Understanding the Geotechnical Report as an Engineering and

Construction Reference
Eugene Washington, PE

Course Outline
1. Engineer and contractor requirements.
2. Geotechnical report contents
3. Analysis of data given in report
4. Soil boring equipment
5. Recommendations for construction methods and slopes
6. Soil boring logs
7. Soil description (classification such as silty-sand)
8. Soil properties (hard, stiff, dense, loose, etc.)
9. Boring depth
10. Boring refusal
11. Blow counts
12. Soil moisture content
13. Soil dry density
14. Particle distribution curves (sieve analysis)
15. Atterburg limits (liquid limits and plasticity index)
16. Compaction test (optimum moisture for compaction)
17. Direct shear tests
18. Seismic velocity lines
19. Permeability

Learning Objective
This course introduces the student to the many components that make up a thorough Geotechnical report. The
various observations and tests are explained so that an inference to the ground properties can be achieved. The
Geotechnical report is a complex scientific document that can be confusing to even highly experienced people.
Owners, architects, engineers, and contractors must be able to understand the implications of the reports in order
to achieve an on time, on budget and failure free project.
At the conclusion of this course, the student will learn:

That major projects usually have Geotechnical Reports.

How to interpret the Geotechnical report for consistency.

How to evaluate soils for embankment suitability.

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How to determine the presence of ground water and how it will effect design and construction.

How to interpret seismic velocity diagrams for excavation methods.

To understand that the Geotechnical Report is often a subjective opinion of an individual geologist.

Course Introduction
The Geotechnical report provides critical and vital information for the owner, architect, design engineer, and the
contractor to use and evaluate. The owner wishes to assess the cost of the project foundation and earthwork. The
structural engineer is responsible for the design of an economical but sturdy building foundation. The architect may
be forced to arrange building layouts to accommodate varying soil conditions. The contractor wants to bid a
competitive but realistic price for the excavation and embankment work. For these reasons, all the essential
players have a personal stake in the Geotechnical report. All these players must be able to understand the
ramifications of the soil study. A foundation failure of a major structure is measured in millions of dollars and ruined
careers. It can even lead to loss of life, such as the Teton Dam failure. An ignorant or misinformed contractor can
lose millions in unanticipated costs. Such mistakes often lead to major lawsuits that drag on for years and cost
everyone except the lawyers. Being able to understand and analyze the Geotechnical report to avoid costly
mistakes is in the best interest of all the project players.

Course Content
Geotechnical (soils) reports are prepared to provide the design engineer and contractor with information regarding
the soil conditions at a specific location. These reports are a wealth of information for the person that can properly
interpret the information presented. Usually the soil report is primarily written to give the structural engineer the
specific information needed to effectively design the structural foundations. Construction methods and contractor
concerns are usually addressed as a minor side issue and in gross generalities. Only after a number of site visits
and studying several soil reports will you begin to really understand what is being presented by the reports.
The soil report is usually made available at least in part to the contractor during the bidding stage. It is in all the
parties best interest to accurately and unambiguously define the ground conditions. The more definitive the soils
report the greater the confidence the engineer has in developing a foundation design and the contractor will price
the work more competitively. While small, light structures with shallow footing may only need a cursory review,
large complex projects require a definitive, comprehensive and thorough Geotechnical analysis.
Often the report is issued for information only and is not a part of the construction contract documents. This is
done so that the owner can try to limit liability for contractor interpretations and changed conditions. There is
always language that states that the report represents only the actual spots examined and conditions can vary.
This expressed caution is very real and it is very common to find unexpected soil changes or buried obstructions
that are discovered during construction. It is wise to be very leery of contracts that contain a no changed condition
clause. Whether the owner is trying to hide something or only limiting risk exposure, this can lead to very
expensive and time-consuming litigation where no one wins.
Whenever possible, you should try to get as much local history of the project site as possible. Always try to visit the
project site and do your own pot holing with a backhoe. This will give you a much better understanding of the
actual soil conditions. The site may have been a dumping ground or historical site. An archaeological find or
hazardous material can be very disruptive to the work. Over time local contractors will gain an amazing knowledge
of the regional geology and the construction methods that are the most effective. For instance, in one area I
worked there was an extensive volcanic tuff that was very difficult to rip or blast. By knowing the tuff formation
limits exactly gave us a huge advantage in bidding work in the area and kept us out of trouble. If possible,
interview local contractors and equipment operators as to what to expect. Valuable information can be quickly
obtained from a friendly conversation.
The objectives and the information required by the design engineer and the contractor differ dramatically. The
design engineer needs to know what is needed to found the structure. The contractor wants to know what is
needed to build the designed foundation. Generally, construction methods are the chosen by the contractor so long
as no damage is caused. For that reason, the soil reports tend to be very vague when addressing construction
methods.

