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2 C4 Contents
Module C1
Module C2
Module C3
Module C4
15
149
247
381
Update 2
Update 2
Update 1
Update 2 Dec 11
Update 4 * Jan 12
Update 1
New
Update 2 Dec 11
Update 1 Dec 11
Update 4 * Jan 12
Update 3 * Jan 12
Update 6 Dec 11/Jan 12
385
395
409
415
429
443
455
457
465
475
485
497
Updated
Updated
Updated Dec 11
521
529
535
535
543
545
547
Update 1 Jan 12
Update 2 Jan 12
Plus other minor editoral alterations and corrections. * means latest items to be updated
3 Contact Details
These are my class notes for C4, which my Dad has transcribed on to the computer for me, although he has gone a bit
OTT with them! My cousin has been studying the AQA syllabus and so some of the chapters have been marked to show the
differences. Although a lot of my hand written mistakes have been corrected - there may be a few deliberate errors still in
the script. If you find any, then please let us know so that we can correct them. Any other suggestions would be also
welcome.
Kathy, Apr 2011
mymathsnotes@googlemail.com
381
4 Brief Syllabus
4.1 Algebra and Graphs
! divide a polynomial, (degree 4), by a linear or quadratic polynomial, & give quotient & remainder (might be 0)
! express rational functions as partial fractions, and carry out decomposition, where the denominator is no more
complicated than (ax + b) (cx + d) (ex + f ) or (ax + b) (cx + d)2, and not top heavy.
! use the expansion of (1 + x)n where n is a rational number and x <1 (finding a general term is not included, but
adapting the standard series to expand, e.g. (2 x)1 is included)
! understand the use of a pair of parametric equations to define a curve, and use a given parametric representation
of a curve in simple cases
! convert the equation of a curve between parametric and Cartesian forms.
4.4 Vectors
! use of standard notations for vectors
! carry out addition and subtraction of vectors and multiplication of a vector by a scalar, and interpret these
operations in geometrical terms
! use unit vectors, position vectors and displacement vectors
! calculate the magnitude of a vector, and identify the magnitude of a displacement vector AB as being the distance
between the points A and B
! calculate the scalar product of two vectors (in either two or three dimensions), and use the scalar product to
determine the angle between two directions and to solve problems concerning perpendicularity of vectors
! understand the significance of all the symbols used when the equation of a straight line is expressed in the form
r = a + tb
! determine whether two lines are parallel, intersect or are skew
! find the angle between two lines, and the point of intersection of two lines when it exists.
382
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Module C4
5 Basic Knowledge
Knowledge of C1, C2 and C3 is assumed, and you may be asked to demonstrate this knowledge in C4.
You should know the following formulae, (which are NOT included in the Formulae Book).
Dif f erential
dy
dx
= f (x)
sin kx
k cos kx
cos kx
k sin kx
tan kx
Function f (x)
Integral f (x) dx
sin kx
1k cos kx + c
cos kx
1 sin kx + c
k
tan kx
1 ln | sec kx | + c
k
k sec2 kx
x in radians!
(g (x)) g (x) dx
= (g (x)) + c
| xi
x2 + y2 + z2
5.2 Vectors
+ yj + zk | =
() ()
x
a
p q = b y = ax + by + cz =
c
z
r = a + tp
5.3 Trig
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
cos 2A = cos2 A sin2 A
= 1 2 sin2 A
= 2 cos2 A 1
tan 2A
2 tan A
1 tan2 A
a2 + b2
R cos = a
tan =
b
a
(watch signs)
R sin = b
0 < a <
383
384
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Function f (x)
sin x
cos x
cos x
sin x
dy
du
dv
= v
+ u
dx
dx
dx
v du u dv
u
dy
then
= dx 2 dx
v
dx
v
dy
dy
du
=
dx
du
dx
Quotient rule: if y =
Chain rule:
We can use these results to find the differentials of the other trig functions:
tan x
y = tan x
