Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 19211927

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Materials Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Joint-site structure friction welding method as a tool for drive pinion

light weighting in heavy-duty trucks
Samareh Mohammadzadeh Polami a, , Rudolf Reinhardt b,1 ,
Michael Rethmeier c,2 , Alois Schmid a,3
a

Technology Management Daimler Trucks (TG/MFT), Daimler AG, 001/E200, 70546 Stuttgart, Germany
Production and Materials Technology (PWT/VEP), Daimler AG, H152, 70546 Stuttgart, Germany
c
Head of Division 9.3 Welding Technology, BAM Bundesanstalt fr Materialforschung und -prfung, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 19 July 2013
Received in revised form 17 March 2014
Accepted 18 March 2014
Available online 26 March 2014
Keywords:
Friction welding
Joint-site structure
Drive pinion
Lightweight design

a b s t r a c t
To satisfy the applied compressive stresses of friction welded drive pinion fabricated by using the jointsite structure (JSS) method, three different variants were followed: (A) the initial design with two joints
was carried out. Two different burn-off lengths were examined for this variant. (B) The optimum burn-off
length was considered for only one weld zone. (C) The weld zone was moved radially from the initial
location and two different gap sizes were compared. The smallest gap size for the third variant led to
the largest weld length. The lack of structural welding defects for this variant was assessed by ultrasonic
testing. Hardness of the material after friction welding (FW) was correlated to the Continuous Cooling
Transformation (CCT) diagram of the used materials and revealed the phase/microstructure transformation of the material. The simulated applied stresses on the optimized friction welded design of the drive
pinion showed suitable results. The new drive pinion friction welded by the JSS method reduced the
weight of the component by approx. 14%.
2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Fuel efciency is a key prot factor for the long-haul transportation industry. In heavy-duty trucks, lightweight design is very
important for achieving further fuel consumption reduction and
increasing the truck payload. Klein (2011) and Grubisic (1986)
stated particular requirements of lightweight designs emphasizing
the material properties, geometry and the ability of the materials to withstand high stress. In order to achieve fuel efciency,
one of many lightweight design approaches is to focus on weightreduction for truck components such as the drive pinion, i.e. the
component that is the main focus of this research. The current
industry-standard drive pinion is produced as a solid forged singlepiece part. Quintenz and Raedt (2009) and Neugebauer et al. (2001)
made use of a hollow shaft to signicantly reduce the weight of
components. In order to achieve suitable weight reduction and

Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 07 11 17 32123; fax: +49 07 11 17 79074122.

E-mail addresses: samareh.mohammadzadeh@daimler.com
(S. Mohammadzadeh Polami), rudolf.reinhardt@daimler.com (R. Reinhardt),
michael.rethmeier@bam.de (M. Rethmeier), alois.schmid@daimler.com (A. Schmid).
1
Tel.: +49 07 11 17 2 64 79; fax: +49 07 11 17 9026479.
2
Tel.: +49 030 8104 1550; fax: +49 030 8104 1557.
3
Tel.: +49 07 11 17 5 62 17; fax: +49 07 11 17 79 05 62 17.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2014.03.027
0924-0136/ 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

avoid relatively expensive conventional methods (such as drilling

the shafts), a hollow shaft was used in this research. The hollow
shaft was joined to the bevel using a FW technique.
Designing bimetallic parts using expensive materials only when
they are essential creates signicant cost-saving opportunities. Dissimilar materials applied for the bevel gear and the shaft parts,
for instance, substitute the current homogenous material of the
drive pinion. Bevel gears are usually highly stressed, so that highquality demands on the material are fullled. In contrast, the shaft
material can be chosen to be less expensive. According to the American Welding Society (AWS (1989)), FW is the ideal method for
joining metals that are not necessarily similar. Donohue (2008)
mentioned the cost advantages of using composite rather than
one piece shaft in FW of the pump. Machedon and Machedon
(2007) demonstrated the application of FW for some automobile
components in which FW of the drive shafts replaced electric arc
welding technology. Using this method, the end component tting
process was simplied and the costs were reduced too. Grnauer
(1987) discussed possible weld-zone geometries for different components. In a patent registered by Fett and Colbert (2000), the axle
portion was friction welded to the ange portion of the motor vehicle axle shaft. Kong et al. (2010) tested the replacement of the
as-forged automobile reverse idle gear shaft with friction-welded
dissimilar joints. They found the optimal FW parameters for this
test.

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S. Mohammadzadeh Polami et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 19211927

Fig. 1. JSS of friction welded crankshaft.

