Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

Human values and perceptions of water in arid landscapes

Shmuel Burmila, Terry C. Danielb,*, John D. Hetheringtonc
a
Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning, The Technion Haifa, Israel
Department of Psychology University of Arizona College of Social and Behavioral Sciences,
Dept. of Psychology, P.O. Box 210068, Tucson, AZ 85721-0068, USA
c
Department of Psychology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA

Received 22 January 1998; received in revised form 12 April 1998; accepted 29 January 1999

Abstract
Human perceptions and values regarding water in arid landscapes are multi-faceted. Water is valued for life sustaining and
practical aspects such as drinking, bathing, and cooking. Water is also one of the most important and most attractive visual
elements of the landscape. Water has important effects on landforms through sedimentation and erosion, and on the types,
quantities and distributions of vegetation, aquatic organisms, and wildlife. In arid landscapes especially, there are a wide range
of cultural, spiritual, and religious values related to water. Changes in water regimes and the associated changes in landforms,
vegetation and wildlife can have signicant effects on many different types of human perceptions and values. Current policies
for water management emphasize technical standards and legal regulations that address only a few of the relevant human
values, primarily those involving consumptive uses. More comprehensive water policies addressing the broader array of
human perceptions, meanings and values related to water are needed, especially in arid areas. # 1999 Published by Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Environmental values; Arid landscapes; Water values

1. Introduction
Sources of information on human perceptions,
meanings and values associated with water in the
landscape are very diverse. The relevant literature is
substantial and spans an immense range from ancient
religious, spiritual and even mythical references to
modern technical and scientic studies. At the most
fundamental levels, water is essential for life. It is one
of the principal controlling factors in all the biological
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-602-621-7453; fax: +1-602621-9306; e-mail: danieltc@ccit.arizona.edu

systems. Social science research and theory has

emphasized the role of water in human perception,
evaluation and interpretation of places. The importance of water as an aesthetic element in the landscape
was recognized as early as the Mesopotamian and
Egyptian gardens, and the importance of water continues to be recognized by contemporary landscape
planners and designers. Water features have consistently been found to be important to human perceptual
evaluations of landscape scenic quality and to the
quality of many outdoor recreation experiences. Viewing water in the landscape has been found to have
benecial psychophysiological effects, potentially

0169-2046/99/$20.00 # 1999 Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 2 0 4 6 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 0 0 7 - 9

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S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

serving important restorative health needs. Contrary to

the diversity of water effects and human values associated with water, water management policies have
largely focused upon technical, engineering-based
standards and on complex legal denitions and regulations that specify the levels of water quality and
quantity required for a limited range of primarily
consumptive uses.
The purpose of this review is to briey identify and
explore some of the more important facets of human
perceptions, meanings, and values, associated with
water in the landscape. In particular, biophysical,
spiritual, cognitive, artistic/design, perceptual, and
legal/technical views of water in arid landscapes are
addressed. It is hoped that focusing on these facets will
help to focus environmental research efforts and to
expand water policies and management criteria to
more fully address the array of water related human
values, especially for arid areas.
2. Bio-Physical perspectives
Pure water is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. Yet
in the landscape water often appears in different colors
from opaque dark gray to brilliant blue to clear. The
apparent color of water changes with lighting, the
diurnal and seasonal positions of the sun, with cloud
cover, and with particulates carried in the atmosphere
or in the water. Some of these characteristics are more
extreme and dramatic in arid landscapes.
2.1. Water as a primary landscape element
Water is a unique material in nature. It is capable of
almost complete return of light waves from its surface.
In addition to the water surface being seen, images of
surrounding objects may also be reected. When the
surface is calm, extremely clear images of mountains,
rocks, trees, wildlife, and at times, the observer him/
herself are displayed. If the surface is rufed by a
breeze or by the ow of the water, the reections lose
their sharpness and detail, producing an impressionist's image of the surrounding world.
The color of water is also inuenced by the eroded
materials suspended in it. The Colorado (`red') River
is named after the color of mud it carries. Colors can
also indicate the presence of aquatic organisms. Purity