y =
Quotient rule:
v du u dv
u
dy
then
= dx 2 dx
v
dx
v
dy
cos x cos x sin x sin x
=
dx
cos2x
if y =
"
sin x
u
cos x
v
cos2x + sin2x
1
=
= sec2x
2
cos x
cos2x
sec x
y = sec x =
u = cos x
y = u1
du
dx
dy
du
dy
dx
dy
dx
1
= (cos x)1
cos x
= sin x
= u2
=
du
dy
dx
du
= sin x ( u2) =
sin x
= tan x sec x
cos2x
385
cosec x
y = cosec x =
du
dx
dy
du
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
u = sin x
y = u1
use the Chain rule:
1
= (sin x)1
sin x
= cos x
= u2
du
dy
dx
du
= cos x (u2)
=
cos x
1
=
= cot x cosec x
sin 2x
tan x sin x
u = 1
v = sin x
cot x
y = cot x =
u = tan x
v = u1
du
dx
dv
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
1
= (tan x)1
tan x
= sec x
sec x
tan2x
1 tan x
1
tan x
=
=
2
2
tan x
tan x
tan2x
= u2 =
= cot 2x 1 = cosec2x
Summary so far:
Function f (x)
sin x
cos x
cos x
sin x
tan x
sec2x
cot x
cosec x
cosec x
cosec x cot x
sec x
sec x tan x
Function f (x)
ALevelNotesv7OPae
dy
sin kx
k cos kx
cos kx
k sin kx
tan kx
386
dy
k sec2 kx
18-Jan-2012
y = x3sin x
u = x3
[product rule]
v = sin x
du
dv
= 3x2
= cos x
dx
dx
dy
= x3 cos x + sin x 3x2
dx
dy
= x2 (x cos x + 3sin x)
dx
"
y =
1
cos x
cos x
x
x
[quotient rule]
u = cos x
Let:
v = x
du
dv
= sin x
= 1
dx
dx
dy
x (sin x) cos x
=
dx
x2
dy
x sin x cos x
x sin x + cos x
=
=
2
dx
x
x2
y = cos4x
[chain rule]
y = u4
u = cos x
du
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
= sin x
=
dy
= 4u3
du
dy
du
du
dx
= 4u3 (sin x)
= 4cos3x (sin x) = 4cos3x sin x
y = cos4x
y = (cos x)4
dy
= 4 (cos x)3 (sin x)
dx
dy
= 4cos3x sin x
dx
y = ln sec x
u = sec x
[chain rule]
y = ln u
du
dy
1
= sec x tan x
=
dx
du
u
dy
1
= sec x tan x
= tan x
dx
sec x
387
y = sin 3x
u = 3x
du
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
[chain rule]
y = sin u
dy
= cos u
du
= 3
=
dy
du
du
dx
= cos (u) 3
= 3cos 3x
<
24
22
20
y = sin23x
18
16
u = 3x
y = sin2u
14
12
v = sin u
10
y = v2
y=sin 3x
0
-5
du
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
388
dy
= 2v
dv
dy
du
dv
=
dv
dx
du
= 3
dv
= cos u
du
-4
-3
-2
-1
= 2v 3 cos u
= 2sin u 3 cos u
= 6cos 3x sin 3x
= 3sin 6x
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
u = sin 3x
du
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
= 2u
du
= 3cos 3x
=
[chain rule]
dy
du
du
dx
= 2u 3cos 3x
= 6sin 3x . cos 3x
= 3sin 6x
y = sin5x cos3x
u = sin5x
v = cos3x
If z = sin x
If w = cos x
u = z5
v = w3
du
dz
du
dx
du
dx
du
dx
dv
dw
dv
dx
dv
dx
dv
dx
dz
= cos x
dx
du
dz
=
dz
dx
= 5z 4
= 5z
cos x
= 5sin4x cos x
dw
= sin x
dx
dv
dw
=
dw
dx
= 3w 2
= 3w 2 (sin x)
= 3cos2x sin x
= v
du
dv
+ u
dx
dx
389
y = ln sin x
[chain rule]
1
= ln (sin x)2
1
ln (sin x)
2
u = sin x
Let
1
ln u
2
1
du
= cos x
u
dx
1
cos x
cos x =
u
2sin x
y =
dy
1
=
du
2
dy
1
=
dx
2
!!
[log laws]
y = 4x6sin x
u = 4x6
Let
[product rule]
v = sin x
du
dv
= 24x5
= cos x
dx
dx
dy
du
dv
= v
+ u
dx
dx
dx
dy
= sin x 24x5 + 4x6 cos x
dx
dy
= 4x5 (6 sin x + x cos x)
dx
!"
y = tan3x 3tan x
[chain rule]
Let
du
= sec2x
dx
y = u3 3u
dy
du
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
390
= 3u2 3
=
dy
du
du
dx
= (3u2 3) sec2x
= (3tan2x 3) sec2x
= 3sec2x (tan2x 1)
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
y =
cos 3x
e3x
u = cos 3x
Let
du
=
dx
[quotient rule]
v = e3x
dv
= 3e3x
dx
3sin 3x
v du u dv
dy
= dx 2 dx
dx
v
dy
e3x (3sin 3x) cos 3x 3e3x
=
(e3x)2
dx
=
3sin 3x cos 3x
(e3x)
!$
y = cosec 3x
y = cosec (3x)
dy
= cosec (3x) cot (3x) 3
dx
dy
= 3 cosec3x cot 3x
dx
!%
y = cot 23x
y = (cot (3x))2
dy
= 2 (cot (3x))1 ( cosec2 3x) 3
dx
[differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket used twice]
dy
= 6cot 3x cosec2 3x
dx
!;
Find the smallest value of for which the curve y = 2 3sin has a gradient of 0.5
y = 2 3sin
dy
= 2 3 cos
d
dy
When
= 05
d
2 3 cos = 05
cos = 05
3
Note: the answer is given in radians, differentiation and integration are valid only if angles are
measured in radians.
