The Art of Money

African Metalwork
and Currency

May 12 August 24, 2007

Zora Neale Hurston National Museum of Fine Arts

Eatonville, Florida

Exhibition Credits

The Art of Money African Metalwork and Currency is courtesy of a

private collection and RobertsonAfrican Arts,New YorkCity

Exhibition Design and Installation

Guglielmo & Associates, Inc.
Tampa, Florida

Gallery Assistants
Benjamin Tyson
Shawayna Teal

Reception Hospitality May 12, 2007

Darden Restaurants
JRInternational
Maye St. Julien, All Things Beautiful

Catalog Credits
Front Cover:Verre Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria;
Pre-1900; H: 18
Back Cover: Spiral Copper Currency, Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5
Curators Statement:Eric D. Robertson
Photography:Lonnie Graham
Design and Layout:Kathy Johnson and Lonnie Graham
Editor:N.Y.Nathiri

MUSEUM SPONSOR
The Association to Preserve the Eatonville Community, Inc. (P.E.C.)
was incorporated in 1988 as a non-profit/tax-exempt historic preservation organization and presents year-round, multidisciplinary
arts and humanities programs. P.E.C.s mission is to enhance the
considerable cultural resources of Eatonville, Florida, which is the
oldest incorporated African American municipality in the United
States and the hometown of writer, folklorist, and anthropologist
Zora Neale Hurston; to educate the public about Eatonvilles historic
and cultural significance; and to use the communitys heritage and
cultural vibrancy for its economic development.
Copyright 2007. The Association to Preserve the EatonvilleCommunity,
Inc. No part of this catalog may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Since the Legends Exhibition Series, October 1998August 1999, when
guest curator Dr. M.J. Hewitt presented the work of Samella Lewis, the
late John Biggers, ElizabethCatlett, and William Pajaud, the Zora Neale
Hurston National Museum of Fine Arts (The Hurston) has enjoyed a
particularly privileged position within the museum world. Housed in
a small community of barely 3,000 persons, The Hurston has been able
to exhibit consistently the work of some of the countrys most distinguished artists and collectors.
This is no mean feat; and in fact it is something that would have
been impossible to achieve had it not been for the collaboration of committed artists, cultural preservationists, museum professionals, and
just plain folks.
The Art of Money African Metalwork and Currency is a testament to
the power such partnerships possess.
Our first expression of appreciation must go to Eric D. Robertson
(Robertson African Arts, New YorkCity). Upon being introduced to
our organization by Dr. Richard A. Long, senior member of the Zora
Neale Hurston Festival National Planners and Professor Emeritus
(Emory University), Robertson, internationally recognized for his extensive knowledge of African art, agreed to serve as our guest curator.
Subsequently, he has assembled three exhibitions with a focus on African
material culture. In every instance, his care and commitment have
only been surpassed by the generosity of his loans. Yet, with The Art of
Money, Robertson has exceeded himself. Truly, we are grateful to him for
enabling us to present this one-of-a-kind collection to our visitors.

Our most ambitious project to date has a catalog which is one of

our most beautiful. Lonnie Graham, a fine arts photographer and faculty member at PennState University, demonstrates a true appreciation
for the objects he is photographing such care, such dedication to
detail, such patience all in an effort to capture the essential beauty of
each piece.His work is emblematic of the exhibitions title. To him we
express our heartfelt thanks.
Our organization also owes an expression of gratitude to Deborah
Guglielmo of Guglielmo &Associates, Inc. for her willingness to add
us on to her always busy schedule; for her experienced eye and her
ability to produce the best of results, leveraging in each instance
every resource to its maximum potential.
Another behind the scenes person, upon whom we rely, and who
is constant in her dependability, is Kathy Johnson. Yet again, she has
given so much of herself to insure we have a handsome publication.
There is also another group who helps to make The Hurston
events special and who deserves recognition, DardenRestaurants and
JRInternational. These two corporations provide the refreshments
served at our opening receptions and their assistance allows us to be
even more gracious hosts to our guests.
Finally, a thank you belongs to MayeSt. Julien, Benjamin Tyson,
John Scott, and Shawayna Teal. The Art of Money has required major
investments of time and each of these persons has shouldered the burden without hesitation and with good spirit.
N.Y. Nathiri

Activities at the Zora Neale Hurston National Museum of Fine Arts are sponsored, in part, by the State of Florida, Department of State, Division of Cultural
Affairs and the Florida Arts Council, and the National Endowment for the Arts.

