0

4.0

Time/Filtrate Volume Seconds/CC

V, Filtrate Volume, CC

14.0

130
120
110
100
90
80
70

t/V vs V

t/V vs V

60
50
40
30
20

Vs + Vx

2.0

10
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Vx

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Filtrate Volume, CC

t 1 Seconds
Fig. 2. Standard method of obtaining API fluid loss. Corrected volume Vc
is commonly reported. Vs + Vx = initial spurt or surge correction. After
Slusser, Glenn and Huitt; courtesy AIME.

Vs
Fig. 3. Method of plotting filtration data. Vs, Vx and Vc are determined as
shown. After Slusser, Glenn and Huitt; courtesy AIME.

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

33

collars represent the ideal type of equipment for differential pressure

sticking. Special drill collar configurations have been used. Some of
these are: spiral collars, with circulation grooves in the external
surface of the drill collars; square drill collars; and shouldered drill
collars. Spiral heavy weight drill pipe has been also used. The
effect of the special drill collars is to reduce substantially the area
of wall contact. The heavy weight drill pipe has reduced substantially the differential pressure sticking problem, particularly in
directional wells (Stewart; McKeown and Williamson 1986).

The following equation can be used to calculate the maximum

allowable rate of penetration based on the pump rate and the
desired percentage of native solids in the annulus (Mobil 1989).

Length of the sticking interval

Formations at depth exist under a state of compressive in-situ stress.

When a well is drilled, the rock surrounding the borehole must
support the load that was previously taken by the removed rock.
As a result, the hole produces an increase in the stress around the
hole (a stress concentration). If the rock is not strong enough, the
borehole will fail (Cheatham 1984). To keep the rock from failing,
1. a mud is selected that minimizes the weakening of the rock;
and
2. the pressure in the wellbore is increased by weighting up the
mud and adding filtrate control additives so that the wellbore
pressure carries some of the load imposed on the wellbore
wall by the in-situ stresses (Bradley 1979).

The length of the sticking interval is a fixed parameter, since

there is no control of the permeable zone that will be penetrated.
Therefore, this factor cannot be changed.

Control drilling
It is highly advantageous to control the instantaneous penetration
rate at 100 ft/hr (30.5 m/hr) maximum, in a 12-1/4 hole, in the
pressure depleted interval, and pump at the maximum rate possible
to maintain a low percentage of native solids in the annulus (2% or
less). A higher pump rate will add additional pressure on the
formation, due to friction in the annulus, and at the same time will
keep the annulus clean and will also keep the pressure imposed on
the formation due to the solids buildup in the annulus at a minimum
level. The bottom line is to keep the hole clean.

ROP(ft/hr) =

Qf
Dh2 (1 f)
1470

Hole stability/deviation

40 ft

0
45
Holes
Max PPG
Diff

2,000

30
Holes
Max PPG
Diff

4,000

6,000
True Vertical Depth (ft)

Rule of Thumb

Straight
Holes
Max PPG
Diff

8,000

10,000

12,000
Maximum
Overbalance
(PPG)

14,000

2 in
16,000
1

18,000

7
2 in

20,000
0

40 ft

Maximum Overbalance Pressure x 1000psi

Fig. 4. Guidelines for maximum overbalance in various type wellbores
(high permeable sands soft rocks)

34

Contact Area = (40 x 12) x (2) = 960 sq. in.

Fig. 5. Pipe/formation contact area

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

An inclined hole requires higher mud weight than a vertical one

to prevent wellbore collapse (Cheatham 1984). Bradley (1979)
found, in one example, that increasing the hole angle from 0 to
60 requires that the mud weight be increased by 2.5 lb/gal (0.30
g/cm3) to prevent collapse of the hole. Compared with a vertical
hole, a steeply inclined hole has reduced ability to withstand mud
pressure without fracture initiation and requires greater mud
pressure to prevent hole collapse. Based on the above, it is recommended to drill depleted sand zones with straight hole rather than
directional hole. Straight holes require less mud weight for stability
control than directional holes, and therefore less differential pressure.
If we can reduce or minimize one or all of the components at
the right side of the equation below, then the sticking force will be
reduced, too.