smallest +ve value of =
391
y =
sin4 3x
6x
y =
(sin (3x))4
6x
z = sin (3x)
Let
u = (z)4
dz
= 3 cos (3x)
dx
v = 6x
du
dv
= 4 z3
= 6
dz
dx
dz
= 3 cos (3x)
dx
du
dz
du
=
v du u dv
dy
= dx 2 dx
dx
v
dy
6x [12 cos (3x) sin3 (3x)] sin4 (3x) 6
=
(6x)2
dx
dy
6x [4 (sin (3x))3 3 cos (3x)] sin4 (3x) 6
=
(6x)2
dx
[or differentiate outside bracket - differentiate inside bracket]
!&
y = sin2x cos 3x
Need product rule and chain rule:
y = (sin x)2 cos (3x)
dy
= sin2x 3sin (3x) + cos 3x 2 (sin x) cos x
dx
dy
= sin x [2 cos 3x cos x 3sin x sin 3x]
dx
392
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
y = ln | sin x |
u = sin x
Let
y = ln |u|
[chain rule]
du
= cos x
dx
dy
1
=
du
u
dy
dy
du
=
dx
du
dx
dy
1
=
cos x
dx
u
OR
If y = ln | f (x)|
dy
1
=
f (x)
dx
f (x)
dy
1
d
=
(sin x)
dx
sin x
dx
dy
1
=
cos x
dx
sin x
dy
= cot x
dx
"
y = ln | sec x |
[chain rule]
dy
1
d
=
(sec x)
dx
sec x
dx
dy
1
=
sec x tan x
dx
sec x
dy
= tan x
dx
y = ln | sec x + tan x |
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
sec x + tan x
1
=
sec x + tan x
1
=
sec x + tan x
=
[chain rule]
d
(sec x + tan x)
dx
sec x tan x + sec2x
sec x (tan x + sec x)
= sec x
393
y = ln | cosec x + cot x |
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
394
1
cosec x + cot x
1
=
cosec x + cot x
1
=
cosec x + cot x
cosec x (cot x
=
cosec x +
=
[chain rule]
d
(cosec x + cot x)
dx
= cosec x
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
59.2 Integrals of
From the standard derivative of the basic trig functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process.
Thus:
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
cos x dx
= sin x + c
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
sin x dx
= cos x + c
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
sec
x dx = tan x + c
cos x + c
cos x
sin x + c
sin kx
1k cos kx +
cos kx
1 sin kx +
k
sec2 kx
1 tan kx + c
k
sec x tan x
sec x + c
cosec x cot x
cosec x + c
cosec2x
cot x + c
ln | sin x |
cot x
E.g.
Integral f (x) dx
1
cosec 2x cot 2x dx = cosec 2x + c
2
395
tan (2x ) dx
=
"
tan x dx
2
1 + tan2x = sec2x
use
(sec x 1) dx
2
1
ln | sec (2x )| + c
2
= tan x x + c
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
!"#
0.5
$!"%
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
1
= 0, , etc
3
2
2x = ,
, etc
3
3
x =
=
6
3
2x +
or
396
1
= 0
3
( )
1
2
= cos (
+ ) cos ( )
2
3
3
2
3
1
1
3
= ( ) ( ) =
2
4
4
1
3
sin 2x +
dx = cos 2x +
2
3
3 0
0
ALevelNotesv7OPae
[cos = 1]
[cos / 3 =
1]
2
18-Jan-2012
59.4 Integrals of
Derive
+ c
tan x
tan x =
tan x =
sin x
cos x
sin x
dx
cos x
sin x
cos x dx
= ln | cos x | + c
= ln |(cos x)1| + c
= ln
| cos1 x | + c
= ln | sec x | + c
tan x
tan x dx
= ln | cos x | + c = ln | sec x | + c
= ln | cos x | + c = ln | sec x | + c
tan ax dx
1
ln | sec ax | + c
a
cot x = sin x dx
= ln | sin x | + c
cot ax dx
1
ln | sin x | + c
a
NB the modulus sign means you cant take the natural log of a negative number.
397
d
cos (ax + b) = a sin (ax + b)
dx
sin (ax + b) dx
d
tan (ax + b) = a sec2 (ax + b)
dx
sec (ax + b) dx
cos (ax + b) dx =
1
sin (ax + b) + c
a
1
cos (ax + b) + c
a
1
tan (ax + b) + c
a
%='%'!(()*+,-./0
!
Show that
sec2 2x
= 1
4
)
1
= tan ( 2 ) tan (0 )
2
4
4
2
4
1
= tan ( ) tan ( )
2
4
4
1
4
sec 2x
= tan 2x
2
4
4 0
0
2
1
[ 1 + 1] = 1
2
"
398
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
cos2A
1
2
(1 + cos 2A)
cos 2A 1 2 sin2A
sin2A
1
2
(1 cos 2A)
sin A sin B
sin A cos A
1
2
sin A cos B
cos A cos B
Factor formulae
1
2
sin 2A
( A +2 B) cos ( A 2 B)
A+ B
A B
sin A sin B = 2 cos (
sin (
2 )
2 )
A+ B
A B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (
cos (
)
2
2 )
A+ B
A B
cos A cos B = 2 sin (
sin (
)
2
2 )
sin A + sin B = 2 sin
399
cos
3x dx
cos
"
cos2A
1
2
(1 + cos 2A)
3x dx =
1
2
(1 + cos 6x) dx
1
2
(x + 16 sin 6x) + c
[Double angle]
sin 3x cos 3x dx
2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B)
sin 3x cos 3x dx
[Compound angle]
1
2
1
2
sin (6x) dx
1 1
cos 6x + c
2 6
1
= cos 6x + c
12
=
sin2
( 12 x) dx
4
0
sin2
( 12 x) dx
1
2
4
0
(1 cos 2x
2 ) dx
[x
1 (4
2[
1
2
1
2
[Double angle]
sin x ] 4
0
sin 4) (0 sin 0)]
(4 0)
= 2
400
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
This type of problem covers the most common questions. Use the addition (compound angle) trig identities.
