INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum Coronarium L.)

INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND
GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED

YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL
CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum
coronarium L.)
Thesis submitted to the

University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Degree of
Master of Science (Agriculture)

in
SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
By
SAINATH
DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
DHARWAD 580 005
NOVEMBER, 2009
ADVISORY COMMITTEE
DHARWAD
November 2009
(D. S. UPPAR)
CHAIRMAN
Approved by :
Chairman :
(D. S. UPPAR)
Members :
1.
(V. S. PATIL)
2.
(V. K. DESHPANDE)
3.
(RAVI HUNJE)
CONTENTS
Sl. No.
Chapter Particulars
CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and quality
2.2 Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and
quality
2.3 Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering, seed
yield and quality
2.4
Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering, seed yield

and quality parameters
2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality
2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering, seed
yield and quality
3.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1 General description
3.2 Previous crop at the experimental site
3.3 Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield and
quality of annual chrysanthemum
3.4 Seed source
3.5 Cultural practices
3.6 Collection of data
3.7 Effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seed
quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum
3.8 Cultural operations

3.9 Net income per hectare and cost benefit ratio
3.10 Statistical analysis
4.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
quality in annual chrysanthemum
4.2 Effect of growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual
chrysanthemum
5.
DISCUSSION
5.2 Influence of fertilizer
5.3
Interaction effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on

plant growth parameters
5.4 Benefit cost ratio

5.5 Effect of different growth regulators on growth, seed yield and
5.6 Benefit cost ratio
6.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

6.1 Spacing and Fertilizer
6.2 Growth regulators
REFERENCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table
No.
Title
1.
Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site
2.
Monthly meteorological data during crop growth period (2008-09) and the
average of 58 years (1950-2008) at Main Agricultural Research Station, UAS,
Dharwad
3.
Prices of inputs
4.
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height (cm) at different growth
stages of annual chrysanthemum
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at different growth
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of leaves at different growth
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on leaf area (cm2)/plant at different stages
of annual chrysanthemum
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on days to 50% flowering and number of
flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on diameter (cm) of flower and number of
seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum
10.
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on flower dry weight (g), seed yield
(g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum
11.
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%),
seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum
12.
Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling
-1
vigour index and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm ) in annual
chrysanthemum
13.
Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

different spacing , fertilizer levels and their interactions (SxF)
Effect of growth regulators on plant height (cm) and number of branches at
different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
14.
15.
Effect of growth regulators on number of leaves /plant and leaf area (cm2) at
different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
16.
Effect of growth regulators on days to 50% flowering, number of flower/plant,

diameter of flower (cm) and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum
17.
Effect of growth regulators on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and
seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum
18.
Effect of growth regulators on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%) and
seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum
19.
Effect of growth regulators on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index,
-1
and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm ) in annual chrysanthemum
20.
Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

different growth regulators spray
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
No.
Title
1.
Plan and layout of the experimental site
2.
Plan and layout of the experimental site
3.
Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at

30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
4.
Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of

branches at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
5.
Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of

flowers in annual chrysanthemum
6.
Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield/ha in

annual chrysanthemum
7.
Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at

harvest in annual chrysanthemum
8.
Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60

DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
9.
Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annual

chrysanthemum
10.
Influence of growth regulators on Seed yield (kg/ha) in annual

chrysanthemum
LIST OF PLATES
Plate
No.
Title
1.
General view of the experimental plots
2.
Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annual

chrysanthemum
3.
Influence of growth regulators on

chrysanthemum
plant
height
in annual
1. INTRODUCTION
Chrysanthemum is a member of family Asteraceae. There are about 160 species of
chrysanthemum among which the modern autumn flowering perennial (Chrysanthemum
morifolium) is most common, usually propagated through suckers (mums) followed by annual
chrysanthemums which are propagated through seeds. Annual chrysanthemum comprise of
three species viz., Chrysanthemum segtum (corn marigold), Chrysanthemum carinatum (tricoloured chrysanthemum) and Chrysanthemum coronarium (crown daisy or garland
chrysanthemum). The crown daisy or Garland chrysanthemum (C. coronarium) is a native to
Southern Europe, is a branching annual with finely cut foliage reaching a height up to a metre,
size of flowers varies from 2.5 to 4 cm and colour is usually in shades of yellow and white with
cream zone at the center (Vishnu Swarup, 1967).
It is a fast growing winter blooming annual. In North India, it is one of the cheapest
sources of floral material for worship and garland particularly in early summer months when
flowers are inadequate in supply. Apart from this, it is used in potted plants, vases, flower
decoration, preparation of bouquets and as border in the garden. Its leaves are steamed or
boiled and used as greens, especially in chinese cuisine, yellow and white chrysanthemum
flowers are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia known as chrysanthemum tea
has many medicinal uses, bioactive terpenes such as dihydro chrysanoride and cumambrin,
contents of essential oil proven to have medicinal effect on cancer and blood pressure
reduction. It is an economically important as a natural source of insecticide, the flowers are
pulverized and an active component called pyrethrin is extracted and used in insecticidal
preparation and it is a good companion plant, protecting neighbouring plants from caterpillars.
In recent years, it has been introduced as a valuable source of feed for animals.
Chrysanthemum plants have also been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) clean air study.
Therefore, the growing popularity of annual chrysanthemum has lead to its cultivation
as a commercial crop. In Karnataka, the area under chrysanthemums during 2003-04 was
2964 hectares with an annual production of 36,294 tonnes and productivity of 10 tonnes per
hectare generating a value of 3,931 lakh rupees (Anonymous, 2004). The area under annual
chrysanthemum is increasing year after year and farmers are not getting quality seeds in
adequate quantities as very few farmers are taking up seed production. Hence, there is a
need to produce adequate quantity of quality seeds of annual chrysanthemum.
In the absence of scientific information with regard to appropriate nutrient schedule
involving nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium for a particular zone, it is difficult to reckon and
realize the objective of higher flower and seed yield in annual chrysanthemum. Further, there
is no comprehensive agronomic package for seed production to obtain higher seed yield and
quality in annual chrysanthemum. This objective can be achieved through balanced and
judicious application of plant nutrients and adopting proper spacing for plant growth
(Shivakumar, 2000). As there is no recommendation of spacing and fertilizer doses for seed
production, there is a need to standardize the optimum spacing and dose of fertilizers.
The pre flowering application of growth regulators not only improve the quality and
number of flowers produced but also increase the seed yield mainly by increasing the number
of seeds in china aster (Doddagoudar, 2000).
In the recent years the growth regulators play a major role in overcoming the factors
limiting the yield and quality for obtaining maximum benefit from seed production. It is realized
that the exogenous application of growth regulators stimulate flowering, pollination,
fertilization and seed setting to yield better quality seeds (Sunitha, 2006). Yet, the information
on the effect of growth regulators in realizing higher yield and quality in annual
chrysanthemum is very meagre.
Considering the importance of commercial flower production, the present
investigation was initiated with an objective to develop suitable agro-techniques for seed
production in annual chrysanthemum with the following objectives.
i.
To study the effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on growth, yield and
seed quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.
ii.
To study the effect of different growth regulators on growth, yield and seed
quality attributes in annual chrysanthemum.
iii.
To workout the economics and feasibility of seed production in annual

chrysanthemum with relation to different spacing, fertilizer levels and growth
regulators.
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Cultivation of annual chrysanthemum has received more attention only in recent
years and information available on the effect of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators
on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum is meagre. Hence reviews on these
aspects in annual chrysanthemum and other closely related flowers, ornamental plants and
vegetable crops have been included and presented in this chapter.
2.1
Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality
Spacing plays a role in manipulating the micro climate and hence helps in enhancing
the seed yield and quality of crop. Proper spacing improves the availability of nutrients,
aeration and light intensity (Ravindran et al., 1986) which means better crop growth and
response to the inputs and there by enhanced seed yield and quality.
2.1.1 Growth
Dongre (1984) noticed increased plant height (110.53 cm) and less number of
branches per plant (2.30) with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while decreased plant height
(90.59 cm) and more number of branches per plant (5.02) were observed with wider spacing
of 50x20 cm in marigold.
Mokashi (1988) recorded maximum plant height (77.36 cm) with closer spacing of
30x20 cm, while minimum plant height (72.42 cm) was observed with wider spacing of 40x30
cm in gaillardia.
Vijay Kumar (1988) reported increased plant height (42.33 cm) with closer spacing of
30x10 cm, where as decreased plant height (31.59 cm) was noticed in wider spacing of 30x30
cm in china aster.
In chrysanthemum, increased plant height (51.96 cm) and less number of branches
per plant (28.96) were noticed with closer spacing of 30x20 cm, while wider spacing of 40x30
cm recorded decreased plant height (48.33 cm) and more number of branches (32.83) per
plant (Shivanna, 1994).
In marigold significant increase in plant height (62.87 cm), number of main branches
(6.05) and secondary branches (33.91) were observed with wider spacing of 30x30 cm,
whereas decreased plant height (54.71 cm), less number of main branches (5.55) and
secondary (22.15) branches were observed with closer spacing of 30x20 cm (Janakiram and
Rao., 1995).
Belgoankar et al. (1996) reported increased plant height (109.60 cm), number of
primary branches (31.62) and secondary branches (169.47) per plant with closer spacing of
45x45 cm, compared to wider spacing of 60x45 cm which recorded decreased plant height
(106.69 cm), number of primary branches (30.35) and secondary branches (166.45) per plant
in annual chrysanthemum.
Singh (1996) noticed increased plant height (36.24 cm) and more number of leaves
per plant (36.22) with wider spacing of 25 x 20 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 10 cm
which recorded (31.58 cm and 29.74, respectively) in tuberose.
Hugar (1997) reported that closer spacing of 30 x 10 cm recorded taller plants (34.29
cm) with less number of branches per plant (13.62), while wider spacing (30 x 30 cm) resulted
in shorter plants (32.28 cm) with more number of branches (14.92) per plant in gaillardia.
Mishra (1998) recorded taller plants (77.33 cm) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm,
while more plant spread (34.92 cm) was noticed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm in
gaillardia.
Shivakumar (2000) noticed significant increase in plant height (101.3 cm) and less
number of branches (9.9) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, while shorter plants (89.7 cm)
and more number of branches (16.8) with wider spacing of 60 x 45 cm in marigold.
Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) recorded that closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm gave taller
plants (88.58 cm) with less number of branches per plant (23.58) compared to wider spacing
of 40 x 30 cm (73.42 cm and 32.50, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum cv. Local White.
In zinnia, significant increase in plant height (52.64 cm), plant spread (34.83 cm) and number
of branches per plant (10.56) was observed with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm, whereas
decreased plant height (47.74 cm), plant spread (31.02 cm) and number of branches per
plant (8.66) with closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (Poonam et al., 2002).
Srivastava et al. (2002) in marigold cv. Pusa Narangi Gainda noticed increased plant
height (59.89 cm) and less number of secondary branches per plant (35.70) with closer
spacing of 40 x 40 cm, while shorter plant height (57.73 cm) and more number of secondary
branches (39.46) per plant with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm.
Balanchandra et al. (2004) noticed increased plant height (74.60 cm) and less
number of branches per plant (14.40) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm, whereas wider
spacing of 45 x 45 cm recorded decreased plant height and more number of branches per
plant (70.40 cm and 19.60, respectively) in ageratum.
Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) recorded significant increase in plant height (64.12
cm), more number of primary branches (25.40) and secondary branches (47.02) per plant
with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm (59.85 cm 21.27
and 38.35, respectively) in French marigold Cv. Red Brocade.
Shah et al. (2005) reported higher plant spread (32.00 cm) with wider spacing of 30 x
35 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 25 cm (31.16 cm) in china aster.
Mane et al. (2006) observed tallest plants (47.36 cm) with closer spacing of 20 x 15
cm compared to wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm (44.95 cm) in tuberose cv. Single.
Anju and Pandey (2007) reported maximum number of branches per plant, number of
leaves per branch, diameter of stem and canopy of plant with wider spacing (40x30 cm), while
plant height was highest in closer spacing (20x10 cm) in African marigold.
Chaudhary et al. (2007) in zinnia concluded that plants spaced at 30x45 cm spacing
recorded increased plant height, number of branches per plant, length of the branches,
internodal length and number of nodes per plant. Similarly, Dhatt and Ramesh Kumar (2007)
noticed decreased plant height (81.64 cm), increased plant spread (80.06 cm) and number of
branches (20.01) per plant with wider spacing of 60x60 cm, compared to closer spacing of
60x30 cm which recorded more plant height, less plant spread and number of branches
(85.44 cm, 73.82 and17.47, respectively) in Coreopsis lanceolata
Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded increased plant height (66.10 cm)
and number of leaves per plant (9.87) with closer spacing of 30x10 cm whereas decreased
plant height (56.83 cm) and number of leaves (9.73) per plant with wider spacing of 45x20 cm
in gladiolus.
Dalvi et al. (2008) noticed decreased plant height (120.21 cm), increased number of
leaves (10.34), leaf length (59.72 cm) and leaf breadth (2.66 cm) with the spacing of 30x20
cm in gladiolus, whereas wider spacing of 25x30 cm recorded 120.15 cm, 10.22, 59.25 cm
and 2.51, respectively.
Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded decreased plant height (56.45 cm), more number of
branches (7.00) and dry matter production (42.97 g) per plant with wider spacing of 60x15 cm
whereas closer spacing of 45x15 cm recorded (56.45 cm, 6.65 and 16.47 g respectively) in
lablab bean.
2.1.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Dongre (1984) concluded that wider spacing of 50x20 cm resulted in increased
number of flowers per plant (21.97) and seed yield (0.54 g) per flower, while decreased
number of flowers (12.29) and seed yield (0.31 g) with the closer spacing of 20x30 cm in
marigold.
Mokashi (1988) noticed significantly more number of flowers per plant (226) with
wider spacing of 40x30 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded flowers per plant
185.78 in gaillardia. Similarly, Vijay Kumar (1988) recorded significantly more number of
flowers per plant (31.33) with wider spacing of 30x30 cm in china aster, while closer spacing
of 30x10 cm recorded less number of flowers per plant (24.97).
Venugopal (1991) noticed that the more number of flowers per plant (85.93) and
flower yield per plant (85.93 g) were significantly higher in wider spacing of 30x40 cm, while
closer spacing of 30x20 cm recorded less number of flowers (77.47) and flower yield (74.54
g) per plant in everlasting flower.
Rao et al. (1992) recorded higher flower yield (12.12 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x
15 cm compared to wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm (10.30 t/ha) in chrysanthemum cv. Kasturi.
Similarly, John and Paul (1995) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant
(38.78) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm as compared to closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm (30.63)
in chrysanthemum.
Belgoankar et al. (1996) reported delayed the days for opening of flower from bud
emergence (26.44) and increased mean number of flowers per plant (456.02) and flower yield
(22.89 t/ha) with closer spacing of 45x45 cm, while wider spacing of 60x45 cm recorded
(26.18 days, 432.86 and 16.99 t/ha, respectively) in annual chrysanthemum.
Singh (1996) recorded delayed flowering (153.23 days) with closer spacing of 20x 10
cm compared to wider spacing of 25 x 25 cm (116.31 days) in tuberose.
Hugar (1997) observed early flower initiation (53 days) with the closer spacing of 30 x
10 cm, while wider spacing of 30 x 30 cm delayed flower initiation (56.2 days), produced more
number of flowers per plant (106.67) and seed yield (5.51 q / ha). Whereas, closer spacing of
30 x 10 cm recorded 47.80 and 3.87 q/ha, respectively. He further reported that 1000 seed
weight was not influenced by spacing in gaillardia.
Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) reported significantly higher number of
flowers per plant (59.201), capsules per plant (21.12) and seed yield (0.48 g/plant) with the
spacing of 25 x 25 cm in pansy, while maximum seed yield (11.33 g/m2) was noticed with
closer spacing of 20 x 20 cm in pansy. Similarly, Shivakumar (2000) reported increased
number of flowers per plant (31.2), number of seeds per flower (69.4) with wider spacing of
60x45 cm, whereas closer spacing of 30x30 cm recorded decreased number of flowers per
plant (12.9) and seeds per flower (69.4) in marigold. Further, he reported that the seed yield
per plot (65.7g) was significantly more with closer spacing of 30x30 cm.
Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed more flower yield (23958.20 Kg/ha) with
closer spacing of 30 x 20 cm compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (20624.91 Kg/ha) in
annual chrysanthemum Cv. Local White.
Poonam et al. (2002) in zinnia, recorded maximum number of heads per plant (14.36)
and seed yield per unit area (2.61 g) with wider spacing of 40 x 30 cm compared to closer
spacing of 30 x 20 cm (12.38 and 1.85 g, respectively). Similarly, Srivastava et al. (2002)
noticed maximum flowers per plant (54.39) with wider spacing of 60 x 40 cm, while higher
flower yield (27.78 t/ha) with closer spacing of 40 x 40 cm in marigold.
Balachandra et al. (2004) recorded higher seed yield (142.0 Kg/ha) with closer
spacing of 30 x 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 45 x 45 cm (117.10 Kg/ha) in ageratum.
Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) reported that closer spacing of 20 x 30 cm delayed
days to 50 per cent flowering (81.26 days) compared to wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm (76.84
days) and more number of flowers per plant (62.69) with wider spacing of 30 x 40 cm. While
more flower yield (148.98 q) with closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm in French marigold.
Mane et al. (2006) observed wider spacing of 20 x 25 cm took maximum number of
days required for sprouting (11.39 days) compared to closer spacing of 20 x 15 cm (9.50
days) in tuberose Cv. Single.
Dhatt and Ramesh kumar (2007) observed early flower initiation (125.14 days) and
2
maximum yield (84.51 g/m ) with closer spacing of 60x30 cm in Coreopsis lanceolata
compared to wider spacing of 60x60 cm recorded (125.36 days and 62.71, respectively).
Whereas, Ramachandrudu and Thangam (2007) recorded delayed opening of first floret
(60.00 days), increased number of florets per spike (11.93), floret diameter (11.13 cm), spike
girth (2.83 cm), corm diameter (4.57 cm) and corm weight (30.40 g) with wider spacing of
45x20 cm in gladiolus.
Aliyu et al. (2008) recorded optimum yield of onion bulbs (30.83 t/ha) from 15 cm intra
row spacing combined with 100 kg N per ha in onion. He further reported that application of
150 kg N per ha in plants spaced at 25 cm in the row spacing and 20 cm inter row spacing
resulted in large bulbs. Whereas, Channabasavanna et al. (2008) recorded higher seed yield
(566 q/ha) with closer row spacing of 30 cm compared to wider spacing of 60 cm (515 kg/ha)
in ajowan.
Dalvi et al. (2008) recorded increased number of florets per spike (15.43), yield of
spikes per plot (54.66 kg), yield of corms per plot (55.28 kg) and decreased number of
cormels per plant (52.38) with the closer spacing of 30x30 cm in gladiolus.
Dhatt and Ramesh (2008) in Gaillardia aristata reported that the plants spaced at
60x60 cm took 123.31 days to anthesis and showed longest flowering duration (86.87 days).
He further reported that wider spacing of 60x60 cm resulted in highest seed yield (106.75
g/m2) followed by closer spacing of 60x30 cm (99.85g/m2).
Mantur and Sateesh (2008) reported significant increase in average fruit weight
(72.50 g), fruit yield (3.67 kg/ per plant) and fruit yield (7.94 kg/m2) under wider spacing of
60x60 cm in tomato, while maximum fruit yield (8.64 kg/m2) was noticed in closer spacing of
60x30 cm.
Pourhadian and Khajehpour (2008) recorded highest seed yield (3039 kg/ha) with 20
cm row distance compared to 40 cm (1930 kg/ha) which gave lowest seed yield in safflower.
Srikanth et al. (2008) reported less number of days for flower initiation (42.54), days
to 50 per cent flowering (45.10), days to pod initiation (48.01), days to crop maturity (80.15)
and increased pod yield (20.44 q/ ha) and seed yield (17.20 q/ ha) with closer spacing of
45x15 cm in lab lab bean compared to wider spacing (42.97, 45.56, 48.33, 81.35, 17.25 q/ha
and 15.02 q, respectively). The harvest index (42.14), number of pods per plant (19.06), pod
yield per plant (21.42 kg) and seed yield per plant (16.92 g) were also more in wider spacing
of 60x15 cm.
2.1.3 Seed quality parameters