(or the lack thereof) is often indicated by the color of

water, relating to its oxygen content and the type of
organisms that can survive there (Leopold and Davis,
1966). Sound is created by water owing down cascades, over or around obstacles, and by sh and other
animals moving through the surface. The range of
water sounds is almost endless. There are the very
subtle sounds of single drops falling and hitting the
water surface, the rushing sounds of rapids or the
thundering roar of a waterfall. Water can reveal itself
in sound even when it is hidden from sight.
Water has no form of its own. It takes the shape of its
container. In nature, water lls valleys, forms into
pools, and meanders through arroyos. Each pool,
stream or arroyo can differ in size, shape and depth.
Shape of the water surface and water body varies,
depending upon the quantity of water, on the interaction with land forms, and on minute detailed textures
of the land surface that contains it (Hubbard and
Kimball, 1929; Leopold and Davis, 1966).
Water can be calm and reective, lying still in a
horizontal plane, or it can be in energetic motion
forming rough vertical or angular planes. Water movement takes many forms, and it can strongly contrast
with the still elements on its edges.
2.2. Secondary landscape effects
Water dramatically inuences and shapes the landscape; it can create `monumental sculptured environments' (Campbell, 1978). The nature of the ground
materials, the quantity of water, its duration of ow
and type and amount of particulates carried determine
the sculpturing effects. Where water meets the most
resistance it works the hardest. The harder the material, the narrower the area carved. The larger the
vertical height differences and the shorter the horizontal distance between the point of origin and the
point of termination, the greater the carving forces of
water.
Sculpturing effects of water are mostly the combination of carving erosion and building deposition.
The sculpturing ability of water is particularly
strong in arid areas where the ground is exposed
and sparsely covered with vegetation. The Grand
Canyon, Canyon de Chelle, and Canyonlands are
some of the more dramatic water sculptured landscapes in America.

S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

2.3. Water in arid ecosystems

Water is an essential element in any ecosystem. Yet,
it gains its highest importance in arid ecosystems
where the amount of rainfall is generally low and
untimely distributed (Shreve, 1951; Dawson et al.,
1989), and where water is scarce and evaporation
exceeds precipitation (Heathcote and Twidale, 1971;
Evenari et al., 1982; Evenari, 1985). In deserts, water
landscape interactions are of a dynamic nature and can
rapidly change from one extreme to another. In the
desert, rainfall is episodic. Water comes infrequently
and in unpredictable discrete pulses (Noy-Meir,
1973). At times it is too little. At other times it is
too much, and dry washes turn into ash-ooding
torrents. Ecologists observe that water availability
structures and controls desert communities. The introduction of water triggers biological activities and
rapid increases in biomass and carrying capacity that
can crash shortly after (Noy-Meir, 1973, 1985;
Orshan, 1986). In general, deserts receive less
water than any other habitat, and consequently
deserts are often considered to be the least productive
habitats on earth (Louw and Seely, 1982; Seely, 1991).
Yet, the levels of biomass in some deserts can at times
reach or exceed the levels in non-arid areas (NoyMeir, 1985).
Spatial variability of land forms, materials, and
vegetation in arid ecosystems is partially caused by
redistribution of rainfall by run-off (Yair and Shachak,
1982). Water drainage patterns contribute to the formation of a mosaic of vegetation patches, differing
from each other by soil moisture and consequent
productivity (Noy-Meir, 1985). Where water is available all the year round (as in desert springs), the
riparian vegetation can be very rich and in stark
contrast to the surrounding dry landscape. Water
provides the necessary habitat for sh and other
aquatic organisms, and the rich riparian vegetation
creates a true oasis for both wildlife and humans.
3. Philosophical and spiritual perspectives
Water is a critical element for human existence;
literally water makes the difference between life and
death. Water is also central in human mental and
spiritual life. According to Bachelard (1983) a child's

