Still Life

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Still life
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A still life (plural still lifes) is a work

of art depicting mostly inanimate
subject matter, typically commonplace
objects which may be either natural
(food, flowers, dead animals, plants,
rocks, or shells) or man-made (drinking
glasses, books, vases, jewelry, coins,
pipes, and so on). With origins in the
Middle Ages and Ancient GraecoRoman art, still-life painting emerged
as a distinct genre and professional
specialization in Western painting by
the late 16th century, and has remained
significant since then. Still life gives the
artist more freedom in the arrangement
Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568
of elements within a composition than
1625), Bouquet (1599),
do paintings of other types of subjects
Kunsthistorisches Museum,
such as landscape or portraiture. Early
Vienna. Some of the earliest
still-life paintings, particularly before
examples of still life were
1700, often contained religious and
paintings of flowers by Northern
allegorical symbolism relating to the
Renaissance, Dutch, and Flemish
objects depicted. Some modern still life
painters.
breaks the two-dimensional barrier and
employs three-dimensional mixed
media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as
video and sound.
Still life emerged from the painting of details in larger compositions with
subjects, and historically has been often combined with figure subjects,
especially in Flemish Baroque painting. The term includes the painting of
dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered animal art,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_life
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dead animals, especially game. Live ones are considered animal art,
although in practice they were often painted from dead models. The stilllife category also shares commonalities with zoological and especially
botanical illustration, where there has been considerable overlap among
artists. Generally a still life includes a fully depicted background, and puts
aesthetic rather than illustrative concerns as primary. Still life occupied the
lowest rung of the hierarchy of genres, but still has been extremely
popular with buyers. As well as the independent still-life subject, still-life
painting encompasses other types of painting with prominent still-life
elements, usually symbolic, and "images that rely on a multitude of stilllife elements ostensibly to reproduce a 'slice of life'. The trompe-l'il
painting, which intends to deceive the viewer into thinking the scene is
real, is a specialized type of still life, usually showing inanimate and
relatively flat objects.[1]
Contents
1 Antecedents and development
1.1 Middle Ages and Renaissance
2 Still Life
2.1 Sixteenth century
2.2 Sixteenth-century paintings
3 Seventeenth century
3.1 Dutch and Flemish painting
3.1.1 Dutch, Flemish, German and French paintings
3.2 Southern Europe
3.3 Italian gallery
4 Eighteenth century
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5 Nineteenth century
5.1 Nineteenth-century paintings
6 Twentieth century
6.1 Twentieth-century paintings
6.2 21st century
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links
Antecedents and development

Still-life paintings
often adorn the
interior of ancient
Egyptian tombs. It
was believed that
food objects and
other items
Glass bowl of fruit and
depicted there
vases. Roman wall
would, in the
painting in Pompeii
afterlife, become
Still life on a 2nd-century
(around 70 AD), Naples
real and available
mosaic, with fish, poultry,
National Archaeological
for use by the
dates and vegetables from
Museum, Naples, Italy
deceased. Ancient
the Vatican museum
Greek vase
paintings also demonstrate great skill in
depicting everyday objects and animals. Peiraikos is mentioned by Pliny
the Elder as a panel painter of "low" subjects, such as survive in mosaic
versions and provincial wall-paintings at Pompeii: "barbers' shops,
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versions and provincial wall-paintings at Pompeii: "barbers' shops,

cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects". [2] Similar still life,
more simply decorative in intent, but with realistic perspective, have also
been found in the Roman wall paintings and floor mosaics unearthed at
Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Villa Boscoreale, including the later
familiar motif of a glass bowl of fruit. Decorative mosaics termed
"emblema", found in the homes of rich Romans, demonstrated the range
of food enjoyed by the upper classes, and also functioned as signs of
hospitality and as celebrations of the seasons and of life.[3] By the 16th
century, food and flowers would again appear as symbols of the seasons
and of the five senses. Also starting in Roman times is the tradition of the
use of the skull in paintings as a symbol of mortality and earthly remains,
often with the accompanying phrase Omnia mors aequat (Death makes all
equal). [4] These vanitas images have been re-interpreted through the last
400 years of art history, starting with Dutch painters around 1600.[5]
The popular appreciation of the realism of still-life painting is related in
the ancient Greek legend of Zeuxis and Parrhasius, who are said to have
once competed to create the most lifelike objects, historys earliest
descriptions of trompe-l'il painting. [6] As Pliny the Elder recorded in
ancient Roman times, Greek artists centuries earlier were already advanced
in the arts of portrait painting, genre painting and still life. He singled out
Peiraikos, "whose artistry is surpassed by only a very few...He painted
barbershops and shoemakers stalls, donkeys, vegetables, and such, and
for that reason came to be called the painter of vulgar subjects; yet these
works are altogether delightful, and they were sold at higher prices than
the greatest [paintings] of many other artists." [7]
Middle Ages and Renaissance

By 1300, starting with Giotto and his pupils,
still-life painting was revived in the form of
fictional niches on religious wall paintings
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fictional niches on religious wall paintings

which depicted everyday objects.[9] Through
the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, still life
in Western art remained primarily an adjunct
to Christian religious subjects, and convened
religious and allegorical meaning. This was
particularly true in the work of Northern
European artists, whose fascination with
highly detailed optical realism and symbolism
led them to lavish great attention on their
paintings' overall message.[10] Painters like
Jan van Eyck often used still-life elements as
part of an iconographic program.
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Hans Memling (1430

1494), Vase of Flowers
(1480), Museo ThyssenBornemisza, Madrid.
According to some
scholars the Vase of
Flowers is filled with
The development of oil painting technique by