Ujjinaiah (1985) did not observe any significant effect of spacing on seed quality
parameters like germination percentage and vigour index in sunflower.
Kobza (1991) studied the effect of plant density on seed quality parameters for ten
years in china aster and finally concluded that the seed quality was not affected significantly
by plant density.
Kobza (1993) reported that plant density does not affect the seed quality in marigold
and similar results were also reported in gaillardia (Hugar, 1997).
Kanna Babu et al. (1993) reported that plant population of 55,555 plants per hectare
gave higher seed quality parameters i.e., 100 seed weight (3.63 g), germination (93 %), field
emergence (88 %), seedling vigour index (2673), dry weight of five seedlings (72 mg), shoot
length (14.70 cm) and root length (14.10 cm) compared to plant population of 1,66,666 plants
per hectare (2.88 g, 81.00%, 75.00%, 1776.90, 42 mg, 11.80 cm and 10.00 cm, respectively)
in sunflower.
Balachandra et al. (2004) reported higher germination (65.70%) due to wider spacing
of 45 x 45 cm compared to closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm (63.70%) in ageratum.
2.2
Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality
2.2.1 Physiological role of NPK

Noggle and Fritz (1979) summarized the role of NPK on physiology of plants.
Nitrogen is a component of amminoacid, which is essential for protein synthesis. Nitrogen
bases like purines, pyrimidines and many co-enzymes need nitrogen for their synthesis. It is
also a component of cytochrome and chlorophyll which are essential for photosynthesis.
While, Phosphorus forms a source of energy in the form of ATP and ADP, the cell division is
also influenced by phosphorus. It is also a component of many enzymes, co-enzymes, nucleic
acids and phospholipids and potash acts as catalyst for various enzymes and co-enzymes
and starch synthesis takes place in the presence of potash. It has a vital role in photo
respiration, translocation of metabolites and transpiration.
2.2.2 Growth
Maheshwar (1977) observed increased plant height in china aster with the application
of nitrogen up to 180 kg and phosphorus 120 kg per ha. Similarly, Ramachandra (1982)
obtained maximum plant height with 120:60:60 kg NPK per ha. While, Venkatesh (1983)
recorded maximum plant height with 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha. Whereas, significantly
maximum plant height was recorded at 250:120:75 kg NPK per ha (Mantur, 1988) and at
200:100:50 kg NPK per ha by Ravindra (1998) in china aster.
In china aster, Ramachandra (1982) noticed maximum plant height (40.0 cm),
number of branches (10.5), leaf area index (0.57) and dry matter production (18.67), with
application of 120:60:60 kg NPK per ha. Similar results were also observed in eight varieties
of marigold by Nalwadi (1982) with the application of higher doses of fertilizer (225 kg N, 120
kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O per ha).
Venkatesh (1983) observed that china aster plants receiving nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium at the rate of 120:60:60 kg per ha recorded higher plant height (60.4 cm) and
number of branches per plant (22.4) compared to control.
Dongre (1984) in marigold indicated that, application of nitrogen and phosphorus
each at 40 g per square metre recorded higher plant height (128.8 cm) and maximum number
of branches per plant (4.05).
Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) observed significant increase in plant height (47.9 cm)
and number of branches per plant (7.30) in chrysanthemum with the application of
300:400:200 kg NPK per ha.
Mantur (1988) found that application of 240 kg N, 120 kg P2O5 and 75 kg K2O per ha
recorded maximum plant height, number of branches, dry matter production and higher leaf
area index in china aster. While, Mokashi (1988) reported that plant height and number of
branches per plant did not respond well to the application of higher doses of nitrogen (150 to
250 kg/ha) and phosphorus (80 to 120 kg/ha) in gaillardia.
In marigold, Arulmozhiyan and Pappaiah (1989) found significant increase in plant
height and number of branches per plant with the application of 120 kg N and 90 kg P2O5 per
ha. Similarly, Yassin and Pappiah (1990) stated that application of 75 kg nitrogen per ha
along with sheep manure recorded maximum plant height (72.6 cm) and more number of
branches per plant (23.7) in chrysanthemum.
Jana and Pal (1991) reported in cosmos, that among the nutrient elements nitrogen
and phosphorus deficiency showed maximum reduction in growth. Maximum growth of plants
were obtained with combined application of 20 g nitrogen, 10 g phosphorus and 10 g potash
per square metre.
In calendula, application of NPK at the rate of 100:50:25 kg per ha increased the
height of plant, number of branches and leaves per plant (Sigedar et al., 1991). Similarly, Rao
et al. (1992) noticed increase in number of lateral branches per plant with higher level of
nitrogen (200 kg/ha) in chrysanthemum.
Ramesh kumar and Kiranjeet Kaur (1996) in balsam found increased number of
secondary branches per plant and plant height with the application of nitrogen and
phosphorus respectively with 20 and 10 grams per square metre. Similarly, Baboo and
Sharma (1997) in chrysanthemum indicated that plants receiving 300:200:120 kg NPK per ha
recorded maximum plant height and more number of branches.
Hugar (1997) reported increased plant height (43.0 and 39.3 cm), leaf area index
(4.83 and 4.62) and dry matter production (29.92 and 28.12 g) with the application of 75 kg N
per ha in rabi and summer, respectively. Whereas, increase in number of branches (34.7 and
34.2) and leaves (343 and 327) was recorded at 100 kg N per ha in rabi and summer
respectively in gaillardia.
De and Dhimon (1998) reported maximum plant height (65 cm) with combined
application of 200 kg N and 400 kg K2O per ha when compared to control (33 cm) in
chrysanthemum. Similarly, in gaillardia the application of 30 g of nitrogen per square metre
recorded significantly maximum plant height of 80.8 cm over the lower doses of nitrogen
(Mishra, 1998).
Ravindra (1998) reported that all the growth parameters like plant height, number of
leaves, stem diameter etc., were influenced by nitrogen and phosphorus application, but the
effect of potassium was minimum in china aster.
Agarwal et al. (2002) obtained significantly maximum plant height (69.6 cm) and
number of branches (21.9) with application of 200 kg N per ha, compared to control (52.5 cm
and 12.8 respectively) in marigold.
Doddagoudar (2002) reported maximum plant height (47.3 cm), number of branches
(9.13) and leaves (42.7) per plant and maximum dry weight (34.25 g) with application of
240:180:80 kg NPK per ha in china aster.
Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) observed significantly increased plant height (97.89
cm) and number of branches (34.00) per plant with the application of higher dose of nitrogen
(150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum.
Kumar et al. (2003) reported that plant height (34.80 cm) and number of branches
(4.43) increased significantly with nitrogen of 300 kg per ha as compared to 26.34 cm plant
height and 3.3 branches in control without any nitrogen application. Similarly, phosphorus
increased the plant height and number of branches, wherein plants receiving higher dose of
phosphorus in china aster.
Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported that application of 200 kg per ha each of
nitrogen and phosphorus produced maximum plant height (95.92 cm), plant spread (49.31
cm) and branches (14.2) when compared to other levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and control
in African marigold. Similarly, Saud and Ramachandra (2004) reported that higher dose of
fertilizer (150:150:150 kg NPK/ha) resulted in maximum number of primary and secondary
branches in French marigold.
Gnyandev (2006) reported increased plant height (49.52 cm), number of branches
(11.66) and leaves (40.61) per plant with the application of higher dose of fertilizer
(270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.
Ajay and Vijay (2007) recorded significant increase in number of leaves per plant
(36.71), number of branches per plant (11.24) with the application of higher dose of nitrogen
(100 kg) in calendula compared to control (27.17 and 9.54, respectively).
Gaurav and Prabhakar (2007) noticed increased number of corms per plant (1.75),
number of cormels per plant (19.66) with higher fertilizer level (50:25:25 NPK kg/ha) in
gladiolus cv. White Friendship.
Channabasavanna et al. (2008) reported in ajowan maximum seed yield per ha (477
kg) with the application of 60:30:30 kg NPK per ha in ajowan.
Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (58.10 cm), number of
branches (7.90), dry matter production (18.96 g) per plant with the application of higher dose
of 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha in lablab bean.
2.2.3
Flowering, seed yield and yield components
Venkatesh (1983) recorded significantly higher number of flowers in china aster with
the application of 100:60:60 kg NPK per ha and he could not observe any influence of
fertilizers on flower diameter, however he obtained increased dry weight of flowers only with
potash levels.
Dongre (1984) reported that application of 40 g of N and 40 g of P2O5 per square
metre gave maximum number of flowers per plant and seed yield per plant in marigold.
Jayanthi and Gowda (1988) in chrysanthemum reported that flower diameter and
flower yield were increased significantly with the application of 300:400:200 kg NPK/ha.
While, Mantur (1988) obtained higher number of flowers per plant (36.85), flower yield (83.92
g/plant), large size flowers (5.78 cm) and higher seed yield per plant (6.72 g) with the
application of 180:120:100 kg NPK per ha in china aster.
According to Anuradha et al. (1990) the number of days taken to 50 per cent
flowering was reduced with increased levels of N and P2O5 (each from 0 to 90 kg N and
P2O5/ha) in marigold.
On the contrary, Sharanabasappa (1990) reported that application of higher dose of
N and P2O5 at 150 and 100 kg per ha, respectively delayed days to first flowering by 6 days
and 50 per cent flowering by 7.37 days over the control in everlasting flower.
Jana and Pal (1991) reported that nitrogen and phosphorus treatment showed
maximum reduction in flowers and seed yield in cosmos and maximum flowers and seed yield
obtained with combined application of 20 g N, 10 g P and 10 g K per m2.
Yadav and Bose (1993) stated that application of 300:100 kg N and P2O5 per ha
significantly increased the seed yield in marigold but further increase in nitrogen (400 kg) and
phosphorus (400 kg) levels reduced the seed yield. While, in gaillardia, the application of 75
kg nitrogen per ha significantly increased the number of flowers per plant, ten flower weight
and seed yield except breadth of flower (Hugar, 1997). He further reported that the increase
in N level to 125 kg per ha did not affect the flower and seed yield as compared to 75 kg per
ha.
De and Dhimon (1998) reported in chrysanthemum that number of flowers per plant
were maximum (32) with the combination of 600 kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha followed by 400
kg N and 200 kg K2O per ha.
Ravindra (1998) reported in china aster, that the time taken for flowering increased
with the application of nitrogen. While, phosphorus reduced the time taken for flowering.
Flowering duration was increased with increased nitrogen and phosphorus application. While,
potassium had no influence on both flowering time and duration of flowering. The flower yield
was maximum with the application of 200:100:100 kg NPK per ha.
Rupinder Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) noticed that the number of flowers per
plant (65.42) and seed yield per plant (0.59 g) were significantly influenced by the application
of N and P and was maximum in 30 g of N and 20 g of P2O5 per square metre in pansy.
Whereas, Yadav et al. (1998) concluded that application of 80 kg nitrogen per ha significantly
increased the diameter of head, 1000 seed weight and seed yield over 40 and 60 kg N per ha
in sunflower.
According to Shivakumar (2000), application of 315:84:84 kg NPK per ha significantly
increased the number of capitula harvested per plant (25.2), number of seeds per capitula
(216), seed yield per plant (7.88 g) and per ha (437 kg). 1000 seed weight did not differ
significantly although it was higher in higher fertilizer level (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold.
Singh and Sangama (2000) reported in china aster, significant increase in length of
flower stalk (27.27 cm) and number of flowers per plant (35.22) with higher levels of N (300
kg/ha), but the number of days taken for 100 per cent flowering, diameter of flower and weight
of 5 flowers were not significantly influenced by graded levels of nitrogen.
Doddagoudar (2002) recorded more number of capitula per plant (24.2), higher
weight of capitula (1.77 g), larger diameter of capitula (5.10 cm), higher seed weight per
capitula (0.33 g), filled seed weight per capitula (0.26 g), filled seed percentage (78.7), 1000
seed weight (1.86 g) and harvest index (16.5) with the application of 240:180:80 kg NPK per
ha in china aster.
Significantly higher flower yield (35786.92 kg/ha) was recorded with the application of
higher nitrogen level (150 kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum (Karavadia and Dhaduk, 2002).
While, Mohanty et al. (2002) noticed in marigold that the days required for flowering was
prolonged from 68.03 days in (control) to 71.29 days with application of nitrogen (30 g/m2).
Further, more number of flowers and highest yield of flower was obtained with 30 g N per sq.
m.
Kumar et al. (2003) reported in china aster maximum number of flowers per plant
(35.22), flower diameter (5.13 cm) and flowering duration (37.45 days) with higher dose of
nitrogen 300 kg per ha followed by 250 kg per ha and plants receiving higher dose of
phosphorus took less time to produce first flower bud (54.05 days) as compared to other
levels of fertilizer.
Maximum flower production in chrysanthemum cv. Jayanthi could be assured with the
application of 20 g N and 16 g K per plot. It may be more advantageous when
chrysanthemum plants were pinched at 20 days after transplanting (Singh and Baboo, 2003).
Singh and Baboo (2003) reported in marigold that application nitrogen 375 kg per ha
gave highest flower yield (329.7 q/ha). Such boosting effect might be due to higher
accumulation of carbohydrates in flower heads and increased flower size plants which
received higher dose of phosphorus took less time to first flower appearance (50.2 days) as
compared to control (58.2 days). The higher dose of P (210 kg/ha) also produced maximum
flower yield (317.21 q/ha) than lower levels of phosphorus and control.
Acharya and Dashora (2004) reported in African marigold that application of 200 kg of
N and P fertilizers per ha recorded increased diameter of flower, number of flowers per plant
and flower yield per plant and per ha when compared to other levels of N and P.
Gnyandev (2006) noticed more number of days to 50 per cent flowering (90.26),
increased number of flowers per plant (32.15), flower diameter (5.09 cm), number of seeds
per flower (68.73), seed yield per plant (4.75 g) and seed yield per ha (342.23 kg) with the
application of higher fertilizer level (270:180:150 kg NPK/ha) in china aster.
Ajay and Vijay (2007) noticed longer days for bud initiation (54.30), days to first bud
opening (76.00) and increased flower diameter (5.08 cm), number of flowers per plant
(93.17), flower yield (850.17 g/m2) and flower yield (85.01 q/ ha) with the application of higher
dose of nitrogen (100 kg/ha) in calendula.
Ramesh Naik et al. (2008) stated that the application of higher dose of fertilizer, 150
percent of RDF resulted in significant increase in number of capitula per plant (46.66), seed
weight per plant (55.06 g), seed yield per ha (13.70 q) and stalk yield (23.63 q/ha) in
safflower.
Singh et al. (2008) reported maximum flower bud diameter (2.91 cm), flower width
(4.73 cm), number of bulbs per plant (1.49), weight of bulbs per plant (68.73 g), bulb diameter
(5.37 cm), number of bulblets per plant (1.87) and weight of bulblets (2.50 g) with the
application of higher dose of nitrogen 250 kg per ha in Asiatic hybrid lily cv. Novecento.
Srikanth et al. (2008) recorded longer days to flower initiation (45.45), days to 50 per
cent flowering (48.36), days to pod initiation (51.00), days to crop maturity (84.75), and
increased harvest index (43.56), number of pods per plant (22.50), pod yield per plant (23.68
g), pod yield per ha (22.23 q), seed yield per plant (19.95 g) and seed yield per ha (18.50 q) in
lablab bean with the application of higher levels of fertilizer 33:67:33 kg NPK per ha.
Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in number of fruits per vine
(2.18), number of seeds per fruit (384), seed yield per fruit (36.40 g), seed yield per vine
(81.11 g), seed yield per plot (1603.0 g) and seed yield per ha (471 kg) with higher dose of
fertilizer 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.

Maheshwarappa et al. (1985) reported an increase in 100 seed weight and
germination percentage with increased level of nitrogen and phosphorus in sunflower up to
120 and 90 kg/ha, respectively.
Mantur (1988) noticed an increase in germination percentage, root length and shoot
length and vigour index with increase in NPK up to 180:120:100 kg/ha in china aster.
Hugar (1997) recorded higher germination percentage, root length, shoot length and
vigour index in gaillardia with 100 kg nitrogen per ha.
Devidaya and Agarwal (1998) noticed significant improvement in 1000 seed weight
with the application of N and P2O5 (up to 120 and 60 kg/ha, respectively) in sunflower.
Shivakumar (2000) reported that seed quality parameters like root length, shoot
length and seedling dry weight except germination percentage and vigour index were not
influenced by different fertilizer levels. However, all these parameters recorded higher values
at higher fertilizer doses (315:84:84 kg NPK/ha) in marigold.
Higher germination percentage (90.4), shoot length (3.54 cm), root length (1.40 cm),
speed of germination (36.6), seedling dry weight (115.9 mg) and seedling vigour index (1449)
were recorded with the application of 240:180:180 kg NPK per ha in china aster
(Doddagoudar et al., 2004).
Gnyandev (2006) reported increase an in 1000 seed weight (2.14 g), germination
percentage (88.90), seedling length (4.74 cm), vigour index (421), seedling dry weight (17.32
-1
cm) and lower electrical conductivity (1.47 dSm ) with the application of higher dose of
fertilizer 270:180:150 kg NPK per ha in china aster.
Manjunath et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in 100 seed weight (8.78 g),
seed germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (88.80) with the
application of 150:60:60 kg NPK per ha in pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.
2.3
Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering,

seed yield and quality
2.3.1 Gibberellic acid

Gibberellins are the most widely used plant growth substances in horticulture. These
are made up of diterpenoid acid, that function as plant growth regulators influencing a range
of developmental processes in plants life like stem elongation, germination, breaking
dormancy, flowering, sex expression, enzyme induction and leaf and fruit senescence.
Gibberellins are characterized by gibbane carbon skeleton and based on the substitution of
gibbane carbon skeleton more than 100 gibberellins are available at present. The most
commonly used one is GA3. Kohl and Kofranek (1957) were among the first to investigate the
possible use of GA3 in flowering crops.
2.3.2
Growth
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum plant height (46.39 and 58.93 cm)
and more number of branches (14.13 and 13.77) compared to control (36.90 and 37.90 cm
and 6.06 and 6.80, respectively) in marigold and china aster (Lal and Mishra, 1986). Similarly,
spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum height and more number of branches
compared to control in chrysanthemum (Nagarjuna et al., 1988).
Syamal et al. (1990) noticed maximum height, number of leaves and number of
branches in the plants treated with GA3 at 200 ppm as compared to control in marigold and
china aster.
GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in maximum plant height (53.87 cm) and more number of
leaves per plant (6.33) compared to control (44.90 cm and 4.67, respectively) in gladiolus
(Leena Ravidas et al., 1992). Similarly, Das and Das (1992) observed significant increase in
plant height (69.30 cm) and number of leaves (26.00) compared to control (45 cm and 18,
respectively) with 200 ppm of GA3 spray in Hemerocallis aurantiaca (Day lily).
Goyal and Gupta (1996) observed increased plant height (91.63 cm) and more
number of shoots per plant (14.62) in rose with GA3 at 45 ppm spray compared to control
(60.37 cm and 10.50, respectively).
Singh and Bijimol (2001) observed an increase in plant height (35.15 cm) and more
number of leaves per plant (32.83) in tuberose with GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control
(21.87 cm and 18.91, respectively).
Maurya and Nagada (2002) noticed maximum height (104.50 cm) in the plants
treated with GA3 (100 ppm) as compared to control (95.10 cm) in gladiolus cv. Friendship.
GA3 (90 ppm) significantly increased the plant height (69.00 cm) and number of branches per
plant (6.60) compared to control (58.52 cm and 6.10, respectively) in dahlia (Khan and
Tewari, 2003).
Spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm recorded maximum plant spread (31.10 cm) and more
number of leaves (15.19) compared to control (20.00 cm and 11.23, respectively) in gerbera
(Sujatha et al., 2002). Similarly, Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) noticed maximum height (62.00
cm) and number of branches per plant (20.27) in the plants treated with GA3 (200 ppm) as
compared to control (46.77 cm, and 16.57, respectively) in china aster cv. Kamini.
Lone et al. (2005) observed significant increase in plant height (99.42 cm) and more
number of branches per plant (14.96) with the spraying of GA3 (250 ppm) compared to control
(82.08 cm and 9.33, respectively) in chilli cv. K-2.
In gladiolus, Pranav Rana et al. (2005) revealed that GA3 100 ppm spray increased
plant height (119.88 cm) compared to control (115.68 cm). While, Chandrappa et al. (2006)
recorded maximum plant height (46.44 cm) with spraying of GA3 (750 ppm) compared to
control (45.22 cm) in anthurium cv. Royal Red.
Panwar et al. (2006) reported in tuberose that GA3 at 100 ppm resulted in more
number of leaves per plant and increased length of spike. Whereas, significant increase in
plant height (40.13 cm), number of leaves per plant (5.69), leaf length (18.11) and leaf width
(10.43 cm) in anthurium was recorded with foliar application of 500 ppm GA3. (Dhaduk et al.,
2007)
Kishan et al. (2007) recorded an increase in plant height (89.50 cm), and number of
branches per plant (8.75) in winter, (74.33 cm and 13.66) in summer with the application of
GA3 at 300 ppm in African marigold.
Significant increase in plant height at harvest (101.2 cm), number of branches per
plant (14.5) was recorded with foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold (Sunitha,
2006). While, Umrao et al. (2007) reported maximum plant height (97.14 cm), number of
leaves per plant (10.02), leaf length (45.51 cm) and spike diameter (0.989 cm) with the
application of 30 mg per litre of GA3 in gladiolus.
Manjunath et al. (2008)
seeds per fruit (374), seed yield
per plot (1019.00 g) and seed
gibberellin compared to control
pumpkin cv. Arka Chandan.
noticed more number of fruits per plant (1.49), number of

per fruit (34.26 g), seed yield per vine (52.93 g), seed yield
yield per ha (346 kg) with the application of 25 ppm of
(1.29, 327, 28.58 g, 39.40 g, 1556 g and 524 kg/ha) in
Pawar et al. (2008) noticed significant increase in plant height (66.83 cm), plant
spread (2454.50 cm) with foliar application of 200 ppm of GA3 in gaillardia.
Sandeep et al. (2008) recorded increased plant height (22.07 cm), more number of
2
leaves per plant (30.60), number of branches per plant (14.24), leaf area (39.95 cm ) with the
application of GA3 at 200 ppm in Calendula officinalis cv. Red Orange.