About theCurator
Eric D. Robertson holds

(March 2003). He has served as an

Bachelor of Arts and JD(Juris

advisor for several cultural insti-

Doctor)

from

tutions, including The Barbados

St. Johns University and was

Historical and Cultural Society

admitted to the New York Bar

where, in November 2004, he

in 1967. He is known interna-

helped establish The Charles A.

tionally for his extensive knowl-

Robertson African Gallery, par-

edge of African art, and he is a

tially funded by UNESCO. He

frequent lecturer and consultant

also serves on the board of the

on African art and its influence

New York African Film Festival.

on modern artists, including

In the past, he has been a con-

African American artists. His

sultant and advisor for several

article, African Art and African

institutions such as the United

American Identity (African Arts

Nations Ambassadors office of

Magazine, April 1994), provided a

Andrew Young, the proposed

framework for museum outreach

Peekskill (New York) Museum of

programs to enhance their pres-

the Underground Railroad, the

ence among African Diaspora

Fashion Institute of Technology

populations.

(New York), the Jamaica Embassy

law

degrees

Robertson has been the

senior Vetter for authenticity at

University

the New York Tribal Art exhi-

Program, the Studio Museum in

bitions since its inception. He

Harlem and a number of African

authored an essay on an impor-

national museums.

Africana

Studies

tant collection in Sothebys cata-

Currently, he serves as the

logue of African, Oceanic, and

guest curator for the Zora Neale

Pre-Columbian Art (November

Hurston National Museum of Fine

2004) and was featured in an

Arts through the 20062007 season.

extensive interview for Tribal

Seating in Veranda Magazine

(Washington, DC), New York

CURATORS STATEMENT
Standing on the banks of the sacred

musical instruments, staffs, hoes and other

Oshun River near the old Yoruba town of

recognizable forms but whose function or

Oshogbo, Western Nigeria in the summer

use was not readily apparent. Their fab-

of 1975, I was puzzled by two old bronze

rication was oftentimes creations of great

objects which appeared to be a bracelet

beauty exhibiting a high technical exper-

and a neck ring, but both antique objects

tise with iron, copper, bronze, and various

had little sign of usage (see similar objects

metal alloys that did not quite fit into famil-

#40 and #48). The owner would not refer

iar African art categories. Today we know

to them as adornment or jewelry. This was

that these objects were used as African

my first trip to the African continent and

currency. Typically, African metal currency

I would encounter over the years many

shapes evolved from the exchange of trade

more mysterious metal objects that were

objects used in bartering. Currencies came

in the shapes of beautiful swords, jewelry,

to resemble the weapons (see #58), farm

48 Yoruba Bracelet Currency with Incised designs, Bronze;
Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 4.6

17 Four Hoe Currency; Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13 (largest)

40 Yoruba Royal Marriage Currency, Bronze; Ife area,

Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 8

58 Azande Blade
Currency, Iron; Dem.
Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 25.5

44 Spiral Copper Currency, Iron; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900;

W: 2.5

51 Baule Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Ivory Coast;

Pre-1900; H: 4.5

55 Torque-shaped Currency, Copper Alloy; Dem.

Rep. of Congo, Mbole People (?); Pre-1900; H: 8

implements (#17), jewelry (#44, #51, #55, and #56), and musical instruments

trate the ingenuity of cultures that created these precious objects. Currency

(#28), that were long recognized as trade items in traditional African cultures.

ranged in forms from cowrie shells to blocks of salt to iron poles. Mungo Park,

Unfortunately, we have few field studies of the African origins, manufacture

the Scotsman who explored the course of the Niger River starting in 1795, in

and use of these objects and a functional understanding of the history and

his journals stated, the natives of the interior make use of small shells called

evolution of African currency may be elusive.

cowries.1 Elsewhere he writes, In Bambarra, and the adjacent countries

In the Zora Neale Hurston Museums exhibition, The Art of Money African

(Mali), where the necessaries of the life are very cheap, one hundred of them

Metalwork and Currency, we present a selection of objects from a vast spectrum

would commonly purchase a days provisions for myself and corn for my

of currencies, which differ in shape, weight, and appearance and which illus-

horse.2 Traders would carry thousands of these imported Indian Ocean shells

56 Mbole Currency Anklet, Copper; Dem. Rep. of

Congo; Pre-1900; H: 7.5

28 Double Bell Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria/

Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 12

2 Cowrie Shells:
(a) Yoruba Ibeji Cape; Nigeria; H: 8

(b) Kuba Belt; Dem. Rep. of

Congo; L: 70

for purchasing animals, trade goods, and even slaves.