TABLE 2.
MUD WEIGHT VS. FRICTION COEFFICIENT
Mud Type

MW

Friction Coefficient

FW Ligno

9.5 ppg

0.31 (16 hr @ 150F)

SW Ligno

11.5

0.35 (16 hr @ 150F)

SW Ligno

12.0

0.26 (without aging)

SW Ligno

17.0

0.29 (without aging)

KCl/Drisp

N/A

0.34 (16 hr @ 150F)

Oil-base,unwtd

7.0

0.09

Oil-base Mud

18.5

0.13

Centralizer

Centralizer
Formation

Fs = P Ac Cf

Casing

In reality, the pressure differential, P, between the hydrostatic

head of the mud and the formation pore pressure can only be
reduced to a minimum safe level. Sometime, this differential pressure cannot be reduced due to hole condition and the presence of
formations with different pore pressures in the same open hole.
The friction factor, Cf, can be reduced by using oil-base muds.
However, oil-base muds are very expensive. The friction factors
for different water-base mud systems at different mud weights are
given in table 2.
A better approach to this problem is to reduce or minimize the
contact area between the casing and wellbore wall.
A 40-ft joint of casing when embedded for two inches in a filter
cake (fig. 5) will have a contact area of:
(40) (12) (2) = 960 sq. in.
However, when two centralizers, for example, are used on the same
joint, one at each end (figs. 6 and 7), then the contact area of the
centralizers with the borehole wall will be:

Formation
Stand-Off (Sag Point)
Centralizer Spacing

Fig. 6. Centralizer spacing showing sag point

A detailed problem on the effect of using centralizers on the sticking force is given under Problem: Differential Pressure Sticking.
Let us now take a field example to calculate the effect of the
contact area on the sticking force:

Example
A 10,000 ft of 5, 19.5 lb/ft drill pipe is imbedded for 3 in the wall
cake over a 25-foot section of sand zone, with a pressure differential
of 1,600 PSI, and a friction coefficient of 0.26. If the upward drag
in this well is 35,000 lbs, calculate the total pulling force to free
this pipe.

Sticking force, Fs:

(2 Bows per Cent.) (2 Cents.) = 4 Bows Contact
Fs = P Ac Cf
Fs = 1600 (3 25 12) 0.26 = 374,400 lbs

If each bow is 1.5 inches wide and 24 inches long, then the
contact area A will be equal to:
A = (4 Bows) (1.5 wide) (24 long) = 144 sq. in.

Total pulling force to free, Ft:

By using centralizers we can reduce the contact area by:

(960 144/960) 100 = 85%
Note: If only one centralizer is needed to give the desired standoff,
then the contact area of one centralizer will be:
144/2 = 72 sq. in., or a 92.5% reduction in the contact area.

Ft = Fs + Wtb + Drag
Wtb = [(65.45 10) / 65.45] 10,000 19.5
Wtb = 165,206 lbs
Ft = 374,400 + 165,206 + 35,000 = 574,606 lbs
Normally the sticking occurs when the drill pipe is not in motion,
and usually full or partial circulation can be accomplished. The
immediate step to be taken is to shut down the pump. Pump

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

35

pressure during circulation increases the wellbore pressure slightly.

Stopping this additional pressure may be enough to reduce the
force sufficiently that the pipe may be worked free.

problem, and the skilled application of the decision insofar as the

rig and tools are concerned.