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Engineer objectives:
The design engineer wants to know what is under the surface to support the structures. To that end, the engineer
needs to know several critical soil properties:
1. What is the allowable soil bearing pressure?
2. What is the expected foundation settlement?
3. What is the active soil load?
4. What is the passive soil loading?
5. What is the sliding friction factor?
6. What is the potential for differential settlement?
7. What is the soil liquefaction potential during an earthquake?
8. What are the seismic design accelerations?
9. Where is the groundwater table?
10. What is a permanent stable slope?
11. Will piling be required?
12. Can the native soil be used for backfill?
13. What are the criteria for the pavement sections?
14. Are hazardous wastes present?
15. How corrosive are the soils?
16. Will there be voids, obstructions or unstable soils?
Contractor questions:
The contractor wants to know what the subsurface conditions are so that an accurate estimate of costs and time
can be entered into a competitive bid. To that end the contractor will search the soils report to determine the
following:
1. Where is the ground water and how much water must be pumped?
2. Is there rock to be drilled and shot (sometimes blasting is not allowed)?
3. Can the ground be ripped with a bulldozer?
4. What excavation equipment and methods will be most effective?
5. Is there enough space on the job to store backfill materials?
6. Can the native material be used for backfill?
7. Will the native material need to be processed (screened/crushed) for backfill?
8. How much backfill must be bought and imported?
9. How steep can the temporary excavation slopes be cut?
10. Can obstructions be expected?
11. What compactive effort and equipment is needed for backfilling?

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12. Will excavation shoring be required?

13. What is the most effective shoring method?
14. Will the ground stand long enough to use trench shores or shields for pipe trenching?
Now that we have asked the questions, how do we glean answers from the soil report? The report is directed
mostly to the design engineer and the contractor usually must make an interpretation of the information to develop
a construction plan. This interpretation is often vital to the success of the project. If the report is ambiguous or fails
to properly identify the ground conditions, the result is often a changed condition claim. These claims can entail
lengthy delays, increased cost, disputes and lawsuits. It is important to read the entire report and understand that
each geologist has a different style of describing the soils, as they are field sampling.
Recently, a geologist described the soil in one report as dense silty-sand. This classification was suspicious
because the borehole was advanced with a carbide tipped rotary drill and hit refusal above the required excavation
depth. Further investigation revealed that the soil was in fact unweathered massive granite rock. Because blasting
was not allowed, the excavation costs were estimated at $50.00 per cubic yard versus $3.00 per cubic yard. This
amounted to nearly a million dollars of added excavation cost to the estimate. A cursory review of the report could
easily mislead the owner, engineer and contractor with disastrous results.
Geotechnical Report Contents:
The well-prepared Geotechnical report will be organized along the following outline:
1. Introduction: This will identify the project by location and name. It will also briefly outline the scope
of the investigation.
2. Project Description: This will give an overview of the structures, with proposed foundation depths.
3. Field Exploration and Testing: This will identify the methods and equipment used to bore and test
the soils.
4. Site conditions: This will describe the terrain, prior known land use, general area geology,
groundwater, fault proximity, seismic shaking, landslides and other concerns such as sink hole or
fracturing problems.
5. Recommendations: The various explorations and tests are translated into specific loading criteria,
settlements, dewatering requirements, seismic accelerations, pavement sections and site
coefficients.
6. Site observations: This is where the appeal is made that it is important to have Geotechnical
experts review the actual excavation procedures and the warning that differing soil conditions may
be found.
7. Maps: A general area map with geology and faults is usually included. Site maps with boring log
locations are included.
8. Logs: This will contain the boring logs with soil densities, blow counts, ground water elevations,
moisture, soil classifications and sample locations.
9. Test results: This section includes sieve analysis, optimum moisture plots, direct shear tests, cone
penetrometer, contaminants and other various tests that are deemed necessary.
10. Seismic velocities: This procedure is used when hard rock is expected. The sound speed through
rock is a good indicator of what methods will effectively excavate the ground.
The contractor must make an interpretation of the soils report in order to answer the 14 common questions. There
are a number of clues in the report that will assist the contractor in making decisions to select the appropriate
construction methods, productions and estimating earthmoving costs. There is no one indicator to show what the
ground conditions really will be. The entire report must be read, absorbed and analyzed. The report will contain
observations, recommendations and test results that must be individually interpreted. Sometimes apparently
conflicting information will be presented. Also, the soil conditions will be described in such broad generalities that it