Lal and Mishra (1986) in marigold and china aster recorded more number of flowers
(22.87 and 84.80) with 200 ppm GA3 spray compared to control (15.63 and 16.30,
respectively).
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm (Nagarjuna et al., 1988) or twice at 100 ppm (Koriesh et
al., 1989) induced early flowering, increased size of the flowers, fresh weight and dry weight
of flowers in chrysanthemum.
Induction of early flowering (85.36 days) and increased number of flowers (56.00),
flower yield per plant (574.55 g) and test weight of seed (2.41 g) was noticed with the
application of GA3 500 ppm compared to control (91.45 days, 27.67, 274.84 g / plant and 2.12
g, respectively) by Singh et al. (1991) in African marigold.
Leena Ravidas et al. (1992) reported that GA3 at 50 ppm gave maximum number of
florets (16.0) per spike, weight of corm (35.61 g) and weight of cormels (13.48 g) compared to
GA3 at 100 ppm (35.68 g and 12.12 g, respectively) in gladiolus cv. Friendship. While, Goyal
and Gupta (1996) noticed that GA3 at 45 ppm increased the number of flowers (18.00) and
flower yield (249.29 g) per plant compared to control (16.00 and 160.91 g, respectively) in
rose.
Singh and Bijimol (2001) reported that spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm took less number
of days for sprouting (11.50 days) and significantly increased the number of florets per spike
(41.66) and weight of florets per plant (55.40 g) compared to GA3 100 ppm (9.30 days, 39.91
and 46.45 g, respectively) in tuberose.
Maurya and Nagda (2002) noticed that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm increased the
number of corms per plant (1.87), weight of corms per plant (78.70 g) and weight of corms per
bed (1.60 kg) in gladiolus cv. Friendship compared to control (1.20, 53.30 g and 0.95 kg/bed,
respectively).
Spraying of GA3 at 150 ppm recorded more number of flowers per plant (18.63) and
diameter of flower head (7.53 cm) compared to control (13.79/plant and 6.93, respectively) in
gerbera (Sujatha et al., 2002). While, Khan and Tewari (2003) recorded more number of
flowers per plant (15.80) with GA3 at 90 ppm compared to control (13.37) in dahlia.
In China aster cv. Kamini, Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) noticed that spraying of GA3
200 ppm gave maximum number of flowers per plant (67.33), flower weight (2.86 g) and
flower yield (192.59 g) compared to GA3 at 100 ppm (65.67, 2.81 g and 184.51 g.
respectively).
Pranav Rana et al. (2005) reported that spraying of GA3 at 100 ppm significantly
increased the number of florets per spike (14.29), number of corms per plant (1.66) and corm
weight (50.80 g) compared to control (12.87, 1.45 and 49.07 g, respectively) in gladiolus.
Baskaran and Misra (2007) observed early induction of flowering in gladiolus with the
application of 500 ppm GA3 followed by 100 ppm.
Dhaduk et al. (2007) in anthurium reported increased number of flowers per plant
(3.93), stalk length (8.53 cm) and spathe length (9.09 cm) with foliar application of 500 pppm
of GA3. Whereas, Devadanam et al. (2007) observed minimum number of days required for
spike emergence (43.48) maximum spike length (87.20 cm), spike girth (2.84 cm), rachis
length (21.37), floret length (6.56 cm) and floret diameter (3.88 cm) with foliar spray of GA3 at
150 ppm in tuberose.
Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) recorded minimum days to bud initiation (70.75 cm),
days to first flowering (91.50),increased number of flowers per plant (23.25), fresh weight of
single flower (6.92 g), yield of flowers per plant (433 g), number of seed per flower (297.50)
and 247.00) and seed yield per plant (23.50 g) in winter and (80.66 cm, 103.66, 62.66, 6.06 g,
286.66 g and 1.22 g, respectively) in summer with the application of GA3 at 300 ppm in
African marigold.
Samruban and Karuppaiah et al. (2007) noticed early days to 50 per cent flowering
(82.60) and increased number of flowers per plant (25.51) and diameter (2.24 cm) with the
application of 50 ppm GA3 in French marigold. While, Sunitha et al. (2006) recorded
significantly less number of days to 50 per cent flowering (50.3), more number of flower
(68.7), seed yield per plant (20.6 g) and seed yield per ha (531 kg) with foliar application of
GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.
Umrao et al. (2007) reported maximum corm diameter (5.28 cm) and weight per corm
(22.69 g) with the application of 300 mg per litre of GA3. Further, he reported 400 mg per litre
gave highest number of florets per spike (14.20) and number of corms (1.20) per plant.
Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) noticed increased germination percentage (90.75) and
vigour index (660) in china aster by spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to GA3 at 100 ppm
(87.50% and 552, respectively).
Doddagoudar et al. (2004) recorded maximum germination percentage (93.00), shoot
length (3.77 cm) root length (1.56 cm). Seedling vigour index (496) and seedling dry weight
(18.00 mg) with spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm compared to control (87.50%, 3.15cm, 1.27 cm,
388 and 12.80 mg, respectively) in china aster.
Spraying of GA3 200 ppm to bell pepper cv. California Wonder, recorded higher
germination percentage (91.05), root length (5.55 cm), shoot length (7.50 cm) seedling dry
weight (53.50 mg) and seedling vigour index (1174) compared to control (8 1.50%, 4.27 cm,
5.75 cm, 42.85 mg and 518, respectively) (Yogananda et al., 2004).
Sunitha (2006) recorded significantly higher seed quality parameters such as 1000
seed weight (3.3 g), germination percentage (90.1), root length (6.3 cm), shoot length (5.4
cm), seedling dry weight (11.4 mg), vigour index (1059) and field emergence (77.1 %) with
foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm in marigold.
In ridge gourd, Hilli et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (13.88 g), seed
germination percentage (93.22) and field emergence percentage (83.95) vigour index (3026),
-1
seedling dry weight (83.55 mg) and lower electrical conductivity (0.801 dSm ) in summer
and (11.70 g, 87.37%, 84.00% 3026, 82.48 mg and 0.814, respectively) in kharif with foliar
application of 350 ppm of GA3.
Manjunatha et al. (2008) recorded increased 100 seed weight (8.72 g), seed
germination percentage (92.00) and field emergence percentage (87.40) with foliar
application of 25 ppm of gibberellin in pumpkin cv. Arka chandan.
2.4
Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering and seed

yield and quality parameters
2.4.1 Tricontanol
Tricontanol (TRIA), a 30-carbon primary alcohol, was first identified by Chibnall et al.
(1933) in lucerne as a natural component of plants, and verified this early by mass
spectroscopy. Later it was observed to increase the growth of plants following application as
side dressing. The plant growth regulating activity of TRIA extracted from alfalfa was first
discovered in 1977. TRIA is synthesized by plants and is a component of most biological
material. Exogenous application of TRIA regulates several physiological and biological
processes and is known to increase yield of crops (Stanley and Robert, 1983).
2.4.2 Growth
Pandita et al. (1991) noticed maximum plant height at harvest with two foliar sprays
of 1.25 ppm vipul (tricontanol 0.1%) in rainy season and three foliar sprays of 2.5 ppm in the
summer season in okra. While, Ray (1991) reported relative increase in growth rate, leaf area
and leaf area index with the application of tricontanol at 0.3 to 3.0 mg per litre compared to
control in capsicum.
Sharma (1995) noticed increased plant height and number of branches with foliar
spray of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan over control in tomato.
Miniraj and Sanmugavelu (1987) in chilli recorded significantly more number of
branches (13.75), number of leaves (850.63) per plant with foliar application of 2 ppm of
tricontanol. While, Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported an increase in plant height and
number of branches with the foliar application of tricontanol 1ml/2l over control in mustard.
Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased plant height (84.26 cm), and number of
leaves per plant (42.11) with the foliar application of miraculan 2000 ppm over control (81.66
cm and 36.03, respectively) in onion cv. Nasik Red.
Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) recorded highest number of branches per plant (14.2) with
the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%) in tomato. Whereas, Karuppaiah et
al. (2007) in radish recorded increased plant height, number of branches and leaf area with
the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol.
Satao et al. (2007) reported increased plant height and number of leaves by spraying
four times (35, 50, 65 and 80 days) after sowing with 0.8 ml per litre of miraculan in okra.

Significantly more number of fruits per plant and yield was obtained by spraying
-6
tomato plants with tricontanol at 2.3 x 10 M (Eriksen et al., 1982).
Gunasekaran and Shanmugavel (1983) reported highest yield (1230.3 g/plant) with
tricontanol at 1 ppm applied at 15 days after transplanting and at flowering in tomato. While,
Zheng et al. (1986) reported foliar spray in beans with 10 ppm of tricontanol increased yield
by 10 per cent over the control.
Gaur et al. (1987) reported highest yield in safflower with application of miraculan at
500 ppm and 25 kg phosphorus per ha. Whereas, Parmil Singh et al. (1990) recorded
increased seed and oil yield in sunflower with the application of 2 mg per ml of tricontanol.
Significantly higher leaf yield was recorded with the application of tricontanol (2.5-10
ppm) compared to control in spinach. He further reported highest leaf yield was with 5 ppm of
tricontanol (Kadam et al., 1988).
Ray (1991) reported higher dry matter accumulation and better yields in plants
treated with 0.5 to 1.0 mg tricontanol in capsicum. While, Yadav et al. (1992) reported
increased pod yield with the application of 0.2 percent miraculan compared with that of
untreated control in pea.
Sharma (1995) reported increased number of fruits, yield of fruits and seed per ha
with the application of 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10 ppm of miraculan compared to control. He further
reported that spraying at four weeks after transplanting with 75 pm was most effective in
enhancing fruit and seed yield per ha compared to 8 and 12 weeks after transplanting in
tomato.
Miniraj and Shanmugavelu (1997) in chilli recorded early days taken for first flowering
(70.9), increased number of flowers (499.1) per plant, single plant yield (80.25 g), yield per ha
(4.45 q) with foliar application of 2ppm of tricontanol.
Muralidharan et al. (2000) recorded significant number of fruits per plant (37),
individual fruit weight (41.6 g), fruit volume (32.6 cm3) and fruit firmness (1.79 mm) with the
application of vipul 0.01 % (tricontanol) 300 ml ha-1 in tomato.
Arvinda kumar et al. (2002) reported increased number of siliqua per plant, length of
siliqua, number of seeds per siliqua, 1000 seed weight and seed yield with the application of
1ml/l of tricontanol over control in mustard.
Muralidharan et al. (2002) reported higher pod yield with the application of 0.1%
miraculan and 0.05 % miraculan at 200, 250 and 300 ml per hectare over control. He further
recorded highest dry pod yield (3.22 t/ha) with 300 ml of miraculan 0.1% in chilli.
Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded minimum days to 50 per cent flowering (82.22),
increased number of umbels per plant (4.56), umbel diameter (4.28 cm), seed weight per
umbel (3.07 g), seed yield per plant (16.73 g) and seed yield per ha (12.69 q) with the
application of 2000 ppm miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red. While, Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) in
tomato reported increased number of fruits per plant (94.67), early and total yield per plant
(0.480 and 3.2 kg) with the application of 0.75 ml vipul per litre (tricontanol 0.1%).
Sharma et al. (2005) reported tricontanol spray (1.25 ppm) at 15, 30 and 40 DAT
significantly increased number of flowers per plant (118.2), size of flowers (8.9 cm), weight of
flowers per plant (739.0 g) and flower yield per ha (36.5 q) in African marigold.
Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in his studies on growth regulators in radish reported
increased tuber length and tuber yield with the application of 10 ppm of tricontanol. Whereas,
Tripathi et al. (2007) recorded increased number of flowers per plant, percent pod setting per
plant, 1000 seed weight, seed yield per ha, harvest index and productivity with the application
of 5 ppm miraculan in chickpea over control.
Samui and Roy (2007) reported that application of tricontanol 0.05% EC and
tricontanol 0.1% EC at 0.250, 0.500 and 1.000 g a.i. per ha foliar spray significantly increased
dry matter production, tuber bulking rate, size of tubers and yield in potato.
Satao et al. (2007) reported an increase in number of flowers, number of pods and
green pod yield with the application of miraculan at 0.8 ml per litre sprayed four times (35, 50,
65 and 80 days) after sowing in okra.

Shaikh et al. (2002) recorded increased 1000 seed weight (3.85 g), seed germination
percentage (84.1) and seedling vigour index (983) with the application of 2000 ppm of
miraculan in onion cv. Nasik Red.
2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

quality
Cycocel is chemically termed as (2-Chloro ethyl) trimethyl ammonium chloride. In
1960, a new group of quaternary ammonium compounds were reported, the most active of
these was designated as CCC, an analog of choline, in that hydroxyl group in choline was
replaced with a chlorine substitute. Its trival name chloro choline chloride abbreviated as
CCC. The chemical acts as growth retardant in large number of species than any of the
earlier compounds.
2.5.1 Growth
Shanmugam and Muthuswamy (1974) reported marked suppression of plant growth
at all concentrations (500, 1000 and 2000 ppm) of CCC in chrysanthemum compared to
control.
Sen and Naik (1977) noticed marked reduction in plant height over control with foliar
spray of cycocel (1000 ppm) in both pinched and unpinched Chrysanthemum morifolium cv.
Early white.
Narayanagowda and Jayanthi (1991) reported in marigold that foliar spray of cycocel
successfully reduced the plant height at all concentrations (1000, 1500 and 2000 ppm),
increased the number of branches at pre blooming stage and post blooming stage in first and
second season, respectively.
Shreedhar (1993) in his studies on gaillardia noticed higher number of branches,
leaves and dry matter production and reduced plant height with CCC (2000 ppm) as
compared to CCC (3000 ppm).
Aswath et al. (1994) noticed decreased plant height, branch length and internodal
length with increase in concentrations of cycocel in china aster. Maximum number of
branches and leaves were recorded in CCC at 1500 ppm.
Spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) on gaillardia significantly increased the number of
branches, leaves, leaf area index and total dry matter production compared to control (Hugar,
1997).
Khandelwal et al. (2003) reported that spraying of 1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm of CCC
significantly reduced the plant height, but increased the number of branches and leaves at all
concentrations compared to control in African marigold. While, Singh (2004) reported that
CCC at 2000 ppm exhibited maximum number of leaves and secondary shoots and
significantly reduced plant height in rose.
Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondary
branches, number of leaves per plant, leaf area and plant spread was recorded with foliar
spray of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm in French marigold. Further, reported 500 ppm was
superior over all other treatments (Samruban and Karuppaiah, 2007).
Pawar et al. (2008) recorded reduction in plant height, increased number of branches
and plant spread with foliar application of cycocel at (750, 1000 and 1250 ppm, respectively)
in gaillardia cv. Picta Mixed.
2.5.2
Flowering, seed yield and yield components
Parmar and Singh (1983) in marigold noticed more flowers per plant and flower yield
with foliar spray of CCC at 500 and 750 ppm of spray respectively compared to control. While,
Narayanagouda (1985) reported in china aster that application of CCC (1000 ppm) increased
the number of days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flower per plant and flower yield
compared to control.
In china aster, maximum number of flowers per plant and yield of flowers per plant
was recorded with CCC at 2000 ppm. Whereas, minimum yield and maximum peduncle
length was recorded in control (Narayanagouda, 1985).
Aswath et al. (1994) reported that application of cycocel (1000 ppm) delayed the
flower bud appearance by 12.40 days. Higher number of flowers per plant was obtained due
to the spray of 1500 ppm cycocel followed by alar (1500 ppm) in china aster.
Narayangouda et al. (1996) reported that cycocel treated plants of Gundu Mallige
flowered early with longer duration of flowering and increase in number and flower yield
(120.59) per plant.
Hugar (1997) reported that spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) to gaillardia plants
significantly increased the days to 50 per cent flowering, number of flowers per plant, seed
yield per plant, seed recovery percentage, 1000 seed weight, but decreased capitulum
diameter compared to control.
Khandelwal et al. (2003) observed significantly increased number of flowers, number
of days to first flowering and decreased diameter of flowers with increasing concentration of
CCC (1000, 2000 and 3000 ppm) compared to control. Similarly, Singh (2004) reported in
rose that CCC (2000 ppm) recorded maximum diameter of flower, early induction of flower
bud and flowering compared to CCC (1000 ppm).
Significantly more number of flowers per plant (32.43 and 30.17 cm), increased
diameter of head (3.46 and 3.30 cm) and stalk length (8.2 and 8.28 cm) was recorded in
French marigold with foliar application of cycocel at 500 and 250 ppm (Samruban and
Karuppaiah, 2008).
Pawar et al. (2008) recorded significant increase in diameter of flower, highest
diameter and yield of flower per hectare with the application of cycocel at 750, 1000 and 1250
ppm, respectively. He further reported that 1000 ppm was significantly superior over all
treatments in gaillardia.

Mantur (1988) reported that germination percentage, vigour index, shoot and root
length of seedling were significantly increased by spraying of CCC at 1000 ppm compared to
control in china aster.
Significantly higher 1000 seed weight, seed germination percentage and seedling
vigour index with spraying of CCC (1000 ppm) was noticed in gaillardia compared to other
treatments and control (Hugar, 1997).
Akkannavar (2001) reported higher germination percentage, root length and shoot
length, speed of germination, seedling dry weight, seedling vigour index with spraying of CCC
(500 ppm) compared to control.
2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering,

seed yield and quality
Mepiquat chloride (1,1 Dimethyl piperidinium chloride, DPC), a growth regulator known
to suppress vegetative growth in cotton (Cothren, 1979). Mepiquat chloride is relatively a new
chemical and the literature available on the effect of this chemical is very scanty.
2.6.1 Growth
Mepiquat chloride sprayed at first bloom stage in cotton increased the photosynthesis
and there by increased the dry matter production (Walter et al., 1980). A decrease in plant
height was observed by Mc Connel et al. (1992) with foliar application of mepiquat chloride
four times in cotton.
Madalageri and Ganiger (1993) recorded reduced plant height (48.9 to 47.3cm) with
the application of mepiquat chloride at 100 to 125 ppm than untreated control (59.5cm) in
potato. Such reduction in plant height with the spraying of mepiquat chloride was also noticed
in potato (Gasti. 1994) and in true potato (Madalageri, 1996).
Rajesh (1995) observed significant increase in number of branches (18.73) and
number of leaves per plant (219.12) and decreased plant height (39.12 cm) with 500 ppm
foliar spray of mepiquat chloride compared to control (10.13, 118.03 and 4265 cm.
respectively) in calendula. Whereas, El-Shahawy (2000) reported reduced plant height, with
the application of 50 g a.i. per litre of mepiquat chloride in cotton.
Foliar spray of mepiquat chloride at 100 and 200 mg per ml during vegetative and
flowering stage improved the number of branches, leaves and leaf area index, while spray
during the podding stage did not significantly affect these parameters in groundnut
(Amandeep et al., 2004).
Rao et al. (2005) reported that the application of 50 ppm mepiquat chloride resulted in
higher flowers setting, 100 seed weight, seed yield, biomass at harvest, harvest index and
lowest number of abortive flowers in chickpea.
Significant reduction in plant height, increased number of primary and secondary
branches were recorded with the application of mepiquat chloride (300, 200 and 100 ppm) in
mustard (Parminder Kaur and Sidhu, 2007).