Jan van Eyck and other Northern European
artists made it possible to paint everyday
religious symbolism.[8]
objects in this hyper-realistic fashion, owing
to the slow drying, mixing, and layering
qualities of oil colors.[11] Among the first to break free of religious
meaning were Leonardo da Vinci, who created watercolor studies of fruit
(around 1495) as part of his restless examination of nature, and Albrecht
Drer who also made precise drawings of flora and fauna.[12]
Petrus Christus portrait of a bride and groom visiting a goldsmith is a
typical example of a transitional still life depicting both religious and
secular content. Though mostly allegorical in message, the figures of the
couple are realistic and the objects shown (coins, vessels, etc.) are
accurately painted but the goldsmith is actually a depiction of St. Eligius
and the objects heavily symbolic. Another similar type of painting is the
family portrait combining figures with a well-set table of food, which
symbolizes both the piety of the human subjects and their thanks for
Gods abundance. [13] Around this time, simple still-life depictions
divorced of figures (but not allegorical meaning) were beginning to be
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divorced of figures (but not allegorical meaning) were beginning to be

painted on the outside of shutters of private devotional paintings. [7]
Another step toward the autonomous still life was the painting of symbolic
flowers in vases on the back of secular portraits around 1475.[14] Jacopo
de Barbari went a step further with his Still Life with Partridge, Iron
Gloves, and Crossbow Arrows (1504), among the earliest signed and dated
trompe-l'il still-life paintings, which contains minimal religious
content.[15]
Still Life
Sixteenth century
Though most still lifes after 1600 were relatively small paintings, a crucial
stage in the development of the genre was the tradition, mostly centred on
Antwerp, of the "monumental still life", which were large paintings that
included great spreads of still-life material with figures and often animals.
This was a development by Pieter Aertsen, whose Butcher's Stall with the
Flight into Egypt (1551, now Uppsala) introduced the type with a painting
that still startles. Another example is "The Butcher Shop" by Aertsen's
nephew Joachim Beuckelaer (1568), with its realistic depiction of raw
meats dominating the foreground, while a background scene conveys the
dangers of drunkenness and lechery. The type of very large kitchen or
market scene developed by Pieter Aertsen and his nephew Joachim
Beuckelaer typically depicts an abundance of food with a kitchenware still
life and burly Flemish kitchen-maids. A small religious scene can often be
made out in the distance, or a theme such as the Four Seasons is added to
elevate the subject. This sort of large-scale still life continued to develop
in Flemish painting after the separation of the North and South, but is rare
in Dutch painting, although other works in this tradition anticipate the
"merry company" type of genre painting.[16]
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Gradually, religious content diminished in size and placement in this type

of painting, though moral lessons continued as sub-contexts.[17] One of the
relatively few Italian works in the style, Annibale Carraccis treatment of
the same subject in 1583, Butcher's Shop, begins to remove the moral
messages, as did other "kitchen and market" still-life paintings of this
period.[18] Vincenzo Campi probably introduced the Antwerp style to Italy
in the 1570s. The tradition continued into the next century, with several
works by Rubens, who mostly sub-contracted the still-life and animal
elements to specialist masters such as Frans Snyders and his pupil Jan Fyt.
By the second half of the 16th century, the autonomous still life
evolved.[19]
The 16th century witnessed an explosion of interest in the natural world
and the creation of lavish botanical encyclopdias recording the
discoveries of the New World and Asia. It also prompted the beginning of
scientific illustration and the classification of specimens. Natural objects
began to be appreciated as individual objects of study apart from any
religious or mythological associations. The early science of herbal
remedies began at this time as well, which was a practical extension of
this new knowledge. In addition, wealthy patrons began to underwrite the
collection of animal and mineral specimens, creating extensive cabinets of
curiosities. These specimens served as models for painters who sought
realism and novelty. Shells, insects, exotic fruits and flowers began to be
collected and traded, and new plants such as the tulip (imported to Europe
from Turkey), were celebrated in still-life paintings. [20] The horticultural
explosion was of widespread interest in Europe and artist capitalized on
that to produce thousands of still-life paintings. Some regions and courts
had particular interests. The depiction of citrus, for example, was a
particular passion of the Medici court in Florence, Italy.[21] This great
diffusion of natural specimens and the burgeoning interest in natural
illustration throughout Europe, resulted in the nearly simultaneous creation
of modern still-life paintings around 1600.[22][23]
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Early still life grew out of details of figure subjects, then figure
subjects overwhelmed by still life, especially in the Flemish tradition.
Jacopo de' Barbari, StillLife with Partridge and

Gauntlets (1504), a very
early independent still
life, perhaps the back or
cover for a portrait
Pieter Aertsen, Butcher's

Stall with the Flight into
Egypt (1551), 123.3 x
150 cm (48.5 x 59")
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Joachim Beuckelaer
(15331575), Kitchen
scene, with Jesus in the
house of Martha and
Mary in the background
(1566), 171 x 250 cm
(67.3 x 98.4 in).
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Annibale Carracci
(15601609), Butcher's
Shop (1580)
At the turn of the century the Spanish painter Juan Snchez Cotn
pioneered the Spanish still life with austerely tranquil paintings of
vegetables, before entering a monastery in his forties in 1603, after which
he painted religious subjects.
Sixteenth-century paintings
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Michelangelo Merisi da
Caravaggio, Fruitbasket
(159596), oil on
canvas, 31 x 47 cm
Juan Snchez Cotn

(15601627), Still life
with Quince, Cabbage,
Melon and Cucumber,
oil on canvas, 69x 84,5
cm
Juan Snchez Cotn,

Still Life with Game
Fowl, Vegetables and
Fruits (1602), Museo del
Prado Madrid
Giovanni Ambrogio
Figino, Metal Plate with
Peaches and Vine
Leaves (159194), panel,
21 x 30 cm, his only
known still life
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Seventeenth century
Prominent Academicians of the early 17th
century, such as Andrea Sacchi, felt that
genre and still-life painting did not carry
the "gravitas" merited for painting to be
considered great. An influential
formulation of 1667 by Andr Flibien, a
historiographer, architect and theoretician
of French classicism became the classic
statement of the theory of the hierarchy of
genres for the 18th century:
Jacopo da Empoli (Jacopo