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is nearly meaningless to the contractor. Often impractical construction solutions are offered, such as temporary
construction slopes that are so flat that the top of slope would extend beyond the easement limits.
The basic clues that must be understood to make an educated judgement of the soil conditions are:
1. Soil boring equipment
2. Recommendations for construction methods and slopes
3. Soil boring logs
4. Soil description (classification such as silty-sand)
5. Soil properties (hard, stiff, dense, loose, etc.)
6. Boring depth
7. Boring refusal
8. Blow counts
9. Soil moisture content
10. Soil dry density
11. Particle distribution curves (sieve analysis)
12. Atterburg limits (liquid limits and plasticity index)
13. Compaction test (optimum moisture for compaction)
14. Direct shear tests
15. Seismic velocity lines
16. Permeability
1. Boring Equipment:
The bore hole or test pit is advanced with a variety of equipment. Bore holes advanced with an auger
means that the ground can be excavated with normal earthmoving equipment, i.e. backhoes, scraper,
bulldozers and the like. Bores that are made with a pneumatic, carbide tipped drill or similar rock drill
means that blasting or heavy ripping will be required.
Test pits are usually dug with a backhoe. The size of the backhoe makes a huge difference as to how
easily the ground can actually be dug. A small rubber tired backhoe-loader will show refusal (unable to dig)
on soils that can be readily excavated with large track mounted backhoes or heavy equipment.
2. Recommendations:
If the report is concerned with settlement, liquefaction and suggests over-excavation; that usually means
weak clayey soils. While these soils may be easy to dig, they may also be unsuitable for backfill and wet
and sticky. Even though clayey soils may appear to be firm enough to drive on, they can start to pump with
repeated heavy-wheeled traffic. This is when the moisture is worked toward the surface by the equipment
pounding and turns the top layer to mud and the equipment will get stuck. If this condition is present it may
be necessary to build aggregate haul roads. Rain and snowmelt will turn clays to mud and may be difficult
to dry out enough to travel on.
Often the recommendations will include soil pressures for temporary shoring. If the recommended soil
active pressures are below about 25 pcf, the ground should be firm enough to allow fairly steep
construction excavation slopes. If the recommendations are in the order of 25 to 35 pcf the ground may
require flatter construction slopes. If the recommendations are higher than 35 pcf, impractical flattened

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slopes may be required. Very high-recommended loading of about 80 pcf indicates ground water is
present and/or oozing clay mud is present. Remember this is only one part of the information available.
Further scrutiny of the report will often reveal that the recommendations are ultra-conservative.
3. Soil Boring Logs:
The boring logs will detail the soil layers by depth from the surface or by elevations. The log will contain
such information as: soil classification, relative denseness of the soil, sampling points, sample recovery,
water content, dry unit weight, blow counts per foot and ground water depth, drill refusal and if well casing
was needed. Often the soil descriptions are subjective by being based on the experience and judgement
of the observing geologist. How dense or hard the soil is often based on how quickly the drill can be
advanced. The description is often based on the look, feel and sometimes smell or taste of the soil. The
boring logs are a good place to start to understand the soil properties. The boring logs should be plotted
on the drawings and on cross sections so the relationship of the excavation, structures is scaled to the
soils and water table. If casing of the hole was necessary, it usually means the ground is too weak to stand
on a normal construction excavation slope.
Below is an example of a well-presented boring log

Note that the log presents the following data.

1. The date of the boring. This is useful information. Water table can fluctuate seasonally.
2. The boring log number, in this case: B-1. This will be plotted on a plan view so that the
actual spot can be scaled to the work to be done.