Significantly higher number and yield of tubers was obtained in TPS transplants and
in tuber planted potato with the spraying of mepiquat chloride (Gasti, 1994).
Rajesh (1995) recorded significantly more number of flowers per plant (23.17) with
spraying of mepiquat chloride at 500 ppm compared to control (18.49) in clendula.
Seed yield, seed weight per plant and harvest index were significantly higher with
spraying of mepiquat chloride in safflower, but the number of capitula per plant, number of
seeds per capitulum and test weight were not affected (Kareekatti, 1996).
Madalgeri (1996) reported that weight of tubers per plant was significantly higher in
the plants treated with mepiquat chloride at 500 ppm compared to control.
Channakeshava et al. (1999) recorded increased cob length (19.14 cm), cob
diameter (15.28 cm), number of seeds per cob (326.2), 100 seed weight (39.28 g) and seed
yield per ha (55.56 q) with the application of 150 ppm of mepiquat chloride in African tall
fodder maize.
Significantly increased number of pods per plant, 100 seed weight and seed yield per
plant in seed rape with the application of 200 or 400 ppm of mepiquat chloride compared to
untreated plants (Mekki and El-Kholy, 1999).
El-Shahawy (2000) reported increased number of monopodia, sympodia, unopened
bolls per plant and seed yield with the application of mepiquat chloride 50 a.i. per litre in
cotton.
Brar et al. (2002) reported that the application of mepiquat chloride in cotton reported
two sprays of mepiquat chloride at 100 and 150 ppm increased seed cotton yield by 38.41 per
cent over the control, while a single spray at high concentration (200 and 250 ppm) increased
seed cotton yield by 37.39 per cent over the control.
Doddagoudar et al. (2002) in china aster recorded that spraying of 500 mepiquat
chloride resulted in higher seed yield as compared to control.
Bagewadi et al. (2003) reported highest mean number of pods per plant (38.58),
number of filled pods per plant (33.36), 100 pod weight (109.08 g), pod yield per plot (1.51/kg)
and total pod yield (2533.32 kg/ha) with the application of mepiquat chloride (2 ml/l) in
groundnut.
Neelima et al. (2005) reported significant increase in number of flowers per plant
(227.89), number of pods per plant (104.20), pod setting percentage (45.94) and number of
seeds per pod (2.270), with the foliar application of 200 mg/l of mepiquat chloride. He further
recorded higher 100 seed weight (11.491 g), seed weight per plant (26.04 g) and yield per
plot (4.375 kg) with 100 mg/l of mepiquat chloride in soybean.
Rao et al. (2005) reported higher flower setting, 100 seed weight, biomass at harvest,
seed yield and harvest index and lowest number of aborted flowers with the application of 50
ppm of mepiquat chloride in chickpea.
Significantly greater seed yield was recorded with the application of 50 and 25 g a.i.
per ha of mepiquat chloride in common vetch (Tan and Temel, 2005).
Significant increase in seed yield of pea was reported with the application of mepiquat
chloride at 25 g a.i. per ha (Elkoca and Kantar, 2006).
Mahadevmurthy and Nagarathna (2008) recorded maximum tuber yield per square
metre (4.5 kg) with foliar application of mepiquat chloride at 300 ppm sprayed at 45 and 60
days after sowing in potato.
3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

A field experiment was conducted to study the Influence of spacing, fertilizer and
growth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum
coronarium L.) under rainfed condition during kharif, 2008-2009 at the Main Agricultural
Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad. The details of the material
used and experimental techniques adopted during the course of investigation are presented
in this chapter.
3.1
General description
3.1.1 Location of the experiment

The field experiment was conducted in the E block of Main Agricultural Research
Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, which comes under northern
transitional tract (Zone VIII) of Karnataka State and is situated at 150 26 North latitude and
760 07 East longitude and at an altitude of 678 m above mean sea level.
3.1.2 Soil
The experiment was conducted in black soil. The physical and chemical composition
of soil in the experimental field is presented in Table 1.
3.1.3 Climate
The data on weather parameters such as rainfall (mm), mean maximum and
o
minimum temperature ( C) and relative humidity (%) recorded at Meteorological Observatory,
Main Agricultural Research Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during the
experimental year (2008-09) and the mean of the last 58 years (1950-2008) are presented in
Table 2.
The mean annual rainfall for the past 58 years was 768.4 mm and the maximum
rainfall was received in the month of July (152.4 mm) followed by October (126.9 mm). The
total rainfall during 2008-09 was 844.4 mm and a maximum of 213.2 mm was received in
August. The months of December, January and February did not receive any rainfall during
o
this year. The mean maximum temperature ranged from 35.1 (May) to 26.9 C (August) during
2008. The months of April, May and June were hottest. While the mean maximum
temperature during past 58 years indicated that it was maximum in April (37.3oC) followed by
o
o
May (33.7 C). The minimum temperature ranged from 13.0 (January) to 21.0 C (June) during
2008-09. The average of last 58 years indicated that the mean minimum temperature was
maximum during June (22.4oC) and minimum during December (12.5oC). The relative
humidity ranged from 57.5 (February) to 91.8 per cent (June) during 2008-09, while it ranged
from 51.5 per cent (February) to 87.1 per cent (July) during the last 58 years. The cropping
period prevailed from July 2008 to November 2008. The rainfall was ill distributed with short
dry spells during flowering stage which affected yield to some extent.
3.2
Previous crop at the experimental site
Groundnut was grown in the experimental site during the previous season i.e. rabi
2007-2008.
Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site

Sl. No.
Particulars
Values
I.
Physical properties
1.
Coarse sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)
6.10%
2.
Fine sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)
13.14%
3.
Silt (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)
28.00%
4.
Clay (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)
62.76%
II.
Chemical properties
Available nitrogen (Alkaline permanganate method) (Subbaiah
0.0068%
and Asija, 1956)

Available P2O5 (Olsens method) (Jackson, 1967)
0.007%
Available K2O (Flame photometry method) (Jackson, 1967)
0.016%
III.
pH
7.5
IV.
Electrical conductivity (dS/m)
0.31
Table 2: Monthly meteorological data during crop growth period (2008-09) and the average of 58 years (1950-2008) at Main Agricultural Research
Station, UAS, Dharwad
Temperature (oC)
Rainfall (mm)
Months
Mean maximum
2008-09
Relative humidity (%)

Mean minimum
1950-2008
2008-09
1950-2008
2008-09
1950-2008
2008-09
1950-2008
April 2008
28.8
49.3
34.7
37.3
20.4
19.8
80.4
75.6
May
55.8
80.2
35.1
33.7
20.6
21.3
85.1
66.2
June
101.6
114.2
28.7
28.8
21.0
22.4
91.8
81.1
July
121.0
152.4
28.2
29.1
20.7
21.0
91.3
87.1
August
213.2
98.5
26.9
26.9
20.1
20.0
91.5
86.0
September
162.4
104.9
27.8
28.5
20.0
19.9
91.4
82.1
October
60.4
126.9
30.3
30.0
18.9
18.4
83.5
75.8
November
72.2
33.0
29.3
30.1
15.9
15.9
79.4
68.0
December
0.0
5.2
28.6
29.3
13.8
12.5
75.4
63.2
January 2009
0.0
0.1
29.8
29.6
13.3
14.6
66.6
63.1
February
0.0
1.1
33.2
31.2
16.8
16.3
57.5
51.5
March
29.0
2.3
35.0
32.4
19.9
19.5
73.0
56.0
Total
844.4
768.4
3.3 Experiment I : Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels

on seed yield and quality of annual
chrysanthemum
3.3.1 Treatment details
The field experiment consisted of 9 treatment combinations involving three levels of
spacing and three levels of fertilizer doses. The details are as below.
Factor I : Spacings (S)
S1
: 30 x 30 cm
S2
: 45 x 30 cm
S3
: 60 x 30 cm
Factor II : Fertilizer levels (F)

F1
: 75:112.5:75 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha
F2
: 100:150:100 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha
F3
3.3.2 Treatment combinations

S1F1
S2F1
S3F1
S1F2
S2F2
S3 F 2
S1F3
S2F3
S3 F 3
3.3.3 Design and layout

The experiment was laid out in Randomized Block Design with factorial concept and
replicated thrice. The plan and layout of the experiment is given in Fig. 1.
3.3.4 Plot size

Gross plot size : 3.0 m x 3.0 m
Net plot size
S1 : 2.70 m x 2.70 m
S2 : 2.70 m x 2.55 m
S3 : 2.70 m x 2.40 m
3.4
Seed source
The seeds of annual chrysanthemum were obtained from Floriculture Unit,

Department of Horticulture, UAS, Dharwad.
3.5
Cultural practices
The details of cultural operations carried out during the course of investigation
including the nursery operations are furnished below.
Nursery
General view at three weeks after planting
General view at three weeks at flowering

Plate.1. General view of the experimental plots
Legend
Factor I : Spacings (S)

S1
: 30 x 30 cm
S2
: 45 x 30 cm
S3
: 60 x 30 cm
Factor II : Fertilizer levels (F)

F1
F2
: 100:150:100 kg N, P2O5 and K2O per ha
F3
3.3.2 Treatment combinations

S1F1
S2F1
S3F1
S1F2
S2F2
S3 F 2
S1F3
S2F3
S3 F 3
Fig.1. Plan and layout of the experimental site
3.5.1 Nursery
Raised nursery bed of 6.0 x 1.2 m was prepared and drenched with captan (0.01%)
before sowing the seeds. After sowing carbofuran (3G) granules were sprinkled all along the
sides of the nursery bed. The nursery bed was watered twice for first 10 days and daily once
for the remaining period. Hand weeding was done 10 days after sowing. The seedlings were
ready for transplanting at 20 days after sowing.
3.5.2 Preparation of experimental plot

The experimental plot was brought to a fine tilth by ploughing once and repeated
harrowing. The experimental plot was laidout as per the treatment requirements.
3.5.3 Transplanting
The treatments were allotted randomly in the main experimental plot and 20 days old
seedlings were transplanted with the spacings as in experiment distributed randomly.
Transplanting was done at the rate of one seedling per hill. Light irrigation was given soon
after transplanting.
3.5.4 Fertilizer application

The recommended quantity of N, P2O5 and K2O fertilizers in the form of Urea, Single
super phosphate and Muriate of potash respectively was calculated as per the treatments at
the time of transplanting, half dose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O were applied in circular
band of about 3-4 cm away from each plant. The crop was top dressed with remaining half
dose of nitrogen at 30 days after transplanting.
3.5.5 Inter cultivation

Hand weeding was carried out two weeks after transplanting. Irrigation was given
depending upon the soil moisture status and climatic conditions. Intercultivation was carried
out before top dressing and after 45 days after transplanting.
3.5.6 Plant protection

The plant protection measures were taken up to protect the crop from pests. The
crop was sprayed with Endosulfan 35 EC at the rate of 2 ml per liter of water against hairy
caterpillar at 60 DAT.
3.5.7 Harvesting
Harvesting of capitula for seed purpose was done at 100 DAT. The fully dried flowers
were harvested treatment wise and sun dried for three days. The dried flowers were threshed,
cleaned and filled seeds were separated from chaffy seeds and were used for assessing the
seed yield and seed quality parameters.
3.6
Collection of data
3.6.1 Sampling procedure

The observations on growth parameters were recorded at three stages of plant
growth viz., 30, 60 days after transplanting and at harvest for recording various biometric
observations, five plants at random from net plot area were selected and tagged in each plot.
The observations were made on plant height, number of leaves, leaf area per plant, number
of branches per plant, number of flowers per plant, flower diameter, dry weight of flower,
number of seeds per flower, test weight, seed yield per plant and per hectare.
3.6.2 Observations on growth parameters

3.6.2.1 Plant height
Plant height of five randomly tagged plants were measured at 30, 60 DAT and at
harvest from the ground level to the tip of the plant and average was worked out and
expressed in centimetres.
3.6.2.2 Number of branches per plant
The number of primary branches arising from the main stem of five tagged plants
were counted and recorded at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest.
3.6.2.3 Number of leaves per plant
The number of fully opened leaves were counted from the five tagged plants at 30, 60
DAT and at harvest. The average value was recorded as number of leaves per plant.
3.6.2.4 Leaf area per plant
Leaf area (cm2) was recorded by taking 25 leaves evenly from bottom, middle and top
portion of the plant using leaf area metre (LICOR portable leaf area meter) at 30, 60 DAT and
at harvest.
3.6.3 Observations on flowering, seed yield and yield components

3.6.3.1 Days to 50 per cent flowering
The number of days taken for 50 per cent of the plants to produce first flower in each
plot was recorded by counting the days from the date of transplanting.
3.6.3.2 Flower diameter
The diameter of five randomly selected flowers in each treatment was measured at
the point of maximum breadth. This was measured by using Vernier calliper and average
was worked out and expressed in centimetres.
3.6.3.3 Dry weight of flower
The dry weight of five randomly selected flowers in each treatment was estimated
and expressed in grams.
3.6.3.4 Number of seeds per flower
After separating the filled seeds from five randomly selected flowers from each
treatment, the filled seeds were counted from each flower and average was worked out as
number of seeds per flower.
3.6.3.5 Seed yield per plant and per ha
For the purpose of determination of seed yield per plant, five earlier tagged plants
were harvested separately and seeds were separated, cleaned, weighed and average seed
yield per plant was estimated and expressed in grams. The seed yield per ha was computed
based on the seed yield per plant and expressed in kilograms.

3.6.4.1 Thousand seed weight
One thousand seeds were manually counted from seeds of five plants in each
treatment and 1000 seed weight was recorded and was expressed in grams.
3.6.4.2 Germination percentage

The seeds obtained from different treatments were tested for germination by adopting
0
0
paper towel roll method kept at optimum conditions of temperature (25 C 1 C) and relative
humidity (95 1% RH) in four replications of 100 seeds each (Anonymous, 1996). The
number of normal seedlings was counted at the end of 21 days (final count) and the
germination percentage was calculated.
3.6.4.3 Seedling length
Ten normal seedlings from each of the replication from germination test were
carefully removed on 21st day and used for measuring seedling length. The seedling length
from tip of shoot to tip of root was measured in centimeter and the average length of the
seedling was worked out and expressed in centimetres.
3.6.4.4 Seedling vigour index (SVI)
Seedling vigour index was calculated by using the below mentioned formula as
suggested by Abdul-Baki and Anderson (1973) and expressed in whole number.
Seedling vigour index = Germination (%) x [Root length (cm)+ shoot length (cm)]
3.6.4.5 Seedling dry weight
The ten seedlings that were used for measuring seedling length were kept in butter
0
paper packet and dried in hot air oven maintained at 70 C for 48 hours. Then the seedlings
were cooled in desiccator for one hour before recording the weight. The seedling dry weight
was measured with the electronic balance and was expressed in milligrams.
3.6.4.6 Electrical conductivity of seed
A sample of five gram of seeds from each of the four replications were washed in
acetone for half a minute and later thoroughly washed in distilled water for five minutes. The
seeds were soaked in 25 ml of distilled water and kept in an incubator maintained at 250C +
10C for 24 hours. The seed leachate was collected and volume was made up to 25 ml by
adding distilled water. The electrical conductivity of seed leachate was measured by using the
bridge (ELICO) with a cell constant 1.0 and the leachate values were expressed in desi
Siemens per metre (dSm-1).
3.7
Experiment II : Effect of different growth regulators on

growth, yield and seed quality attributes in
annual chrysanthemum
3.7.1 Treatment details

G0
Control (No spray)
G1
Gibberellic acid (100 ppm)
G2
G3
Tricontanol (500 ppm)
G4
G5
Cycocel (1000 ppm)
G6
Cycocel (2000 ppm)
G7
Mepiquat chloride (1000 ppm)
G8
3.7.2 Design and layout

The field experiment was carried out in a randomized block design having three
replications (Fig. 2).
Gross plot size
: 3.0 x 3.0 m
Net plot size
: 2.55 x 2.70 m
3.7.3 Seed source

The seeds of annual chrysanthemum cv. Local was obtained from Floriculture Unit,
Department of Horticulture, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.
3.8
Cultural operations
The details of cultural operations carried out during the course of investigation
including the nursery operations are furnished as below.
3.8.1 Nursery operation

The nursery operations were attended for this experiment was similar to that of
experiment I and the details are described as earlier under 3.5.1.
3.8.2 Preparation of experimental plot
The preparation of experimental plot attended for this experiment was similar to that
of experiment I and details are described as earlier under 3.5.2.
3.8.3 Transplanting
Twenty days old seedlings were transplanted with 30 x 45 cm spacing. Transplanting
was done at the rate of one seedling per hill, light irrigation was given soon after
transplanting.
3.8.4 Application of fertilizer

A fertilizer dose of 100:150:100 (N:P2O5:K2O kg/ha) was applied in the form of Urea,
Single super phosphate and Muriate of potash respectively. At the time of transplanting, half
dose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O were applied. The crop was top dressed with
remaining half dose of nitrogen at 30 days after transplanting.
3.8.5 Inter cultivation

Intercultural operations were attended for this experiment similar to that of experiment
I and details are described as earlier under 3.5.5.
3.8.6 Preparation of chemical solutions

Gibberellic acid (GA3) 100 ppm : One hundred milligram of GA3 was dissolved in few millilitre
of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 ml of distilled water.
Legend
Growth regulator spray (G)
G0
Control (No spray)
G1
G2
G3
G4
G5
Cycocel (1000 ppm)
G6
Cycocel (2000 ppm)
G7
G8
Fig.2. Plan and layout of the experimental site
Gibberellic acid (GA3) 200 ppm : Two hundred milligram of GA3 was dissolved in few millilitre
of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 ml of distilled water.
Tricontanol (TRIA) 500 ppm: Five hundred milligram was dissolved in few millilitre of distilled
water and the final volume was made up to 1000 millilitre of distilled water.
Tricontanol (TRIA) 1000 ppm: One millilitre was dissolved in few millilitre of distilled water and
the final volume was made up to 1000 millilitre of distilled water.
Chloro-choline chloride (CCC) 1000 ppm: One millilitre of CCC was dissolved in few millilitre
of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 millilitre of distilled water.
Chloro-choline chloride (CCC) 2000 ppm: Two millilitre of CCC was dissolved in few millilitre
of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 mililitre of distilled water.
Mepiquat chloride (MC) 1000 ppm: One millilitre of mepiquat chloride was dissolved in few
millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 mililitre of distilled water.
Mepiquat chloride (MC) 2000 ppm: Two millilitre of mepiquat chloride was dissolved in few
millilitre of alcohol and the final volume was made up to 1000 mililitre of distilled water.
3.8.7 Time of growth regulator spray

The growth regulators were sprayed twice at 30 and 45 days after transplanting
3.8.8 Plant protection

Plant protection measures were carried out as described under section 3.5.6.
3.8.9 Harvesting
The harvesting method used was similar as described under section 3.5.7.
3.8.10 Collection of data

The biometric observations on growth, flowering, seed yield and seed quality
parameters were recorded as described under 3.6.1, 3.6.2, 3.6.3 and to 3.6.4 of experiment
I.
3.9
Net income per hectare and cost benefit ratio
Net income per hectare (Rs. ha-1) for both the experiments was calculated by
considering the prices of inputs that were prevailing at the time of their use were considered
for working out the cost of cultivation (Table.3). Gross return was calculated by multiplying the
-1
price of produce (seeds) with total seed yield produced per hectare. Net returns (Rs. ha )
were calculated by deducing cost of cultivation from gross returns. The cost benefit ratio was
calculated by dividing net returns by total cost of production.
3.10 Statistical analysis