FW was introduced as a joining method for circular proles, used

in most cases for butt welding. However, Nied et al. (1995) invented
a method for FW a shaft to a disk having the tapered wedge on
both parts, resulting in a weld interface in an area of lower stress
compared to conventional butt welding. Steinmetz et al. (2011)
introduced a new JSS FW method, in which a shaft was joined to the
gear of a crankshaft. They discussed the advantages of this method
of shaft/crankshaft joining for preventing the interruption of the
ber direction of the shaft and the consequences for the strength
of its gear teeth part. Fig. 1 shows the JSS of the crankshaft and its
advantage. Bernhard et al. (2007) registered a patent applying site
structure for joining a shaft to a disk hub connection ange by FW.
The shaft and the hub are joined by overlap FW in which, in contrast to the end-face conventional FW, the surfaces to be joined are
arranged at the circumference of the component. Two dened gaps
prevent spread of the softening material during FW. The benet
of this method has been clearly recognized and experimentation
is underway to apply this method for other components, such as
drive pinion.
Four different geometries for FW of a bevel to a hollow shaft
and reducing the component weight were tested and compared
by Mohammadzadeh Polami et al. (2012). In this investigation, the
similar JSS shown in Fig. 1 was adapted for the truck drive pinion. However, it was demonstrated that this joint cannot withstand
the applied stresses on the drive pinion gear part. Therefore, this
method needed to be optimized.

Sahin (2005) discussed the most important parameters affecting the FW process, such as friction time, friction pressure, forging
time, forging pressure and rotation speed. Sathiya et al. (2005)
demonstrated that the burn-off length, dened as the difference
in specimen length before and after friction welding, tends to
increase with increasing friction time. Sathiya et al. (2007) discussed the optimum friction time and forging pressure at which
higher strength of ferritic stainless steel joints was obtained. They
also concluded that the burn-off rate played an important role as
regards the metallographic structure and mechanical properties of
this joint. Bennett et al. (2011) described that the time to the transition to gross plastic ow at inertia FW shortens as the friction
pressure increases. This is due to the higher friction pressure causing an increase in heating rate around the interface region, which
initiates plastic ow at lower temperature. In any case, the material needs to become pasty enough during the process. According
to DIN EN ISO 15620, a sufcient burn-off period is required for
generation of heat to permit consolidation during forging. The friction machine is usually adjusted to a specic burn-off length, until
which the friction continues. Nevertheless, information regarding
the JSS FW is limited only for few experiments indicating this explanation is insufcient. Therefore, in this study it is tried to nd the
appropriate friction pressure and time, for the material to become
pasty enough and get the required upset length.
This investigation aims to design the JSS for a bevel/shaft composite workpiece in order to reduce the drive pinion weight,
minimize defects and maintain a compliant fatigue strength. From
the FEM simulation results demonstrating the stress requirements
for the drive pinion, the optimal number of joints and locations,
were obtained. For optimal joints, two different gap sizes were
analyzed and compared. Micrograph analyses in conjunction with
non-destructive ultrasonic testing proved good weld quality of the
optimized design. HV10 hardness measured in the middle of the
weld zone and its inuence on the CCT diagrams of the joined materials showed the thermal capacity during the test for the last two
variants.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Materials
The bevel part was produced from a higher strength material,
i.e. 18CrNiMo7-6, since, the gear teeth, machined later on this

Fig. 2. Initial design of JSS FW for drive pinion (left side before FW, right side after FW).

S. Mohammadzadeh Polami et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 19211927

1923

Table 1
Chemical composition of 18CrNiMo7-8 (1.6587, in accordance with DIN EN 10084), (wt%).
Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Mo

Ni

Fe

Content

0.150.21

0.40

0.500.90

0.025

<0.035

1.501.80

0.250.35

1.401.70

Balance

Table 2
Chemical composition of16MnCr5 (1.7131, in accordance with DIN EN 10084), (wt%).
Element

Si

Mn

Cr

Mo

Ni

Fe

Content

0.140.19

0.40

1.001.30

0.025

<0.035

0.801.10

Balance

Fig. 3. FEM simulation of initial design of JSS FW for drive pinion.