Avoiding hazards

FISHING
Fishing is a term used for procedures to free a stuck pipe or drill
collars, recover pipe twisted off or lost downhole, remove loose
junk, and recover or remove parted or stuck wireline (Gatlin 1960).
Although a fishing job is unwelcome, sometimes it is a necessary procedure in both drilling and workover operations. A fishing
job is expensive and usually not in the budget, and the foreman
must see that it is performed in the proper way.
If none of the preceding methods is successful, it will be necessary to part the pipe and either jar it or wash over. Ordinarily jars
are used if the stuck interval is short. If there is a great deal of pipe
to be freed, most operators will wash over.
Fishing is not an unusual practice, and is required to some
degree in about 20% of the wells drilled and about 80% of the
wells that are worked over.
The cost of fishing, including the rig time used, is considerable;
therefore, care and judgment must be exercised.
Fishing tools and practices have been developed over the years,
making possible the correction of almost any downhole problem.
However, sometimes the cost may be prohibitive.
Fishing is not an exact science, and many times there is more
than one way to approach the problem. Personnel of fishing tool
companies have gained considerable experience by performing this
work constantly, whereas operating personnel are exposed to these
problems only occasionally. However, many operations personnel
are very familiar and experienced in fishing and stuck-pipe problems.
Planning a fishing job is the most important phase of the operation, and adequate planning can reduce cost. All personnel, such as
fishing tool operators, mud company personnel, rig personnel and
electric wireline company representatives, should be involved in
the discussion and the planning phase.

There are many causes that contribute to a fishing job on drilling

and workover jobs, but the predominant one is human error
(Gatlin 1960).
There are some basic rules which should be followed during all
drilling and workover operations that become even more important
when fishing. Every effort should be made to recover something or
to improve the situation on each trip in the hole with the tools.
Misruns waste money, and there is the possibility of additional
mishaps on every trip in the hole.
Drawings showing dimensions should always be made of everything that is run in the wellbore. Both the service company and the
operating company personnel must share this responsibility. Each
should make independent measurements and sketches.
For a large or unusual tool or downhole assembly being run, a
plan should be formulated as to how it would be fished if it should

Formation

Open Hole

Casing

Economics of fishing
Fishing should be an economical solution to the problem in the
well. A shallow hole with little rig time and equipment can justify
only the cheapest fishing. When there is a large investment in the
hole and expensive equipment to be recovered, more time and
expense can be justified. An economic decision should be made
to fish or not to fish; if so, for how long?
Probability factors are used in determining the time to be spent
on a fishing job. These percentages must be derived from similar
situations. This sometimes may not be correct, as there are no two
fishing jobs exactly alike.
Decision trees with the associated costs should be established
for drilling and workover programs.
The best solution is good judgment, careful analysis of the

36

Bow

1.5"

24"
Contact area = 2 Bows per centralizer
Bow area = 1.5" x 24" = 36 sq. in.
Total contact area per centralizer = 2 x 36 = 72 sq. in.
For two centralizers, the contact area = 2 x 72 = 144 sq. in.
Fig. 7. Centralizer bows contact area

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

become stuck or broken. Before you run the tool, ask: Can this
tool be fished? Can it be washed over? If so, what size washpipe
can be run?
Jars are run as insurance against sticking. If there is a reasonable
chance that the tool or assembly may get stuck, then jars run in
the string are appropriate and the costs are justified.
Mud and other well fluids should be conditioned and have the
desired properties prior to a trip in the hole with fishing tools. It
may be necessary to make a trip with a bit to condition the hole
and circulate out fill that has covered up the fish.
When fishing, consideration should be given to releasing or
recovering the fishing tools themselves should they become stuck
or the fish is pulled and the tool cannot be released. Ensure that
the fishing tool works properly with the fish in question on the
surface before running the tool downhole.

SOLUTIONS TO PIPE
STICKING PROBLEMS
Surge method
The surge or U-tube method of freeing the stuck pipe involves
displacing a portion of the mud system in the hole with a lighter
weight fluid and allowing the system to flow back to a balanced
position. This lighter fluid may be diesel oil, crude oil, water, nitrogen, gas or any fluid that is available with an appropriate weight.
When the fluid is flowed back, the fluid level in the annulus is
lower; therefore the hydrostatic pressure on the formation is
reduced. If this is sufficient to at least equal the formation pressure,
the string will come free. This method of freeing the pipe is safe
since the pressure can be reduced in several steps. The mud weight
itself is not reduced, and if a kick occurs, the fluid which was
flowed out of the annulus can control it.