Chimenti), Still life (c. 1625)
Celui qui fait parfaitement des pasages est au-dessus d'un autre
qui ne fait que des fruits, des fleurs ou des coquilles. Celui qui
peint des animaux vivants est plus estimable que ceux qui ne
reprsentent que des choses mortes & sans mouvement ; &
comme la figure de l'homme est le plus parfait ouvrage de Dieu
sur la Terre, il est certain aussi que celui qui se rend l'imitateur de
Dieu en peignant des figures humaines, est beaucoup plus
excellent que tous les autres ... [24]
He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only

produces fruit, flowers or seafood. He who paints living animals
is more estimable than those who only represent dead things
without movement, and as man is the most perfect work of God
on the earth, it is also certain that he who becomes an imitator of
God in representing human figures, is much more excellent than
all the others ...".
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Dutch and Flemish painting

Still life developed as a separate category
in the Low Countries in the last quarter of
the 16th century.[25] The English term still
life derives from the Dutch word stilleven
while Romance languages (as well as
Greek, Polish, Russian and Turkish) tend to
use terms meaning dead nature. 15thcentury Early Netherlandish painting had
developed highly illusionistic techniques in
both panel painting and illuminated
manuscripts, where the borders often
featured elaborate displays of flowers,
insects and, in a work like the Hours of
Catherine of Cleves, a great variety of
objects. When the illuminated manuscript
was displaced by the printed book, the
same skills were later deployed in scientific
botanical illustration; the Low Countries
led Europe in both botany and its depiction
in art. The Flemish artist Joris Hoefnagel
(15421601) made watercolour and
gouache paintings of flowers and other
still-life subjects for the Emperor Rudolf
II, and there were many engraved
illustrations for books (often then handcoloured), such as Hans Collaert's
Florilegium, published by Plantin in
1600.[26]
Willem Kalf (16191693), oil

on canvas, The J. Paul Getty
Museum
Pieter Claesz (15971660),

Still life with Musical
Instruments (1623)
Around 1600 flower paintings in oils became something of a craze; Karel

van Mander painted some works himself, and records that other Northern
Mannerist artists such as Cornelis van Haarlem also did so. No surviving
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Mannerist artists such as Cornelis van Haarlem also did so. No surviving
flower-pieces by them are known, but many survive by the leading
specialists, Jan Brueghel the Elder and Ambrosius Bosschaert, both active
in the Southern Netherlands.[27]
While artists in the North found limited opportunity to produce the
religious iconography which had long been their stapleimages of
religious subjects were forbidden in the Dutch Reformed Protestant
Churchthe continuing Northern tradition of detailed realism and hidden
symbols appealed to the growing Dutch middle classes, who were
replacing Church and State as the principal patrons of art in the
Netherlands. Added to this was the Dutch mania for horticulture,
particularly the tulip. These two views of flowersas aesthetic objects
and as religious symbols merged to create a very strong market for this
type of still life.[28] Still life, like most Dutch art work, was generally sold
in open markets or by dealers, or by artists at their studios, and rarely
commissioned; therefore, artists usually chose the subject matter and
arrangement.[29] So popular was this type of still-life painting, that much
of the technique of Dutch flower painting was codified in the 1740 treatise
Groot Schilderboeck by Gerard de Lairesse, which gave wide-ranging
advice on color, arranging, brushwork, preparation of specimens,
harmony, composition, perspective, etc.[30]
The symbolism of flowers had evolved since early Christian days. The
most common flowers and their symbolic meanings include: rose (Virgin
Mary, transience, Venus, love); lily (Virgin Mary, virginity, female breast,
purity of mind or justice); tulip (showiness, nobility); sunflower
(faithfulness, divine love, devotion); violet (modesty, reserve, humility);
columbine (melancholy); poppy (power, sleep, death). As for insects, the
butterfly represents transformation and resurrection while the dragonfly
symbolizes transience and the ant hard work and attention to the
harvest. [31]
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Flemish and Dutch artists also branched out and revived the ancient Greek
still life tradition of trompe-l'il, particularly the imitation of nature or
mimesis, which they termed bedriegertje ("little deception"). [6] In addition
to these types of still life, Dutch artists identified and separately developed
"kitchen and market" paintings, breakfast and food table still life, vanitas
paintings, and allegorical collection paintings. [32]
In the Catholic Southern Netherlands the genre of garland paintings was
developed. Around 16071608, Antwerp artists Jan Brueghel the Elder
and Hendrick van Balen started creating these pictures which consist of an
image (usually devotional) which is encircled by a lush still life wreath.
The paintings were collaborations between two specialists: a still life and a
figure painter. Daniel Seghers developed the genre further. Originally
serving a devotional function, garland paintings became extremely popular
and were widely used as decoration of homes.[33]
A special genre of still life was the so-called pronkstilleven (Dutch for
'ostentatious still life'). This style of ornate still-life painting was
developed in the 1640s in Antwerp by Flemish artists such as Frans
Snyders and Adriaen van Utrecht. They painted still lifes that emphasized
abundance by depicting a diversity of objects, fruits, flowers and dead
game, often together with living people and animals. The style was soon
adopted by artists from the Dutch Republic.[34]
Especially popular in this period were vanitas paintings, in which
sumptuous arrangements of fruit and flowers, books, statuettes, vases,
coins, jewelry, paintings, musical and scientific instruments, military
insignia, fine silver and crystal, were accompanied by symbolic reminders
of life's impermanence. Additionally, a skull, an hourglass or pocket
watch, a candle burning down or a book with pages turning, would serve
as a moralizing message on the ephemerality of sensory pleasures. Often
some of the fruits and flowers themselves would be shown starting to spoil
or fade to emphasize the same point.
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Cornelis Norbertus
Gysbrechts (c. 1660
1683), Trompe l'oeil (c.
1680), Los Angeles
County Museum of Art
Maria van Oosterwijk,