Fig. 4. JSS FW design before welding for two weld zones with a shaft diameter of
65 mm.

part, required higher strength. The hollow shaft was formed from
16MnCr5 material. Case-hardened steel was used in each case. FW
provided the dissimilar bevel to the shaft joint.
The chemical compositions of the two materials used for the
bevel and the shaft are shown in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
2.2. Test procedure
The new JSS FW technique for the drive pinion component was
initially designed to have two joints welded in a conical area (Fig. 2).
As can be seen, the two weld zones did not ll the provided area
between them, shown as non-fusion area.
When the drive pinion is fastened inside the rear axle of the truck
in working condition, compressive principal stresses on the component are applied. These applied stresses with the initial design
of the JSS FW were described by Mohammadzadeh Polami et al.
(2012) using FEM simulation and are shown in Fig. 3. Initial results
revealed that the front welded joint of the bevel was placed under
no stress and the other weld zone is under high stress. The critical
zone of the drive pinion that supported the applied stresses was
concentrated at the edge of this weld zone.
For simplication purposes, the weld samples were scaled down
and the rotated bevel part was considered to have a cylindrical
form. These changes were essential to allow the experimental procedure with the required iteration steps in the laboratory. Initially,
the two single pieces of the sample the cylindrical head and the
shaft were positioned in the FW machine. The cylindrical head
part was clamped in the spindle chuck and the spindle was brought
to a predetermined rotation speed. The shaft was clamped in a

xture mounted to a hydraulically actuated tailstock slide and the

axial pressure (Table 3) was applied from this side (Lyman, 1983).
2.3. Design optimization
The objective of this investigation was to nd a suitable joint
with a greater weld zone providing higher joint strength. To achieve
this, the weld zone geometry was improved in different stages and
divided into three categories: Variant A two weld zones, where
two different burn-off lengths were tried out; variant B one weld
zone; and variant C radial relocation of the weld zone, for which
two different gap sizes were compared.
Fig. 4 shows the initial design before FW of two weld zones in the
JSS for the hollow shaft and the cylindrical head part. Detail X is a
magnication showing the 2 mm distance between the connected
shaft and the head part, called the radial overlap. The weld zone
after FW is shown in Fig. 5(a) and (b). Here, two different burn-off
lengths for A1 = 8 mm and A2 = 10 mm were specied.
According to the FEM-simulation (Fig. 3), only the one weld zone
of the JSS friction-welded drive pinion was under stress. Therefore, the weld zones can be limited to one zone where the stress is
applied. The empty spaces between the two weld zones critical for
the notch effect were avoided. The geometry design with 10 mm
burn-off length and 3 mm radial overlap for type (B) is shown in
Fig. 5(c).
The FEM simulation showed that the highest stress for JSS FW is
in the transition radius between the bearing support (on the shaft)
and the gear (pinion part). Therefore, an attempt was made to move

Table 3
FW parameters for variants A1 , A2 , B, C1 and C2 .
Processing parameters

Variant A1

Variant A2

Variant B

Variant C1

Variant C2

Friction rotation speed (rpm)

Friction pressure (MPa)
Upsetting pressure (MPa)
Burn-off length (mm)
Friction time(s)
Gap size (mm)
Radial overlap (mm)

1500
167
219
8
10
1.5
2+2

1500
184202
219
10
15
1.5
2+2

1500
216260
285
10
10
1.5
3

1500
300
420
14
14.4
2
3

1500
185
250
10
32
0.6
3

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Fig. 6. Macrostructure of variant A1 .

The design was further evaluated with the help of macrosections

etched with nitric acid (HNO3 ) together with ultrasonic testing.
A larger weld surface area was obtained in drive pinion design.
Finally, FEM- simulation demonstrated stress concentration in this
new geometry design.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Two weld zones design and effect of burn-off length on weld
zone length
Weld zone properties and length were obtained by macrostructural examination. In the rst step, the inuence of the burn-off
length in the initial situation (two weld zones) was analyzed. Fig. 6
shows the macrostructure of variant A1 (burn-off 8 mm), and the
macrostructure of variant A2 (burn-off 10 mm) is shown in Fig. 7.
Varying the burn-off length requires different friction pressures.
This effect was examined by the A1 variant (8 mm burn-off length);
friction pressure was adjusted to 167 MPa. For A2 (10 mm burn-off),
the friction pressure ranged between 184 and 202 MPa. Macrographs did not show any signicant differences between A1 and A2 .
The macrographs showed that the weld zones of both variants were
longer on the right (approx. 20 mm) than on left (approx. 10 mm).
According to the FEM simulation, the highest stresses are applied
in the corner where the bevel connects to the shaft, i.e. in this case
in the weld zone on the left (10 mm). Due to the small size of the
connected area subjected to the applied stresses of the drive pinion component, the weld zone had to be improved. Increasing the
burn-off length from 8 mm to 10 mm did not show any substantial
differences between the connected area in variants A1 and A2 .
3.2. One-weld zone design
Fig. 5. Different variants of weld zone design for category A to C: (a) A1 two weld
zones, with burn-off 8 mm (b) A2 with burn-off 10 mm, (c) B with one weld zone,
(d) C1 one radially moved weld zone with a gap size of 2 mm and (e) C2 one radially
moved weld zone with a gap size of 0.6 mm.

