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AbstractDoubly fed induction generators (DFIGs), often organized in wind parks, are the most important generators used
for variable-speed wind energy generation. This paper reviews the
control systems for the operation of DFIGs and brushless DFIGs
in wind energy applications. Control systems for stand-alone
operation, connection to balanced or unbalanced grids, sensorless control, and frequency support from DFIGs and low-voltage
ride-through issues are discussed.
Index TermsControl strategies, crowbar, doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG), low-voltage ride through (LVRT), reactive support, robust controller, voltage unbalance, wind turbine.
v1s
v2s
v0
vr
vf
sl
s
r
s
N OMENCLATURE
ims
is
ir
if
J
ktransf
Ls
Lr
L0
e
r
sl
p
s
r
Rs
Rr
s
Te
vs
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
TABLE I
C OMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE WECSs IN THE
R ANGE OF 1.53 MW BASED ON DFIGs
2777
TABLE II
C OMPARISON B ETWEEN T HREE G ENERATORS P UBLISHED IN [7] AND [8]
2778
ds
qs
=
dr
qr
vds
=
vqs
ids
Ls 0 L0 0
0 Ls 0 L0 iqs
L0 0 Lr 0
idr
0 L0 0 Lr
iqr
d ds
Rs 0
ids
+
iqs
0 Rs
dt qs
0 e
ds
+
e
0
qs
d dr
Rr 0
idr
vdr
=
+
0 Rr
vqr
iqr
dt qr
0 sl
dr
+
sl
0
qr
p
Te = ktransf L0 (iqs idr ids iqr )
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
where subscripts d and q denote direct and quadrature components referred to the synchronous rotating frame, respectively;
and subscripts r and s denote stator or rotor quantities, respectively. s = L0 ims is the stator flux, where ims is known as
the magnetizing current.
The field orientation for machine variable transformation
uses slip angle sl derived from the position of the statorflux vector s and the rotor position r (see [15] and [16]) as
follows:
sl = s r .
(5)
s
s = tan1
.
(6)
s
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
2779
Fig. 2.
p L20
ims Iqr = kt1 ims iqr
2 Ls
(8)
with the torque constant kt1 = ktransf pL20 /Ls . The stator magnetizing current ims = ds /L0 is practically constant in gridconnected applications. Under flux orientation conditions, the
magnetizing current can be provided: 1) entirely from the stator
with ird = 0; 2) entirely from the rotor with isd = 0; or 3) a
combination of magnetizing currents supplied from both the
stator and the rotor. This degree of freedom regarding the
reactive power flow in the machine can lead to an optimization
problem, where losses in the machine and ratings of the rotorside and the line-side converters need to be considered [41],
[62]. The electrical torque is proportional to irq , and the reactive
power in the machine can be regulated by acting upon ird .
Vector control schemes can also be implemented using a
reference frame oriented along the stator voltage vector and
controlling the stator currents instead of the rotor currents. The
D. DTC of DFIM
The direct torque control (DTC) technique [66], widely
applied to squirrel-cage induction machines, has also been used
to control the electrical torque in the DFIM because of the good
dynamic performance that it achieved [31], [39], [40], [45],
[67][69]. ABB has developed a low-voltage power converter
to control a DFIM for wind power applications using this
technique [70].
A two-level voltage-fed inverter can impose six active vectors and two zero vectors at the machine rotor terminals, as
shown in Fig. 3(a). These voltage vectors, when applied for
time interval t, produce changes in the rotor flux vector both
in magnitude and phase with respect to the stator-flux vector
(see also Fig. 3). It can be shown that the electrical torque is
proportional to the cross product of the stator and rotor flux
vectors, i.e.,
Te = kt s r = kt |s ||r | sin
(9)
(10)
2780
(11)
(12)
Fig. 5.
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
2781
(13)
(14)
Using (8) and (14), the quadrature reference current iqr can
be calculated as
iqr =
kopt 2
.
kt1 ims r
(15)
2782
Fig. 9.
required stator voltage. Then, the control strategy of the lineside converter or, in this case, the stator-side converter, could
regulate the required dc-link voltage.
To compensate the load unbalance, the GSC and/or the RSC
can be used. For instance, in [91] and [92], the use of the GSC
to compensate the load unbalance is proposed. The control
system discussed in [91] is shown in Fig. 9. (Only the GSC
control system is shown.) The positive-sequence vector control
system is oriented along the stator voltage vector. Because of
the unbalance, a PLL is implemented to calculate the stator
voltage angle v [59]. From +v and v , the currents can
be referred to two synchronous d-axis and q-axis rotating at
+e and e , respectively. Doubly frequency components
are produced when the positive/negative-sequence currents are
referred to the d-axis and the q-axis rotating in the opposite
direction. As shown in Fig. 9, notch filters are used to eliminate
these high-frequency components [89], [91], [92], [98], [101].