Data collected from both the experiments were analysed statistically by the procedure
described by Sundararajan et al. (1972). The critical differences were calculated at five and
one per cent level were F test was significant. The data on percentage of germination are
transformed into arcsine values (Snedecor and Cochran, 1967). Then the transformed values
were statistically analysed and presented in tables.
Table 3: Prices of inputs
Inputs
Price (Rs.)
1. Seeds
2000 per Kg
2. Urea
500 per q
3. Single super phosphate
480 per q
4. Murate of potash
460 per q
5. Men labour
60 per day
6. Women labour
50 per day
7. Bullock pair
150 per day
8. Endosulphon
280 per litre
9. Gibberellic acid (GA3)
75 per g
10. Tricontanol (Miraculan)
98 per 250 ml
11. Cycocel (CCC)
99 per 100 ml
12. Mepiquat chloride (MC)
280 per litre
4. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A field experiment was conducted during kharif 2008 at Main Agricultural Research
Station, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad to study the effect of spacing, fertilizer
levels and growth regulators on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum. The results
obtained from the experiments are presented in this chapter.
4.1 Experiment I : Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels

on seed yield and quality in annual
chrysanthemum
4.1.1 Growth parameters
4.1.1.1 Plant height (cm)
The data on plant height of chrysanthemum at 30, 60 days after transplanting (DAT)
and at harvest as influenced by spacing and fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are
presented in Table. 4 and Fig. 3
As the growth advanced, the mean plant height increased from 39.99 cm at 30 DAT
to 88.95 at harvest.
At 30 DAT plant height differed significantly due to spacing (S1-30x30 cm, S2-30x45
cm, and S3-30x60 cm). It was significantly higher with 30x30 cm (41.94 cm) followed by
30x45 cm (39.89 cm) and was less with 30x60 cm (38.12 cm). At 60 DAT, significantly higher
plant height (81.72 cm) was recorded with S1 followed by S2 (78.70 cm) and was less with S3
(75.94 cm). Similarly at harvest plant height (92.58 cm) was significantly more with S1
followed by S2 (88.42 cm) and less with S3 (85.86 cm). The treatments S2 and S3 were
statistically on par with each other at all stages of plant growth.
The plant height differed significantly at all the stages of crop growth due to fertilizer
levels. At 30 DAT significantly higher plant height (41.28 cm) was recorded with (F3-25: 187.5:
125 kg NPK/ ha) when compared to (39.90 cm) with (F2-100:150:100 kg NPK/ha) and was
less (38.78 cm) with (F1-75:112.5:75 kg NPK/ha). At 60 DAT, significantly higher plant height
(80.64 cm) was recorded with F3 when compared to F2 (78.85 cm) and was less with F1
(76.86 cm). Similarly at harvest plant height (90.02 cm) was significantly more with F3 when
compared to F2 (88.80 cm) and less with F1 (87.03 cm). Treatments F2 and F3 were
statistically on par with each other at all the stages of plant growth.The plant height did not
differ significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels at all the stages of
crop growth. At 30 DAT, plant height was relatively more with S1F3 (43.70 cm) followed by
with S1F2 (41.30) and lowest in S3F1 (36.67 cm). AT 60 DAT, relatively more plant height
(82.96 cm) was noticed in S1F3 followed by with S1F2 (82.29 cm) which was on par with S1F1
and lowest in S3F1 (73.33 cm). Similarly at harvest relatively more height (93.69 cm) was
noticed in S1F3 followed by S1F2 (92.93 cm) and lowest in S3F1 (83.17 cm).
4.1.1.2 Number of branches
The data on number of branches at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by
spacing and fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 5 and Fig. 4.
As the growth advanced, the average number of branches per plant increased from
4.40 at 30 DAT to 22.06 at harvest.
Number of branches differed significantly due to spacing at 30, 60 DAT and at
harvest. Significantly more number of branches (5.00) were recorded with S3 and followed by
S2 (4.47) and least with S1 (3.72). AT 60 DAT, relatively more number of branches (22.36)
were noticed with S3 followed by S2 (18.49) and lowest with S1 (16.21). Similarly at harvest
relatively more branches (24.62) with S3 followed by S2 (22.37) and lowest with S1 (19.18).
Number of branches differed significantly due to fertilizer treatment at 30, 60 DAT and
at harvest. Among the fertilizer levels, number of branches were significantly more with F3
Table 4: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height (cm) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
Plant height (cm)
30 DAT
Spacing
60 DAT
At harvest
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
40.83
41.30
43.70
41.94
79.90
82.29
82.96
81.72
91.13
92.93
93.69
92.58
S2
38.73
40.20
40.73
39.89
77.34
78.92
79.83
78.70
86.80
88.40
90.05
88.42
S3
36.77
38.20
40.00
38.12
73.33
75.34
79.13
75.94
83.17
85.08
89.33
85.86
Mean
38.78
39.90
41.28
39.99
76.86
78.85
80.64
78.78
87.03
88.80
91.02
88.95
For comparing the

means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.60
1.81
0.99
2.97
1.05
3.14
Fertilizer levels (F)
0.60
1.81
0.99
2.97
1.05
3.14
SxF
1.04
NS
1.71
NS
1.81
NS
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F- Fertilizer levels
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha
DAT-Days after transplanting

NS-Non significant
Fig.3. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
Plate.2.Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annual chrysanthemum
(4.76) followed by F2 (4.41) and was less with F1 (4.02) at 30 DAT. AT 60 DAT, relatively
more number of branches (20.95) were noticed with F3 followed by F2 (19.14) and lowest with
F1 (16.97). Similarly at harvest, number of branches (23.84) were more with F3 followed by F2
(21.96) and significantly less with F1 (20.37).
The number of branches per plant did not differ significantly due to interaction effect
of spacing and fertilizer levels at all the stages of crop growth. At 30 DAT, number of
branches (5.17) were relatively more with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (5.03) and S3F1 (4.80) which
were on par with each other and lowest with S1F1 (3.03). AT 60 DAT, relatively more
branches (24.76) were noticed with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (22.65) and lowest with S1F1
(15.10). Similarly at harvest relatively more branches (26.20) were noticed with S3F3 followed
by (24.87) with S3F2 and lowest with S1F1 (17.27).
The results on number of leaves at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by
spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 6.
As the growth advanced, the mean number of leaves per plant increased from 75.71
at 30 DAT to 641.92 at harvest.
Number of leaves differed significantly due to spacing at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest.
At 30 DAT, significantly more number of leaves (81.52) were recorded with S3 followed by S2
(75.40) and less with S1 (70.20). At 60 DAT, number of leaves were markedly more (412.44)
with S3 followed by S2 (390.63) and lowest (368.78) with S1. Similarly at harvest relatively
more number of leaves (666.25) were noticed in S3 followed by (641.55) with S2 and lowest
with S1 (617.97).
Number of leaves differed significantly due to fertilizer at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest.
At 30 DAT among the fertilizer levels, number of leaves were significantly more (78.89) with
F3 followed by F2 (75.68) and less with F1 (72.56). At 60 DAT also the number of leaves were
significantly more (404.49) with F3 followed by F2 (390.56) and less (376.79) with F1. Similarly
at harvest relatively more number of leaves (657.12) were noticed in F3 followed by F1
(641.63) and less with F1 (627.02). However F2 and F3 were statistically on par with each
other at all stages of crop growth.
The number of leaves did not differ significantly due to interaction effect between
spacing and fertilizer levels except at harvest. At 30 DAT, number of leaves (84.67) were
relatively more with S3F3 which was on par S3F2 (82.00) followed by S2F3 (79.33) and lowest
with S1F1 (67.83). AT 60 DAT, relatively more number of leaves (428.23) were noticed with
S3F3 followed by S3F2 (411.35) and lowest with S3F1 (356.71). Significantly more number of
leaves at harvest were noticed with S3F3 (681.24) followed by S3F2 (666.03) and lowest with
S1F1 (602.67).
2
4.1.1.4 Leaf area per plant (cm )

The results on leaf area per plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by
spacing, fertilizer levels and their interaction effects are presented in Table 7.
As the growth advanced, the mean leaf area per plant increased from 325.29 cm2 30
DAT to 3176.41 cm2 at harvest.
Leaf area per plant differed significantly due to spacing at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest.
At 30 DAT, significantly more leaf area (395.72 cm2) was recorded with S3 followed by S2
(324.09 cm2) and less with S1 (256.06 cm2). At 60 DAT, leaf area was significantly more with
S3 (2466.03 cm2) followed by S2 (2063.37cm2) and lowest with S1 (1823.44 cm2). Similarly at
2
harvest relatively more leaf area (3658.83 cm ) was noticed with S3 followed by S2 (3167.38
2
2
cm ) and lowest with S1 (2703.02 cm ).
Leaf area per plant differed significantly due to fertilizer treatment at 30, 60 DAT and
2
at harvest. At 30 DAT the leaf area was significantly more with F3 (352.87 cm ) followed by F2
2
2
(323.59 cm ) and lowest with F1 (299.42 cm ). At 60 DAT leaf area was significantly more with
Table 5: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
Number of branches /plant
Spacing
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
3.03
3.87
4.27
3.72
15.10
15.67
17.87
16.21
17.27
18.93
21.33
19.18
S2
4.23
4.33
4.83
4.47
16.14
19.10
20.23
18.49
21.03
22.07
24.00
22.37
S3
4.80
5.03
5.17
5.00
19.67
22.65
24.76
22.36
22.80
24.87
26.20
24.62
Mean
4.02
4.41
4.76
4.40
16.97
19.14
20.95
19.02
20.37
21.96
23.84
22.06
For comparing the

means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.10
0.30
0.35
1.06
0.38
1.14
0.10
0.30
0.35
1.06
0.38
1.14
SxF
0.18
NS
0.61
NS
0.66
NS
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

NS-Non significant
Fig.4. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of branches at 30,60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
Table 6: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on number of leaves at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
Number of leaves /plant
Spacing
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
67.83
70.10
72.67
70.20
356.71
369.59
380.03
368.78
602.67
618.31
632.93
617.97
S2
71.93
74.93
79.33
75.40
375.93
390.73
405.22
390.63
626.90
640.56
657.19
641.55
S3
77.90
82.00
84.67
81.52
397.73
411.35
428.23
412.44
651.48
666.03
681.24
666.25
Mean
72.56
75.68
78.89
75.71
376.79
390.56
404.49
390.61
627.02
641.63
657.12
641.92
For comparing
the means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
1.25
3.75
4.99
14.95
4.38
13.14
Fertilizer levels
(F)
1.25
3.75
4.99
14.95
4.38
13.14
SxF
2.17
NS
8.64
NS
7.59
22.75
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

NS-Non significant
F3 (2324.01 cm2) followed by F2 (2175.70 cm2) and lowest with F1 (1853.13 cm2).Similarly at
2
harvest relatively more leaf area (3479.56 cm ) was noticed in F3 followed by F2 (3174.79
2
2
cm ) and lowest in F1 (2874.89 cm ).
The leaf area per plant differed significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and
fertilizer levels except at harvest stage of crop growth. At 30 DAT, significantly more leaf area
2
2
2
(432.13 cm ) with S3F3 followed by (391.43 cm ) with S3F2 and lowest with S1F1 (224.77 cm ).
AT 60 DAT, significantly more leaf area was noticed in S3F3 (2620.68 cm2) followed by
(2494.47 cm2) with S3F2 and lowest with S3F1 (1654.76 cm2). Significantly more leaf area
2
2
(3924.73 cm ) at harvest was noticed with S3F3 followed by (3705.36 cm ) with S3F2 and
2
lowest with S1F1 (2439.20 cm ).
The data on days to 50 per cent flowering as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels
and their interaction effects are presented in Table 8.
Days to 50 per cent flowering differed significantly due to spacing. Minimum number
of days to 50 per cent flowering was noticed with narrow spacing of S1 (58.89) followed by S2
(60.56) and maximum with wider spacing of S3 (62.45).
Significant differences were noticed on days to 50 per cent flowering due to fertilizer
levels. Significantly minimum (60.00) days were taken for 50 per cent flowering with F3
compared to F2 (60.33) days and maximum (61.56) days with F1 level of fertilizer. However F2
and F1 were statistically on par with each other.
Significant differences were noticed on days to 50 per cent flowering due to
interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly minimum (58.33) days were
taken for 50 per cent flowering with S1F3 which was on par with S1F2 (58.67) days and
maximum with S3F1 (63.67).
4.1.2 Yield and yield parameters

4.1.2.1 Number of flowers per plant
The data on number of flowers per plant as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and
their interaction effects are presented in Table 8 and Fig. 5.
Number of flowers differed significantly due to spacing were significantly more with S3
(81.14) followed by S2 (73.47) and lowest with S1 (68.85).
Number of flowers differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and were more with F3
(78.54) followed by F2 (74.96) and less with F1 (69.96).
The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed significant differences on
number of flowers. Significantly more number of flowers were recorded with S3F3 (86.28)
which was on par with S3F2 (83.83) followed by S2F3 (78.00) and less (66.38) with S1F1
(66.38).
4.1.2.2 Flower diameter (cm)
The results on flower diameter as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
interaction effects are presented in Table 9.
Significant differences were noticed on flower diameter due to spacing. Maximum
flower diameter (5.49 cm) was recorded with S3 followed by S2 (5.31 cm) and less with S1
(4.96 cm).
The flower diameter found to differ significantly among fertilizer levels. It was
significantly more with F3 (5.42 cm) followed by F2 (5.25 cm) and less with F1 (5.09 cm).
Table 7: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on leaf area (cm )/plant at different stages of annual chrysanthemum
2
Leaf area (cm )/plant

Spacing
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
224.77
262.25
281.16
256.06
1654.76
1807.67
2007.88
1823.44
2439.20
2661.60
3008.27
2703.02
S2
309.87
317.08
345.31
324.09
1621.68
2224.96
2343.48
2063.37
2839.06
3157.42
3505.67
3167.38
S3
363.61
391.43
432.13
395.72
2282.93
2494.47
2620.68
2466.03
3346.40
3705.36
3924.73
3658.83
Mean
299.42
323.59
352.87
325.29
1853.13
2175.70
2324.01
2117.61
2874.89
3174.79
3479.56
3176.41
For comparing the

means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
2.55
7.64
25.53
76.54
38.61
115.75
2.55
7.64
25.53
76.54
38.61
115.75
SxF
4.41
13.23
44.22
132.57
66.87
NS
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

NS-Non significant
Significant interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels was with respect to flower
diameter was recorded. Significantly more flower diameter (5.58cm) was recorded with S3F3
which was on par with S3F2 and S2F3 (5.54 and 5.44 cm, respectively) and less with S1F1
(4.77 cm).
The data on number of seeds per flower as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and
their interaction effects are presented in Table 9.
Number of seeds per flower differed significantly due to spacing treatment and was
significantly more with S3 (252.12) followed by S2 (245.12) and less with S1 (240.09).
Number of seeds per flower differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and was more
with F3 (249.83) was statistically on par with F2 (245.98) and less with F1 (241.52).
The number of seeds per flower did differed significantly due to interaction effect of
spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly more number of seeds (256.97) per flower were
recorded with S1F3 followed by S3F2 (252.00) and less with S1F1 (235.33).
4.1.2.4 Flower dry weight (g)
The data on flower dry weight as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
Flower dry weight differed significantly due to spacing treatment and was significantly
more with S3 (0.620 g) followed by S2 (0.550 g) and less with S1 (0.496 g).
Flower dry weight differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and was more with F3
(0.598 g) which was statistically on par with F2 (0.556 g) and less with F1 (0.511 g).
Flower dry weight did not differ significantly due to interaction effect of spacing and
fertilizer levels. Numerically more flower dry weight (0.660 g) was recorded with S1F3 followed
by S3F2 (0.630 g) and less with S1F1 (0.460 g).
4.1.2.5 Seed yield per plant (g)
The data on seed yield per plant as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
Significant differences were noticed on seed yield per plant due to spacing.
Significantly more seed yield per plant (5.55 g) was recorded with S3 followed by S2 (4.48 g) and lowest with S1 (3.39 g).
The seed yield per plant found to differ significantly among the fertilizer levels and
was more with F3 (5.20 g) followed by F2 (4.33 g) and less with F1 (3.89 g).
Among the interaction significantly maximum seed yield per plant (6.07 g) was
recorded with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (5.50 g) and minimum with S1F1 (2.87 g).
4.1.2.6 Seed yield per hectare (kg)
The data on seed yield per plant as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
interaction effects are presented in Table 10 and Fig. 6.
Significant differences were noticed on seed yield per hectare due to spacing.
Significantly more seed yield per plant (377.04 kg) was recorded with S1 followed by S2
(331.85 kg) and lowest with S3 (308.15 kg).
The seed yield per plant found to differ significantly among the fertilizer levels and
was more with F3 (401.17 kg) followed by F2 (323.58 kg) and less with F1 (292.28 kg).
Among the interaction significantly maximum seed yield per plant (478.89 kg) was
recorded with S1F3 followed by S1F2 (333.33 kg) and minimum with S3F1 (281.67 kg).
Table 8: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on days to 50% flowering and number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum
Days to 50% flowering
Number of flowers
Spacing
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
59.67
58.67
58.33
58.89
66.38
67.85
72.33
68.85
S2
61.33
60.33
60.00
60.55
69.19
73.21
78.00
73.47
S3
63.67
62.00
61.67
62.45
74.31
83.83
85.28
81.14
Mean
61.56
60.33
60.00
60.63
69.96
74.96
78.54
74.49
For comparing the means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.44
1.33
0.68
2.03
0.44
1.33
0.68
2.03
SxF
0.77
2.30
1.17
3.52
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha
Fig.5. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number on number of flowers in annual chysanthemum
Table 9: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on diameter (cm) of flower and number of seeds/flower in annual chrysanthemum
Diameter (cm) of flower
Number of seeds/ flower
Spacing
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
4.77
4.86
5.24
4.96
235.33
240.53
244.40
240.09
S2
5.16
5.34
5.44
5.31
241.83
245.40
248.13
245.12
S3
5.35
5.54
5.58
5.49
247.40
252.00
256.97
252.12
Mean
5.09
5.25
5.42
5.25
241.52
245.98
249.83
245.78
For comparing the means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.07
0.20
1.40
4.19
0.07
0.20
1.40
4.19
SxF
0.12
0.35
2.42
8.30
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha

4.1.3.1 1000 seed weight (g)
The data on 1000 seed weight as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
The 1000 seed weight differed significantly among spacing. It was significantly more
with S3 (1.97 g) followed by S2 (1.90 g) and less with S1 (1.83 g).
The 1000 seed weight found to differ significantly among fertilizer levels. It was
significantly more with F3 (1.94 g) followed by F2 (1.90 g) and less with F1 (1.87 g).The
interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed no marked differences on test weight.
However, more test weight (2.00 g) was recorded with S3F3 which was on par with S3F2 (1.98
g) followed by S2F3 (1.95) and less with S1F1 (1.81 g).
4.1.3.2 Germination (%)
The data on germination percentage as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and
growth regulators sprays and their interaction effects are presented in Table 11.
The germination percentage found to differ significantly among the spacings. It was
significantly more with S3 (64.56 %) followed by S2 (62.67 %) and less with S1 (61.33 %).
Significant differences were noticed among the fertilizer levels on germination and it
was maximum with F3 (64.11 %) followed by F2 (62.67 %) and minimum with F1 (61.78 %).
The interaction effect due to spacing and fertilizer levels showed no marked
differences on germination percentage. The germination percentage was comparatively
maximum with S3F3 (66.67 %) followed by S3F2 (64.00 %) and minimum with S1F1 (60.33 %).
4.1.3.3 Seedling length (cm)
The data on seedling length as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
Seedling length differed significantly due to spacing and it was more with S3 (10.04
cm) followed by S2 (9.60 cm) and less with S1 (8.88 cm).
Seedling length differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and it was more with F3
(9.95 cm) followed by F2 (9.53 cm) and less with F1 (9.03 cm).
The interaction effect of spacing and fertilizer levels showed non significant
differences on seedling length. However, numerically more seedling length (10.63 cm) was
recorded with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (10.02 cm) and minimum with S1F1 (8.37 cm).
4.1.3.4 Seedling dry weight (mg)
The results on seedling dry weight as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
Seedling dry weight differed significantly due to spacing and highest (32.78 mg) was
recorded with S3 followed by S2 (30.78 mg) and less with S1 (28.89 mg).
Significant differences were noticed on seedling dry weight due to fertilizer levels.
Significantly more seedling dry weight (32.11 mg) was recorded with F3 followed by F2 (30.78
mg) and less with F1 (29.56 mg).
differences on seedling dry weight. Numerically maximum seedling dry weight (34.67 mg) was
with S3F3 followed by S3F2 (32.33 mg) and minimum with S1F1 (27.67 mg).
Table 10: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum
Flower dry weight (g)
Seed yield (g/plant)
Seed yield (kg/ha)
Spacing
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
0.460
0.490
0.538
0.496
2.87
3.00
4.31
3.39
318.89
333.33
478.89
377.04
S2
0.503
0.549
0.597
0.550
3.73
4.48
5.23
4.48
276.30
331.85
387.41
331.85
S3
0.569
0.630
0.660
0.620
5.07
5.50
6.07
5.55
281.67
305.56
337.22
308.15
Mean
0.511
0.556
0.598
0.555
3.89
4.33
5.20
4.47
292.28
323.58
401.17
339.01
For comparing the

means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.01
0.03
0.07
0.19
5.67
16.99
0.01
0.03
0.07
0.19
5.67
16.99
SxF
0.02
NS
0.11
0.34
9.81
29.42
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha
NS-Non significant
Fig.6. Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yild/ha in annual chrysanthemum
Table 11: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%), seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum
1000 seed weight (g)
Spacing
Germination (%)
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
1.81
1.83
1.85
1.83
S2
1.84
1.90
1.95
1.90
S3
1.94
1.98
2.00
1.97
Mean
1.87
1.90
1.94
1.90
Seedling length (cm)
F1
F2
F3
Mean
60.33
61.33
62.33
61.33
(50.94)*
(51.53)
(52.12)
(51.53)
62.00
62.67
63.33
62.67
(51.92)
(52.32)
(52.71)
(52.32)
63.00
64.00
66.67
64.56
(52.51)
(53.11)
(54.71)
(53.45)
61.78
62.67
64.11
62.85
(51.79)
(52.32)
(53.18)
(52.43)
F1
F2
F3
Mean
8.37
8.97
9.30
8.88
9.26
9.61
9.93
9.60
9.45
10.02
10.63
10.04
9.03
9.53
9.95
9.50
For comparing the

means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.007
0.021
0.22
0.66
0.13
0.39
0.007
0.021
0.22
0.66
0.13
0.39
0.012
NS
0.38
NS
0.23
NS
S- Spacing
NS-Non significant
S1: 30 x 30 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
S2: 30 x 45 cm
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha
NOTE: Figures in parenthesis are arcsine transformed values and figures without parenthesis indicate the original values
4.1.3.5 Seedling vigour index