%='<'!(()*+,-./0
!
1
2
sin 3x cos 4x dx =
"
(sin (x)
1
2
+ sin 7x)
(sin (x)
(cos x
+ sin 7x) dx
17 cos 7x) + c
1
2
1
1
cos x
cos 7x + c
2
14
1
2
(sin (2A)
Let: A = 4x
sin 4x cos 4x
sin 8x dx
1
2
1 1
1
cos 8x
cos 8x + c =
2
8
16
401
1
2
(1 + cos 2A)
sin2A
1
2
(1 cos 2A)
This technique can be used for any even power of sin x or cos x, and also sin2 (ax + b) etc.
%='&'!(()*+,-./0
!
Find:
sin x dx
2
sin2A =
Recognise:
"
Find:
1
2
(1 cos 2A)
1
2
(1 cos 2x) dx
1
2
(x
12 sin 2x) + c
cos2A =
1
2
(1
+ cos 2A)
1
2
(1 + cos 2x) dx
1
2
(x
sin x dx
2
cos x dx
2
Recognise:
cos x dx
2
Find:
now
+ 12 sin 2x) + c
sin2 2x dx
sin2A =
1
2
(1 cos 2A)
Let A = 2x,
sin2 2x dx =
1
2
sin2 2x =
1
2
(1 cos 4x)
(1 cos 4x) dx
4
1
1
= x sin 4x
0
2
4
1
4
=
sin
(0 0)
2 4
4
=
8
402
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Find:
cos x dx
4
cos x dx
4
2
2
=
cos x cos x dx
1
1
=
(1 + cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x) dx
2
2
1
=
(1 + cos 2x) (1 + cos 2x) dx
4
=
=
=
=
=
Find:
sin (2x
2
1
2
(1 + 2cos 2x + cos 2x) dx
4
1
1
1 + 2cos 2x + (1 + cos 4x) dx
4
2
1 3
1
+ 2cos 2x + cos 4x dx
4 2
2
1 3
1
x + sin 2x + sin 4x + c
4 2
8
3
1
1
x + sin 2x +
sin 4x + c
8
4
32
+ 3) dx
Recognise:
sin2A =
1
2
(1 cos 2A)
sin (2x
+ 3) dx =
1
2
1
2
1
sin (ax + b) + c
a
Recall:
cos (ax + b) dx
sin (2x
2
+ 3) dx =
1
2
x 1 cos (4x + 6) + c
403
Another example of applying the reverse of the differentiation and the chain rule:
From the chain rule, the derivative required is
d
(sinn x) = n sinn 1x cos x
dx
In reverse
sin
x cos x dx =
1
sinn + 1 + c
n + 1
Similarly:
cos
x sin x dx =
1
cosn + 1 + c
n + 1
%='='!(()*+,-./0
!
"
sin x cos x dx
1 2
sin x + c
2
1
= cos2x + c
2
2 sin 2x dx
1
= cos 2x + c
4
404
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
This technique is entirely different - change all but one of the sin/cos functions to the opposite by using the
pythag identity:
cos2x + sin2x = 1
Hence:
sin2x = 1 cos2x
cos2x = 1 sin2x
%='!>'!(()*+,-./0
!
Find:
sin x dx
3
=
Recognise standard type
cos x sin x dx
n
= cos x +
"
Find:
1 3
cos x + c
3
sin x dx
5
cos x sin x dx
n
= cos x +
2 3
1
cos x cos5x + c
3
5
405
From the standard derivative of these functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process. Thus:
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
sec x tan x dx
d
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x
dx
cosec x cot x dx
d
(cot x) = cosec2 x
dx
cosec
= sec x + c
= cosec x + c
x dx = cot x + c
%='!!'!(()*+,-./0
!
cos 3x
2 3x
sin
cos 3x
=
2 3x
sin
sin 3x
cos 3x
dx
sin 3x
cosec 3x cot 3x dx
1
= cosec 3x + c
3
"
cot
x dx
Recognise identity:
1 + cot 2 x = cosec2 x
cot
x dx =
(cosec
x 1) dx
= cot x x + c
406
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
From the standard derivative of these functions, the integral can be found by reversing the process. Thus:
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
sec x tan x dx
= sec x + c
d
(secn x) = n secn 1 x (secntan x)
dx
and
= n secnx tan x
sec x tan x dx
n
d
(tan x) = sec2x
dx
1 n
sec x + c
n
sec
x dx = tan x + c
d
(tann + 1x) = (n + 1) tannx sec2x
dx
and
tan x sec x dx
n
1
tann + 1x + c
n + 1
%='!"'!(()*+,-./0
!