through the more widely distributed practice of

(See cowrie shells on objects #2a and #2b).

smithing, have opened cultural roads and byways

Mungo Park also noted that, In their early

through the tropical forests. Along these roads have

intercourse with Europeans, the article that attracted

traveled the slow but permanent agents of revolution

most notice was iron and iron soon became the

in the lives of the iron-using communities, linking

measure by which the value of all other commodities

them with the Mediterranean and the Nile, and even

was ascertained. (See objects #37 and #38). From

possibly beyond the Nile with the far Orient 4

European sources we know that at the beginning of

Some ancient African metal currencies in the forms of

the sixteenth century, Sierra Leone was already one

adornment show design affinities with jewelry from

of the great iron-smelting centers of West Africa and

India, Southern China and Indonesia. (See objects

that a vast trade network existed from landlocked

#9, #29, and #42). Given the widespread African ani-

Mali to the coastal areas of Nigeria. Centuries old

mist belief in powerful spirits inhabiting objects and

African trade routes criss-crossed the African conti-

actively coexisting with the material world, currency

nent even through heavily forested regions, which

objects such as shells, beads and metalwork also had

would account for the distribution continent wide

a ritual connotation. Cowrie shells were viewed as

of similar forms of exchange such as hoe currency.

symbols of fertility and they were often used as orna-

(See #18 through #27). The scholar Denis Williams

ments on cloth, increasing the wealth of the wearer.

states, The historic African iron industries, whether

Regarding metalwork, blacksmiths were thought to

through the specialized techniques of smelting or

possess a formidable spiritual power, preserving and

36 Copper Rod Currency; Dem. Rep. of Congo;

Pre-1900; H: 10.25
37 Iron Rod Currency; Northern Nigeria;
Pre-1900; H: 15.5
38 Three Igbo/Mumuye Iron Bars; Northern
Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 16.5

9 Four Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali;

c. 16th-18th century; D: 5 (largest)

29 Spiral Loop Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria, possibly Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 6

42 Spiral Copper Currency, Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13

(b) Iron; Northern Nigeria,

Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 17

18 Hoe Currency:
(a) Iron; Upper Volta,
Mossi area; Pre-1900;
H: 16

19 Hoe Currency, Iron;

Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 11

22 Hoe Currency, Iron;

Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 10

25 Mambila Hoe Currency, Iron;

Western Cameroon; Pre-1900;
H: 26.25

21 Four Small Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5 (largest)

24 Keaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon;

Pre-1900; H: 16.5

23 Two Chamba/Idoma Hoe

Currency, Iron; Nigeria;
Pre-1900; H: 31 (largest)

26 Ngbaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern

Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 19

20 Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Niger; Early

Period; H: 9.75

27 Chamba Hoe Currency, Iron;

Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 14

39 Chamba Currency Object, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;

H: 12

46 Open Ring Currency, Copper Alloy; Liberia,

possibly Kru; Pre-1900; H: 6.5
46 Detail

housing knowledge of the mystery of producing metal.

hand-worked iron and copper objects that celebrate the

Some metal currencies refer in their dynamic shapes to

creative achievements and the technical skills of these

amulets and spiritually charged objects (see #39 and

African metal workers. (See examples #35 and #41).

#46) and there are currency objects which supposedly

Besides iron objects, other forms of trade goods and

were used in rain making and agricultural fertility rites

currency items were manufactured locally or imported

(#18a and #54). Everywhere in the Sudan, blacksmiths

such as trade beads (see object #1), woven raffia cloth

are considered and, indeed, behave like magicians. The

(see #3), stone axe heads (see #12), and copper alloy

extraction of iron is surrounded by essentially magic

bracelet type objects from old Niger River related

rights [sic] in which only blacksmiths may participate.