The data on vigour index as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and their
Seedling vigour index differed significantly due to spacing and it was highest vigour
index (648) was recorded with S3 followed by (602) with S2 and less with S1 (545).
Seedling vigour index differed significantly due to fertilizer levels and it was more with
F3 (639) followed by F2 (598) and less with F1 (558).
differences on seedling vigour index. Numerically higher vigour index (709) was recorded with
S3F3 followed by S3F2 (641) and lowest with S1F1 (505).
-1
4.1.3.6 Electrical conductivity (dSm )

The results on electrical conductivity as influenced by spacing, fertilizer levels and
their interaction effects are presented in Table 12.
The electrical conductivity found to differ significantly among the spacing. Significantly
-1
-1
more electrical conductivity (0.933 dSm ) was recorded with S1 followed by S2 (0.858 dSm )
-1
and less with S3 (0.816 dSm ).
The electrical conductivity found to differ significantly among the fertilizer levels.
Significantly more electrical conductivity (0.912 dSm-1) was recorded with F1 followed by
(0.874 dSm-1) F2 and less with F3 (0.822 dSm-1).
The interaction between spacing and fertilizer levels showed non significant
differences on electrical conductivity. Numerically more electrical conductivity (0.973 dSm-1)
was recorded with S1F1 followed by S1F2 (0.943 dSm-1) and less with S3F3 (0.781 dSm-1).
4.1.4 Benefit cost ratio

The total cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns, cost benefit ratio and increase
of cost benefit ratio over control due interaction of spacing and fertilizer level are presented in
Table. 13.
-1
The maximum cost of cultivation (57168.8 Rs. ha ) was noticed in the treatment
combination of S1F3 (S1: 30 x 30 cm with F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK/ ha) followed by
(50059.9 Rs. ha-1) with S2F3 (S2: 30 x 45 cm with F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK/ ha). The
-1
minimum cost of cultivation (42899.15 Rs. ha ) was noticed S2F1 (S2: 30 x 45 cm with F2: 100:
-1
150: 100 Kg NPK/ ha). The maximum gross returns per ha (958520 Rs. ha ) was in the
treatment combination of S1F3 (S1: 30 x 30 cm with F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK/ ha) followed
by S2F3 (750620 Rs. ha-1) and minimum gross returns was noticed in S2F1 (553080 Rs. ha-1).
-1
The maximum net return was noticed in S1F3 (901351.2 Rs. ha ) followed by S2F3 700560.0
-1
-1
Rs. ha ) and minimum in S2F1 (510180.9 Rs. ha ). The cost benefit ratio was maximum in
S1F3 (1:15.77) followed by S2F3 (1:13.99) and minimum in S2F1 (1:11.89). Increase in benefit
cost ratio was more in S1F3 (1:15.77) and S2F3 (1:13.99) and least in S2F1 (1:11.89).
4.2
Experiment II : Effect of growth regulators on seed yield

and quality in annual chrysanthemum

4.2.1.1 Plant height (cm)
The data on plant height at 30, 60 days after transplanting (DAT) and at harvest as
influenced by different growth regulators are presented in Table 14 and Fig. 7.
The plant height at 30 DAT did not differ significantly while significant differences
were observed at 60 DAT and at harvests.
-1
Table 12: Effect of spacing and fertilizer levels on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm )
in annual chrysanthemum
Seedling dry weight(mg)
Electrical conductivity of seed leachate

-1
(dSm )
Seedling vigour index
Spacing
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
F1
F2
F3
Mean
S1
27.67
29.00
30.00
28.89
505
550
580
545
0.973
0.943
0.882
0.933
S2
29.67
31.00
31.67
30.78
574
602
629
602
0.910
0.862
0.803
0.858
S3
31.33
32.33
34.67
32.78
595
641
709
648
0.852
0.816
0.781
0.816
Mean
29.56
30.78
32.11
30.81
558
598
639
598
0.912
0.874
0.822
0.869
For comparing the

means of
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
SEm
CD at 5%
Spacing (S)
0.32
0.95
9.79
29.35
0.01
0.03
0.32
0.95
9.79
29.35
0.01
0.03
SxF
0.55
NS
16.96
NS
0.02
NS
S- Spacing
S1: 30 x 30 cm
S2: 30 x 45 cm
S3: 30 x 60 cm
F1: 75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha
F2: 100: 150: 100 kg NPK/ ha
F3: 125: 187.5: 125 Kg NPK /ha
NS-Non significant
At 60 DAT application of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly higher plant height
(84.93 cm) which was on par with GA3 (100 ppm), tricontanol at 500 ppm and 1000 ppm
which recorded (82.77, 79.97 and 80.63 cm, respectively) and significantly more compared to
cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded
73.01, 71.94, 75.91 and 73.86 cm, respectively. The later four treatments, cycocel at 1000
and 2000 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other and
had more reduced plant height compared to with control (77.30 cm).
Similarly at harvest GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly higher (97.28 cm) plant
height over control (89.70 cm), tricontanol at 500 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm
recorded 90.08 and 87.87 cm, respectively and were on par with GA3 100 ppm, TRIA 1000
ppm which recorded 94.00 and 92.27 cm, respectively followed by CCC 1000 and mepiquat
chloride at 2000 ppm which recorded 85.01 and 85.97 cm, respectively. The later two
treatments were on par with each other. The plants sprayed with CCC (2000 ppm) recorded
the lowest plant height (83.17 cm).
4.2.1.2 Number of branches
The data on number of branches per plant at 30, 60 days after planting (DAT) and at
harvest as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table 14 and Fig. 8.
At 30 DAT number of branches per plant did not differ significantly, whereas at 60
DAT and at harvest significantly increased the number of branches per plant compared to
control.
At 60 DAT, foliar application of GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more number of
branches (25.80) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which
recorded 24.33 and 23.80, respectively followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride
at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 ppm which recorded 22.13, 21.00 and 20.13, respectively
and least with CCC 2000 ppm and control which recorded 19.07 and 17.13 respectively.
Similarly at harvest GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more number of branches
(27.32) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 500 and 1000 ppm which
recorded 26.20, 25.53 and 24.60, respectively followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000
ppm and CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 23.47, 22.73, 22.27 and 21.73,
respectively and least with control (19.43).
The data on number of leaves per plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced
by growth regulators are presented in Table 15.
The number of leaves per plant differed significantly at 60 DAT and at harvest, while it
was non significant at 30 DAT.
At 60 DAT all the treatments showed significant differences over control (365.00).
GA3 at 200 ppm recorded significantly more leaves per plant (445.33) which was on par with
GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 436.67 and 425.33, respectively
followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm recorded
416.33, 406.07 and 396.33, respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 500 ppm,
mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other and less 385.67 and
376.97, respectively number of leaves among the growth regulating chemicals was recorded
with CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm.
Similarly at harvest all the treatments showed significant differences over control. GA3
at 200 ppm recorded significantly more leaves (702.43) which was on par with GA3 100 ppm,
tricontanol at 500 and 1000 ppm which recorded 695.40, 676.40 and 666.33, respectively
followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which
recorded 669.0, 654.67, 647.33 and 639.33, respectively and the lowest number of leaves
(620.3) was recorded in control.
Table 13: Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different spacing, fertilizer levels and their interactions (S x
F)
Treatments
Total seed yield

(kg/ha)
Total cost of cultivation

(Rs./ha)
Gross returns
(Rs./ha)
Net returns
(Rs./ha)
Cost-benefit ratio
S1F1
318.52
45515.2
637040
591524.8
1:13.00
S1F2
332.96
46562.1
665920
619357.9
1:13.30
S1F3
479.26
57168.8
958520
901351.2
1:15.77
S2F1
276.54
42899.15
553080
510180.9
1:11.89
S2F2
332.1
46927.2
664200
617272.8
1:13.15
S2F3
375.31
50059.9
750620
700560.0
1:13.99
S3F1
290.74
44356.15
581480
537123.9
1:12.11
S3F2
305.37
45416.83
610740
565323.2
1:12.45
S3F3
337.41
47739.7
674820
627080.3
1:13.14
Table 14: Effect of growth regulators on plant height (cm) and number of branches at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
Plant height (cm)
No of branches/plant
Treatments
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
G0-Control
40.17
77.30
89.70
4.00
17.13
19.43
G1-GA3 @ 100ppm
40.50
82.77
94.00
4.33
24.33
26.20
G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm
40.00
84.93
97.28
4.00
25.80
27.32
G3-Tricontanol@ 500 ppm
39.17
79.97
90.08
3.67
22.13
24.60
G4-Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm
39.67
80.63
92.27
4.33
23.80
25.53
G5-Cycocel @ 1000 ppm
40.83
73.01
85.01
4.67
20.00
22.27
39.33
71.94
83.17
3.33
19.07
21.73
G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm
39.67
75.91
87.87
4.33
21.00
23.47
41.33
73.86
85.97
4.00
20.13
22.73
SEM
0.86
1.90
2.13
0.41
0.79
0.97
CD at 5%
NS
5.69
6.37
NS
2.37
2.91
NS-Non significant
Fig.7. Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
Fig.8. Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest in annual chrysanthemum
Plate.3. Influence of growth regulators on plant height in annual chrysanthemum
4.2.1.4 Leaf area (cm2/plant)

The data on leaf area per plant at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest as influenced by growth
regulators are presented in Table 15.
At 30 DAT the leaf area per plant did not differ significantly, while significant at 60
DAT and at harvest.
At 60 DAT all treatments differed significantly over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm
recorded significantly more leaf area (3742.67 cm2) over all other treatments followed by GA3
2
100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 3599.74 and 3527.23 cm , respectively
which were on par with each other. tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and
2000 ppm which recorded 3393.24, 3309.57 and 3281.40 cm2 respectively which were on par
with each other but they significant over CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 3097.20
2
2
and 2693.09 cm , respectively and least with control (2256.30 cm ).
Similarly at harvest all the treatments differed over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm
recorded significantly more leaf area (4497.24 cm2) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm
2
(4359.40 cm ) followed by tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and
2
2000 ppm which recorded 4286.43, 4250.23 and 4190.63 cm , respectively. The later three
treatments, tricontanol at 1000 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par
with each other and less 4031.93 and 3562.09 cm2, respectively with CCC 1000 and 2000
2
ppm and least with control (3123.77 cm ).
The data on days to 50 percent flowering as influenced by growth regulators are
presented in Table 16.
Significantly minimum number of days to 50 per cent flowering was recorded with GA3
at 200 ppm (54.00) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded
54.67 and 56.67 days, respectively were on par with each other but significant over
tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 57.00, 58.00
and 58.33 days respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat
chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each other. Among chemicals more number
of days was recorded with CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 59.33 and 59.67 days,
respectively and maximum days was recorded with control (60.33 days).
4.2.2 Yield and yield parameters

4.2.2.1 Number of flowers per plant
The data on number of flowers per plant as influenced by growth regulators are
presented in Table 16 and Fig. 9.
All treatments differed significantly over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm recorded
significantly more number of flowers per plant (91.60), which was on par with GA3 100 ppm
(88.76) followed by tricontanol at 1000 ppm (86.07) which was on par with tricontanol at 500
ppm (83.86) and they were significant over mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm, 2000 ppm and
CCC 1000 ppm which recorded 80.73, 77.73 and 76.37, respectively and less number of
flowers (74.80) among the growth regulators was recorded with CCC 2000 ppm and least with
control (70.81).
4.2.2.2 Flower diameter (cm)
The data on flower diameter as influenced by growth regulators are presented in
Table 16.
Significant differences were noticed among the treatments. However GA3 at 200 ppm
recorded significantly more flower diameter (6.150 cm) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm,
tricontanol at 1000, 500 ppm and mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm which recorded 5.80, 5.72,
5.69 and 5.55 cm, respectively which were on par with each other. mepiquat chloride at 2000
Table 15: Effect of growth regulators on number of leaves /plant and leaf area (cm2) at different growth stages of annual chrysanthemum
leaf area (cm2)/plant
Number of leaves /plant

Treatments
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
30 DAT
60 DAT
At harvest
G0-Control
73.00
365.00
620.33
375.33
2256.30
3123.77
G1-GA3 @ 100ppm
77.33
436.67
695.40
365.00
3599.74
4359.40
G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm
78.90
445.33
702.43
386.67
3742.67
4497.24
76.60
416.33
666.33
377.83
3393.24
4161.63
78.33
425.33
676.40
391.67
3527.23
4286.43
75.57
385.67
647.33
373.33
3097.20
4031.93
74.67
376.97
639.33
394.50
2693.09
3562.09
G7-Mepiquat chloride @ 1000

ppm
75.67
406.07
669.00
383.00
3309.57
4250.23
G8-Mepiquat chloride @2000 ppm
75.07
396.33
654.67
378.33
3281.40
4190.63
SEM
2.54
9.16
10.83
12.71
45.32
54.33
CD at 5%
NS
27.47
32.46
NS
135.88
162.88
NS-Non significant
ppm (5.40 cm) was on par CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 5.36 and 5.32 cm,
respectively and the least with control (5.27 cm).
The data on number of seeds per flower as influenced by growth regulators are
All treatments differed significantly over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded
significantly more number of seeds per flower (265.33) which was on par with GA3 at 100
ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 261.67, 259.80 and 258.13,
respectively. The later three treatments, GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 100 and 500 ppm
were on par with each other followed by mepiquat chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC 1000
ppm which recorded 254.73, 251.67 and 247.67, respectively. CCC 2000 ppm recorded less
number of seeds (242.33) among chemical and least with control (236.00).
4.2.2.4 Flower dry weight (g)
The data on flower dry weight as influenced by growth regulators are presented in
Table 17.
Significantly higher flower dry weight (0.747 g) with GA3 at 200 ppm was recorded
and it was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 0.717 and
0.678 g, respectively and significantly more compared to all other treatments. The treatments
tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 0.642, 0.625
and 0.597 g, respectively were on par with each other but they were significant over control
which recorded the lowest flower dry weight (0.527 g). The treatments CCC 1000 and 2000
ppm which recorded 0.592 and 0.559 g, respectively were on par with each other.
4.2.2.5 Seed yield per plant (g)
The data on seed yield per plant as influenced by growth regulators is presented in
Table 17.
All treatments differed significantly over control. Significantly higher seed yield per
plant (6.75 g) with GA3 at 200 ppm was recorded which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm,
tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 6.55, 6.42 and 6.17 g, respectively and
significantly more compared to all other treatments. The treatments mepiquat chloride at 1000
and 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 ppm which recorded 6.04, 5.84 and 5.67 g, respectively
were on par with each other but significant over control which recorded the lowest seed yield
per plant (4.35 g). The treatments CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded (5.67 and 5.42 g,
respectively) were on par with each other.
4.2.2.6 Seed yield (kg/ha)
The data on seed yield per hectare as influenced by growth regulators is presented in
table 17 and Fig. 10.
All treatments differed significantly over control. Significantly higher seed yield per
plant (500.00 kg) with GA3 at 200 ppm was recorded which were on par with GA3 at 100 ppm,
tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 485.19, 475.56 and 457.28 kg, respectively
and significantly more compared to all other treatments. The treatments mepiquat chloride at
1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 ppm which recorded 447.16, 432.35 and 420.00 kg,
respectively were on par with each other but significant over control (322.5 kg) which
recorded the lowest seed yield per hectare. CCC at 2000 ppm which recorded (401.73 kg)
was on par with CCC at 1000 ppm.

4.2.3.1 1000 seed weight (g)
The data on test weight (1000 seed weight) as influenced by growth regulators are
All the treatments differed significantly over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the
highest test weight (2.14 g) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000 and
Table 16: Effect of growth regulators on days to 50 % flowering, number of flower/plant, diameter of flower (cm) and number of seeds/flower in annual
chrysanthemum
Treatments
Days to 50% flowering
Number of flower/plant
Diameter of flower (cm)
Number of seeds/flower
G0-Control
60.33
70.81
5.27
236.00
G1-GA3 @ 100ppm
54.67
88.76
5.80
261.67
G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm
54.00
91.60
6.15
265.33
57.00
83.86
5.69
258.13
56.67
86.07
5.72
259.80
59.33
76.37
5.36
247.67
59.67
74.80
5.32
242.33
58.00
80.73
5.55
254.73
58.33
77.73
5.40
251.67
SEM
0.74
1.52
0.11
3.11
CD at 5%
2.23
4.55
0.32
9.33
Fig.9. Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annual chrysanthemum
Table 17: Effect of growth regulators on flower dry weight (g), seed yield (g/plant) and seed yield (kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum
Treatment
Flower dry weight (g)
Seed yield (g/plant)
seed yield (kg/ha)
G0-Control
0.527
4.35
322.47
G1-GA3 @ 100ppm
0.717
6.55
485.19
G2-GA3 @ 200 ppm
0.747
6.75
500.00
0.642
6.17
457.28
0.678
6.42
475.56
0.592
5.67
420.00
0.559
5.42
401.73
0.625
6.04
447.16
0.597
5.84
432.35
SEM
0.03
0.19
14.33
CD at 5%
0.09
0.58
42.96
Fig.10. Influence of growth regulators on seed yield (Kg/ha) in annual chrysanthemum
500 ppm which recorded 2.11, 2.08 and 2.04 g, respectively followed by mepiquat chloride at
1000, 2000 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded (2.03, 2.00, 1.99 and 1.97 g,
respectively) and least with control (1.90 g).
4.2.3.2 Germination (%)
The data on germination percentage influenced by growth regulators are presented
in Table 18.
Significant differences were noticed among the treatments. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded
the highest germination percent (67.67 %) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol
at 2000 which recorded 66.33 and 66.00 %, respectively followed by tricontanol at 1000 ppm,
mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 65.33, 65.00 and 64.67 %,
respectively. The later three treatments, tricontanol at 1000 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000
and 2000 ppm were on par with each other. CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm recorded less
germination 64.33 and 64.00 %, respectively among the chemicals and the least with control
(62.33).
4.2.3.3 Seedling length (cm)
The data on seedling length influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table
18.
the highest germination percent (10.60 cm) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm (10.45
cm) followed by tricontanol at 1000 ppm (10.26 cm). The later tricontanol at 1000 ppm was on
par with GA3 at 100 ppm followed tricontanol 500 ppm () 10.18 cm by mepiquat chloride at
1000 (10.17 cm) and lowest among growth regulators was recorded with mepiquat chloride at
2000 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 9.80, 9.69 and 9.67 cm, respectively.
The later, mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm, CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm were on par with each
other and the least was recorded with control (9.67 cm).
4.2.3.4 Seedling dry weight (mg)
The data on seedling dry weight as influenced by growth regulators are presented in
Table 19.
All the treatments differed significantly over control. However GA3 at 200 ppm
recorded the highest seedling dry weight (36.67 g) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm
and tricontanol at 1000 ppm which recorded 35.34 and 35.33 g respectively followed by
tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 which recorded 34.33 and 34.00
respectively. The later two treatments, tricontanol at 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000
were on par with each other but significant compared to mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm and
CCC at 1000 ppm which recorded 33.34 and 33.00 g, respectively and less with CCC 2000
ppm (32.00 g) among chemicals and the least with control (31.00 g).
4.2.3.5 Vigour index
The data on vigour index as influenced by growth regulators are presented in Table
19.
All treatments differed significantly over control. GA3 at 200 ppm recorded the highest
vigour index (717) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm (699) followed by tricontanol at
1000 and 500 ppm which recorded 664 and 656, respectively. The later two treatments,
tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm were on par with each other and with mepiquat chloride at
1000 ppm and 2000 ppm 654 and 638, respectively. The treatments CCC at 1000 ppm and
2000 ppm recorded lower vigour index 636 and 626, respectively among the growth
regulators and least with control (602).
4.2.3.6 Electrical conductivity (dSm-1)
The data on electrical conductivity of seed leachate as influenced by growth
regulators are presented in Table 19.
-1
the lowest (0.662 dSm ) which was on par with GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 500 and 1000
Table 18: Effect of growth regulators on 1000 seed weight (g), germination (%) and seedling length (cm) in annual chrysanthemum
Treatment
1000 seed weight (g)
Germination (%)
Seedling length (cm)
G0- Control
1.90
62.33 (52.12)*
9.67
G1- GA3 @ 100ppm
2.11
66.33 (54.51)
10.45
G2- GA3 @ 200 ppm
2.14
67.67 (55.33)
10.60
2.04
65.33 (53.91)
10.18
2.08
66.00 (54.31)
10.26
1.99
64.33 (53.31)
9.69
1.97
64.00 (53.11)
9.67
2.03
65.00 (53.71)
9.80
2.00
64.67 (53.51)
10.17
SEM
0.03
0.42
0.07
CD at 5%
0.10
1.26
0.22
NOTE: Figures in parenthesis are arcsine transformed values
Table 19: Effect of growth regulators on seedling dry weight (mg), seedling vigour index, and electrical conductivity of seed leachate (dSm-1) in annual
chrysanthemum
Seedling dry weight (mg)
Seedling vigour index
Electrical conductivity of
seed leachate (dSm-1)
G0- Control
31.00
602
0.849
G1- GA3 @ 100ppm
35.34
699
0.695
G2- GA3 @ 200 ppm
36.67
717
0.662
34.33
656
0.700
35.33
664
0.667
33.00
636
0.782
32.00
626
0.797
34.00
654
0.729
33.34
638
0.744
SEM
0.52
7.51
0.03
CD at 5%
1.55
22.52
0.08
Treatment
ppm which recorded 0.695, 0.667 and 0.700, dSm-1 respectively followed by mepiquat
chloride at 1000, 2000 ppm and CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm which recorded 0.729, 0.744,
-1
0.782 and 0.797 dSm , respectively. The later two treatments,CCC at 1000 and 2000 ppm
were on par with control (0.849 dSm-1) which recorded the highest electrical conductivity.
4.2.4 Cost benefit ratio
The total cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns, cost benefit ratio and increase
of cost benefit ratio over control due to growth regulator spray are presented in Table 20.
The economic analysis revealed that the maximum cost of cultivation with GA3 at 200
ppm (61100.0 Rs. ha-1) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm (58151.3 Rs. ha-1) and lowest with
control (44479.1 Rs. ha-1). The gross returns was maximum with GA3 at 200 ppm (1000000
Rs. ha-1) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm (970380 Rs. ha-1) and lowest with control (644940 Rs.
-1
-1
ha ). The net return was maximum with GA3 at 200 ppm (938900.0 Rs. ha ) followed by GA3
-1
-1
at 100 ppm (912228.7 Rs. ha ) and lowest with control (600460.9 Rs. ha ). The cost benefit
ratio was maximum with tricontanol at 1000 ppm (15.92) followed by tricontanol at 500 ppm
(15.76) and GA3 at 100 ppm (15.69) and lowest in control (13.50).
Table 20: Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by different growth regulator spray
Total seed yield
(kg/ha)
Total cost of cultivation