the weld joint in category B as far radially outwards as possible from

the most stressed area. It can be seen in Fig. 5(d) and (e) that the
shaft diameter in C has been increased from 65 mm in variant A
and B (Fig. 5(ac)) to 77 mm (Fig. 5(d and e)). For this design, two
different new geometries varying in their gap sizes were compared
(C1 and C2 ). For the design, the gap heights in C1 (2 mm) and C2
(0.6 mm) are shown in Fig. 5(d) and (e).
The variants C1 and C2 provide a similar radial overlap of 3 mm
and burn-off lengths of C1 = 14 mm and C2 = 10 mm. Table 3 shows
the FW parameters for different weld zone design variants.

The macrostructure of the one-weld zone design with 3 mm

radial overlap is shown in Fig. 8. The macrostructural images
showed a larger weld zone (20 mm) in the most stressed area of
the drive pinion component. The friction pressure for this variant
started at 216 MPa and ended at 260 MPa. Joining through one weld
zone avoided the non-fusion area between the two joints (Fig. 2).
3.3. Radial relocation of weld zone and gap size inuence
Although joining the two parts through one zone produces a
longer contact length in the critical area, the contact still introduces
the risk for the component failing to withstand the high stress from
the bearings. Since, the ash was still located in the critical area;
the fatigue strength of the component diminishes due to the notch
effect. In the improved design in accordance with the FEM simulation, Fig. 5(d) and (e), the weld zone was radially moved outwards
from the highest-stressed area. As a result, the ash-generating

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1925

Fig. 7. Macrostructure of variant A2 .

and prevents the softened materials from spreading. The displaced

material solidies as a result of the lower ambient temperature; it
obtains a pasty consistency in the process and prevents the spread
of the material subsequently being displaced due to its higher
viscosity. This constitutes a fundamental difference from the conventional overlap FW in which the pasty bead material can readily
escape from the joint site.
3.4. Weld quality of optimized weld zone designs

Fig. 8. Macrostructure of variant B with one weld zone.

notch effect was placed under less stress. Besides reducing the
amount of stress in the weld area, the optimized design creates
suitable heat distribution between the head and the shaft. Clearly,
in the previous variants A and B, the shaft in the weld zone was thinner than the head (Fig. 5). Therefore, the shaft at the end weld zone
was formed without a suitable joint to the head. In variant C, the
thicker hollow shaft with more material was connected to the head
part, resulting in better heat distribution compared to the previous
variants with less material in the shaft. For the radial displacement
of the weld zone variant, two different gap sizes were considered
(Fig. 5(d) and (e)). The macrostructures of these variants C1 and C2
are shown in Fig. 9.
As can be seen in Fig. 9, variant C1 resulted in a slightly
larger weld zone (25 mm) compared to variants A and B (approx.
20 mm). The experiment revealed that the smaller gap size leads
to an obviously larger contacted area. In variant C1 with 2 mm
gap size, <26 mm weld length was obtained. However, variant C2
with 0.6 mm gap size was joined with almost double weld length
(approx. 42 mm) compared to the size of the previous variant
(C1 ). The reason for this is that during the FW process, the plasticized material ows into the small gap and lls it, generating a
wide weld zone. Bernhard et al. (2007) explained that during FW
the softened displaced material from the joint region lls the gap

Varying the gap size affected the corresponding friction time in

the test. The smaller gap in C2 compared to that of C1 almost doubled the time required to join the two parts (together). The friction
time for C1 with 14 mm burn-off length took 14 s and for C2 with
10 mm burn-off length 32 s (Table 3). Apparently in C2 , longer time
was required for its friction phase despite of the smaller burn-off
length (10 mm). It can be noted that in C2 , with the longer friction
time, more heat is induced during the friction phase.
Fig. 9 shows the existence of different microstructural zones,
particularly the weld and the heat-affected zone. Furthermore,
hardness measurements reveal the heat distribution arising from
heating and plastic deformation. Signicant correlation between
the hardness in two different joint geometries with different gap
sizes is shown. Due to the small gap in variant C2 , the friction time
required for C2 was longer than C1 (Table 3). Thus, more heat is
introduced which heats up a larger area. By superimposing the
hardness results of the two joints on the CCT diagrams for each
material, the heat treatment between the two variants was compared. The hardness of the two variants C1 and C2 is plotted in the
diagrams in Fig. 10. C1 reveals maximum 470 HV and C2 maximum
330 HV in the weld zone. It follows that the weld with the bigger
gap size (C1 ) is harder than the weld with a smaller gap.
The weld quality was investigated by ultrasonic testing. The
resulting graph shows the existence of cracks or other non-fusion
areas within the weld zone.
The CCT diagram of the two applied materials (18CrNiMo7-6
and 16MnCr5) reveals the phase transformation during the cooling
process for the related hardnesses. For example, the phase transformation for 470 HV (i.e. maximum hardness of the bigger gap
size variant) in both CCT diagrams (presented by Reese (2013))
shows the formation of the martensite. However, with the smaller
gap size and maximum hardness of 330 HV, both materials show
minimal martensite transformation. Clearly, a more desirable weld