+
i
=
i
=
i
+
i
(17)
dqf
dqL
dqs
dqf .
Therefore, the negative-sequence current demand is a function
of the load negative-sequence current. In the steady state, when
i
dqf = idqL , stator current idqs = 0 [see (17)], and the torque
pulsations are eliminated.
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
2783
+ vabc
.
vabc = vabc
(18)
Fig. 10 shows the performance of the control system depicted in Fig. 9 for negative-sequence current compensation
under variable-speed stand-alone operation (see [92]). The load
consists of three unbalanced resistors connected to phases a,
b, and c, respectively (see Fig. 8). The rotational speed is
varied from 1350 to 1650 rpm to illustrate the performance
at variable speed (from below to above synchronous speed).
Before t 1.25 s, the compensation system is not operating,
and the stator current has a negative-sequence component [see
Fig. 10(a)]. In t 1.25 s, the compensation is enabled, and the
stator current i
dqs is driven to zero. For t > 1.5 s, idqL idqf ,
and the negative-sequence currents are eliminated from the
machine stator. Notice that the term unfiltered indicates that
the displayed currents have not been filtered by the notch filters
shown in Fig. 9.
There are other publications where control of a stand-alone
unbalanced load is discussed. For instance, the control system
discussed in [94] uses the RSC to regulate a balanced load
voltage. In this study, the control system is tested with nonlinear
loads and the authors claim a good performance. However, the
main disadvantage of [94] is that the rotor current reference has
negative-sequence components, and a relatively large dc-link
voltage could be required to regulate these components.
Predictive control systems for DFIGs feeding unbalanced
stand-alone loads are discussed in [93] and [105]. In this case,
the voltage vector that minimizes a cost function is identified
and applied to the RSC. The control discussed in [93] and [105]
use only the RSC to compensate the unbalances in the standalone load.
To the best of our knowledge, the only publication reporting
the use of both the RSC and GSC to compensate the load
unbalance in a stand-alone DFIG is [95]. In this case, a dq control system augmented with a resonant controller (implemented
in the synchronous rotating frame) is proposed. The RSC is
controlled to regulate a balanced load voltage, whereas the GSC
(19)
(20)
The voltage and current vectors at the output of the GSC (see
Fig. 11) can be written as
v f = v1f eje t+1f + v2f eje t+2f
(21)
(22)
(24)
(25)
2784
Fig. 12.
In (26) and (27), irs is the rotor current vector referred to the
stator, and (ir + jir ) is the measured rotor current in
coordinates. Using (26) and (27), an estimation of the slip angle
is obtained as
(28)
sl = tan1 (ir /ir ) tan1 isr /isr .
Using (28) in (5), an estimation of rotor position angle is
derived. Open-loop methods are not only based on estimation
of the DFIG rotor current vector. In [122], an observer based
on the magnetizing current derived from the rotor and stator
equations of the machine is proposed, although only simulation
results were presented, and no methodology was proposed
for the observer modeling and design. In [123], a rotor-fluxbased sensorless scheme is proposed, where the rotor flux
is obtained by integrating the rotor back electromotive force.
This sensorless method has poor performance when the machine is operating around the synchronous speed because
the rotor is excited with low frequency voltages. Therefore,
the rotor flux cannot be accurately estimated by integrating the
rotor voltages.
In the open-loop methods, the rotational speed is obtained
via differentiation of the estimated slip angle of (28), which can
amplify the high frequency noise. Moreover, for the open-loop
methods reported in the literature, issues of observer modeling,
observer bandwidth, and design methodology for the whole
sensorless system are not discussed.
B. Sensorless Method Based on MRASs
( s Ls s )
L0
(26)
(27)
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
2785
Fig. 14. Sensorless control of a grid-connected DFIG using a stator-fluxbased MRAS observer. Notice that the control system is unstable when the
rotor magnetizing current idr0 is driven to zero.
Fig. 13. (a) Stator-flux-based MRAS observer proposed in [127]. (b) Smallsignal model corresponding to the stator-flux MRAS observer.
(29)
s = Ls is + L0 ir ej r .
(31)
( s Ls s )
L0
ej sl .
(32)
Fig. 15. (a) RCMO presented in [61]. (b) Small-signal of the RCMO presented in [61].
A detailed description of the RCMO, including the methodology required to synchronize the DFIG to the grid, the smallsignal model, and the control algorithm used for catching the
speed on the fly, is presented in [61]. The implementation of
the RCMO is shown in Fig. 15(a). Fig. 15(b) shows a linearized
model of an RCMO, which is used to design the PI controller
in Fig. 15(a).