Vanitas-Still Life (1693)
Jan Jansz. Treck (1606

1652), Still Life Pewter
Jug and Two Porcelain
Plates (1645)
Lubin Baugin (c. 16101663), Le Dessert de

gaufrettes (c. 1631),
Muse du Louvre, Paris
Another type of still life, known as ontbijtjes or "breakfast paintings",

represent both a literal presentation of delicacies that the upper class might
enjoy and a religious reminder to avoid gluttony.[35] Around 1650 Samuel
van Hoogstraten painted one of the first wall-rack pictures, trompe-l'il
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van Hoogstraten painted one of the first wall-rack pictures, trompe-l'il

still-life paintings which feature objects tied, tacked or attached in some
other fashion to a wall board, a type of still life very popular in the United
States in the 19th century.[36] Another variation was the trompe-l'il still
life depicted objects associated with a given profession, as with the
Cornelis Norbertus Gysbrechts painting "Painters Easel with Fruit Piece",
which displays all the tools of a painters craft.[37] Also popular in the first
half of the 17th century was the painting of a large assortment of
specimens in allegorical form, such as the "five senses", "four continents",
or "the four seasons", showing a goddess or allegorical figure surrounded
by appropriate natural and man-made objects.[38] The popularity of vanitas
paintings, and these other forms of still life, soon spread from Holland to
Flanders and Germany, and also to Spain[39] and France.
The Netherlandish production of still lifes was enormous, and they were
very widely exported, especially to northern Europe; Britain hardly
produced any itself. German still life followed closely the Dutch models;
Georg Flegel was a pioneer in pure still life without figures and created
the compositional innovation of placing detailed objects in cabinets,
cupboards, and display cases, and producing simultaneous multiple
views.[40]
Dutch, Flemish, German and French paintings
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Willem Claeszoon Heda

(15941680), Still Life
with Pie, Silver Ewer
and Crab (1658)
Ambrosius Bosschaert
(15731621), Still-Life
of Flowers (1614)
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Peter Paul Rubens, Diana

Returning from the Hunt, still
life elements by a specialist
(c. 1615)
Rembrandt, Still-Life with

Two Dead Peacocks and a
Girl (c. 1639)
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Samuel van Hoogstraten, Pieter Boel (16261674),

Feigned Letter Rack with Still Life with a Globe
Writing Implements (c.
and a Parrot (c. 1658)
1655)
Pieter Claesz (c.1597

1660), Still Life (1623)
Jan Davidsz. de Heem

with Fruit, Flowers,
Glasses and Lobster (c.
1660s)
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Pieter Claesz (c. 1597

Osias Beert the Elder,
1660), Still Life with Salt Dishes with Oysters,
Tub
Fruit, and Wine
George Flegel (1566

1638), Still-Life with
Bread and
Confectionary, 1630
Southern Europe
In Spanish art,
a bodegn is a
still-life
painting
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painting
depicting
pantry items,
Francisco de Zurbarn,
such as
Bodegn or Still Life with
victuals, game,
Diego Velzquez, Old
Pottery Jars (1636), Museo
and drink,
Woman Frying Eggs
del Prado, Madrid
often arranged
(1618), (National Gallery
on a simple
of Scotland), is one of the
stone slab, and
earliest examples of
also a painting
with one or
bodegn.[41]
more figures,
but significant
still-life elements, typically set in a kitchen
Josefa de Ayala (Josefa de
or tavern. Starting in the Baroque period,
bidos), Still-life (c. 1679),
such paintings became popular in Spain in
Santarm, Municipal Library
the second quarter of the 17th century. The
tradition of still-life painting appears to
have started and was far more popular in the contemporary Low
Countries, today Belgium and Netherlands (then Flemish and Dutch
artists), than it ever was in southern Europe. Northern still lifes had many
sub-genre's; the breakfast piece was augmented by the trompe-l'il, the
flower bouquet, and the vanitas. In Spain there were much fewer patrons
for this sort of thing, but a type of breakfast piece did become popular,
featuring a few objects of food and tableware laid on a table. Still-life
painting in Spain, also called bodegones, was austere. It differed from
Dutch still life, which often contained rich banquets surrounded by ornate
and luxurious items of fabric or glass. The game in Spanish paintings is
often plain dead animals still waiting to be skinned. The fruits and
vegetables are uncooked. The backgrounds are bleak or plain wood
geometric blocks, often creating a surrealist air. Even while both Dutch
and Spanish still life often had an embedded moral purpose, the austerity,
which some find akin to the bleakness of some of the Spanish plateaus,
appears to reject the sensual pleasures, plenitude, and luxury of Dutch
still-life paintings. [42]
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still-life paintings. [42]

Even though Italian still-life painting was gaining in popularity, it
remained historically less respected than the "grand manner" painting of
historical, religious, and mythic subjects. On the other hand, successful
Italian still-life artists found ample patronage in their day.[43] Furthermore,
women painters, few as they were, commonly chose or were restricted to
painting still life; Giovanna Garzoni, Laura Bernasconi, Maria Theresa
van Thielen, and Fede Galizia are notable examples.
Many leading Italian artists in other genre, also produced some still-life
paintings. In particular, Caravaggio applied his influential form of
naturalism to still life. His Basket of Fruit (c. 15951600) is one of the
first examples of pure still life, precisely rendered and set at eye level.[44]
Though not overtly symbolic, this painting was owned by Cardinal
Federico Borromeo and may have been appreciated for both religious and
aesthetic reasons. Jan Bruegel painted his Large Milan Bouquet (1606) for
the cardinal, as well, claiming that he painted it 'fatta tutti del natturel'
(made all from nature) and he charged extra for the extra effort.[45] These
were among many still-life paintings in the cardinals collection, in
addition to his large collection of curios. Among other Italian still life,
Bernardo Strozzis The Cook is a "kitchen scene" in the Dutch manner,
which is both a detailed portrait of a cook and the game birds she is
preparing.[46] In a similar manner, one of Rembrandts rare still-life
paintings, Little Girl with Dead Peacocks combines a similar sympathetic
female portrait with images of game birds.[47]
In Catholic Italy and Spain, the pure vanitas painting was rare, and there
were far fewer still-life specialists. In Southern Europe there is more
employment of the soft naturalism of Caravaggio and less emphasis on
hyper-realism in comparison with Northern European styles. [48] In France,
painters of still lifes (nature morte) were influenced by both the Northern
and Southern schools, borrowing from the vanitas paintings of the
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and Southern schools, borrowing from the vanitas paintings of the