Spotting fluid
If there is not sufficient reduction in pressure to free the pipe, then
usually it is advisable to spot a fluid across the stuck zone, which
will penetrate the filter cake and remove it.
The concept of spotting fluid(s) is similar to the oil-base invert
(water-in-oil) emulsion mud. Both are based on the osmotic pressure concept. Oil-base mud and/or spotting fluid is very slick mud
in which the degree of inhibition is controlled by adjusting the
chloride content of the water phase. Chlorides slightly higher than
the chlorides in the water in the shale will inhibit the shales.
Chlorides much higher will remove the water from the shale,
which toughens the wall of the hole. Gauge holes are usually
drilled with invert emulsion oil mud because the shales are highly
inhibited. In the case of spotting fluid, the chloride content of the
water phase (internal phase) is mixed higher than the salinity of
the mud system. This difference in salinity will result in osmotic
pressure that will inhibit and toughen the mud filter cake. The end
result is that the filter cake will shrink, resulting in a smaller contact

area between the filter cake and the stuck pipe. Literature shows
that the osmotic pressure between salt-saturated calcium chloride
brine opposite fresh water shale at 25C can reach up to 24,400
PSI (After Baroid (1977), table 2, courtesy of Baroid Petroleum
Services). Meanwhile, the osmotic pressure between salt-saturated
sodium chloride brine opposite fresh water shale at 25C can reach
5,800 PSI. This makes the calcium chloride brine predominantly
used in oil-base muds and spotting fluids.
Diesel and crude oils are used most commonly with the proper
surfactant in the mixture. The most usual problem with this
method is that the operator will not spend enough time to allow
the filter cake to be removed. The freeing fluid is invariably lighter
than the mud in the hole, so there is going to be considerable
migration up the hole after it is spotted. It is necessary that a new
slug be spotted about every 30 minutes. At least eight hours should
be allowed for the procedure to take effect.
Torquing the pipe during this time is advisable and small
amounts of weight can be left on the stuck pipe if it is off bottom.

Drill stem test tool (DST)

This is one method of freeing differentially stuck pipe which is
used most effectively but has not been universally accepted
because of other inherent hazards of the operation (Kemp 1986).
Open-hole packers or test tools may be used to remove the
hydrostatic force from the stuck pipe and to free it the instant the
tool is set.
The purpose of the DST tool is to lower the hydrostatic pressure around the fish enough to allow the formation pressure to
push the fish away from the wall. The fishing string consists of a
catching tool or screw-in sub on bottom, a perforated sub in case
the fish is plugged, bumper jars, packer and optional safety joint,
and jars above the test tool. A good packer seat must be selected.
By backing off the pipe string and spacing out the fishing string,
the test tool will be located in the appropriate zone. To operate
the tool, the string is run and the fish caught or screwed in. The
weight of the string is set down on top of the fish, which causes
the packer to expand and seal off. This separates the mud column
above the packer from the hole below, greatly reducing the hydrostatic head in the stuck section. As weight is applied to the string,
a bypass valve opens so that the pressure trapped below the packer
escapes into the drill string. The pressure in the formation immediately pushes the stuck pipe away from the wellbore wall. As the
string is picked up, the packer unseats and contracts, the connecting
valve closes and the bypass valve opens. The fish may then be
pulled from the wellbore.
If none of the preceding methods is successful, it will be necessary to part the pipe and either jar on it or wash over. Ordinarily,
jars are used if the stuck interval is short. If there is a great deal of
pipe to be freed, most operators will wash over.