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3. The ground elevation at the boring is given: 703.8 (MSL). MSL is for mean sea level.
Marine construction often uses mean lower low tide elevation as a reference. The
difference between these references can cause mistakes, so be sure of the reference
elevation.
4. The drill used was a hollow stem auger. This means that the ground was not rock, since
and auger will not penetrate rock that requires blasting or heavy ripping.
5. The soil is logged and classified by depth from the ground surface. Sometimes the log will
also reference elevation.
6. The blows/foot is number of times the 140 lbs drive weight dropped 30 inches needs to
penetrate one foot. The 37 blows per foot confirm the description of dense or wellcompacted soil.
7. The moisture content range of 1.2 to 5.7% means the soil is very dry and will require a lot
of water to achieve compaction.
8. The dry density in the top 4 feet is 127.7 pound per cubic foot (PCF). This indicates a wellgraded soil with a low void ratio. It can be expected to have significant cohesion and
friction angle.
9. The soil between 5 and 8 feet of depth has a dry density of only 96.8 pcf. This indicates
the soil is poorly graded and a low percentage of fines. This soil will probably have little or
no cohesion. That means it may not stand on a construction slope as steep as 1H to 1V.
10. The soil classification descriptions and relative compactions are shown as loose, dense,
etc.
11. Note that no ground water is shown. If ground water is found it will be shown at the depth
of encounter as an inverted triangle with a line under it. Sometimes this symbol is small
and easy to miss.

4. Soil Descriptions:
This will usually identify the soil by classification of particle sizing such as cobble, gravel, sand, silt, or clay,
etc. Most soils are a combination of these classifications, meaning there is a gradation of material. Sand
and larger grains are often referred as cohesionless soils. Without clay or silt fines sand, gravel and
cobbles will not have cohesion (glue) to bind the soil and give it shear strength. Soils with clay or silt are
often referred to as cohesive soils, as they are capable of developing significant shear strength.
5. Soil Properties:
Usually soils are described as loose, dense, hard, stiff, soft, etc. Usually, the relative density terms of:
loose, dense are applied to sands and gravels. Terms such as soft and stiff are usually applied to clays
and silts. Hard can mean rock or cemented soils, although if the soils are cemented the geologist will
usually mention that fact. Loose or soft ground means that the ground may not support a slope as steep as
1H to 1V. Dense sands or gravels are no guarantee that the gravels will stand on a steep excavation
slope, as they may be tightly packed but have little or no fines to cause cohesion. Cemented soils can be
caliche, volcanic tuff, or pyroclastic ash. These soils can be some of the most difficult and expensive
materials to excavate. They can have a relatively low density and show as being relatively soft rock.
However, they tend to absorb blasting energy and almost impossible to penetrate with a ripper tooth.
6. Boring Depth:
Usually the boring logs are advanced well below the planned excavation depth to insure that accurate
formational trends can be plotted and no weak layers are present near the foundation grade. When the
borings are terminated above or just at the planned excavation depth, you must be very wary. This means