cultures (see #4, #8, and #9). Gold nuggets were also

In The Art of Money, we have powerful examples of the

used as currency in West Africa. Akan goldsmiths

54 Chamba/Mumuye Currency, Iron; Northern

Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 13.5

41 Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern

Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5

3 Kuba Raffia Cloth; Dem. Rep. of Congo; 26 x 23

35 Verre Throwing Knife Currency, Iron;

Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 18

10 Akan Kuduo Box (with top), Bronze; Ghana; c.

17th century; D: 6

1 Four Strands of Old Beads

(a) Nok Stone Beads, cornelian color; collected in Nigeria;
c. 5th century BCE; L: 14
(b) Hebron Glass Beads, green color; collected in Sudan;
c. 15th century; L: 14
(c) Chevron Glass Beads (Aggrey Beads), blue, black, red, white;
Dutch; collected in Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 17th century; L: 12
(d) Yoruba Glass Beads, yellow; European origin; 18th/19th century;
L: 17

4 Bura Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Niger; H: 3.5 (largest)

of Ghana produced finely cast bronze gold

Scholars such as Denis Williams empha-

weights and decorative bronze boxes (see #11)

size the cultural importance of iron and other

and ritual containers (see #10) which reflected

metals in the development of African societies.

the wealth created by the gold trade. In Mali,

Williams even credits African iron hunger

huge gold earrings worn by the Peul/Fulani

as an important element in the development

women were a convenient method of storing

of the transatlantic slave trade.6 Arab and

wealth and currency.

Far across the conti-

European travelers recorded the widespread

nent, in the 5th and 6th century, the Aksumite

use of native iron currency from the headwa-

Kingdom of present day Ethiopia used gold

ters of the Niger, at Djenne on the Upper Niger

coins in their commerce.

to Lake Chad, and along coastal areas from

8 Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th century; D: 4.5 (largest)

12 Stone Axe Tools; Sahara/Niger/

Mali/Chad areas; Prehistoric;
L: 7

43 Three Spiral Copper Currency;

Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H:
9.5; D: 10 (largest)

45 Spiral Copper Currency with Large Disc;

Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 5.5

11 Akan Gold Weights and Akan Gold Dust Boxes, Bronze; Ghana; Early Period; L: 2.45
(largest)

47 Semi-spherical (C-shaped) Copper Currency with Incised

designs (mounted); Chad; Pre-1900; H: 6.5

49 Yoruba Currency with Cowrie Shell Designs;

Bronze; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 4.3

Sierra Leone to the Congo. Local

brass manillas (see #13) used in trad-

African sources could not fill the

ing and especially for purchasing

huge native demands for iron and

African slaves to meet the immense

by 1668 the European iron bar was

labor demands of the West Indian

being traded from the West African

and American plantation systems.

coast from The Gambia to the Niger

Presumably the European manillas

Rivers. Williams notes, By 1678 it

copied older African forms or they

[iron bars] was described among the

were reworked by the African smith

principal imports of the French fac-

into forms suitable for native use,

tory at Goree on the Senegal, annual

including ritual needs (see #43, #45,

imports there being estimated at

#47, #49 and #52). In regards to

10,000 bars or more7In 1680 an

African belief systems, other ancient

English ship delivered 40 tons of

currency shapes such as the Katanga

iron bars to the Gold Coast (Ghana).

crosses of southern Congo may refer

The British city of Birmingham

to philosophical concepts involving

became a great center of manufac-

the crossroads and meeting points

turing for the iron bars (see #38) and

in decision making (see #5, #6, and

13 English Manillas, Brass; Birmingham, England; collected in Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 3

52 Semi-spherical (C-shaped) Currency, Copper; Eastern

Nigeria;

6 Two Katanga X Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of

Congo; c. 16th century; H: 3 (largest)

31 Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 17

#7). We may only be able to speculate as to the

significance of many of the African currency
forms.
In many parts of western and central Africa,
certain currency forms are associated with bride
wealth or dowries. The prospective bridegroom
59 Lokele or Turumbu Peoples Blade/Spear Currency. Iron; Dem. Rep.
of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 58

was expected to compensate the parents of the

bride for the loss of their daughters services.
The long spears and blades (up to 6 feet) of the
Lokele and Turumbu people of Congo (see #59),
the Katanga crosses, and the Kissi pennies
used in Guinee, Sierra Leone and Liberia (see
#14, #15, and #16) are prominent examples
of bridal money. Certain bridal wealth was
restricted in use for royal families from important regions of a kingdom such as the Yoruba
metal neck piece from the ancient Ife and Iwo

7 Katanga X Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo;

Pre-1900; H: 8.6

10

city states of Western Nigeria (see object #40).