Netherlands and the spare arrangements of Spain. [49]
Italian gallery
Fede Galizia (1578

1630), Apples in a Dish
(c. 1593)
Fede Galizia, (1578

1630), Maiolica Basket
of Fruit (c. 1610),
private collection
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Giovanna Garzoni
with Bowl of Citrons
(1640), tempera on
vellum, Getty Museum,
Pacific Palisades, Los
Angeles, California
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Giacomo Francesco
Cipper (16641736),
Still Life of Fish and
Shellfish
Eighteenth century
The 18th century to a large extent
continued to refine 17th-century formulae,
and levels of production decreased. In the
Rococo style floral decoration became far
more common on porcelain, wallpaper,
fabrics and carved wood furnishings, so
that buyers preferred their paintings to
Luis Melndez (17161780),
have figures for a contrast. One change
Still Life with Apples, Grapes,
was a new enthusiasm among French
Melons, Bread, Jug and Bottle
painters, who now form a large proportion
of the most notable artists, while the
English remained content to import. Jean-Baptiste Chardin painted small
and simple assemblies of food and objects in a most subtle style that both
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and simple assemblies of food and objects in a most subtle style that both
built on the Dutch Golden Age masters, and was to be very influential on
19th-century compositions. Dead game subjects continued to be popular,
especially for hunting lodges; most specialists also painted live animal
subjects. Jean-Baptiste Oudry combined superb renderings of the textures
of fur and feather with simple backgrounds, often the plain white of a
lime-washed larder wall, that showed them off to advantage.
By the 18th century, in many cases, the religious and allegorical
connotations of still-life paintings were dropped and kitchen table
paintings evolved into calculated depictions of varied color and form,
displaying everyday foods. The French aristocracy employed artists to
execute paintings of bounteous and extravagant still-life subjects that
graced their dining table, also without the moralistic vanitas message of
their Dutch predecessors. The Rococo love of artifice led to a rise in
appreciation in France for trompe-l'il (French: "trick the eye") painting.
Jean-Baptiste Chardins still-life paintings employ a variety of techniques
from Dutch-style realism to softer harmonies.[50]
The bulk of Anne Vallayer-Costers work was devoted to the language of
still life as it had been developed in the course of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries.[51] During these centuries, the genre of still life was
placed lowest on the hierarchical ladder. Vallayer-Coster had a way about
her paintings that resulted in their attractiveness. It was the "bold,
decorative lines of her compositions, the richness of her colors and
simulated textures, and the feats of illusionism she achieved in depicting
wide variety of objects, both natural and artificial" [51] which drew in the
attention of the Royal Acadmie and the numerous collectors who
purchased her paintings. This interaction between art and nature was quite
common in Dutch, Flemish and French still lifes.[51] Her work reveals the
clear influence of Jean-Baptiste-Simon Chardin, as well as 17th-century
Dutch masters, whose work has been far more highly valued, but what
made Vallayer-Costers style stand out against the other still-life painters
was her unique way of coalescing representational illusionism with
Page 24 of 44
2/7/15 7:56 AM
was her unique way of coalescing representational illusionism with

decorative compositional structures. [51][52]
The end of the eighteenth century and the fall of the French monarchy
closed the doors on Vallayer-Costers still-life era and opened them to
her new style of florals.[53] It has been argued that this was the highlight
of her career and what she is best known for. However, it has also been
argued that the flower paintings were futile to her career. Nevertheless,
this collection contained floral studies in oil, watercolor and gouache.[53]
Rachel Ruysch, Still Life Carl Hofverberg (1695

with Flowers on a
1765), Trompe l'oeil
Marble Tabletop (1716) (1737), Foundation of
the Royal Armoury,
Sweden
Page 25 of 44
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Jean-Baptiste-Simon
Chardin, Still Life with
Glass Flask and Fruit (c.
1750)
Anne Vallayer-Coster,
Still Life with Rabbit
(second half of 18th
century)
The Attributes of Music
(c. 1770)
Still Life With Lobster
(c. 1781)
Page 26 of 44
The Attributes of
Painting (c. 1769)
2/7/15 7:56 AM
Jean-Baptiste Oudry,
The White Duck (1753),
stolen from Houghton
Hall in 1990
Nineteenth century
With the rise of the European Academies,
most notably the Acadmie franaise which
held a central role in Academic art, still life
began to fall from favor. The Academies
taught the doctrine of the "Hierarchy of
genres" (or "Hierarchy of Subject Matter"),
which held that a painting's artistic merit was
based primarily on its subject. In the
Academic system, the highest form of painting
consisted of images of historical, Biblical or
mythological significance, with still-life
subjects relegated to the very lowest order of
artistic recognition. Instead of using still life to
glorify nature, some artists, such as John
Constable and Camille Corot, chose
landscapes to serve that end.
Vincent van Gogh (1853