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

37

DETERMINING THE STUCK POINT

Example

Measuring stretch
When pipe becomes stuck, the first step is to determine at what
depth the sticking has occurred.
Stretch in pipe can be measured and calculation made to estimate the depth to the top of the stuck pipe. If the length of stretch
in the pipe with a given pull is measured, the amount of the free
pipe can be calculated or determined from a chart.
First, mark a point at the rotary table level with the hook load
completely slacked off. Pull tension on the pipe at least equal to
the normal hook load (air weight) of the pipe prior to getting
stuck. Record the tension applied as a pulling force, F1, and
measure the stretch, S1, in the pipe in inches, due to the pulling
force F1.
Next, pull additional tension, which has been predetermined
within the range of safe tensional limits on the pipe. Record the
new pulling force, F2, and measure the stretch, S2, in inches,
which resulted due to the pulling force F2.
The stuck pipe depth can be determined by using the
following equation:

A 10,000 ft of 3-1/2, 13.3 ppf drill pipe is stuck in hole. The following measurements were obtained for the purpose of calculating
the free point:
F1 = 133,000 lbs
F2 = 200,000 lbs
S = 4 ft
Determine the free point (at which depth the pipe is stuck):
D = 735 1,000 13.3 (4 12)
200,000 133,000
D = 735,000 638.4 = 7,003.34 ft
67,000

STRETCH IN STEEL PIPE

Stretch, S, in tubing or casing can be calculated using the
following equation:

Stuck Pipe Depth, D = 735 1,000 W S

F2 F1

S=

(Force) ( Length)
(Steel Elasticity Factor) (Cross Sect. Area)

or
S= FL
EA

Also, the length change due to temperature can be calculated using

the following equation:

D1
b

L = 0.0000069 F T

c
A1

and

Pipe
D2
A

F = 207 A T

Filter
Cake
Wellbore
Wall

a = (D2/2) - t

A1 = 180 - A

Cos A = (b2 + c2 - a2) / 2 (b x c)

b = D1/2

c = (D2 - D1) / 2

D1 = Pipe OD

D2 = Hole ID

t = Filter cake thickness

Example
If the stretch of 2,000 ft of 1.315 tubing with ID = 1.049,
(Cross-sectional area = 0.49 sq in), due to pull of 7,000 lbs is equal
to 11.42857 in, calculate the actual length and force changes due
to temperature change:
T = T2 T1
T = 100 80 = 20 F

X = Pipe/filter cake sticking line length = A x 2 x (D1/2)

Fig. 8. Calculations of contact area versus filter cake thickness

38

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

L = 0.0000069 L T
L = 0.0000069 2000 20 = 0.276 ft

Total Stretch = 11.42857 + (0.276 12) = 14.74 in

STUCK PIPE LOGS

A log which measures the severity and the length of stuck pipe is
very helpful in determining what method to use to free the pipe.
Pipe recovery logs can express the sticking condition as a percentage.
A vibration is used and measured by a receiver. At stuck intervals,
the sonic vibrations decrease in proportion to the severity of the
sticking. The instrument is calibrated in known free pipe. The pipe
recovery log gives a complete record of all stuck intervals and possible trouble areas in a string of stuck pipe. This information is very
helpful in evaluating conditions to determine whether to jar on the
stuck section, to wash over the fish, or to sidetrack. It may be used
in drill pipe, tubing, casing or washpipe.

Force due to temperature change, F:

F = 207 A T
F = 207 0.49 20 = 2,029 lbs

Stretch due to 2,029 lbs force, S:

S=

2029 2000 = 0.276 ft = 3.312 in

30,000 0.49

This length change due to temperature should be added to the

calculated stretch of the casing/pipe to better determine the stuck
pipe depth.

Buoyancy
When pipe is stuck, the buoyant forces are being exerted against
the stuck section, and therefore there is no effective buoyant force
at the surface. Immediately when the pipe is freed, the buoyant
forces are again in effect and are to be reckoned with accordingly.
This statement, of course, ignores the cumulative length of the tool
joints or couplings and the small hydrostatic forces tending to
buoy them.