Fig. 9. Macrostructure of variants C1 (gap size = 2 mm) and C2 (gap size = 0.6 mm).

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Fig. 12. FEM simulation of optimized JSS FW for drive pinion.

Fig. 13. Schematically removing ash after FW of drive pinion.

Fig. 10. Hardness variation diagram in the weld zone of variants C1 and C2 .

3.5. Light weighting and FEM simulation of optimized design

quality was obtained in variant C2 with the smaller gap, where
crack initiation was hindered due to the bainite structure.
As can be seen in Fig. 11, the green line 2 shows the partially
joined area and the blue line (region 1) denes the fusion part.
Variant C2 with the larger weld zone results in more blue areas
(region 1) detected (48%) compared to C1 (24%). The green line 2,
illustrating partially fused areas or crack initiation, is considerably
more pronounced in C1 (7%) than in C2 (5%). The red area (region 3),
demonstrating a non-fusion zone of the weld, is noticeably larger
in C1 (69%) than in C2 (46%). For the larger weld zone (C2 ), a more
desirable weld quality was proved.

An optimal weld design was obtained with a gap size limited to

0.6 mm. The weight of the new component is approx. 2 kg less than
the total weight (14.8 kg) of the series production part.
JSS FW was simulated on the one-weld optimized new design.
The original dimension of the drive pinion was assessed and the
applied stresses were considered too. Fig. 12 shows the calculation result for this design. As illustrated, a suitable weld zone
preventing the concentration of maximum stress in the weld zone
was obtained. As highlighted, 509 MPa compression stress would
be endured by the new weld zone. Referring to Fig. 3, 1305 MPa
compression stress was calculated on the previous JSS zone of the
component. Therefore, the new design would endure less stress.
3.6. Finish-treatment of weld upset
By considering the low gap height, the softened material is prevented from escaping in the form of a ash. Macrographs images
(Fig. 9) show the existence of cracks or non-fused zones at the end
of the joint. Gage and Mich (1972) introduced different methods
to remove this ash, because of its stress concentration and consequently the reduction in component fatigue strength. Machining
off the spline end of the weld, including removing the weld ash
and reducing the area to a smaller length, improved the fatigue
strength (Mohammadzadeh Polami et al., 2013). Clearly, the existence of such an upset facilitates crack propagation due to the notch
effect. Fig. 13 shows schematically removing the weld ash.
4. Conclusions

Fig. 11. Ultrasonic echo result of non-destructive weld qualication in C1 and C2 .

For light weighting of drive pinion down to 2 kg (the production part weighs 14.8 kg), different optimization steps using
JSS FW were followed for this component. The new drive pinion

S. Mohammadzadeh Polami et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 214 (2014) 19211927

was envisaged to endure the applied component stresses. The

optimization processes are listed as:
Initial situation with two weld zones was tried out. The resulting
weld lengths were too small to withstand the applied component
stresses.
One weld zone was considered avoiding the non-fusion area
between the two joints.
The weld zone was relocated radially (approx. 6 mm) to prevent
creation of the weld zone in the most stressed area. The gap size
was varied for the relocated weld zone. A micrograph showed the
largest weld zone, for which better weld quality was proved using
the ultrasonic test. The inuence of weld hardness determined
the phase transformation of the materials. It turned out that a
one-weld zone, moved away from the most stressed area and
having a gap size of 0.6 mm, exhibits the longest weld zone with
more proper quality.
FEM simulation of the optimal variant showed less stress distribution in the weld zone. Due to the stress concentration, the weld
ash had to be removed.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Trucks Technology Management Department of Daimler AG. The authors wish to express their
sincere thanks to Mr. Alexander Berndt for useful technical discussions during the course of this project.
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