Find:
tan x sec x dx
2
tan x sec x dx
2
"
Find:
1 3
tan x + c
3
tan x dx
2
tan x dx = (sec
2
1) dx
= tan x x + c
Find:
tan x dx
3
tan x (sec x 1) dx
1 tan 2x
2
+ ln (cos x) + c
Alternatively
1 sec2x
2
+ ln (cos x) + c
407
cos x dx
= sin x + c
d
(cos x) = sin x
dx
sin x dx
= cos x + c
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
sec
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
sec x tan x dx
d
(cosec x) = cosec x cot x
dx
cosec x cot x dx
d
(cot x) = cosec2 x
dx
cosec
x dx = tan x + c
= sec x + c
= cosec x + c
x dx = cot x + c
d
(sin (ax + b)) = cos (ax + b)
dx
cos (ax + b) dx
d
(cos (ax + b)) = sin (ax + b)
dx
sin (ax + b) dx
d
(tan (ax + b)) = sec2 (ax + b)
dx
sec (ax + b) dx
1
sin (ax + b) + c
a
1
cos (ax + b) + c
a
1
tan (ax + b) + c
a
d
(sin f (x)) = f (x) cos f (x)
dx
= sin f (x) + c
d
(cos f (x)) = f (x) sin f (x)
dx
= cos f (x) + c
d
(tan f (x)) = f (x) sec2 f (x)
dx
f (x) sec
tan x dx
cos x
sec x dx
cosec x dx
= ln | sin x | + c
= ln | sec x + tan x | + c
= ln | cosec x + cot x | + c
1
sinn + 1x + c
n + 1
sin x cos x dx
cos x sin x dx
sec x tan x dx
1
secnx + c
n
tan x sec x dx
1
tann + 1x + c
n + 1
ALevelNotesv7OPae
= ln | cos x | + c = ln | sec x | + c
cot x dx = sin x dx
408
1
cos n + 1x + c
n + 1
18-Jan-2012
60 C4 Integration by Inspection
OCR C4 / AQA C3
Integration of these types is often called integration by inspection or integration by recognition, because once
proficient in using this method, you should be able to just write down the answer by inspecting the function.
It is derived from reversing the function of a function rule for differentiation, i.e. the chain rule.
The key to using this method is recognising that one part of the integrand is the differential (or scalar multiple)
of the other part.
There are several methods of integrating fractions and products, depending of the form of the original function,
and recognition of this form will save a good deal of calculations. A common alternative to this method is
integration by substitution.
! Adapt compare your z dx with original question and adapt the answer accordingly. Note that any
adjustment must be a number only, not a function of x.
(This step not required if f (x) is the exact differential of f (x))
E.g.
then
and if y = ln f (x)
then
If
dy
1
=
dx
x
dy
1
=
f (x)
dx
f (x)
409
k f (x) dx k ln | f (x)
f (x)
+ c
Note that the modulus sign indicates that you cannot take the natural log of a negative number.
Following our method, our first guess should, therefore, be: (guess) = ln | denominator |.
Note that the numerator has to be an exact derivative of the denominator and not just a derivative of a function
inside the denominator.
E.g.
dx ln | x + 2 | + c
x + 2
In this case use substitution to evaluate the integral.
x
1
1
dx = ln | ax + b | + c
ax + b
a
k
k
dx = ln | ax + b | + c
ax + b
a
n
n1
d
f (x)
= n f (x) f (x)
dx
([
])
chain rule
;>'#'#(()*+,-./0
!
x2
dx
1 + x3
Guess:
ln | 1 + x3 |
Test:
d
1
3x2
3
2
|
|
ln
1
+
x
=
3x
=
dx
1 + x3
1 + x3
Reverse:
3x2
dx = ln | 1 + x3 | + c
1 + x3
1
x2
dx = ln | 1 + x3 | + c
1 + x3
3
Note: Adjustment has to be a number only.
Adapt:
"
2ex
dx
ex + 4
Guess:
ln | ex + 4 |
Test:
d
1
ex
x
x
=
|
|
ln
e
+
4
e
=
dx
ex + 4
ex + 4
Reverse:
ex
dx = ln
ex + 4
Adapt:
2ex
dx = 2 ln
ex + 4
| ex
| ex
+ 4| + c
+ 4| + c
= ln (ex + 4) + c
2
410
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
60 C4 Integration by Inspection
#
cos x sin x dx
sin x + cos x
ln | sin x + cos x |
Guess:
d
1
cos x sin x
ln | sin x + cos x | =
(cos x sin x) =
dx
sin x + cos x
sin x + cos x
cos x sin x dx = ln | sin x + cos x | + c
Reverse:
sin x + cos x
Adapt:
Not required because the numerator is the exact differential of the denominator.
Test:
2x dx
x2 + 9
f (x)
Of the form
f (x) dx
2x dx = ln | x2 + 9 | + c
x2 + 9
= ln (x2 + 9) + c
Note: for all real values of x, (x2 + 9) > 0, hence modulus sign not required.