1890), Sunflowers or Vase
with Fifteen Sunflowers
(1888), National Gallery
(London)
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When Neo-Classicism started to go into

decline by the 1830s, genre and portrait painting became the focus for the
Realist and Romantic artistic revolutions. Many of the great artists of that
period included still life in their body of work. The still-life paintings of
Francisco Goya, Gustave Courbet, and Eugne Delacroix convey a strong
emotional current, and are less concerned with exactitude and more
interested in mood. [54] Though patterned on the earlier still-life subjects of
Chardin, douard Manets still-life paintings are strongly tonal and clearly
headed toward Impressionism. Henri Fantin-Latour, using a more
traditional technique, was famous for his exquisite flower paintings and
made his living almost exclusively painting still life for collectors. [55]
However, it was not until the final decline of the Academic hierarchy in
Europe, and the rise of the Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters,
that technique and color harmony triumphed over subject matter, and that
still life was once again avidly practiced by artists. In his early still life,
Claude Monet shows the influence of Fantin-Latour, but is one of the first
to break the tradition of the dark background, which Pierre-Auguste
Renoir also discards in Still Life with Bouquet and Fan (1871), with its
bright orange background. With Impressionist still life, allegorical and
mythological content is completely absent, as is meticulously detailed
brush work. Impressionists instead focused on experimentation in broad,
dabbing brush strokes, tonal values, and color placement. The
Impressionists and Post-Impressionists were inspired by natures color
schemes but reinterpreted nature with their own color harmonies, which
sometimes proved startlingly unnaturalistic. As Gauguin stated, "Colors
have their own meanings." [56] Variations in perspective are also tried, such
as using tight cropping and high angles, as with Fruit Displayed on a
Stand by Gustave Caillebotte, a painting which was mocked at the time as
a "display of fruit in a birds-eye view."[57]
Vincent van Gogh's "Sunflowers" paintings are some of the best-known
19th-century still-life paintings. Van Gogh uses mostly tones of yellow
Page 28 of 44
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19th-century still-life paintings. Van Gogh uses mostly tones of yellow

and rather flat rendering to make a memorable contribution to still-life
history. His Still Life with Drawing Board (1889) is a self-portrait in stilllife form, with Van Gogh depicting many items of his personal life,
including his pipe, simple food (onions), an inspirational book, and a letter
from his brother, all laid out on his table, without his own image present.
He also painted his own version of a vanitas painting Still Life with Open
Bible, Candle, and Book (1885). [56]
In the United States during Revolutionary times, American artists trained
abroad applied European styles to American portrait painting and still life.
Charles Willson Peale founded a family of prominent American painters,
and as major leader in the American art community, also founded a
society for the training of artists as well as a famous museum of natural
curiosities. His son Raphaelle Peale was one of a group of early American
still-life artists, which also included John F. Francis, Charles Bird King,
and John Johnston.[58] By the second half of the 19th century, Martin
Johnson Heade introduced the American version of the habitat or biotope
picture, which placed flowers and birds in simulated outdoor
environments.[59] The American trompe-l'il paintings also flourished
during this period, created by John Haberle, William Michael Harnett, and
John Frederick Peto. Peto specialized in the nostalgic wall-rack painting
while Harnett achieved the highest level of hyper-realism in his pictorial
celebrations of American life through familiar objects.[60]
Nineteenth-century paintings
Page 29 of 44
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Francisco Goya, Still

Life with Fruit, Bottles,
Breads (18241826)
Eugne Delacroix, Still

Life with Lobster and
trophies of hunting and
fishing (18261827),
Louvre
Gustave Caillebotte,
(18481894), Yellow
Roses in a Vase (1882),
Dallas Museum of Art
Henri Fantin-Latour,
(18361904), White
Roses, Chrysanthemums
in a Vase, Peaches and
Grapes on a Table with
a White Tablecloth
(1867)
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Paul Czanne (1839

Mary Cassatt, (1844
1906), The Black Marble 1926), Lilacs in a
Clock (18691871),
Window (1880)
private collection
Claude Monet (1840

1926), Still-Life with
Apples and Grapes
(1880), Art Institute of
Chicago
Paul Gauguin, Still Life

with Apples, a Pear, and
a Ceramic Portrait Jug
(1889), Fogg Museum,
Cambridge,
Massachusetts
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William Harnett (1848

1892), After the Hunt
(1883)
William Harnett (1848

1892), Still life violin
and music (1888),
Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York City
Darius Cobb (1834

1919), a Civil War
trompe l'oeil
composition, here in a
chromolithograph print
Paul Czanne, Still Life

with Cherub (1895),
Courtauld Institute
Galleries, London
Twentieth century
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The first four decades of the 20th century

formed an exceptional period of artistic
ferment and revolution. Avant-garde
movements rapidly evolved and overlapped
in a march towards nonfigurative, total
abstraction. The still life, as well as other
representational art, continued to evolve
and adjust until mid-century when total
abstraction, as exemplified by Jackson
Pollock's drip paintings, eliminated all
recognizable content.
The century began with several trends
taking hold in art. In 1901, Paul Gauguin
painted Still Life with Sunflowers, his
homage to his friend Van Gogh who had
died eleven years earlier. The group known
as Les Nabis, including Pierre Bonnard and
douard Vuillard, took up Gauguins
harmonic theories and added elements
inspired by Japanese woodcuts to their
still-life paintings. French artist Odilon
Redon also painted notable still life during
in this period, especially flowers.[61]
Jean Metzinger, Fruit and a

Jug on a Table (191617), oil
and sand on canvas, 115.9 x
81 cm, Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston
Henri Matisse reduced the rendering of

still-life objects even further to little more
than bold, flat outlines filled with bright
Giorgio Morandi (1890
colors. He also simplifyied perspective and
1964), Natura Morta (1956),
oil on canvas, private
introducing multi-color backgrounds. [62] In
collection
some of his still-life paintings, such as Still
Life with Eggplants, his table of objects is
nearly lost amidst the other colorful patterns filling the rest of the
room. [63] Other exponents of Fauvism, such as Maurice de Vlaminck and
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room. [63] Other exponents of Fauvism, such as Maurice de Vlaminck and