101

rst dreams are of organic substances, and water is one

of the more important elements in his/her dreams.
Empirical literature supports the view that humans
have strong positive responses to water in the landscape (Zube et al., 1974, 1983).
3.1. Water images and symbols
As a reecting mirror, water serves as a means to
see ourselves, and perhaps beyond. Bachelard (1983)
notes that the water mirror creates an image more
natural and innocent than the one created in man made
mirrors. The reected gure may be sharp, or vague,
providing an opportunity for imagination and idealization of the image and its bearer:
. . .a genuine intuition about the psychological
role of natural experiences caused psychoanalysis to give Narcissus's name to the love that man
has for his own image, for his face as it is
reflected in still water. (Bachelard, 1983, p. 21).
In the arid landscape where heat, drought and dust
prevail water provides a means to wash dust off,
saturate thirst, cool off and refresh the body. Beyond
these, water has come to symbolize purity, sanctity
and rebirth. Purity is associated with the water current
which carries refuse away, leaving the bather clean.
The perception of cleanliness and refreshment associated with water leads to a sense of regained energy,
youth, and health. Water symbolizes the `fountain of
youth' (Bachelard, 1983, p. 146), and springs are
frequently sought by people as sacred healing places.
Water is symbolically a purifying substance; pouring
water over the body or submerging in water is now,
and historically has long been part of rituals associated
with the most fundamental aspects of human life, with
birth, marriage, and death.
In arid landscapes, water sources such as springs,
wells, and cisterns were and are places where humans
nd refuge and relief for body and soul. In the Old
Testament accounts, (The Holy Bible, 1991) the rst
and most important act of creation had to do with
water. Water was transformed into elements that
symbolize the perfect world:
And God said, "Let there be an expanse between
the waters to separate water from water. . ." God
called the expanse sky. . . And God said, "Let the
water under the sky be gathered to one place, and
let dry ground appear." Genesis, 1 : 69.

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Water also has special meanings in Islam. Water is a

major element in the image of eternal gardens
paradise, created by inhabitants of arid zones, and
promised to the faithful. Descriptions of the heavenly
gardens include two gardens ``. . ., therein two fountains of gushing water. . . '' (Sura 55), and underneath
the gardens rivers ow (Schimmel, 1976). The Garden
of Eden with its four-river pattern is found on Islamic
prayer rugs. These images of the eternal gardens were
recreated in the earthly gardens of rulers in Iran and
Mughal India (Jellicoe and Jellicoe, 1975).

Schulz, 1980). For the ancient Egyptians, the Nile

River in the desert symbolized the threshold of transition from life in this world on the eastern bank of the
river, to eternal life in the tombs on the western bank.
Water plays a special role in desert areas, as it is the
necessary life supporting resource. In arid landscapes,
a place with water has long meant a place of life, a
dwelling place, a paradise, heaven.

3.2. Images of water in arid areas

The landscape where humans live has structure and

embodies meanings (Norberg-Schulz, 1980). Water
can be a major meaning-giving element in any landscape, and it is more so in the arid environment. The
special role of water in arid landscapes is not always
recognized. Recent desert dwellers (and environmental planners) often fail to fully perceive the differences
between arid landscapes and the non-arid places from
which they have come. They tend to try to view and
use water in the same way as they did in the non-arid
environment. Indeed, a common tendency is to try to
transform the arid landscape, to make it look more
familiar (Saarinen, 1989), to make the desert bloom
(Rokach, 1989).

Arid and semi-arid areas comprise approximately

35% of the global land surface (Evenari et al., 1982;
Heathcote, 1985). Human images of arid areas are
documented in, and perhaps have been shaped by, the
historical literature of virtually every human culture.
The desert is mostly described as inhospitable for
humans. Arid landscapes lack water and other elements necessary for human survival. Deserts are
viewed as places of death rather than life.
In contrast, the appearance of water often assumes a
miraculous status in the desert. Water is able to transform the harsh desert landscape into a livable and even
idyllic place, into an oasis.
The creation of three major religions, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, is associated with arid landscapes. In all three, water is associated literally and
symbolically with signicant events in human life;
baptism (in Christianity), immersion of the body in a
water pool before marriage (Judaism and Islam), and
purication of the dead body before burial.
In the oasis of Siwa in the Western Desert of Egypt,
after a woman gives birth, a large specially made
earthen bowl half full of water is brought into her
room. All the women present in the room throw in it
their silver ornaments and smash them to drive the evil
eye away and assure happy life to the baby. An earthen
pot with water is also put on the tomb of the deceased
for the use of the soul (Fakhry, 1973). The Nambe
Pueblo Indians of New Mexico add a special twist to
the concept of `holy water.' The Nambe are said to
purify their bodies in a small river to wash off the
effects of Christian baptism (Applegate, 1998).
The combination of arid land and water dened a
sacred place to many ancient cultures (Norberg-