tan x dx
Think tan x =
Guess:
Test:
Reverse:
Adapt:
sin x
d
and
(cos x) = sin x
cos x
dx
ln | cos x |
d
1
sin x
ln | cos x | =
( sin x) =
dx
cos x
cos x
sin x dx = ln | cos x | + c
cos x
sin x dx = ln | cos x | + c
cos x
tan x dx = ln | cos x | + c
= ln | cos x |1 + c
= ln
| cos1 x | + c
= ln | sec x | + c
cot 2x dx
Think cot 2x =
Guess:
Test:
Reverse:
Adapt:
1
cos 2x
d
=
and
(sin 2x) = 2 cos 2x
tan 2x
sin 2x
dx
ln | sin 2x |
d
1
2 cos 2x
(2 cos 2x) =
ln | sin 2x | =
dx
sin 2x
sin 2x
2 cos 2x dx = ln | sin 2x | + c
sin 2x
cos 2x dx = 1 ln | sin 2x | + c
sin 2x
2
cot 2x dx = 1 ln | sin 2x | + c
411
x3
dx
x4 + 9
Guess:
ln | x4 + 9 |
Test:
d
1
4x3
ln | x4 + 9 | = 4
4x3 = 4
dx
x + 9
x + 9
4x3
dx = ln | x4 + 9 | + c
x4 + 9
Reverse:
1
x3
dx = ln | x4 + 9 | + c
x4 + 9
4
1
= ln (x4 + 9) + c
4
Adapt:
x term is +ve
E.g.
x (x
+ 1) dx
2
x2 (3x3 + 1) dx
4
xe
3x
x2
4 x5 + 6
dx
f (x) = x2 + 1
f (x) = 2x
f (x) = 3x3 + 1
f (x) = 9x2
f (x) = x2
f (x) = 2x
f (x) = x5 + 6
f (x) = 5x4
x
dx =
2
x + 1
12
x ( x2 + 1)
dx
: f (x) = x2 + 1
f (x) = 2x
If y = f (x)
If y = e f (x)
then
then
dy
= n f (x) f (x)
dx
dy
= f (x) e f (x)
dx
n1
f
(x)
+ c
n + 1
f (x)
f (x)
+ c
f (x) e dx e
412
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
60 C4 Integration by Inspection
;>'$'"(()*+,-./0
!
"
x (x2 + 1)2 dx
( x2
Test:
3
2
2
d 2
(x + 1) = 3 (x2 + 1) 2x = 6 x (x2 + 1)
dx
Reverse:
Adapt:
( x2 + 1)
Guess:
(sin x)4
Test:
d
[
(sin x)4] = 4 (sin x)3 cos x = 4 cos x (sin x)3
dx
Reverse:
3
4
Adapt:
x2 (x3 + 5) dx x2 ( x3 + 5)2 dx
( x3
+ 5)2
3
1
1
d 3
3 3
9 2 3
2
2
2
2
(
)
(
)
(
)
x
+
5
=
x
+
5
3x
=
x
x
+
5
dx
2
2
Test:
Reverse:
Adapt:
3
1
9 2( 3
x x + 5)2 dx = ( x3 + 5)2 + c
2
3
1
2
2( 3
x x + 5)2 dx = ( x3 + 5)2 + c
x e dx
2
Guess:
+ 1)
3
3
cos x sin x dx
cos x (sin x) dx
Guess:
2+1
Guess:
ex
[ ]
Test:
2
2
d x2
e
= ex 2x = 2x ex
dx
Reverse:
x
x
2x e dx = e + c
Adapt:
x ex2dx = 1 ex2 + c
sin x
dx
cos x e
Guess:
esin x
Test:
d sin x
[ e ] = esin x cos x = cos x esin x
dx
Reverse:
sin x
= esin x + c
cos x e
Adapt:
not required
413
<
x (3x2 4)5 dx
dx
5
(3x2 4)
Guess:
(3x2
4)
Test:
4
5
5
d
(3x2 4) = 4 6x (3x2 4) = 24x (3x2 4)
dx
Reverse:
Adapt:
24
After a while it becomes easier to write the answer down, but always check the possible answer by
differentiating.
ex (6ex 5)2 dx
Note:
Adapt:
Inspect:
Test:
f (x) = 6ex 5
f (x) = 6ex
6
2
3
1 x x
1
1
6e (6e 5) dx =
(6ex 5)
6
6
3
3
1
(6ex 5)
=
18
3
2
2
d 1
(6ex 5) = 1 6ex 3 (6ex 5) = ex (6ex 5)
dx 18
18
d
1
ln f (x) =
( f (x))
dx
f (x)
k f (x) dx = k ln | f (x)
f (x)
+ c
n + 1
n1
d
n
[
( f (x)) ] = n f (x) [ f (x)]
dx
n+1
1
f (x) [ f (x)] n dx
f (x)]
+ c
[
n + 1
d
[ e f (x) ] = f (x) e f (x)
dx
dx = ex + c
f (x)
f (x)
+ c
f (x) e dx e
414
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
OCR C4 / AQA C3
This is the equivalent of the product rule for integration. It is usually used when the product we want to integrate
is not of the form f (x) (f (x))n and so cannot be integrated with this standard method, or by recognition or by
substitution.
Integrating by Parts is particularly useful for integrating the product of two types of function, such as a
polynomial with a trig, exponential or log function, (e.g. x sinx, x2 ex, ln x).
dx
dx
dx
dv
du
uv =
u dx +
v d
dx
dx
u dv dx = uv v du dx
Rearranging:
dx
dx
u dv dx = uv v du dx
dx
dx
61.2 Choice of
u & dv/dx
Normally, u is assigned to any polynomial in x, and if any exponential function is involved, assign this to dv
dx .
However, if ln x is involved make this u, as it is easier to differentiate the ln function than to integrate it.