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you cannot be sure of what may be encountered at the bottom of the excavation. Is there going to be rock
or water that must be handled? Did an obstruction halt the drilling effort?
7. Boring Refusal:
This is usually indicated at the bottom to the boring log, if it occurs. If all refusals are well below the
planned excavation depth, it will not be a major concern. If a small percentage of the borings have met
refusal in the excavation limits it usually means that there are isolated obstructions. It is not possible to
determine what is the obstruction unless the soils report or site history reveals the object. A small isolated
boulder can stop an auger drill and be of little concern. On the other hand, it could be a ridge of solid rock
that will be expensive to remove.
8. Blow Counts:
This is a very important measure of soil properties. This is a standard penetration test where a 140-pound
weight is dropped and the number of blows to advance the point one (1) foot is counted. Obviously the
more the blows the harder the soil. Loose or soft soils will show blow counts of less than 10. Blow counts
of 10 to 50 blows per foot usually mean the ground will be fairly easily excavated. When the blow counts
are over 50 but less than 100, ripping of the ground is very likely. When blow counts exceed 100, the
ground may be very difficult to excavate and require blasting or hoe ram effort.
9. Soil Moisture Content:
Optimum compaction moisture is usually between 8 and 15% of the dry weight of the soil. Ground water
will show about 25 to 40% moisture by weight of the dry soil. Supersaturated clay can be 50% water.
Those are oozing mud that will not support the weight of even low ground pressure tractors. I have seen
tractors break through a surface crust and sink so fast that the operator barely has time to climb on top of
the roll cage.
Optimum water content in the soil causes some cohesion, helps to control dust, and allows easy
compaction effort. We have all seen sandcastles built on the beach with moist sand and cars can drive just
above the surf. Higher up on the beach where the sand is dry, cars will get stuck and the sand can only be
piled in a cone shape. As soon as a wave washes over the sandcastle, it is erased. Clean, dry sand and
gravel will have little or no cohesion and will ravel to a slope of at least 1H to 1V. The natural undisturbed
angle of repose of sand and gravel is about 1.5H to 1V slope. This is seen at a gravel mine where
processed material is discharged from a conveyor and forms a cone shaped pile. The friction angle of the
soil allows the gravel to form a pile.
When soils contain less than about 5% moisture, it is too dry. If there is more than 5 to 10% clay or silt
fines, dust control is a concern. Spraying or pre-wetting water is usually needed to excavate dry ground
efficiently. When the difference between the in-situ moisture and the optimum moisture is known, water
delivery needs can be calculated. If 6% water must be added to the soil to reach optimum water and the
soil weights 100 pcf, then 6 pounds of water must be added. This calculates to 162 lbs/cyd or 22 gal/cyd.
Additional water for evaporation, dust control, and waste must be added. Free draining sands and gravels
will use lose the effective water very rapidly and the required usage can double. It is difficult to add water
to clays because the permeability is low. These soils may require substantial mixing and kneading to
uniformly introduce water. The general rule of thumb is 30 to 50 gallons of water are needed to compact
each cubic yard of soil. A scraper fleet is capable of moving 1,000 cyd per hour. The water needs can be
approximately a 1,000 gal/min. Water supply for such operations can be a major problem.
When the moisture content is more than about 15%, the ground is too wet. Equipment can bog down by
pumping clays and silts after only a few passes and turn the haul road to mud. Clean sands and gravels
are usually not a problem unless the excavation is below the water table. These soils are usually free drain
enough that no special effort is required to dry them out. On the other hand, overly wet clays can be a
serious problem to handle. Wet clay will tend to stick to tires and truck beds greatly reducing load and haul
efficiency. Extensive effort may be required to reduce the moisture for fill and compaction. The clay or silt
may require spreading; disking and/or mixing with dry material. This can be a very expensive and timeconsuming effort.

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10. Dry Soil Density:

Normal soils will have dry densities between 95 and 130 pounds per cubic foot (pcf). Solid rock and heavy
metallic ores can have densities exceeding 150 pcf. Loose cohesionless sand will usually have a density
of about 90 pcf. Volcanic cinders can be as low as 50 pcf. Soil density by itself tells little about the soil
properties. Volcanic tuff can have a density of less than 100 pcf and be some of the most difficult material
to excavate. Dense rock that is fractured and/or weathered can often be easily excavated.
11. Sieve Analysis:
This test will show the grain size distribution of the various soils. A well-graded soil will have a uniform
grain size distribution from gravel to clay. A poorly graded soil will have the grain concentrated around a
single grain size. Dry sands and gravels that contain less than about 10% clay can be almost completely
cohesionless, meaning that while they are easy to excavate, they ravel to a slope flatter than 1H to 1V.
Over sized rocks such as cobbles and boulders should be indicated. The oversized material may have to
be screened out for the soil to be used as backfill or embankment. If there is more than about 25% clay,
the soil may be unsuitable for backfill or embankment. Unless the soil is very dry, it is difficult to screen
clay out of soils because it clogs the screen. Clay can be removed by washing but it is a slow expensive
process generating a lot of very dirty water that can be difficult to get rid of.
Below is an example of a gradation test or sieve analysis:

The gradation result show above is an example of a well-graded material from 1.5-inch gravel to silt and
clay. If the soil is dense, it can be expected to have significant cohesion and friction angle. The fines
percentage of about 18% means that it will behave more like gravel than clay, with just enough fines to
enhance the compactive effort.
Below is another soil gradation analysis:

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This gradation shown above is a poorly graded or open graded soil. Note that most of the grain sizes are
concentrated between the #16 and #50 sieve and only 3.9% fines. This is clean sand and probably will
have very little cohesion and may require a construction excavation slope of 1H to 1V or flatter. When dry
it will be like dry beach sand. The lack of fines will make it a free draining soil that will take a lot of water
and vibratory compactive effort to embank.
Soil Types:
The basic soil types are:
1. Clays and silts: These are soils where the grains are less than 0.005 inches in
size (less than #200 sieve size).
2. Sands: The grain sizes are between 0.25 and 0.005 inches in size. (#4 to #200
sieve size)
3. Gravels: The grain sizes are between four and 0.25 inches in size. (4" to #4 sieve
size)
4. Cobbles: These are rounded rocks that are between 12 and 4 inches in size.
5. Boulders: These can be over 20 feet in size.
6. Rock: Massive formations that require blasting or heavy ripping to excavate.
7. Any combination of the above. Most soils usually contain more than one soil type,
for instance, a soil classified as sandy-gravel is gravel-containing sand.
Soil Classifications:
1. ML Silt
2. CL Lean Clay