Experimental results obtained with a DFIG vector controlled
using a sensorless scheme based on an RCMO are shown in
Fig. 16. Fig. 16(a) shows the performance of the control system
used to synchronize the DFIG to the electrical grid before the
grid-connected generation is started. Notice that, in t = 20 s,
the power switch is closed, and the DFIG stator is connected
to the grid. Fig. 16(b) shows the experimental results obtained
for speed catching on the fly with sensorless control using the
RCMO. These experimental results are fully discussed in [61]
and [136].
From the small-signal model in Fig. 15(b), it is concluded
that the gain of the feedforward path is only affected by the
magnitude of the rotor current vector, which is not zero in the
typical operation range. Therefore, unlike the stator-flux MRAS
observer, the RCMO can be applied to sensorless control of
DFIG when the machine is grid connected and entirely magnetized from the stator. In fact, the RCMO can be applied to standalone and grid-connected application. In addition, as presented
in Fig. 16(a), sensorless vector control of the DFIG using an
RCMO is appropriate to synchronize the DFIG to the grid.
2786
s Te
s | is |
L
L
s
=
0 | |
0 | |
L
L
s
s
ird =
Fig. 16. Experimental results discussed in [61] and [136] corresponding to the
operation of a RCMO. (a) Synchronization to the grid. (b) Speed catching on
the fly.
(33)
(34)
1/2
.
(35)
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
Pg
Qg
=
|v s Rs is | qr
|v s Rs is |
(36)
where Pg and Qg are the power transferred across the air gap.
The current estimated using (36) are used in a RCMO in order
to estimate the rotor position angle. It is claimed in [144] and
[145] that the main advantage is that the calculation of the
stator-flux vector is not required in the vector control system.
However, in order to calculate Pg and Qg , an estimation of the
iron losses and magnetizing reactive power is required [144].
This can produce some errors, particularly when the DFIM is
operating with light loads.
Sensorless control of DFIMs can be also achieved using signal injection [148]. This methodology is relatively well known
for cage induction machines [149]. However, to the best of our
knowledge, sensorless control of DFIMs using signal injection
has only been discussed in [148]. The operating principle is
that the DFIM is a transformer in which the relative position
between the primary and secondary winding changes as the
rotor rotates. Therefore, if a high-frequency signal is injected
into the rotor, the phase of the corresponding signal in the stator
has a component that is dependent on the rotor position angle.
The main advantage of this method is high robustness against
variation in the machine parameters. However, experimental
validation of this method has not been reported, and injection
of high-frequency signals in the DFIG rotor is not simple to
achieve in relatively large machines, such as the ones used for
wind power generation.
To the best of our knowledge, the performance of the reviewed sensorless methods has not been studied for operation
in unbalanced grids or when the DFIG is feeding a stand-alone
unbalanced load of linear/nonlinear nature. Moreover, sensorless control of DFIGs during LVRT conditions has not been
addressed in the literature. Further research in these subjects is
required.
V. F REQUENCY S UPPORT U SING DFIGs
As wind power penetration increases, the fluctuating behavior of the wind velocity has more impact on the grid frequency.
Wind energy penetration may increase during periods of low
loads, e.g., in the night. In this case, grid-frequency fluctuations
above the maximum allowed by the grid codes can be produced
[150][152] if conventional MPPT is used to control the power
generated. In some countries, such as China [153], [154], about
27% of the yearly wind energy is curtailed because most wind
farms are operating using MPPT control without frequency
regulation [153]. In the past, the control used was based on
disconnecting part of the wind farm. Now, modern control
methods based on droop control and inertia emulation are
preferred [155].
Grid connection requirements (GCRs) are introducing regulations to establish grid-frequency support from wind turbines
[156]. For instance, according to the E-ON GCR [157], when
the frequency exceeds the value of 50.2 Hz, wind farms must
reduce their active power with a gradient of 40% of the available
2787
power per hertz, with a ramp rate of 10% of the grid connection
capacity per minute. A more detailed description about the
GCRs is found in Section VI-A.
There are several publications related to the subject of gridfrequency support using wind energy systems [153][155],
[158][170]. Most of the proposed methods use the kinetic
energy stored in the wind turbine rotating mass to provide additional power to the system in case of grid-frequency variation.
In power systems, inertia constant H is used instead of
inertia J. Constant H is defined as [155]
H=
Jr2
Ek
=
S
S
(37)
d(fgrid )
dt
(38)
where Pref represents the output power demand for normal steady-state operation of the power system when the
grid frequency fgrid is equal to the reference frequency.