61.3 Method
! Let u = the bit of the product which will differentiate to a constant, even if it takes 2 or 3 turns, such as
polynomials in x, (e.g. x3 differentiates to 3x2 6x 6)
! If this is not possible or there is a difficult part to integrate let this be u. e.g. ln x.
! Differentiate to find du
dx .
ax
! Let the other part of the product be dv
dx , like e which is easy to integrate.
Integrate to find v.
Substitute into the rule and finish off.
Add the constant of integration at the end.
Sometimes integrating by parts needs to be applied more than once (see special examples). Do not
confuse the use of u in the second round of integration.
! This is the method used to integrate ln x.
!
!
!
!
415
u
a
b
dv
dx = uv
a
dx
v
a
du
dx
dx
)*+,-./0(
Find:
x sin x dx
Solution:
Let: u = x
&
du
= 1
dx
dv
= sin x
dx
dv
v =
= cos x + k
dx
where k is the constant from the first integration and c is the constant from the second
integrations.
dv
du
Recall:
u
dx = uv
v
dx
dx
dx
x cos x dx
= x ( cos x + k)
= x cos x + kx +
( cos x + k) 1 dx
cos x dx k dx
= x cos x + kx + sin x kx + c
= x cos x + sin x + c
416
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
Find:
x cos x dx
Solution:
Let: u = x
dv
= cos x
Note: u = x becomes simpler when differentiated.
dx
dv
v =
=
cos x = sin x
dx
&
du
= 1
dx
x cos x dx
= x sin x
sin x 1 dx
= x sin x + cos x + c
Alternative (longer) Solution:
Let: u = cos x
dv
= x
dx
&
du
= sin x
dx
v =
x cos x dx = sin x .
x2
x2
2
x2
(sin x) dx
2
x2
x2
sin x +
sin x dx
etc etc
2
2
As you can see, this gives a more involved solution, that has to have another round of integration
by parts. This emphasises the importance of choosing u wisely. In this case it would be prudent to
start again with u = x.
"
Find:
x sec x dx
2
Solution:
Let: u = x
du
= 1
dx
x sec x dx
2
&
dv
= sec2x
dx
dv
v =
= tan x
dx
= x tan x
Standard tables
tan x 1 dx
= x sin x + ln (cos x) + c
Standard tables
417
Find:
(4x + 2) sin 4x dx
Solution:
Let: u = 4x + 2
dv
= sin 4x
dx
1
v = cos 4x
4
&
du
= 4
dx
(4x + 2) sin 4x dx
Find:
1
= (4x + 2) ( cos 4x)
4
4 cos 4x . 4 dx
1
(4x + 2) cos 4x +
4
1
1
(4x + 2) cos 4x + sin 4x + c
4
4
cos 4x dx
sin x dx
Solution:
Let: u = x2
du
= 2x
dx
&
dv
= sin x
dx
dv
v =
= cos x
dx
sin x dx = x2 ( cos x)
= x2 cos x +
cos x . 2x dx
2x cos x dx
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
Now let u = 2x
&
du
= 2
dx
v = sin x
= x2 cos x + 2x sin x
dv
= cos x
dx
sin x 2 dx
2 sin x dx
418
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
%
Find:
x2 cos x dx
Solution:
Let: u = x2
dv
= cos x
dx
dv
v =
= sin x
dx
&
du
= 2x
dx
x2 cos x dx = x2 sin x
0
0
= [ 0 0]
sin x . 2x dx
2x sin x dx
0
Now integrate by parts again, and then one final integration to give
u = 2x
Now let:
du
= 2
dx
x2 cos x dx = 0
= 0
dv
= sin x
dx
&
v = cos x
{[
{[
2x ( cos x)
2x cos x
= [ 2 0] +
= 2
cos x . 2 dx
2 cos x dx
0
2 cos x dx
0
2 cos x dx
0
= 2 [ 2 sin x ] 0
= 2 [0 0] = 2
Find:
2x sin (3x 1) dx
Solution:
Let: u = 2x
&
du
= 2
dx
2x sin (3x 1) dx
dv
= sin (3x 1)
dx
1
v = cos (3x 1)
3
1
= 2x cos (3x 1)
3
=
2
2
x cos (3x 1) +
3
3
3 cos (3x 1) . 2 dx
cos (3x 1) dx
2
2
1
x cos (3x 1) +
sin (3x 1) + c
3
3
3
2
2
= x cos (3x 1) + sin (3x 1) + c
3
9
2
2
= sin (3x 1)
x cos (3x 1) + c
9
3
=
419
Solve by parts
x (2x + 3)
dx
dv
= (2x + 3)5
dx
Let: u = x
du
= 1
dx
Recall:
v =
=
(ax + b)n dx =
(2x + 3)
dv
x (2x + 3)
dx = x .