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3. OL Low Plasticity Organic Soil

4. OH High Plasticity Organic Soil
5. MH Elastic Silt
6. CH Fat Clay
7. GW Well Graded Gravel
8. GP Poorly Graded Gravel
9. GM Silty Gravel
10. SW Well Graded Sand
11. SP Poorly Graded Sand
12. SM Silty Sand
The soil classifications are often shown as the combined ones when no single classification is
accurate. For example, GW-GC stands for well graded gravel with clay. The soil classifications are
another step in the process, but they do not tell us how hard or soft the ground is or what
excavation difficulties are to be expected. The soil classifications refer only to the grain size of the
soil and little of the other ground properties.
Relative denseness of the soil:
Here we are getting to the point where the soil properties are described. Usually the terms: loose,
soft, dense and hard are applied to the soil. Loose may mean running soils that will not stand on
slopes greater than 1.5 Horizontal to one Vertical. Soft may mean clay with high water content and
stable construction slopes may be difficult to maintain. Dense soil is usually the best material to
work with because it will support the equipment, be easily excavated and steep construction
slopes can be established. Hard soils probably require ripping equipment and slower excavation
productions.
2. Atterburg Limits:
This is a series of tests for plasticity index and liquid limit that are applied to clays. These are a concern
since the specifications may require that the backfill and embankment materials have limited plasticity and
liquid limit. This requirement is designed to control swell and settlement as the moisture content of the soil
changes. This can force the disposal of the excavated soil and the import of more suitable soil. Often the
specifications are silent as to the suitability of the native soils for backfill and embankment, leaving it up to
the contractor to determine if the soil should be used. If field tests show the soil unsuitable, then the
contractor pays the extra costs. Another common requirement is the sand equivalent (SE) of the backfill
material. That is a measure of what percentage of the soil acts as sand. Sometimes the soil's report will
not contain these tests, but the specifications will use them to define suitable backfill and embankment
soils.
3. Compaction Test:
This is very valuable information. By comparing the optimum maximum compaction density with the in
place, native density a reliable calculation can be made for how much the soil will shrink from the ground
to compacted fill. Typically, the shrink is between 5 and 15% for most normal soils. Soils with high clay
contents can shrink more than 25%. Blasted or ripped rock will often swell as much as 25% as it will go
from a void ratio of zero to 25% or more. If the in-situ dry density of the soil is 100 pcf and the optimum
density is 120 pcf, at 90% compaction the density of the embankment will be 108 pcf. The ratio of 100 pcf
to 108 pcf shows an 8% shrink from in-situ to embankment. Usually it is a good idea to add a couple of
percent of shrink to allow for settlement, over build and over compaction.

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Below is an example of a maximum density test:

The optimum moisture is shown as 11.5% and the maximum density is shown as 118.5 pcf. The test
method used is ASTM D 698. This method requires less compactive effort than other methods to achieve
the desired relative compaction in the soil. For instance, the method that the California DOT uses requires
at least twice the compactive effort to achieve the same relative compaction. Find out what the specified
compaction method is because it can make a big difference in cost.
4. Direct Shear Test:
This is very valuable information. This test shows the friction angle and the cohesion of the soil. The
friction angle is a measure of the angularity of the soil particles to resist rolling. Cohesion is the measure of
the bonding of the soil particles in shear. Combined with the gross soil density (moisture plus dry density),
friction angle and cohesion a slip circle analysis can accurately predict the stable temporary slope the
ground can be excavated. Unfortunately, this is a very difficult analysis to perform by hand. There are
computer programs available to make the calculation quickly and easily. Some of these programs are
inaccurate at steep temporary construction slopes. The author has created a program that is specifically
written for construction slopes. This takes the guesswork out of designing construction excavations and

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allows huge savings in excavation, backfill, and shoring costs. The program will indicate when speed
shores, shields and shoring are appropriate.