This power demand might be obtained, for instance, from a
lookup table, where a relationship between the rotational speed
and the demanded output power is stored. The second term
Kd (fgrid fref ) represents the droop power. In a typical
system, when the power is unbalanced, (e.g., there is more
or less consumption than power generation) the grid frequency changes. In this case, the DFIG output power is increased/decreased in order to support the generation. The last
term Kei (d(fgrid )/dt) corresponds to the inertia emulation. In
this case, the power demand is varied according to the rate
of change of the grid frequency. This component emulates
the inertia response of a conventional synchronous machine.
2788
Fig. 17. Optimal and suboptimal power curve for the control strategy proposed in [79].
= kr .
Pout
(39)
(40)
Vs = kq (Q Q)
(41)
Fig. 18. Control system similar to that proposed in [159] for the operation of
DFIGs in microgrids.
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
2789
dt s
Ls s
Fig. 20. Reactive current to be delivered to the grid under a voltage dip.
(42)
(43)
v1s je t v2s je t
e
+
e
+ n0 et/s
je
je
L0 jse t
L0
se
+ v2s (s 2)ej(2s)e t
Ls
Ls
L0 1
+
+ jr n0 et/sejr t .
Ls s
(44)
v rr0 = v1s
(45)
In normal operation, the grid voltage presents only the positive sequence, and the second and third terms in (44) and (45)
are zero. However, when a grid-voltage sag appears, the flux is
expressed as the sum of three components [182], [187], [188],
[191]: 1) the nonhomogenous or forced flux composed by two
terms corresponding to the positive- and negative-sequence
stator voltages; and 2) the homogenous or natural flux.
The natural flux vector does not rotate. This is a transient dc
component flux that exponentially decays with time constant
s = Ls /Rs and initial value n0 , which depends on the type
and depth of the grid-voltage sag and, in case of asymmetrical
dips, on the instant of time within the grid-voltage period in
which the grid disturbance occurs [182], [191].
The forced flux is the sum of the positive-sequence flux that
rotates at synchronous speed and the negative-sequence flux
[86]. The difference between asymmetrical and symmetrical
2790
TABLE III
P OSITIVE , N EGATIVE , AND NATURAL F LUXES (P ER U NIT )
FOR D IFFERENT T YPES OF FAULTS [191]
L0
(|s|(1 d)v1s + (1 s)dv1s ) (46)
Ls
(vro_asym )max
Without specific control action, the rotor overvoltages produce high ac rotor currents with synchronous frequencies superposed upon the low-frequency steady-state rotor currents
injected by the RSC [156], [182], [192]. The rotor overcurrent
may exceed 23 times the nominal rotor current, which is not
acceptable [192]. On the stator side, these currents appear as dc
components [192], [193].
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
2791
Fig. 22. Rotor and converter protection devices: crowbar, dc-link chopper, ESS, and ac switch [156], [213].
2792
VII. C ONCLUSION
D. Control Methods for LVRT Compliance With DFIG
This subsection summarizes the control methods for LVRT
compliance. The goal is to control rotor voltages and currents,
to reduce the rotor overvoltages and/or overcurrents, and to
avoid the crowbar activation in order to keep full DFIG control
at all times to meet the LVRT requirements. However, in
many cases, the crowbar activation cannot be avoided, and the
crowbar mode concurrently works with the control method.
Some control approaches regulate rotor and GSC currents
in the positive and negative dq reference frames [90], [98],
[219][221] based on a positive- and negative-sequence models
of the DFIG [99]. The main control goals cover the DFIG
active and reactive power to meet the LVRT requirements.
As discussed in Section III-B, each power converter has four
degrees of freedom, allowing to include additional control goals
as, for instance, the regulation of the dc-link voltage, stator
current balancing, and cancelation of the oscillations in the
active power, rotor current, and torque.
Although crowbar activation cannot be avoided in case of
severe asymmetrical faults [90], a noncrowbar method to reduce
the rotor overvoltages based on injecting demagnetizing flux
currents from the RSC is proposed in [33], [186], [221], and
[222]. Full DFIG control is retained, but a large rotor current
capacity is needed, and there is limited capability in the case of
asymmetrical faults. If the crowbar is activated, the use of the
demagnetizing current reduces the crowbar mode time [223].
A robust controller in the stationary frame is presented
in [106], claiming full control in all LVRT cases. However, the
results have been obtained with an oversized converter that can
accommodate rotor overvoltages and full rotor current control.
With a suitable-sized converter, this control method may have
some limitations.
CRDENAS et al.: CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR OPERATION OF DFIGs IN WIND ENERGY APPLICATIONS
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