Andr Derain, further explored pure color and abstraction in their still life.
Paul Czanne found in still life the perfect vehicle for his revolutionary
explorations in geometric spatial organization. For Czanne, still life was a
primary means of taking painting away from an illustrative or mimetic
function to one demonstrating independently the elements of color, form,
and line, a major step towards Abstract art. Additionally, Czanne's
experiments can be seen as leading directly to the development of Cubist
still life in the early 20th century.[64]
Adapting Czannes shifting of planes and axes, the Cubists subdued the
color palette of the Fauves and focused instead on deconstructing objects
into pure geometrical forms and planes. Between 1910 and 1920, Cubist
artists like Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, and Juan Gris painted many
still-life compositions, often including musical instruments, bringing still
life to the forefront of artistic innovation, almost for the first time. Still life
was also the subject matter in the first Synthetic Cubist collage works,
such as Picasso's oval "Still Life with Chair Caning" (1912). In these
works, still-life objects overlap and intermingle barely maintaining
identifiable two-dimensional forms, losing individual surface texture, and
merging into the backgroundachieving goals nearly opposite to those of
traditional still life.[65] Fernand Lgers still life introduced the use of
abundant white space and colored, sharply defined, overlapping
geometrical shapes to produce a more mechanical effect. [66] Rejecting the
flattening of space by Cubists, Marcel Duchamp and other members of the
Dada movement, went in a radically different direction, creating 3-D
"ready-made" still-life sculptures. As part of restoring some symbolic
meaning to still life, the Futurists and the Surrealists placed recognizable
still-life objects in their dreamscapes. In Joan Mirs still-life paintings,
objects appear weightless and float in lightly suggested two-dimensional
space, and even mountains are drawn as simple lines. [64] In Italy during
this time, Giorgio Morandi was the foremost still-life painter, exploring a
wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen
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wide variety of approaches to depicting everyday bottles and kitchen

implements. [67] Dutch artist M. C. Escher, best known for his detailed yet
ambiguous graphics, created Still life and Street (1937), his updated
version of the traditional Dutch table still life.[68] In England Eliot
Hodgkin was using tempera for his highly detailed still-life paintings.
When 20th-century American artists became aware of European
Modernism, they began to interpret still-life subjects with a combination
of American realism and Cubist-derived abstraction. Typical of the
American still-life works of this period are the paintings of Georgia
O'Keeffe, Stuart Davis, and Marsden Hartley, and the photographs of
Edward Weston. OKeeffes ultra-closeup flower paintings reveal both the
physical structure and the emotional subtext of petals and leaves in an
unprecedented manner.
In Mexico, starting in the 1930s, Frida Kahlo and other artists created their
own brand of Surrealism, featuring native foods and cultural motifs in
their still-life paintings. [69]
Starting in the 1930s, abstract expressionism severely reduced still life to
raw depictions of form and color, until by the 1950s, total abstraction
dominated the art world. However, pop art in the 1960s and 1970s
reversed the trend and created a new form of still life. Much pop art (such
as Andy Warhol's "Campbell's Soup Cans") is based on still life, but its
true subject is most often the commodified image of the commercial
product represented rather than the physical still-life object itself. Roy
Lichtensteins Still Life with Goldfish Bowl (1972) combines the pure
colors of Matisse with the pop iconography of Warhol. Wayne Thiebauds
Lunch Table (1964) portrays not a single familys lunch but an assembly
line of standardized American foods.[70]
The Neo-dada movement, including Jasper Johns, returned to Duchamps
three-dimensional representation of everyday household objects to create
their own brand of still-life work, as in Johns Painted Bronze (1960) and
Page 35 of 44
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their own brand of still-life work, as in Johns Painted Bronze (1960) and
Fools House (1962). [71] Avigdor Arikha, who began as an abstractionist,
integrated the lessons of Piet Mondrian into his still lifes as into his other
work; while reconnecting to old master traditions, he achieved a modernist
formalism, working in one session and in natural light, through which the
subject-matter often emerged in a surprising perspective.
A significant contribution to the development of still-life painting in the
20th century was made by Russian artists, among them Sergei Ocipov,
Victor Teterin, Evgenia Antipova, Gevork Kotiantz, Sergei Zakharov,
Taisia Afonina, Maya Kopitseva, and others.[72]
By contrast, the rise of Photorealism in the 1970s reasserted illusionistic
representation, while retaining some of Pop's message of the fusion of
object, image, and commercial product. Typical in this regard are the
paintings of Don Eddy and Ralph Goings.
Twentieth-century paintings
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Henri Matisse (1869

Odilon Redon (1840
1954), Dishes and Fruit 1916), Flowers (1903)
(1901), Hermitage
Museum, St. Petersburg,
Russia
Georges Braque (1882

1963), Violin and
Candlestick (1910), San
Francisco Museum of
Modern Art
Juan Gris (18871927),

Nature morte (1913),
Museo Thyssen
Bornemisza
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Marsden Hartley (1877 Fernand Lger (1881

1943), Handsome Drinks 1955), Still Life with a
(c. 1916), Brooklyn
Beer Mug (1921), Tate
Museum
Pablo Picasso,
Compotier avec fruits,
violon et verre (1912)
Henri Matisse, Still Life

with Geraniums (1910),
Pinakothek der Moderne,
Munich, Germany
21st century
In the last four decades of the 20th century
and the early years of the 21st century, still
life expanded beyond the boundary of a frame.
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life expanded beyond the boundary of a frame.