Free-point instrument
Electric wireline service companies run instruments on conductor
lines and are able to accurately determine the stuck point of a pipe.
The instruments are highly sensitive electronic devices, which
measure both stretch and torque movement in a string of pipe.
This information is transmitted through the electric conductor
cable to a surface panel in the control unit where the operator
interprets the data.
The basic free-point instrument consists of a mandrel, which
encompasses a strain gauge or microcell. At the top and bottom of
the instrument are friction springs, friction blocks or magnets,
which hold the tool rigidly in the pipe. When an upward pull or
torque is applied at the surface, the pipe above the stuck point
stretches or twists. The change in the current passing through the
instrument is measured by the microcell and transmitted to the
surface for interpretation. When the instrument is run in stuck
pipe, there is no movement in the pipe, therefore there is no pull
or torque transmitted to the instrument. In turn, the gauge at the
surface shows no change in its reading.
Free-point indicators are frequently run with collar locators and
in combination with string shots, chemical cutters and jet cutters.
This combination run saves expensive rig time, and it will also
maintain a continuous sequence in measuring, so that there is less
chance of a misrun in cutting or backing off.

PROBLEM:
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE STICKING
Previous Casing Size
Previous Casing Depth
Pore Pressure @ 13-3/8 CSG
Open Hole Size
Open Hole Depth, TD
Mud Weight @ TD
Casing To Run @ TD
Casing Joint Strength
Casing Body Strength
Mud Type
Friction Coefficient (Assumed)

9-5/8
6,900 TVD
9.5 PPG
8-3/4
8,200 TVD
20.00 PPG
7, 32#, N-80
823,000#
745,000#
Water-Base
0.35

1. No centralizers used on 7 casing:

A) 20 ft pipe embedded for 2 in the filter cake:
Area = (20 12) (2) = 480 sq in
B) 40 ft pipe embedded for 2 in the filter cake:
Area = (40 12) (2) = 960 sq in

Sticking force calculations:

Fs = (Diff. Pressure) (Contact Area) (Friction Coefficient)

Differential pressure at 6,900 ft:

Diff. Press = (20 9.5) (480) (6900) (0.052) = 3,767 PSI
Fs1 = (3767) (480) (0.35) = 632,856 lbs
Fs2 = (3767) (960) (0.35) = 1,265,712 lbs
Drag (estimated) = 50,000 lbs
String wt. in mud = (65.45 20) (32) (8200)
65.45
String wt. in mud = 182,217 lbs

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

39

Total pulling force required to free the casing:

Ft1 = 632,856 + 50,000 + 182,217 = 865,073 lbs
Ft2 = 1,265,712 + 50,000 + 182,217 = 1,497,929 lbs*
* This pulling force of 1,497,929 lbs exceeds the joint strength
and the body strength of the 7, 32 lb/ft, N-80,
buttress casing. Therefore, if we attempt to pull the casing
free, it will be parted.

2. Two centralizers used per joint of the 7 casing:

On a 40-ft joint, the contact area between the bows and the formation will be as follows:

Contact area with centralizers:

A = (4 bows) (1.5) (24) = 144 sq in

Sticking force, FS:

Fs = (3767) (144) (0.35) = 189,857 lbs

CONCLUSION
By understanding the causes of pipe sticking and implementing
good drilling practices such as:
1. Good mud and filter cake properties,
2. Pipe and drill string movement,
3. Wiper trips every 500 ft,
4. Taper type and spiral bottom hole assembly,
5. Controlling penetration rate,
6. Minimizing contact area, and
7. Using casing centralizers,
sticking problems can be reduced or completely eliminated,
resulting in enormous savings.

NOMENCLATURE
A
Ac
Cm3
Cf
D
Dh
Drag
P

Total pulling force using centralizers:

Ft3 = 189,857 + 50,000 + 182,217 = 422,074 lbs**
** This pulling force of 422,074 lbs is less than the joint
strength and the body strength of the 7, 32 lb/ft, N-80,
buttress casing. Therefore, the casing can be pulled free
with a safety factor of:
SF = 745,000/422074 = 1.76

Difference in pulling forces with and without centralizers:

F = Ft2 Ft3
F = 1,497,929 422,074 = 1,075,855 lbs
The purpose of the above example is to show how critical the
contact area between the casing surface and the wellbore wall is.
Even with a small contact area, the sticking force is tremendous
when very high differential pressures exist. In order to minimize or
completely eliminate this contact, the use of a proper centralization
becomes crucial.
If we can imagine running a casing string without centralizers
in an open hole like a long train of cabins without wheels dragged
over the railroad track, the force required to push such train
is much greater than the force required to drag the same train
with wheels.