One particularly impressive currency form

15 Twisted Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron;

Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 17.5

is based on the African throwing knife. These

weapons are regarded by some observers to
represent the most striking achievement of the
African blacksmith.8 The throwing knife currency in exhibit #35 was collected among the
Verre of Northeastern Nigeria, but scholars such
as Frobenius have noted the existence of this form
among the Mbum and Tikar ruling families in
Western Cameroon and their possible use in ritual
ceremonies.9 (See objects #31 through #35.)
Although tremendous amounts of expertly
coiled and twisted copper currencies have been
found in Eastern Nigeria, especially in the Cross
River area (see #41 through #45), we know little of
the origin of these attractive ancient metalworks
and the archeological records are insufficient at
this time. In addition, African currency systems
were mostly suppressed by European colonial
16 One Toma Currency Staff, Iron;
Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 23.5

14 Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron;

Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L:21

33 Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern

Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 21

administrations with the forcible introduction

of coin currency in the early 1900s. But the historical record and material evidence created by
skilled African blacksmiths of the past invites us
to appreciate the superb elegance and artistry of
objects created for use in traditional African monetary systems. Our increasing knowledge of these
currency forms can help us to develop a deeper
understanding of the complex nature of African
societies and their connection to world cultures.
This year, 2007, marks the 200th anniver-

5 Katanga X Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 16th century; H: 1.5 (largest)

sary of the official end of the British Atlantic

11

slave trade. Notably, it was William

the uniquely difficult environment

Wilberforce, who led the successful

of American slavery, a vile form

campaign for British maritime sup-

of bondage which degraded the

pression of this lucrative and revolt-

enslaved as subhuman. Hopefully,

ing enterprise. Prior to this, in the

this exhibition, The Art of Money

17

centuries, millions of

African Metalwork and Currency,

Africans forcibly transported to the

will enrich the way we think about

Americas helped to create a world

Africa and the American past.

th

and 18

th

which depended on their labor and

expertise as farmers, builders and
skilled crafts persons. Our aware-

Acknowledgements
I wish to thank N.Y. Nathiri for her continual
efforts in promoting our understanding of the
arts and culture of Africa and the Diaspora;
and Dr. Paulette Young for her organizational
skills, research and contributions to the catalogs essay. I also want to recognize Barbara
Fenig, my intern, for her perseverance in
conducting the research associated with this
exhibition and for the excellent job she did in
the preparation of the objects for cataloging.
Eric Robertson, New York, May 2007

ness of centuries-old African skills

in metal working and traditional
currency practices broadens our
understanding and appreciation
of the enslaved Africans and their
descendants struggle to survive in

34 Azande Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Dem.

Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 19

12

32 Two Keul Currency, Iron; Chad; Pre-1900; H: 20

ENDNOTES

References Cited in the Catalog Statement

Mungo Park, The Travels of Mungo Park, edited by Ronald Miller.

McNaughton, Patrick R.. The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power,

Everymans Library, No. 205, Travel & Topography. London: J.M.

and Art in West Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana

Dent & Sons, Ltd. and New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1960 [1907,

University Press, 1988.

1954], 19.
2

Park, 153.

Park, 19

Denis Williams, Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular Forms of

African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press, 1974, 71.
5

Patrick R. McNaughton, The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and

Art in West Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University

Press, 1988, 20.
6

Williams, 71

Williams, 73

Peter Westerdijk, The African Throwing Knife: A Style Analysis. Utrecht,

Park, Mungo. The Travels of Mungo Park, edited by Ronald Miller.

Everymans Library, No. 205, Travel & Topography. London:
J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd. and New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc.,
1960 [1907, 1954].
Westerdijk, Peter. The African Throwing Knife: A Style Analysis.
Utrecht, The Netherlands: OMI, University of the Netherlands,
1988
Williams, Denis. Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular Forms
of African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press,
1974.

The Netherlands: OMI, University of the Netherlands, 1988, 10.

9

Peter Westerdijk, 374.