4. Water and environmental meanings

4.1. Water and meaning in arid landscapes

In many aspects the arid landscape can be
characterized by what it does not have rather than
by what it has. There is no dense vegetation to cover
the land, and the surface resembles an exposed sterile
skeleton (Limerick, 1985). In their cloudless sky,
intense sunlight, and clear air (when there are no dust
storms) deserts emphasize the innite extension of the
land, and give its forms an unusual presence. The
experience created is one of a landscape with an
eternal order, yet it does not offer sufcient existential
foothold. The arid landscape often appears as a
continuous neutral ground, and only in rare situations
does the desert seem to contain individual welldened places (Norberg-Schulz, 1980). The desert
is often perceived as a place where one can easily
get lost.
The permanent or temporary appearance of water in
the desert starts to dene individual places in the
seemingly endless landscape. These places are in

S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

many instances dened by dramatic landforms carved

by water, and by vegetation that is denser, larger, and
in many cases composed of different species than the
surrounding landscape. The contrasting combinations
of rocky/stony ground, water, and vegetation provide a
place with a human scale that the vast `outside' does
not have.
4.2. Water and the sense of place
Places dened by water within the innite extension
of the arid landscape attract human attention, and
make the landscape more readable on one hand,
and mysterious on the other. Water in the arid landscape dramatically changes meaning. The vast and
innite extension of land is transformed via water
sculptured landforms and water bodies, and provides
readable clues such as drainage patterns and riparian
vegetation. The arid landscape is rendered more
ordered, organized, and readable. The vegetation
around water sources in arid areas can vary both in
species composition and in size from the surrounding
vegetation. The vegetation can grow densely to form a
visual barrier and dene a place, a refuge for humans,
wildlife, and birds. Water and its effects signal safety,
a place of refuge with resources necessary for sustaining life.
When entering a riparian area, one is aware of
dramatic juxtapositions of land and water, the `inside'
and the `outside'. The shade provided by the vegetation is a relief from the intense sunlight. There are
changes in color, sound, and humidity of the air. Such
a place within the vast arid landscape is a shelter, an
oasis. Places with water are refuges not only for
humans, but also for aquatic creatures, birds and
wildlife that are attracted by the water and the vegetation.
By some accounts, water provides places with
information, clues, prospects, and promises of excitement and involvement. Contrasts and high diversity
are created by the juxtaposition of land and water.
Higher aesthetic preferences for such places can be
expected (Kaplan, 1977).
For all these reasons, places with water gain special
environmental meanings and tend to be highly desired
by humans. We can expect it to be much more so in
arid landscapes where water is less common and plays
an important role in landscape structure.