Especially in the wake of the computer age
and the rise of computer art and digital art, the
nature and definition of still life has changed.
The daily painting movement has allowed
A completely synthetic,
still-life artists to use the internet and blogging
computer generated still
to share their work. Some mixed media stilllife, 2006
life works employ found objects, photography,
video, and sound, and even spill out from
ceiling to floor and fill an entire room in a gallery. Computer-generated
graphics have expanded the techniques available to still-life artists. With
the use of the video camera, still-life artists can even incorporate the
viewer into their work.
See also
Digital illustration
Digital painting
Digital photography
Dutch Golden Age painting
Electronic art
Graphic art software
History of painting
List of Dutch painters
New media
Software art
Still life photography
Tradigital art
Vanitas
Page 39 of 44
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Notes
1. ^ Langmuir, 13-14 and preceding pages
2. ^ Book XXXV.112 of Natural History
3. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 19
4. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p.22
6. ^ a b Ebert-Schifferer, p. 16
8. ^ Memlings Portraits exhibition review, Frick Collection, NYC
(http://arthistory.about.com/library/weekly/sp/bl_memling_rev.htm).
Retrieved March 15, 2010.
12. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 39, 53
16. ^ Slive, 275; Vlieghe, 211-216
20. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, pp. 54-56
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23. ^ Metropolitan Museum of Art Timeline, Still-life painting 16001800

(http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nstl/hd_nstl.htm). Retrieved March 14,
2010.
24. ^ Books.google.co.uk (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jl8IAeoj7IC&lpg=PA96&dq=Hierarchy%20of%20genres%20painting&lr=&as_brr=3
&pg=PA97#v=onepage&q=Hierarchy%20of%20genres%20painting&f=false
), translation
25. ^ Slive 277-279
26. ^ Vlieghe, 207
27. ^ Slive, 279, Vlieghe, 206-7
28. ^ Paul Taylor, Dutch Flower Painting 16001720, Yale University Press,
New Haven, 1995, p. 77, ISBN 0-300-05390-8
29. ^ Taylor, p. 129
30. ^ Taylor, p. 197
31. ^ Taylor, pp. 56-76
33. ^ Susan Merriam, Seventeenth-century Flemish Garland Paintings: Still Life,
Vision, and the Devotional Image (http://books.google.com.hk/books?
id=QFD4g_GXEQIC&dq=garland+paintings&source=gbs_navlinks_s),
Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2012
34. ^ Oxford Dictionary of Art Terms: Pronkstilleven
(http://www.answers.com/topic/pronkstilleven)
39. ^ See Juan van der Hamen.
40. ^ Zuffi, p. 260
Page 41 of 44
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41. ^ Lucie-Smith, Edward (1984). The Thames and Hudson Dictionary of Art
Terms. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 32. LCCN 83-51331
43. ^ La natura morta in Italia edited by Francesco Porzio and directed by
Federico Zeri; Review author: John T. Spike. The Burlington Magazine
(1991) Volume 133 (1055) page 124125.
46. ^ Stefano Zuffi, Ed., Baroque Painting, Barrons Educational Series,
Hauppauge, New York, 1999, p. 96, ISBN 0-7641-5214-9
47. ^ Zuffi, p. 175
50. ^ Zuffi, p. 288, 298
51. ^ a b c d Michel 1960, p. i
52. ^ Berman 2003
53. ^ a b Michel 1960, p. ii
63. ^ Stefano Zuffi, Ed., Modern Painting, Barrons Educational Series,
Page 42 of 44
2/7/15 7:56 AM

66. ^ David Piper, The Illustrated Library of Art, Portland House, New York,
1986, p. 643, ISBN 0-517-62336-6
67. ^ David Piper, p. 635
68. ^ Piper, p. 639
71. ^ Ebert-Schifferer, p. 384-6
72. ^ Sergei V. Ivanov, Unknown Socialist Realism. The Leningrad School. Saint Petersburg: NP-Print Edition, 2007. 448 p. ISBN 5-901724-21-6,
ISBN 978-5-901724-21-7.
References
Ebert-Schifferer, Sybille. Still Life: A History, Harry N. Abrams, New York,
1998, ISBN 0-8109-4190-2
Langmuir, Erica, Still Life, 2001, National Gallery (London), ISBN
1857099613
Slive, Seymour, Dutch Painting, 1600-1800, Yale University Press, 1995,
ISBN 0-300-07451-4
Vlieghe, Hans (1998). Flemish Art and Architecture, 1585-1700
(http://books.google.com/books?
id=AS_NXFoY0M4C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&ca
d=0#v=onepage&q&f=false). Yale University Press Pelican history of art.
New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07038-1
Page 43 of 44
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External links
Media related to Still life paintings at Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Still_life&oldid=645436880"
Categories: Art genres Still life painters
This page was last modified on 3 February 2015, at 10:43.
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Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A still life (plural still lifes) is a work

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Antecedents and development

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

versions and provincial wall-paintings at Pompeii: "barbers' shops,

Middle Ages and Renaissance

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fictional niches on religious wall paintings

Hans Memling (1430

The development of oil painting technique by

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divorced of figures (but not allegorical meaning) were beginning to be

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gradually, religious content diminished in size and placement in this type

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Jacopo de' Barbari, StillLife with Partridge and

Pieter Aertsen, Butcher's

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Juan Snchez Cotn

Juan Snchez Cotn,

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Jacopo da Empoli (Jacopo

He who produces perfect landscapes is above another who only

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Dutch and Flemish painting

Willem Kalf (16191693), oil

Pieter Claesz (15971660),

Around 1600 flower paintings in oils became something of a craze; Karel

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Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Maria van Oosterwijk,

Jan Jansz. Treck (1606

Lubin Baugin (c. 16101663), Le Dessert de

Another type of still life, known as ontbijtjes or "breakfast paintings",

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van Hoogstraten painted one of the first wall-rack pictures, trompe-l'il

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Willem Claeszoon Heda

Peter Paul Rubens, Diana

Rembrandt, Still-Life with

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Samuel van Hoogstraten, Pieter Boel (16261674),

Pieter Claesz (c.1597

Jan Davidsz. de Heem

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Pieter Claesz (c. 1597

George Flegel (1566

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still-life paintings. [42]

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

and Southern schools, borrowing from the vanitas paintings of the

Fede Galizia (1578

Fede Galizia, (1578

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Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Still life - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

was her unique way of coalescing representational illusionism with

Rachel Ruysch, Still Life Carl Hofverberg (1695

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