(Rs./ha)
Gross returns
(Rs./ha)
Net returns(Rs./ha)
Cost-benefit ratio
Control
322.47
44479.1
644940
600460.9
13.50
GA3 @ 100 ppm
485.19
58151.3
970380
912228.7
15.69
GA3 @ 200 ppm
500.00
61100.0
1000000
938900.0
15.37
TRIA @ 500 ppm
457.28
54571.7
914560
859988.3
15.76
TRIA @ 1000 ppm
475.56
56215.9
951120
894904.1
15.92
CCC @ 1000 ppm
420.00
51802.5
840000
788197.5
15.22
CCC @ 2000 ppm
401.73
50730.5
803460
752729.5
14.84
MC @ 1000 ppm
447.16
54412.0
894320
839908
15.44
MC @2000 ppm
432.35
54231.1
864700
810468.9
14.94
Treatments
5. DISCUSSION
In seed production programme, the seed yield and quality are directly or indirectly
controlled by the environment under which crops are grown. In addition, genotype, soil,
cultural practices and their interactions also have profound influence on productivity of crops.
However, it is not possible to manipulate the environment for better crop growth, but one can
manipulate the micro climate of the field to certain extent by adopting suitable cultural
practices. Hence, an attempt has been made to increase the yield and quality of seed by the
way of manipulating cultivation practices like, spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulator
spray to study its impact on yield and quality of seed in annual chrysanthemum. The results
obtained in the present investigation have been discussed in this chapter.
5.1
Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield

5.1.1 Influence of spacing

Spacing plays an important role in manipulating the micro climate which means better
crop growth and response to inputs. Proper spacing improves the availability of nutrients,
aeration and light intensity by which the genetic potential of the variety can be properly
expressed in terms of quantity and enhanced quality.
5.1.2 Influence of spacing on growth parameters

Significant reduction in plant height was noticed with increase in spacing S1 (30x30
cm) recorded maximum plant height (41.94, 81.72 and 92.58 cm, respectively) compared to
wider spacing of S3 (60x30 cm) which recorded (38.12, 75.94 and 85.86 cm, respectively).
The closer spacing S1 (30x30 cm) recorded significantly more plant height. The more plant
height might be due to heavy competition between plants for light resulted in elongation of
main stem and also might be due to the fact that the plants tend to grow vertically when they
are crowded owing to shadowing effect of the plants on one another (Ramchandrudu and
Thangam, 2007). Similar observations were also recorded by Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002)
in annual chrysanthemum, Dalvi et al. (2008) in gladiolus, Anju and Pandey (2007),
Srivastava et al. (2002) and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold, Mane et al (2006), Balanchandra
et al. (2004) in ageratum.
The number of branches per plant decreased with the decrease in level of spacing at
all stages of plant growth. Closer spacing of S1 produced significantly less number of
branches per plant (3.72, 16.21 and 19.18) compared to more branches per plant (5.00, 22.36
and 24.62) with wider spacing of S3. The lesser number of branches at closer spacing may be
due to more competition for light, space and nutrients among the plants resulted in vertical
growth of the plant rather than horizontal (branching). The results are in conformity with the
findings of Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) in annual chrysanthemum, Srivastava et al. (2002),
Balanchandra et al. (2004) and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Hugar (1997) in gaillardia.
The number of leaves per plant increased with the increase in level of spacing at all
stages of plant growth. Closer spacing S1 produced significantly less number of leaves per
plant (70.20, 368.78 and 617.97) compared to more leaves per plant (81.52, 412.44 and
666.25) in wider spacing S3. The results are in conformation with Sodha and Dhahuk (2000)
in golden rod, Dalvi et al. (2008) in gladiolus and Anju and Pandey (2007) in African marigold.
The leaf area per plant increased with the increase in level of spacing at all stages of
plant growth. Closer spacing S1 produced significantly less leaf area per plant (256.06,
1823.44 and 2703.02 cm2) compared to more leaf area per plant (395.72, 2466.03 and
3658.83 cm2) in wider spacing S3.
Days to 50 per cent flowering was early (58.89 days) with spacing S1 compared to
spacing of (62.45) S3. These results are in agreement with Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and
Sunita et al., 2006 in marigold.
Similarly, flower dry weight increased significantly as spacing increased from S1 to S3.
The wider spacing S3 recorded maximum (0.620 g) flower dry weight compared S1 (0.496 g)
and S2 (0.550 g).
5.1.3 Influence of spacing on seed yield and yield parameters

The differences in spacing levels brought significant variation in number of flowers
per plant. Significantly more number of flowers per plant were observed with wider spacing of
S3 (81.14) followed by S2 (73.47) and S1 (68.85). Maximum number of flowers per plant in S3
seems to be mainly due to more number of branches per plant and also less competition
among the plants. The results are in agreement with the findings of Belgoankar et al. (1996)
in annual chrysanthemum, Srivastava et al. (2002) and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold,
Poonam et al. (2002) in zinnia, John and Paul (1995) in chrysanthemum, Venugopal (1991) in
everlasting flower.
As spacing levels increased from S1 to S3 the number of flowers harvested per plant
and number of seeds per capitulum were also increased significantly, S3 (252.12) recorded
maximum seeds per capitulum followed by S2 (245.12) and S1 (240.09).. The reasons for
increased yield components in wider spacing may be attributed to less competition among the
plants and more uptake of NPK by plant which facilitated better growth of plant which
ultimately resulted in production of good number of seeds per capitulum. Similar results were
reported by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold.
1000 seed weight differed significantly by spacing levels, maximum test weight was
recorded with wider spacing S3 (1.97) followed by S2 (1.90) and S1 (1.83). The results are in
agreement with Kanna Babu et al. (1993) in sunflower.
Significantly higher seed yield per plant was noticed with wider spacing of S3 (5.55)
and was lowest in closer spacing of S1 (3.39). Though the seed yield per plant was highest at
S3 it was not able to compensate higher yield on hectare basis owing to lesser plant
population per unit area. The higher seed yield with S3 may be attributed to higher number of
flowers per plant as compared to other spacing levels which produced lower values of seed
yield components. Similar results were also noticed by Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and
Rupindra Kaur and Ramesh Kumar (1998) in pansy, Hugar (1997) in gaillardia.
The seed yield per hectare was significantly high with S1 (377.04 kg) compared to S2
(331.85 kg) and S3 (308.15 kg). Even though, seed yield per plant was significantly maximum
with S3 but it failed to result in more seed yield per hectare because of less number of plants
per unit area, but it also failed to compensate the higher seed yield per plant, it was mainly
because too much closer spacing resulted in less branching of plant and which resulted lower
values of yield components. Hence S1 was optimum spacing, where the plants per unit was
optimum which facilitated better growth of the plants which resulted in higher seed yield per
hectare as compared to other spacing levels .Similar results were also recorded by Karavadia
and Dhaduk (2002) in annual chrysanthemum, Pourhadian and Khajehpour (2008) in
safflower, Balachandra et al. (2004) in ageratum, Karuppaiah and Krishna (2005) and
Srivastava et al. (2002) in marigold.
5.1.4 Influence of spacing on quality parameters

Observations of the present investigations indicated that wider spacing S3 recorded
significantly higher germination percentage (64.56 %), seedling length (10.04 cm), seedling
vigour index (648) and seedling dry weight (32.78 mg) with lower electrical conductivity (0.822
dSm-1) over closer S2 and S1. The highest seed quality attributes noticed with wider spacing
S3 might be due to proper development of seed and also higher number of filled seeds per
flower which in turn might have supplied adequate food reserves during germination. This
kind of improvement in seed quality attributes with increase in fertilizer levels was also
reported by Kanna Babu et al. (1993) in sunflower, Balachandra et al. (2004) in ageratum and
Shivakumar (2000) in marigold.
5.2
Influence of fertilizer
Application of adequate quantity of fertilizer to seed crop is most essential for better
crop growth and to obtain desired benefits in terms of higher seed yield and quality.
Generally, nitrogen enhances vegetative growth. While, phosphorous is a key nutrient
involved in various physiological processes, such as flowering and seed development.
Similarly, potassium is also involved in seed development.

All the growth parameters differed significantly among various fertilizer levels. The
plant height was significantly increased with the application of increased level of fertilizer from
F1 (75:112.5: 75 kg NPK/ ha) to F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ha) at all the stages of crop
growth. Significantly, higher plant height of 41.28, 80.64 and 91.02 cm at 30, 60 DAT and at
harvest stage respectively was recorded at higher level of fertilizer F3 application. This
increase in plant height might be due to greater uptake of nutrients into the plant system
which involved in cell division, cell elongation as well as protein synthesis which ultimately
enhanced the stem length and vegetative growth. Similar observations on increase in plant
height with higher fertilizer levels was also noticed by Karavadia and Dhaduk (2002) in annual
chrysanthemum, Singh and Sangma, 2000, Doddagoudar et al., 2002, Kumar et al. (2003)
and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Singh and Baboo (2003) in chrysanthemum, Mohanty et
al. (2002), Baboo and Singh (2003), Saud and Ramachandra (2004) and Acharya and
Dashora (2004) in marigold.
Similarly, the number of branches per plant increased significantly as fertilizer levels
increased from F1 to F3. The higher level of fertilizer (F3) recorded maximum number of
branches (4.76, 20.95 and 23.84) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest, respectively compared to
lower levels of fertilizer F1 (4.02, 16.97 and 20.37) and F2 (4.41, 19.14 and 21.96). Nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium are the major nutrients known to have a role in synthesis of amino
acids and protein which could increase vertical growth (plant height) and lateral growth in
terms of branches. The above results are in conformity with findings of Doddagoudar et al.
(2002), Kumar et al. (2003) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Shivakumar (2000),
Mohanty et al. (2002), Agarwal et al. (2002), Baboo and Singh (2003), Acharya and Dashora
(2004) in marigold, Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum, Ajay and Vijay (2007) in calendula, Saud
and Ramchandra (2004) in French marigold.
Number of leaves per plant were also more in F3 (78.89, 403.12 and 657.12)
compared to F1 (72.56, 378.16 and 627.02) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest, respectively. This
increase in number of leaves per plant with F3 level might be due to greater availability of
nutrients for growth of plants. These results were in accordance with the findings of Singh and
Sangma (2000) and Doddagoudar (2002) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Saud and
Ramachandra (2004) and Acharya and Dashora (2004) in marigold, Jana and Pal (1991) in
cosmos, Sigedar et al. (1991) in calendula and Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum, Ajay and
Vijay (2007) in calendula.
Similarly, the leaf area per plant also increased significantly as fertilizer levels
increased from F1 to F3. The higher level of fertilizer (F3) recorded maximum leaf area per
plant (352.87, 2324.01 and 3479.56 cm2) at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest respectively compared
2
to lower levels of fertilizer F1 (299.42, 1853.13 and 2874.89 cm ) and F2 (323.59, 2175.70 and
2
3174.79 cm ).
Days to 50 per cent flowering was enhanced with the increase in levels of fertilizer F3
(60.00) to F1 (61.56). This might be attributed to the fact of more availability of phosphorus.
This is in agreement with Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual chrysanthemum and Anuradha et
al. (1990) in marigold.
Similarly, flower dry weight increased significantly as fertilizer levels increased from
F1 to F3. The higher level of fertilizer (F3) recorded maximum flower dry weight (0.598 g)
compared to lower levels of fertilizer F1 (0.511 g) and F2 (0.556 g). These results are in
conformation with the findings of Sodha and Dhaduk (2002) in golden rod and Venkatesh
(1983) in chrysanthemum.
5.2.2 Influence of fertilizer on seed yield and yield parameters

In many crops it is evident that yield is a function of number of flowers per plant,
number of seeds per flower and test weight. The highest number of flowers per plant was
recorded in F3 (78.54) followed by F2 (74.96) and F1 (69.96). This showed that F3 is optimum
level to obtain maximum number of flowers per plant. The increased number of flowers under
higher dose of NPK may be attributed to more number of flower bearing branches per plant.
There is similar increase in flower number with higher fertilizer levels was also noticed by
Ravindra (1998), Doddagoudar et al. (2002) and Kumar et al. (2003) and Gnyandev (2006) in
china aster, Anuradha et al. (1990), Shivakumar (2000), Agarwal (2002), Saud and
Ramachandra (2004) and Acharya and Dashera (2004) in marigold and Akkannavar (2001) in
ageratum.
The flower diameter differed significantly among fertilizer levels. Maximum flower
diameter (5.42 cm) was recorded at higher level of fertilizer (F3). Similar observations were
also made by Baboo and Singh (2003) in marigold and Kumar et al. (2003), Gnyandev (2006)
in china aster, Ajay and Vijay (2007) in calendula, Singh et al. (2008) in Asiatic hybrid lily.
The number of seeds per flower were significantly higher in F3 (249.83) compared to
F2 (245.98) and F1 (241.52). Gnyandev (2006) and (Doddagoudar et al., 2004) in china aster,
1000 seed weight is also one of the yield contributing component which differed significantly
among the fertilizer levels in the present study. It was maximum (1.94 g) with F3 followed by
F2 (1.90 g) and F1 (1.87 g). The results are in conformity with Doddagoudar et al. (2002) and
Gnyandev (2006) in china aster,
In the present investigation, significantly higher seed yield per plant (5.20 g) and per
hectare (401.17 kg) was recorded with F3 over F2 and F1. The higher seed yield at higher
fertilizer level (F3) may be attributed to more number of flowers, more number of seeds and
1000 seed weight. This was mainly due to availability of adequate quantity of nutrients for
better filling up of seeds which resulted in increased seed weight. These findings are also in
agreement with the findings of Doddagoudar et al. (2002) and Gnyandev (2006) in china
aster, Hugar (1997) in gaillardia, Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Akkannavar (2001) in
ageratum.
5.2.3 Influence of fertilizer on seed quality parameters

Results of the present investigations indicated that, the higher dose of fertilizer F3
recorded significantly higher germination (64.11 %), seedling length (9.95 cm), seedling
vigour index (639) and seedling dry weight (32.11 mg) with lower electrical conductivity (0.822
-1
dSm ) over lower doses of fertilizer levels (F2 and F1). The highest seed quality attributes
noticed at higher fertilizer levels (F3) might be due to proper development of seed, which in
turn might have supplied adequate food reserves during germination. This kind of
improvement in seed quality attributes with increase in fertilizer levels was also reported by
Mantur (1988) and Doddagoudar et al. (2004) and Gnyandev (2006) in china aster, Hugar
(1997) in gaillardia, Shivakumar (2000) in marigold and Akkannavar (2001) in ageratum.
5.3
Interaction effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on

plant growth parameters
The plant growth and development is a complex phenomenon resulting from

interactions with several factors. Thus plant growth can be improved to certain extent by
taking an advantage of combination of some of these factors.
5.3.1 Interaction effect on growth parameters

It was interesting to note that annual chrysanthemum responds to spacing and
fertilizer interactions. The plant height and number of branches per plant did not differ
significantly among the treatment combinations. However treatment combination of S1F3
recorded relatively more height (43.70, 82.96 and 93.69, respectively). The higher plant
height at higher fertilizer and closer spacing might be due to heavy competition among the
plants for light and space which resulted in vertical growth of plant rather than horizontal
growth (branching). The results are in line with Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual
chrysanthemum and Shivakumar (2000) in marigold.
The number of branches did not differ significantly however, relatively more with S3F3
at 30, 60 DAT and at harvest (5.00, 22.36 and 24.62, respectively) was recorded. The number
of leaves per plant differed significantly only at harvest. However, S3F3 recorded maximum
leaves per plant (84.67, 428.23 and 681.24). The leaf area per plant differed significantly at
30, 60 DAT and non significant at harvest. However, maximum leaf area 30, 60 DAT and at
harvest (432.13, 2620.68 and 3924.73 cm2) was recorded with the treatment S3F3. This
increase in leaf area might be due to lesser competition for light water and nutrients in wider
spacing and higher level of fertilizer which has played an important role for better vegetative
growth. Similar results were also reported by Belgoankar et al. (1996) in annual
chrysanthemum, Sodha and Dhahuk (2002) in golden rod, Rao et al. (1992) in
chrysanthemum and Jinendra (1997) in daisy. Days to 50 percent flowering differed
significantly and the treatment combination of S3F3 recorded minimum days (58.33) to 50 per
cent flowering.
Maximum flower diameter (5.58 cm) was recorded with treatment combination of
S3F3. The flower dry weight did not differed significantly, however maximum (0.660) flower dry
weight was recorded with the treatment combination of S3F3.
5.3.2 Interaction effect on seed yield and yield components
The number of flowers per plant is one of the important yield deciding component
which differed significantly by interaction of spacing and fertilizer levels. Significantly more
number of flowers in S3F3 (85.28) may be attributed to more branching of plant at which bears
more flowers. Similar results were also reported by Vijay kumar (1998) in china aster, Rao et
al. (1992) in chrysanthemum and Jitendra (1997) in daisy.
Other yield components like the number of seeds per capitulum differed significantly
and 1000 seed weight also differed due to interaction of spacing and fertilizer levels. The
number of seeds (256.97) per capitulum and 1000 seed weight (2.00 g) were higher in
treatment combination of S3F3 followed by S3F2 treatment combination.
The seed yield per plant increased linearly with the increased level of spacing from S1
to S3 in all the three fertilizer levels. Significantly more seed yield per plant (6.07 g) was
recorded in the treatment combination of S3F3. While lowest was with S1F1. The higher seed
yield was mainly due to higher number of flowers per plant, higher number of seeds per
capitulum and more 1000 seed weight. Similar observations were also reported by Hugar
(1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in china aster.
The seed yield per hectare was significantly differed due to interaction of spacing and
fertilizer levels. Significantly higher seed yield (478.89 kg) was recorded in the combination of
S1F3. Higher seed yield was due to optimum plant population per unit area and optimum
fertilizer levels might have resulted in better growth of the plant. Thus it indicated that S1F3 is
the best treatment combination for getting higher seed yield as compared to any other
combination. Similar results were also recorded by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar
(2000) in china aster.
5.3.3 Interaction effect on seed quality parameters

All the seed quality attributes did not differ significantly due to interactions of spacing
and fertilizer levels. However S3 spacing recorded higher values for all the seed quality
parameters (viz., germination, seedling length, vigour index and seedling dry weight) in the
highest fertilizer level of F3. Therefore the best treatment combination is S3F3 for getting
higher seed quality parameters as compared to any other combination. Similar results were
also recorded by Hugar (1997) in gaillardia and Shivakumar (2000) in china aster.
5.4
Benefit cost ratio
The economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

spacing and fertilizer interaction revealed that the treatment combination of S1F3 recorded
higher gross returns (9,58,520 Rs. ha-1) and net returns (9,01,351.2 Rs. ha-1) with cost benefit
ratio of (1:15.77). The least ratio was in S2F1 (1:11.89).
5.5
Effect of different growth regulators on growth, seed yield