13

Selective Bibliography
Blandin, Andr. Fer Noir dAfrique de lOuest: avec 40 pages de complment sur les Bronzes et Autres Allianges. Marignane (France):
A. Blandin. 1992.
Bovill, Edward William. The Golden Trade of the Moors: West African Kingdoms in the Fourteenth Century. Princeton, New Jersey: Markus Wiener
Publishers, 1995.
Brincard, Marie-Therese, ed. The Art of Metal in Africa. (Exhibition and catalog). Translations and additional research by Evelyn Fischel. New
York: African-American Institute. 1982.
Eyo, Ekpo. Nigeria and the Evolution of Money. Lagos, Nigeria: Central Bank of Nigeria, 1979.
Herbert, Eugenia W. Iron, Gender, and Power: Rituals of transformations in African societies. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1993.
Kriger, Colleen E. Pride of Men: Iron working in 19th century. In West Central Africa. Social History of Africa. Portsmouth, New Hampshire:
Heinemann, 1999.
*McNaughton, Patrick R. The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa, Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University
Press, 1988.
Museum of American Financial History. The Artistry of African Currency. (Exhibition and catalog). New York: Museum of American Financial
History. 2001
*Park, Mungo. The Travels of Mungo Park, edited by Ronald Miller. Everymans Library, No. 205, Travel & Topography. London: J.M. Dent & Sons,
Ltd. and New York: E.P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1960 [1907, 1954].
Schaedler, Karl-Ferdinand, et. al. Earth and Ore: 2,500 years of African art in terra cotta and metal. Kurasburg: Edition Minerva; Mnchen: Distributed
by Panterra Verlag, 1997.
*Westerdijk, Peter. The African Throwing Knife: A Style Analysis. Utrecht, The Netherlands: OMI, University of the Netherlands, 1988
*Williams, Denis. Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and Secular Forms of African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press, 1974.
Zaslavsky, Claudia. Africa Counts: Number and Patterns in African Culture. (3rd Edition) Westport, Connecticut: Lawrence Hill & Co., 1999.

*Reference citations in the catalog essay.

14

EXHIBITION CHECKLIST
1. Four Strands of Old Beads
(a) Nok Stone Beads, cornelian color; collected in Nigeria; c. 5th century
BCE; L: 14
(b) Hebron Glass Beads, green color; collected in Sudan; c. 15th century; L: 14
(c) Chevron Glass Beads (Aggrey Beads), blue, black,
red, white; Dutch; collected in Dem. Rep. of Congo; c. 17th
century; L: 12
(d) Yoruba Glass Beads, yellow; European origin; 18th/19th
century; L: 17
2. Cowrie Shells:

(a) Yoruba Ibeji Cape; Nigeria; H: 8

(b) Kuba Belt; Dem. Rep. of Congo; L: 70

13. Seven English Manillas, Brass; Birmingham, England; collected in

Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 3
14. Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L:21
15. Twisted Toma/Kissi Currency Staffs, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900;
L: 17.5
16. One Toma Currency Staff, Iron; Guinea/Liberia; Pre-1900; L: 23.5
17. Four Hoe Currency; Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13 (largest)
18. Hoe Currency:

(a) Iron; Upper Volta, Mossi area; Pre-1900; H: 16

(b) Iron; Northern Nigeria, Chamba; Pre-1900; H: 17

19. Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 11

3. Kuba Raffia Cloth; Dem. Rep. of Congo; 26 x 23

20. Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Niger; Early Period; H: 9.75

4. Four Bura Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Niger; H: 3.5 (largest)

21. Four Small Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5

5. Five Katanga X Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo;

c. 16th century; H: 1.5 (largest)
6. Two Katanga X Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo;
c. 16th century; H: 3 (largest)
7. Katanga X Shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 8.6
8. Ten Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th
century; D: 4.5 (largest)
9. Four Bracelet Currency; Copper/Bronze; Ancient Mali; c. 16th-18th
century; D: 5 (largest)
10. Akan Kuduo Box (with top), Bronze; Ghana; c. 17th century; D: 6
11. Six Akan Gold Weights and Two Akan Gold Dust Boxes, Bronze;
Ghana; Early Period; L: 2.45 (largest)
12. Five Stone Axe Tools; Sahara/Niger/Mali/Chad areas; Prehistoric;
L: 7

(largest)
22. Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 10
23. Two Chamba/Idoma Hoe Currency, Iron; Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 31
(largest)
24. Keaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 16.5
25. Mambila Hoe Currency, Iron; Western Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 26.25
26. Ngbaka Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 19
27. (a) Chamba Hoe Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 14
(b) Sudan/Uganda Hoe Currency, Iron; Pre-1900; H:10.5
28. Double Bell Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria/Western Cameroon;
Pre-1900; H: 12
29. Spiral Loop Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria, possibly Chamba;
Pre-1900; H: 6