103

5. Water in landscape design

Designers have long taken advantage of the many
attractive visual and non-visual qualities of water in
the landscape. Water can be still or move at various
speeds. It can be shallow or deep, reect the sky, sun,
vegetation, and other objects surrounding it. Water can
gain various colors, create sounds, and, when touched,
cause cool sensation. Water color is associated with
other perceptual and experiential characteristics as
well. Blue water is associated with coolness, and white
water with power and roaring sound (Litton et al.,
1974).
5.1. Water in formal garden design
It is not surprising that from very early on water was
recognized as an important element in garden and
landscape design. On the walls of tombs of noble
Egyptians, water ponds with sh, ducks, and lotus
owers were depicted thousands of years ago. Water
ponds were an important part of the Roman villas in
Pompeii, and in many later designed gardens
(Gothein, 1928; Berrall, 1966).
In Chinese gardens and in the impressions of the
landscape created by Chinese poets, painters, and
monks, water is a vital element. Ideal images of
natural water scenes were introduced into gardens
as ponds, pools, waterfalls, creeks (sometimes dry
creeks), fountains and wells. They were used to give
structure, to create an illusion of space and mystery
(Campbell, 1978; Lifang and Sianling, 1986).
Water has been discussed throughout the history of
garden design. Repton saw great importance of a water
pond in landscape design due to the
Satisfaction which the eye derives from the glitter
of water. . .and for
. . .that brilliant and cheerful effect produced by a
small pool. . . (Repton, 1907, p. 91).
Indeed, Repton was willing to accept the inclusion
of such a pond in a design even if it was `unnaturally'
placed (Repton, 1907, p. 91).
The appearance of water in nature has frequently
been seen as a source for direct imitation in design. For
Lawrence Halprin, water in nature serves as a source
of inspiration when designing urban plazas and fountains (Halprin, 1972, 1981). The importance of water
in design in hot climates is often stressed. For exam-

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S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

ple, Hubbard and Kimball (1929) declare the cooling

sight and sound of water to make it `A most important
place in the design.' (p. 213).
5.2. Water and landscape aesthetics
Attempts have been made to characterize the formal
aesthetic and scenic qualities of water in the landscape. Litton et al. (1974) and Litton (1977) reviewed
basic aesthetic criteria such as unity, variety, and
vividness, and their implications for the elements of
visual assessment of river landscapes such as landforms, vegetation patterns, and water presence and
expression.
Litton (1984) studied photographs taken at various
ow levels from several photo points along two California rivers, and concluded that some segments of a
stream show more visual response to ow-volume
uctuations than other segments. In general, at both
ood stage and lowest ow stages, it can be expected
that aesthetic quality will be diminished. Negative
effects of high ows arise from the `drowning out'
of contrasts between rifes and pools, and the disappearance of sandbars and islands. Apparent differences in water velocity are lost, giving the
impression of a uniform, monotonous movement.
Negative effects of low water were related to loss
of vitality or loss of white water. A condition of
abandonment is suggested by stranded features, and
by the loss of vividness of contrasts between still pools
and owing water (Litton, 1984).
6. Human perceptions and preferences
For the human visitor, water in the landscape can be
both a source of aesthetic attraction and a primary
support for recreation activities. Water experience can
be relatively passive, as in viewing the scenery or
enjoying a cool, shady respite.
Sound can be an important component of human
experience of water in the landscape, either separately
or in interaction with visual experiences (e.g. Hetherington et al., 1993). Few natural movements are as
attractive to humans as water movement in its variety
and continuity. Motion, individually and conjointly
with sound, has been shown to have important effects
on human perceptions and evaluations of scenic river

landscapes (Hetherington et al., 1993). Water landscapes are preferred places for bird watching, hiking
and camping. Some, more active encounters include
recreational pursuits such as swimming, boating, and
shing which rely more directly upon the water itself.
6.1. Water and landscape perception
Since the late 1960s, perceptual preference research
has consistently reported the presence of water as a
strong positive contributor to perceived landscape
attractiveness (Shafer et al., 1969; Zube et al.,
1974, 1982; Kaplan, 1977; Ulrich, 1983). In addition,
researchers report that subjects cognitively discriminate between landscapes with and without water by
placing them into separate typological categories
(Palmer and Zube, 1976; Herzog, 1985; Amedo et
al., 1989). Views of water have been shown to produce
benecial psychophysiological effects, potentially
meeting restorative health needs (Ulrich and Simmons, 1986; Hartig et al., 1991; Parson, 1991). While
water is clearly an important landscape element, the
more detailed effects of water quality, quantity and
form in different landscape contexts have yet to be
fully explored.
Brown and Daniel (1991) applied `psychophysical'
methods (Daniel and Boster, 1976; Daniel and Vining,
1983) to study the relationships between measured instream ow and perceived scenic beauty of the Cache
La Poudre River, a designated wild and scenic river in
northern Colorado. The study used systematically
sampled video-taped views along the river. View
samples were repeated over the course of a year as
ows changed. In-stream ow rates, stream widths,
vegetation conditions and a number of other landscape
characteristics were measured for each scene at each
sample time. Panels of observers viewed the videotaped scenes and recorded judgments of perceived
scenic beauty.
Analyses of relationships between perceived scenic
beauty indices and in-stream ow showed that judged
scenic beauty consistently increased as stream ow
increased up to about 11001500 cfs (3142 m3/s).
Perceived scenic beauty then declined as ow continued to increase, dening an inverted U-shaped
relationship with ow level. Optimum ows for scenic
beauty were typically found to occur for two short
periods each year, during the ascending and descend-