Below is an example of a direct shear test:

The three dots are the specific test points plotted on the graph. The slope of the extrapolated line is the
friction angle (it is usually measured with a protractor). The sloping line intersection with the left vertical
axis defines the cohesion in psf. Sometimes the cohesion is given in psi, which for low cohesion is virtually
worthless since 144 psf is only 1 psi.
OSHA classifies all ground in four (4) categories. The first class is "Rock" which allows a vertical cut. The
next class is "A" such as cemented soils and caliche and the recommended construction slope is 3/4H to 1
V. The most common class of soil is class "B" that is compact dense soil and the recommended
construction slope is 1V to 1H. The last class is "C" that is for loose ground and the recommended slope is
1.5H to 1V. These recommendations are very conservative. OSHA also requires all excavations over
twenty (20) feet deep to be analyzed by a registered engineer. It is also well worth your while to obtain a
slip circle program and analyze all significant excavations.
5. Seismic Velocity Lines:
When the geologist finds or expects formational rock to be present, often seismic lines will be run. This test
places several microphones in a long line. Then a charge or hammer blows induces sound waves into the

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ground. A computer analyses the time delays that are recorded at each microphone. This will show the
depth to each stratum and the speed of sound through the stratums. The faster the sound travels through
the ground the harder the rock. Soil with sound velocities of less than 3,000 feet per second (fps) is usually
easily excavated. Rock over 10,000 fps cannot be ripped efficiently.
Most rock that can be effectively ripped lies in the 3,000 to 8,000 fps ranges. The sound velocity is a guide
to ripping only. Very hard rock, such as granite, that is fractured and or weathered can sometimes be
easily ripped. On the other hand, relatively soft rock that is monolithic, such as volcanic tuff and caliche,
can be practically impossible to rip efficiently.
Below is a plot of seismic velocities plotted by depth from the surface:

The top two feet has a velocity of only 1,134 feet per second (fps). That means it is probably topsoil or
loose alluvium. The next layer with a velocity of 5,341 is rock. This can probably be ripped using a Cat D8
or larger crawler tractor. This rock may also be easily blasted unless it is caliche or volcanic tuff. The rock
below 22 feet is definitely drill and shoot hard rock. The high velocity of 18,498 fps means that it is very
hard, dense and probably the fracture jointing is widely spaced.
6. Permeability:
This test is run to determine how quickly ground water will travel through the soil. Clean sands and gravels
can transmit huge volumes and require massive pumping to lower the water table enough to work at the
bottom of an excavation. Clays are impermeable and release the water slowly. Often the ground water is
transferred through aquifers that are open-graded and very permeable. These aquifers can be capped with
impermeable layers. There have been cases where dewatering wells were unnecessarily extended into