5.5.1 Effect of chemical spray on growth parameters

GA3 and tricontanol significantly increased the plant height at 60 DAT and at harvest.
Whereas CCC and mepiquat chloride significantly decreased the plant height at 60 DAT and
at harvest compared to control (77.30 and 89.70 cm, respectively). Among the growth
retardants, CCC at 2000 ppm recorded the minimum height at 60 DAT (71.94) and at harvest
(83.17 cm). However GA3 200 ppm recorded maximum plant height at 60 DAT (84.93) and at
harvest (97.28 cm) among the growth regulators.
Increase in plant height with GA3 and tricontanol may be attributed to increase in cell
elongation in apical meristem leading to increased length of internodes. The increase in plant
height due to GA3 is in conformity with the reports of Syamal et al. (1990) in marigold and
china aster, Das and Das (1992) in day lily, Shivaprasad Shetty (1995), Prabhat Kumar et al.
(2003), Pawar et al. (2008) in gaillardia and china aster; Shaikh et al. (2002) in onion and
Dhall and Sanjeev (2004) in tomato with tricontanol spray.
On the contrary the growth retardants are known to reduce auxin content in growing
tissues by antagonizing them. Thus they exert an inhibitory effect by suppressing the cell
elongation in the meristematic region of the growing point. The reduction in plant height is in
agreement with the reports of Rajesh (1995) in calendula with mepiquat chloride spray; Pawar
et al. (2008) in gaillardia and Khandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold with cycocel spray.
The number of branches per plant at 60 DAT and at harvest were significantly
increased due to chemicals as compared to control (17.13 and 19.43, respectively). Among
the growth regulators, GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more number of branches per plant at 60
DAT and at harvest (25.80 and 27.32, respectively) followed by tricontanol. The increase in
number of branches might be due to the promotion of horizontal growth (branching) apart
from vertical growth. The increase in number of branches due to growth retardants (CCC and
mepiquat chloride) might be due to antagonizing action of auxins responsible for the apical
dominance and there by suppressed terminal bud growth, so the accumulated metabolites get
translocated towards the auxillary buds and these in turn resulted in stimulation of laterals.
Similar results were noticed by Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold, Syamal et al. (1990) in
marigold and china aster with GA3 spray; Shaikh et al. (2002) in onion and Dhall and Sanjeev
(2004) in tomato with tricontanol spray; Rajesh (1995) in calendula with mepiquat chloride
spray; Narayanagowda and Jayanthi (1991) and Khandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold.
The number of leaves per plant was significantly influenced by chemicals spray at 60
DAT and at harvest compared to control (365.00 and 620.33, respectively). Among the growth
regulators, GA3 at 200 ppm sprayed at 60 DAT and at harvest recorded the maximum number
of leaves per plant (445.33 and 702.43, respectively) and minimum number in CCC 2000 ppm
(376.97 and 639.33, respectively). The increase number of leaves in chemical spray might be
due to increase in number of branches per plant. Such increase in number of leaves per plant
due to growth regulators was reported by Leena Ravidas et al. (1992) and Umrao et al.
(2007) in gladiolus, Dhaduk et al. (2007) in anthurium, Sujatha et al. (2002) in gerbera and
Singh and Bijimol (2001) in tuberose due to GA3 spray; Shaikh et al. (2002) in onion with
tricontanol spray; Doddagoudar et al. (2002) in china aster with mepiquat chloride spray;
Khandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold and Shreedhar (1993) in gaillardia with cycocel
spray.
The leaf area per plant differed significantly due to growth regulator spray at 60 DAT
and at harvest. Among the chemicals GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more leaf area (3742.67 and
4497.24 cm2, respectively) compared to all other chemicals and control and less with CCC
2000 ppm (2693.09 and 3562.09 cm2, respectively). The increase in leaf area due to growth
regulators can be attributed to more number of leaves per plant (Prabhat kumar et al., 2003)
in china aster with GA3 spray; Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in radish due to tricontanol spray;
Samruban and Karuppaih, (2007) due to cycocel spray.
GA3 at 200 ppm spray recorded significantly less number of days (54.00) to 50 per
cent flowering while growth retardants took more number of days among chemicals cycocel at
2000 ppm (59.67) recorded maximum days to 50 per cent flowering followed by control
(70.81). Early flowering with GA3 spray may be due to increase in the endogenous
gibberellins levels in the plant, as gibberellins are well known for inducing early flowering in
several crop plants. The delayed flowering in the plants sprayed with growth retardants spray
may be due to reduced availability and synthesis of endogenous gibberellins. As the growth
retardants effectively reduce the availability of endogenous gibberellins by blocking their
synthesis (Dicks, 1976). Early flowering was reported by Sunita et al. (2007), Singh et al.
(1991) in African marigold with GA3 spray; The delay in flowering due to mepiquat chloride
and CCC compared to control which may be due to suppression of vegetative growth with
subsequent increase in number of flower bearing branches which perhaps need more days
for development and initiation of flowering. Similar results were noticed by Doddagoudar et al.
(2004) in china aster due to mepiquat chloride spray; Sanjeev kumar (2004) in china aster
due to cycocel spray.
5.5.2 Effect of growth regulators on seed yield and yield attributes

Number of capitula per plant were significantly increased by growth regulators as
compared to control (70.81). Among the growth regulators, maximum number of capitula per
plant were recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (91.60) and minimum with CCC at 2000 ppm
(74.80). This increase in number of capitula per plant could be attributed to the increase in the
number of branches per plant. The above results are in conformity with the findings of Sunita
et al. (2007) in marigold, Lal and Mishra (1986) in marigold, Singh and Bijimol (2001) in
tuberose, Sujatha et al., 2002 in gerbera with GA3 spray; Miniraj and Sanmugavelu (1997) in
chilli due to tricontanol spray; Rajesh (1995) in calendula by mepiquat spray; Pawar (2008) in
gaillardia due to cycocel spray.
The flower dry weight differed significantly due to growth regulator spray. However,
GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum flower dry weight (0.747 g). Improvement in flower dry
weight as a result of GA3 spray might be due to better overall plant growth which resulted in
net increase in photosynthates. This finding is in line with those of Prabhat Kumar et al.
(2003) in china aster, Nagarjuna et al. (1988) in chrysanthemum and Kishan Swaroop et al.
(2007) in African marigold.
The flower diameter differed significantly due to growth regulators spray. However,
GA3 at 200 ppm recorded maximum diameter (6.15 cm). Increase in flower diameter might be
due to active cell elongation in the flower which increased the flower diameter. GA3 is also
known to increase strength of the actively growing parts. The findings are in line with those of
Prabhat Kumar et al. (2003) in china aster, Samruban and Karuppaiah et al. (2007) in French
marigold and Sujatha et al. (2002) in gerbera.
Thousand seed weight was significantly increased by all growth regulators compared
to control (1.90 g). The maximum thousand seed weight was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm
(2.11 g) and minimum in CCC at 2000 ppm (1.97 g). Increase in thousand seed weight might
be due to increase in individual seed weight. Similar findings on increase in thousand seed
weight due to chemicals spray were reported by Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold with GA3,
Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster due to GA3 spray and mepiquat chloride spray and
Hugar (1997) in gaillardia with cycocel spray.
The seed yield per plant was significantly higher by spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm (6.75
g) followed by GA3 at 100 ppm (6.55 g). Increase in seed yield per plant can be attributed to
increase in number of branches per plant, number of capitulum per plant and thousand seed
weight. The results are in conformity with the reports of Shivaprasad shetty (1995) in china
aster, Shivakumar (2000) in marigold by GA3 spray; Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster
due to GA3 and mepiquat chloride spray, Kareekatti (1996) in safflower due to mepiquat
chloride spray and Hugar (1997) in gaillardia with cycocel spray.
In the present study, significantly higher seed yield per ha (500 kg) was recorded in
GA3 at 200 ppm as compared to control (322.47 kg). This increase in seed yield per ha could
be attributed to increase in yield attributes such as seed yield per plant, number of capitulum,
thousand seed weight and increase in growth parameters like number of branches per plant.
The above results are in conformity with the findings of Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold,
Kishan Swaroop et al. (2007) in African marigold with GA3 spray; Doddagoudar et al. (2004)
in china aster due to GA3 and mepiquat chloride spray; Hugar (1997) in gaillardia with CCC
spray.
5.5.3 Effect of growth regulators on seed quality attributes

The growth regulators significantly increased the germination percentage as
compared to control (62.33 %). The maximum germination was recorded with GA3 at 200
ppm (67.67 %) and minimum with CCC 2000 ppm (64.00 %). Increase in germination
percentage with GA3 spay may be due to increased 1000 seed weight, which might have
supplied adequate food reserves to resume embryo macromolecules to be utilized in growth
promoting processes. Such increase in germination percentage due to growth regulators
spray are reported by Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster, Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) in
china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold.
Seedling length was significantly influenced by all the growth regulators compared to
control (9.67 cm). The maximum seedling vigour index was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm
(10.60 cm) and minimum with CCC at 2000 ppm (9.67 cm). The results are in conformation
with Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster, Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) in china aster and
Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold.
Seedling vigour index was significantly influenced by all the growth regulators
compared to control (602). The maximum SVI was recorded with GA3 200 ppm (717) due to
chemicals and minimum with CCC 2000 ppm (626). Increase in SVI due to growth regulators
is in agreement with the results of Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) and Doddagoudar et al. (2004)
in china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold.
Seedling dry weight was significantly influenced by all the chemicals compared to
control. The maximum seedling dry weight recorded with GA3 200 ppm (36.67 mg) due to
chemicals and minimum with CCC 2000 ppm (32.00 mg). The increase in seedling dry weight
might be due to higher seedling length. The results are in line with the findings of
Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster and Sunita et al. (2007) in marigold.
Electrical conductivity of seed leachate differed significantly by all the growth
regulators compared to control. The minimum EC was recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm (0.662
-1
-1
-1
dSm ) treatment and maximum in CCC at 2000 ppm (0.797 dSm ) and control (0.849 dSm )
respectively. The results are in line with the findings of Shivaprasad Shetty (1995) and
Doddagoudar et al. (2004) in china aster.
5.6
Benefit cost ratio
The economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

growth regulator spray revealed that GA3 at 200 ppm recorded higher gross returns (1000000
Rs. ha-1) and net returns (938900.0 Rs. ha-1). Whereas cost benefit ratio was higher in
tricontanol at 1000 ppm (15.92). Even though GA3 at 200 ppm recorded more gross and net
returns per ha but it failed to meet higher cost benefit ratio because of higher cost of chemical
(GA3). The least ratio noticed in control (13.50).
Practical application of the results
1. Based on the results of field and laboratory investigations carried out during the
course of study, the following few conclusions are made
2. The spacing of (30x30) cm would be beneficial to get economically viable seed yield
in annul chrysanthemum.
3. The optimum dose of fertilizer for seed production for Dharwad region found to be
125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK per ha.
4. The combination of 30x30 cm spacing coupled with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK per ha
gave higher seed yield with good quality and returns per rupee investment. Thus, it
would be economically beneficial for profitable seed production in annual
chrysanthemum.
5. In order to get higher seed yield GA3 at 200 ppm spray at 30 and 45 days after
transplanting can be taken up. Also other growth regulators GA3 at 100 ppm,
tricontanol at 1000, 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 or 2000 ppm and cycocel at
1000 or 2000 ppm also gave higher seed yield with good quality.
6. Spraying with tricontanol at 1000 ppm, 500 ppm, GA3 at 100 ppm or 200 ppm gave
higher returns per rupee investment during annual chrysanthemum seed production.
Future line of work

Following future line of work is suggested for obtaining higher seed yield and quality
for the benefit of seed growers and traders.
1. The effects of dates of planting on seed yield and quality to be studied.
2. In addition to NPK, secondary nutrients and micro nutrients effect may be tried for
achieving higher seed yield and quality.
3. Possible methods of seed processing may be tried in order to improve the seed
quality.
4. The seed storability studies may be taken up with different containers.
5. The influence of other low cost inputs like organic fertilizers and plant protection
measures needs to be studied.
6. There is scope for seed enhancement studies like seed invigoration, seed colouring
and pelleting.
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The present study on the influence of spacing, fertilizer levels and growth regulators
on seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum was carried out at Agriculture College
Farm, Dharwad during kharif season of 2008. The summary of the results of investigation
are presented in this chapter.
6.1
Spacing and Fertilizer
The plant height decreased with the increase in spacing levels, while it increased with
the increase in fertilizer levels. The interaction of S1 (30x30 cm) at F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg
NPK/ ha) recorded higher plant height.
Number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant were maximum at S3
(30x60 cm) and these were also maximum at higher fertilizer level F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg
NPK/ha). The number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant were higher at
S3F3 (30x60 cm with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) treatment combination.
50 per cent flowering was early in narrow spacing of S1 (30x60 cm) and also at F3
(125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) level of fertilizer. Among the spacing and fertilizer interaction
S1F3 (30x60 cm with 125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded less number of days to 50 per
cent flowering.
The number of flowers per plant and flower diameter increased significantly. Wider
spacing of S3 (30x60 cm) recorded maximum number of flowers per plant and diameter
followed by S2 (30x45). While, fertilizer level F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded
maximum number of flowers per plant and diameter. The interaction of S3 F3 recorded higher
number of flowers per plant and diameter followed by S3F2 and S2F3.
The seed yield attributes were markedly more and seed yield per plant was
significantly more with wider spacing of S3 (30x60 cm). It was also highest at fertilizer level F3
(125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha). The treatment combination of S3F3 recorded maximum seed
attributes and seed yield per plant followed by S3F2.
The seed yield per hectare was significantly more with S1 (30x30 cm). Among the
fertilizer levels F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded higher seed yield per hectare and
the interaction of S1F3 recorded higher seed yield followed by S1F2.
The seed quality parameters like germination, seedling length, seedling vigour index,
seedling dry weight and lower electrical conductivity was recorded in wider spacing of S3
(30x60 cm). Among the fertilizer levels F3 (125: 187.5: 125 kg NPK/ ha) recorded maximum
values for the seed quality parameters with lower electrical conductivity. The treatment
combination of S3F3 recorded maximum seed quality parameters with lower electrical
conductivity followed by S3F2.
In terms of cost benefit ratio the spacing 30x30 cm spacing coupled with 125: 187.5:
125 kg NPK/ ha recorded more cost of cultivation, gross and net returns and cost benefit ratio
as compared to any other treatment.
6.2
Growth regulators
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm significantly increased plant height followed by GA3 at
100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm spray. On the contrary growth retardants
mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm and cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm decreased
plant height.
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm significantly increased the number of branches,
number of leaves and leaf area per plant followed by GA3 at 100 ppm, tricontanol at 1000
and 500 ppm. Among the growth retardants mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm recorded more
number number of branches, number of leaves and leaf area per plant followed by mepiquat
chloride 2000 ppm, CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm compared to control.
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm induced early flowering followed by GA3 at 100 ppm,
tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm. On the contrary the growth retardants mepiquat chloride at
1000 and 2000 ppm and CCC 1000 and 2000 ppm delayed flowering compared to the
growth GA3 and tricontanol.
Spraying of GA3 at 200 ppm significantly increased the number of capitulum per
plant, capitulum diameter, number of seed per capitulum, dry weight of capitulum, 1000
seed weight and seed yield (per plant and per ha) compared to control.
Similarly tricontanol at 1000 and 500 ppm, mepiquat chloride at 1000 and 2000 ppm
and cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm also significantly improved the number of capitulum per
plant, capitulum diameter, dry weight of capitulum, 1000 seed weight and seed yield (per
plant and per ha) compared to control.
The seed quality parameters such as germination percentage, seedling length and
vigour index and seedling dry weight were higher with lower electrical conductivity was
recorded with GA3 at 200 ppm followed by GA3 at 100 ppm and tricontanol at 1000 ppm and
500 ppm. Among the growth retardants, mepiquat chloride at 1000 ppm recorded
significantly more germination percentage, seedling length and vigour index and seedling
dry weight with lower electrical conductivity followed by mepiquat chloride at 2000 ppm,
cycocel at 1000 and 2000 ppm.
The cost of cultivation, gross returns and net returns were higher with GA3 at 200
ppm, where as higher cost benefit ratio was recorded with tricontanol 1000 ppm followed by
tricontanol 500 ppm.
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INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH

REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND
QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM
(Chrysanthemum coronarium L.)
SAINATH
2009
Dr. D. S. UPPAR
Major Advisor
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at Main Agricultural Research Station, University of
Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad during kharif 2008 to study the influence of spacing, fertilizer
levels and growth regulators on growth, seed yield and quality in annual chrysanthemum
(Chrysanthemum coronarium L.) The experiment consisted of three spacing (S1-30x30, S230x45, S3-30x60) and fertilizer levels (F1-75:112.5:75, F2-100:150:100, F3-125:187.5:125 NPK
kg/ha). It was laidout in Randomized Block Design (RBD) with factorial concept having three
replications. The results indicated significantly higher plant height, number of branches, leaf
area/plant, flower diameter and dry weight, number of seeds/flower and seed yield/plant at S3
with F3. The seed quality parameters like thousand seed weight, germination percentage,
seedling length, vigour index and dry weight were also higher. However, seed yield ha-1, cost
-1
of cultivation, gross and net returns ha and cost benefit ratio were higher with S1 with F3.
The other experiment consisted of nine treatments viz., control, GA3 @ 100 ppm, GA3
@ 200 ppm, Tricontanol @ 500 ppm, Tricontanol @ 1000 ppm, Cycocel @ 1000 ppm,
Cycocel @ 2000 ppm, Mepiquat chloride @ 1000 ppm and Mepiquat chloride @ 2000 ppm
and was laidout in RBD with three replications. Foliar application of GA3 @ 200 ppm spray
recorded significantly higher plant height, number of branches, leaf area/plant, flower
diameter and dry weight, number of seeds/flower, seed yield/plant and ha-1. Among seed
quality parameters, thousand seed weight, germination percentage, seedling length, vigour
index and dry weight were also higher, it also recorded higher cost of cultivation, gross and
-1
net returns ha , but the cost benefit ratio was highest in Tricontanol 1000 ppm.
Based on the results it can be concluded that the combination of 30x60 cm with
125:187.5:125 NPK kg and GA3 200 ppm is optimum for getting higher seed yield and quality
in annual chrysanthemum.

INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum Coronarium L.)

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INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED YIELD AND QUALITY IN ANNUAL CHRYSANTHEMUM (Chrysanthemum Coronarium L.)

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INFLUENCE OF SPACING, FERTILIZER AND

GROWTH REGULATORS ON GROWTH, SEED

Thesis submitted to the

Master of Science (Agriculture)

DEPARTMENT OF SEED SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering, seed yield

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.8 Cultural operations

Interaction effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels on

5.4 Benefit cost ratio

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site

Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

Effect of growth regulators on days to 50% flowering, number of flower/plant,

Economic analysis of annual chrysanthemum seed production as influenced by

Plan and layout of the experimental site

Plan and layout of the experimental site

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height at

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on number of

Influence of different spacing and fertilizer levels on seed yield/ha in

Influence of growth regulators on plant height at 30, 60 DAT and at

Influence of growth regulators on number of branches/plant at 30, 60

Influence of growth regulators on number of flowers/plant in annual

Influence of growth regulators on Seed yield (kg/ha) in annual

General view of the experimental plots

Influence of spacing and fertilizer levels on plant height in annual

Influence of growth regulators on

To workout the economics and feasibility of seed production in annual

Influence of spacing on growth, flowering, seed yield and

2.1.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

2.1.3 Seed quality parameters

Influence of NPK on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

2.2.1 Physiological role of NPK

Flowering, seed yield and yield components

2.2.4 Seed quality parameters

Influence of growth regulators on plant growth, flowering,

2.3.1 Gibberellic acid

noticed more number of fruits per plant (1.49), number of

2.3.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

Influence of tricontanol on plant growth, flowering and seed

2.4.3 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

2.4.4 Seed quality parameters

2.5 Influence of cycocel on plant growth, flowering, seed yield and

Flowering, seed yield and yield components

2.5.3 Seed quality parameters

2.6 Influence of mepiquat chloride on plant growth, flowering,

2.6.2 Flowering, seed yield and yield components

3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

3.1.1 Location of the experiment

Previous crop at the experimental site

Table 1: Physical and chemical properties of soil of the experimental site

Coarse sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

Fine sand (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

Silt (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

Clay (International Pippette Method) (Piper, 1966)

and Asija, 1956)

Available K2O (Flame photometry method) (Jackson, 1967)

Electrical conductivity (dS/m)

Relative humidity (%)

3.3 Experiment I : Effect of different spacing and fertilizer levels

Factor II : Fertilizer levels (F)