S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

ing portions of the annual late spring peak runoff

season. This relationship between in-stream ow
and perceived scenic beauty was found to be robust
over a wide range in vegetation, topography, and scene
compositions.
Scenic beauty perception results are consistent with
Litton's (1984) intuitions. Brown and Daniel's (1991)
results were also consistent with economic studies that
used contingent valuation techniques to estimate people's willingness-to-pay for the maintenance of different in-stream ow levels. Studies reviewed by
Loomis (1987) indicate that recreationists' willingness-to-pay increases with ow up to a point and then,
for most activities, decreases as ow rises above some
critical level. The critical level differed by recreation
activity, with anglers generally preferring lower ow
levels overall than oaters or stream-side users.
6.2. Water and perceptions of arid landscapes
There have been few studies of the effects of water
on perceptions of arid landscapes. In one landscape
perception study offering the comparison, desert scenery (without water features) was rated lower compared
to other non-arid scenes. Using photographs of ve
landscape types (biomes): coniferous forest, deciduous forest, rain forest, savanna and desert, the desert
was rated lowest by all age groups studied by Balling
and Falk (1982).
While rarely directly addressed in specic studies,
the body of landscape perception research and the
large intuitive literature suggests that the presence of
visible water and the associated riparian vegetation
should substantially increase the perceived beauty of
arid areas. The rarity of water in deserts, the increased
spatial and temporal variability of vegetation that
water produces, and the strong contrasts between
the riparian area and the adjacent arid lands, would
all be expected to have positive effects on perceived
scenic beauty.
6.3. Water-based recreation
Water is a very important feature of many outdoor
recreation environments (Driver and Tocher, 1970),
and about one-fourth of all outdoor recreation is
water-dependent (Pitt, 1989). There are no data specically relevant to water-based recreation in arid

105

regions. The importance of water for outdoor recreation generally, combined with the projected increase
in development and population concentration in arid
areas such as in the southwestern US, would indicate
that the demand for water-related recreation opportunities will continue to increase in arid areas. These
same factors of population growth and increased
development are likely to decrease the supply of
natural places with water in these areas.
Though water is likely to be of great importance to
outdoor recreation in arid areas, water per se can not
be the only, or even the primary factor. The same or
very similar recreational activities (e.g. swimming,
wading, picnicking, etc.) can be satised in the urban
setting (e.g. in swimming pools or `water parks'), and
often with less effort and more comfort. Therefore,
focusing environmental management policies upon
the direct physical support dimensions of water (measures of quantity and quality) may inadvertently
exclude signicant components of the psychological
and spiritual dimensions of water recreation, especially in arid areas. The 1962 ORRCC report (U.S.
Department of the Interior, 1962) made a strong case
for the need to describe aesthetic and non-monetary
aspects in evaluating recreation opportunities. The
case seems to be at least as strong for water related
recreation in arid landscapes.
7. Legal and technical perspectives
In the context of formal environmental planning and
management, legal and technical denitions of water
as a natural resource have tended to be emphasized.
These denitions and regulations that guide water
policy and planning tend to be narrow, objective/
quantitative and focused on practical issues associated
with water consumption and direct use. This approach
fails to encompass the rich and diverse environmental
roles that water plays, and the special meanings it has
for people, particularly in arid landscapes.
7.1. Water law and policy
According to Sax and Abrams (1986), water law is
special. In the western and more arid parts of the US,
the Prior Appropriation Doctrine governs water rights
and uses. It emphasizes the rights of the rst-in-time