15

30. Kwele Hoe Currency, Iron; Gabon; Pre-1900; H: 19.25

31. Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 17
32. Two Keul Currency, Iron; Chad; Pre-1900; H: 20
33. Kapsiki Currency, Iron; Northern Cameroon; Pre-1900; H: 21
34. Azande Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 19
35. Verre Throwing Knife Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 18
36. Copper Rod Currency; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 10.25
37. Iron Rod Currency; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 15.5
38. Three Igbo/Mumuye Iron Bars; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
L: 16.5
39. Chamba Currency Object, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 12
40. Yoruba Royal Marriage Currency, Bronze; Ife area, Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 8
41. Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 6.5
42 Spiral Copper Currency, Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; L: 13
43. Three Spiral Copper Currency; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900; H: 9.5;
D: 10 (largest)
44. Spiral Copper Currency (small), Iron; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
W: 2.5
45. Spiral Copper Currency with Large Disc; Eastern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 5.5
46. Open Ring Currency, Copper Alloy; Liberia, possibly Kru; Pre-1900;
H: 6.5

16

47. Semi-spherical (C-shaped) Copper Currency with Incised designs;

Chad; Pre-1900; H: 6.5
48. Yoruba Bracelet Currency with Incised designs, Bronze; Nigeria;
Pre-1900; H: 4.6
49. Yoruba Currency with Cowrie Shell Designs; Bronze; Nigeria;
Pre-1900; H: 4.3
50. Semi-spherical (C-shaped) Copper Currency with Incised design;
Sudan; Pre-1900; H: 4
51. Baule Bracelet Currency, Bronze; Ivory Coast; Pre-1900; H: 4.5
52. Semi-spherical (C-shaped) Currency, Copper; Eastern Nigeria;
Pre-1900; W: 9
53. Two Semi-spherical (C-shaped) Currency, Copper Alloy; Dem. Rep.
of Congo; Pre-1900; W: 13
54. Chamba/Mumuye Curved Currency, Iron; Northern Nigeria; Pre-1900;
H: 13.5
55. Torque-shaped Currency, Copper Alloy; Dem. Rep. of Congo, Mbole
People (?); Pre-1900; H: 8
56. Mbole Currency Anklet, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 7.5
57. Kusu U-shaped Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 15
58. Azande Blade Currency, Iron; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900; H: 25.5
59. Lokele or Turumbu Peoples Blade/Spear Currency. Iron; Dem. Rep. of
Congo; Pre-1900; H: 58
60. Mongo People Spiral Currency, Copper; Dem. Rep. of Congo; Pre-1900;
H: 39

ASSOCIATION TO PRESERVE THE

EATONVILLE COMMUNITY, INC. (P.E.C.)
P.E.C. Board ofDirectors
Officers

Members

Johnny Rivers, President

Carolyn M. Fennell, Vice President
Ava K. Doppelt, Esq., Treasurer
Rupert Deleveaux, Secretary

Lonnie C. Bell
James M. Lewis
Reginald B. McGill
Ernestine E. McWhite
Clarence Otis, Jr.
Jan E. Wilson, Esq.

Sibille H. Pritchard, Immediate Past President

P.E.C.STAFF
N.Y. Nathiri, Executive Director
Eric Robertson, Guest Curator
Rosalyn F. K. Castile, ZORA! Festival Logistics Coordinator
Shelly McKinney, Finance and Accounting Assistant
Shawayna Teal, Administrative Support

Excellence Without Excuse (E-WE) Computer Arts Lab & Learning Center*
Alice M. Grant, Manager
Daisy S. Willis, Teacher
Bruce E. Bouler, Technician
Cyria Underwood, Clerical and Computer Assistant
*Major funding provided by Orange County Citizens Commission for Children

MUSEUM VOLUNTEERS
Museum Assistants

Museum Support

Hospitality Committee

Maxine Hixon
Dorothy Shabazz
Jane Turner

Louise Franklin
Ann Hill
Evelyn Nash
Maye St. Julien

Ernestine E. McWhite, Chairperson

Ella J. Dinkins
Veronica Gordon
Evelyn Nash
Vernita Vereen
Mosella Wells

ZORA NEALE HURSTON NATIONAL MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS

227 East Kennedy Boulevard
Eatonville, Florida 32751
407-647-3131 407-539-2192 (Fax)
www.zoranealehurston.cc zora@cs.ucf.edu