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aquifers and forced excessive pumping. These tests aid the experienced dewatering specialist in
designing an appropriate dewatering system.
Soils that contain more than 30 to 40% clay will behave like clay because the clay will more than fill the
natural voids of the larger particles. This means that the larger particles do not have direct bearing on each
other and the failure plane is mostly through the clay fines. Clays can be some of the most difficult and
undesirable soils to try to work with. Plasticity index and liquid limit are used to define Clays. Expansive or
fat clays have plastic and liquid indexes about 50 or more. These materials will significantly swell and
contract with the change in moisture content. This is often the cause of pavement failure, sidewalk
buckling and foundation cracking. Clays can be plastic in that they can continue to settle under a
foundation over a long term, causing cracks to develop long after the structure is completed.
Clays vary from being a viscous fluid to dense and stable material. Water content and relative compaction
are critical to the soil properties. If there is too much water the clay becomes mud. If there is not enough
moisture the clay becomes dust. Either condition causes the clay to be difficult to handle and compact.
Even when the clay is at optimum moisture, it can be difficult to achieve the required degree of
compaction. To add to the problem, it can be difficult to get the clay to dry out or accept additional water.
Clays that contain high moisture content, above 20% or so may be unstable. The water instead of adding
cohesion now becomes a lubricant, reducing the friction angle to nearly zero. This can result in
catastrophic failure, with little or no warning. Rain or irrigation water that is allowed to pond can
supersaturate the soil and cause a violent slide. Sometimes warning signs of impending failure will cracks
forming in the ground parallel to the bank and/or sloughing, bulging and slumping of the bank slope. In
short, clay is the least desirable structural and construction soil to work with.
Well-graded sands and gravels that contain 5% to 15% clay or silt fines can be the best materials to work
with. They will excavate and compact easily. There are enough fines to hold the optimum moisture but will
not continue to settle under structural loading. The fines and water will add cohesion and allow steep
construction slopes.
Open or poorly graded dry sand and gravel can be difficult to work with. Open or poorly graded mean the
grain size is concentrated at one sieve size. Clean dry beach sand is an example of such material and can
be difficult to walk and drive through. It will not easily compact and added water quickly drains away. It also
will ravel to its natural angle of repose while being excavated. When such sand is dredged from under the
water it will ravel on slopes as flat as 10H to 1V. When artesian water flows upward through sand it can
become quicksand. Sands and gravels will usually have a friction angle of 30 degrees or more.
Rock properties are often difficult to deduce from the geotechnical report. Although you may be able to tell
if the rock must be shot or ripped from the descriptions and recommendations, it usually does not describe
what the rock fragments sizes will be when excavated. The size of the fragments depends of a number of
circumstances. The drill-hole spacing, the amount and type of explosive, what the rock natural grain and
fracturing is in place. Some rock will easily break up to small sizes. Some rock will break only into large
riprap sizing. Some softer rock may be degraded to a usable size by track walking. Hard rock will require
crushing to make gravel sizes.
Disposal can be a problem if no one wants to take riprap sized rock. To reduce disposal costs over sized
rock can be separated with a bar screen. Shot rock also makes an excellent basement fill for a large
embankment, such as a highway fill.
Sometimes, the geotechnical sampler will have cores available for inspection. These cores will give you an
idea of the texture, hardness, and natural joint spacing of the rock. Try to get a sample to hold, scratch it
with a knife, and see if it breaks or crumbles easily. There is no better way to understand what the rock
properties are than holding samples and observing the formation in place
Any soil can be in any state of consolidation and cementation. Sandstone was once sand dunes or river
deposits that were compressed by over burden and cementing minerals leached into the formation over
millions of years. Slate and shale were once mud on at lake or sea bottom. Lava is heat fused inert
minerals that weather very slowly and is usually very hard, requiring blasting or hoe ramming to remove.
There are thousands of minerals that make up millions of soil conditions. No two sites are exactly alike.

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Only through study of the site-specific geotechnical report and a site visit can any real judgement of
construction methods be made. It is also recommended that potholing with a backhoe be performed in the
presence of the estimator for the project. Review the specifications to determine if the soil is suitable for
backfill. The sieve analysis may show there is oversize that must be screened out. There may be too much
clay fines. The Atterburg properties or sand equivalent may make the in-situ soil unsuitable and the
material must be over excavated and/or disposed of offsite and suitable material bought and imported.
Failure to understand the geotechnical report has caused many a financial disaster. The contractor must
bid aggressively to win work. It is better to know the real conditions and avoid costly mistakes that can
cause a project to lose money out of pocket by ignoring or misinterpreting the information contained in the
report. Each geologist will present his or her findings in different ways. Some reports are more thorough
than others for several reasons. It is common to find that underground conditions vary from what was
discovered by the test borings. At rare times the owner will even deliberately misrepresent the facts to gain
lower bids. This usually results in a long expensive lawsuit over changed conditions that only the lawyers
win.
Each soils report will contain a great deal of information. There is no one test or observation that will tell
the contractor what is the best construction method for each site. Each test and observation is a clue.
There are always dozens or even thousands of bits of information that must be scrutinized, analyzed, and
correlated. This process can take several people weeks to prepare an excavation plan for a large project
such as a dam. Only then can methods and productions be reasonably estimated.
Geotechnical reports always include disclaimers and warnings that the ground conditions may vary from
those found in the borings and test pits. There is good reason for the disclaimers. Geotechnical work is still
as much an art as it is a science. Any extrapolations derived form the reports are individual interpretations
of what that person might expect to find. No one is able to see exactly what is under the ground surface.
All the tests and observations only indicate probable trends that are often subject for debate between
expert geologists. The contractor must be an expert is his own right. Only the contractor can and will
decide what methods and costs are to be bid for the excavation and embankment work. If the contractor
makes a judgmental mistake, no else will offer to pay for any of the additional costs.

Once you finish studying the above course content, you need to take a quiz
to obtain the PDH credits.

DISCLAIMER: The materials contained in the online course are not intended as a representation or warranty on the part of
PDHonline.org or any other person/organization named herein. The materials are for general information only. They are not a
substitute for competent professional advice. Application of this information to a specific project should be reviewed by a registered
professional engineer. Anyone making use of the information set forth herein does so at their own risk and assumes any and all
resulting liability arising therefrom.

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