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acquired by diversions for benecial use, and the loss

of these rights by lack of such use (Sax and Abrams,
1986).
More complex legal requirements and technical
standards apply to the chemical, physical, and biological qualities of water (i.e. quantities of chemical
nutrients and bacterial contamination), as discussed by
Utter (1975). Examples of federal legislation specifying the chemical and physical characteristics of water
for various uses (including recreation) include the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act and its amendments of 1972, and the Clean Water Act of 1977
(Utter, 1985).
7.2. Standards for water recreation
Water is treated as many other objects that can be
possessed and owned. Benecial use originally did not
include recreational or scenic values. The legal aspects
of recreational uses of water is newer and relates to the
competition between recreation and longstanding
other rights (Sax and Abrams, 1986). Some state
legislatures extended the importance of water to instream ow uses such as sheries, pollution abatement, and aesthetic values as early as 1955 (MacDonnell et al., 1989). Federal legislation also recognized
the importance of scenic, recreational, and cultural
values of in-stream water. The Wild and Scenic River
Act of 1968 (16 U.S.C. 12711287) dened the
responsibility of the managing federal agencies to
preserve water quantities sufcient (not greater than
necessary) to accomplish these purposes.
The need to quantify relevant water characteristics
for planning and management of recreation uses
resulted in the search for practical and easily measurable criteria. In recreation related to water reservoirs,
planning has often been based on technical measurements assumed to be relevant, such as volume of
water, surface area, depth, and length of shore line
(Department of Water Resources, 1970, 1971, 1972).
Standards used to dene the physical requirements
for various recreation activities were based on two
criteria, user safety and acceptable intensities of use
related to site deterioration (Eckhart, 1973). For safety
reasons, for example, the recommended standard for
deep water swimming was set at 100200 square feet
per swimmer. Similarly, 3 acres per boat for sailing, 20
acres for motor boats, and one canoe per half-mile of

stream are other illustrative technical water recreation

standards. Standards recommended for recreational
activities related to site deterioration include 2.6
gallons of fuel per acre-foot of water in a 2-month
period (based on the amount found to have a harmful
effect on the avor of sh esh). Similarly, 1 gallon of
fuel consumed over a 2-month period in one million
gallons of water was found to cause a detectable
petroleum odor in the water (Eckhart, 1973).
For kayaking, whitewater is scaled into six classes,
related at least in part to boaters` experiences. The
standards are dened, however, in terms of technical
features such as the complexity of the riverbed, elevation drop per mile, river course, volume and velocity
of water, and the size of the waves. It is interesting to
note that in arid landscapes (desert areas such as Utah,
Arizona, Idaho, and Wyoming) the scale uses 10
classications for whitewater rapids (Evans and
Anderson, 1975).
In general, environmental planning and regulation
contexts have emphasized legal/technical specications and standards related to presumed human health,
commercial and direct use values. Objectivity and
quantication are emphasized in the standards, but
the linkage to human values, especially those associated with aesthetic and recreational experiences, is
often unclear and untested. At least, the emphasis on
technical standards has tended to place perceptual,
cultural and spiritual values of water at a disadvantage
in affecting water policies and management.
8. Water and arid landscape management policy
The welfare of humans and their communities in
arid landscapes depends on water. Places with water
are the most habitable places in arid landscapes. In
many instances, water is the limiting resource to
human development and population. Due to its rarity,
water is the key element for many physical and
biological processes. Water then is one of the most
important environmental management concerns, and
often is the driving concern.
Water management policies in arid landscapes tend
to address two related goals: (a) controlling features of
the water resource, especially quantity, quality, and
timing; and (b) preservation and protection of waterdependent landscapes and landscape elements.