40

E
ECD
f
F
Fs
F1
F2
F
ft
Ft
g
L
lbs
lb/gal
m

MW
n
PSI
Q
ROP
S
S

SAUDI ARAMCO JOURNAL OF TECHNOLOGY WINTER 1998/1999

Cross-sectional area, sq.in.

Area of contact between pipe and filter cake.
Cubic centimeter.
Coefficient of friction between pipe and filter cake.
Stuck pipe depth, ft.
Hole diameter, inches.
Upward drag in the well, lbs.
Differential pressure = Hydrostatic pressure of mud
minus pore pressure of formation.
Elasticity factor for steel, E = 30,000,000
Equivalent circulating density, lb/gal.
Desired native solids fraction in the annulus, decimal
fraction.
Force, lbs.
Sticking force or total pulling force required to free
stuck pipe, lbs
Pulling force at which S1 was obtained, lbs.
Pulling force at which S2 was obtained, lbs.
= F2 F1 = differential pulling force, lbs.
Foot
Total pulling force to free, lbs.
grams
Length of pipe, ft.
Pounds
Pounds per gallon, or ppg.
A number that defines the filtration characteristics of
the mud cake. It increases from zero during stage 1 to
some constant value in stage 3.
Mud weight, lb/gal.
Constant depending essentially on the permeability of
the media (filter paper or porous formation).
Pounds per square inch
Pump output, gallons per minute.
Rate of Penetration, ft/hr
Stretch, inch.
= S2 S1 = differential stretch due to F, ft

S1
S2
t
T
T1
T2
T
V
W
Wtb

Stretch due to pulling force F1, inch

Stretch due to pulling force F2, inch
Time, minutes.
Temperature change, F
Initial temperature, F
Final temperature, F
= F2 F1 = Temperature change, F
Cumulative filtration volume.
Pipe weight, lb/ft
Buoyant weight of the pipe, lbs.

SI metric conversion factors

barrel 1.589 873
F
ft 3.048*
ft/hr 8.466 667
gal 3.785 412
in. 2.54*
mile 1.609 344
psi 6.894 757

E01
(F-32)/1.8
E01
E05
E03
E+00
E+03
E+00

= cu m.
= C
=m
= m/s
= cu m.
= cm
=m
= kPa

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author gratefully acknowledges the contribution of all those
individuals who helped make this paper possible.

REFERENCES
Bradley, W.B. 1979. Failure of inclined boreholes. Transactions of
the ASME, 232/Vol.101, December.
Cheatham, Jr., J.B. 1984. Wellbore stability. JPT, June.
Gatlin, C. 1960. Drilling and well completion. Petroleum
Engineering.
Hanna, I.S. and K. Hollister. 1989. PDC bits proved effective in
drilling severely depleted sands in the Gulf of Mexico. SPE
19567, San Antonio, Texas, October 8-11.
IADC Rotary Drilling. 1980. Blowout prevention. Third Edition,
Unit III, Lesson 3.
Kemp, Gore. 1986. Oilwell Fishing Operations: Tools and Techniques.
McClure, L.J. 1983. Drill Abnormal Pressure Safely.
McKeown, G.K., and J.S. Williamson. 1986. An engineering
approach to stabilization selection. IADC/SPE 14766, presented at the 1986 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas,
Feb. 10-12.
Mobil. 1989. Mobil Drilling Technology Handbook. January 13.
Moore, P.L. 1986. Drilling Practices Manual. Second Edition.
Stewart, M.I. A method of selecting casing setting depths to prevent differential-pressure pipe sticking in the Gulf of Mexico.

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