S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

Actions directed toward either of these goals can have

important effects on all of the water values discussed
in the preceding sections.
8.1. Impact considerations
Because water is a very critical element in arid
landscapes, often the limiting factor, even minute
changes in water quantity or quality can lead to
signicant changes in vegetation, wildlife, and
micro-climatic conditions. Changes in water ow
can change the appearance of streams, altering or
even eliminating specic water forms such as the
vertical (water falls), angular (cascades), and horizontal water bodies, and some might completely disappear. Changes may also occur in the variety of water
movements, water depth, color, sounds, and in the
shape of water edges. All of these changes have
implications for the quality of recreational and other
human activities that depend upon in-stream ows.
Aesthetic values of both visitors to and residents of
affected areas will also be affected.
In addition to the more direct effects of changes in
water features, water can have secondary landscape
effects as well. Riparian vegetation is very sensitive to
changes in water regimes, which can alter size, density
and species composition and richness. Aquatic and
other water-dependent fauna can also be affected. The
landscape as a whole might lose its variety, and water
scenes their uniqueness. As water becomes less available in arid landscapes, riparian areas will come to
look more like the waterless surrounding. The general
character and perceived beauty of these places will be
affected.
When new landscapes are created by adding water
to arid environments (as by building reservoirs), agricultural and municipal water supplies are the most
conspicuous and traditionally accepted benets. The
legal and technical means for ascertaining and documenting these benets are well established. The
benets (and costs) to other water-related human
values are often less clear, but are important.
8.2. Values at risk
In their environmental planning and management
enterprises, modern technological societies have
understandably emphasized mainly quantiable and

107

economically relevant environmental values. These

values (represented by legal and technical standards)
are most compatible with contemporary management
and decision-making algorithms, and they provide
desired objectivity and precision (and defensibility).
With regard to water in the arid landscape, however,
many potentially important values are not readily or
consistently related to conventional technical standards.
Policies, legislation and management have a general tendency to ignore the less tangible aspects and
values of water. The standards and regulations seem to
address mostly the characteristics of water that are
directly related to the physical aspects of consumption
and direct recreational uses. Aspects that have to do
with culture and perception, meanings and feelings,
and landscape-setting characteristics are harder to
identify and quantify. These aspects nonetheless play
an important role in human life and welfare.
9. Conclusions
The goal for environmental managers and policy
makers, and for environmental scientists should be to
determine what dimensions of water and water landscapes affect the broader range of human environmental experiences, and how these experiences affect
individual values and social welfare. This requires
explicit recognition of the importance of the `softer'
human values by environmental managers and policy
makers, and genuine efforts to more fully incorporate
and legitimize these values in a more holistic approach
to environmental management decisions.
There are at least some methods that show promise
of moving toward this goal. Public perception-based
indices of aesthetic (scenic) quality have proven reliable, and have been systematically related to measurable, managerially relevant characteristics of stream
landscapes. Conceptually similar contingent valuation
methods reveal consistent relationships between instream ow and recreation values. These methods
could be adapted to assessments of the relationships
between relevant water parameters and aesthetic and
recreational values in desert environments. There has
been less progress in nding effective methods for
addressing other important water related values that
are based more on human feelings and on deeply

108

S. Burmil et al. / Landscape and Urban Planning 44 (1999) 99109

rooted meanings and symbolic relationships with the

landscape and water. Capturing these aspects of
human environmental values will require the development of additional, converging methodologies, perhaps based on behavioral and/or psychophysiological
methods.
Decisions and policies about the human environment in general, and about arid landscapes particularly, should not be based solely on technical standards
that are, at best, only related to consumptive and direct
uses of water. Explicit recognition and legitimization
of aesthetic, perceptual, emotional and spiritual values
in landscape policy and management would better
represent the full value of water to humans. Water
management, and environmental management more
generally, should be advanced toward a more holistic
process where the full array of human values is
considered. The charge for environmental researchers
in this context is to intensify the effort to understand
the relationships between specic features of water
and water landscapes and human perceptions, feelings
and interpretations, and to express these relationships
in terms that are useful for environmental policy and
management.
Acknowledgements
This project was funded in part by the National Park
Service, through Cooperative Agreement 8000-29001, administered by the Arizona Cooperative Park
Studies Unit, University of Arizona.
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