=
= uv
du
v dx dx
1
(2x + 3)6
12
x
1
(2x + 3)6
12
12
x
(2x + 3)6
12
x
=
(2x + 3)6
12
1
=
(2x + 3)6 x
12
1
(2x + 3)6 + c
2 (6)
dx =
1
(2x + 3)6 + c
12
u dx dx
Recall:
1
(ax + b)n + 1 + c
a (n + 1)
12 (2x + 3)
(2x + 3)
1 dx
dx
1
1
(2x + 3)7 + c
12
2 7
1
1
(2x + 3)7 + c
12
14
1
(2x + 3) + c
14
1
(2x + 3)
14x
(2x + 3)6
+ c
12
14
14
1
14x 2x 3)
(2x + 3)6
+ c
12
14
1
12x 3
(2x + 3)6
+ c
12
14
3
4x 1
(2x + 3)6
+ c
12
14
1
(2x + 3)6 [ 4x 1] + c
56
1
=
(2x + 3)6 (4x 1) + c
56
=
420
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
&
xe
Find:
3x
dx
Solution:
Let: u = x
dv
= e3x
dx
1
v = e3x
3
&
du
= 1
dx
xe
3x
1
1
dx = x . e3x e3x 1 dx
3
3
xe
3x
dx =
1 3x
1
x e e3x + c
3
9
1 3x
1
e x
+ c
3
3
1
= e3x (3x 1) + c
9
=
Find:
2 4x
e dx
Solution:
Let: u = x2
&
du
= 2x
dx
dv
= e4x
dx
1
v = e4x
4
1
1
e dx = x2 . e4x e4x . 2x dx
4
4
2 4x
1 2 4x
x e
4
1
= x2 e4x
4
=
1 4x
x e dx
2
1 dv
dx
u
2 dx
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
Now let:
u = x
du
= 1
dx
dv
= e4x
dx
1
v = e4x
4
x e4x dx = x . 1 e4x 1 e4x dx
4
4
1
1 4x
= x e4x
e
4
16
&
4
2 4
16
1
1
1 4x
= x2 e4x x e4x +
e + c
4
8
32
1
1
1
= e4x x2 x +
+ c
4
8
32
32
421
x eax dx
Solution:
Let: u = x
dv
= eax
dx
1
v = eax
a
&
du
= 1
dx
x
x eax dx = eax
a
0
x
1
= eax +
0
a
a
1
1 eax dx
a
eax dx
x
1
1
= eax +
eax
a
a
a
0
x
1
= eax 2 eax
a
a
0
x
1
= ax 2 ax
a e 0
ae
As x ,
x
0
aeax
and
a2eax
1
x eax dx = [ 0 0] 0 2
a
1
a2
x
1
x eax dx = eax +
a
a
0
x
1
= ax +
0
a
ae
= [ 0 0] +
x eax dx =
1
a
1
a
eax dx
eax dx
eax dx
eax dx
= 2 ax
a e 0
1
= [ 0] 2
a
422
x eax dx =
ALevelNotesv7OPae
1
a2
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
ln x
So far we have found no means of integrating ln x, but now, by regarding ln x as the product ln x 1, we can
now apply integration by parts. In this case make u = ln x as ln x is hard to integrate and we know how to
differentiate it.
The trick of multiplying by 1 can be used elsewhere, especially for integrating inverse trig functions.
;!'<'!(()*+,-./0
!
Integrating ln x
ln x
1 dx
u = ln x
Let:
dv
= 1
dx
&
du
1
=
dx
x
ln x
v = x
1
1 dx = x ln x x dx
x
= x ln x
dx
= x ln x x + c
ln x
"
Find:
= x (ln x 1) + c
ln x dx
Solution:
Following the guidelines on choice of u & dv, then we would let u = x and dv
dx = ln x
However, ln x is difficult to integrate, so choose u = ln x
dv
Let: u = ln x
&
= x4
dx
du
1
1
=
v = x5
dx
x
5
ln x dx = ln x .
1 5
x
5
5x
1
dx
x
1 5
1
x ln x
5
5
1 5
1
1
x ln x
x5 + c
5
5
5
ln x dx =
dx
1 5
1 5
x ln x
x + c
5
25
1 5
1
x ln x
+ c
5
5
1 5
=
x (5 ln x 1) + c
25
=
423
Evaluate:
x ln x dx
2
Solution:
As above, choose u = ln x
Let: u = ln x
&
dv
= x
dx
du
1
=
dx
x
x2
2
v =
8
x2
x ln x dx = ln x
2
2
2
x2
= ln x
2
2
x2 1
dx
2 2 x
x
dx
22
8
x2
x2
= ln x
4 2
2
= (32 ln 8 16) (2 ln 2 1)
= 32 ln 8 2 ln 2 15
= 32 ln 23 2 ln 2 15
= 96 ln 2 2 ln 2 15
x ln x dx = 94 ln 2 15
Find:
x ln x dx
Solution:
Let: u = ln x
&
du
1
=
dx
x
dv
=
dx
v =
x ln x dx = ln x .
=
2 23
x
3
2 23
2
x ln x
3
3
3x
x =
3
2
2 23
x
3
1
dx
x
x 2 dx
2 23
2
2 3
x ln x
x2 + c
3
3
3
2 3
=
x ( 3 ln x 2) + c
9
=
424
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
;!'&'!(()*+,-./0
!
ln x dx
Find:
Solution:
Let: u = ln x
dv
1
=
dx
x
&
du
1
=
v = ln x
dx
x
ln x dx = ln x . ln x ln x . 1 dx
x
ln x
2
= (ln x)
dx
x
ln x
2
2
dx = (ln x)
x
ln x
1
2
dx = (ln x) + c
x
2
"
e sin x dx
x
Find:
Solution 1:
Let: u = sin x
&
dv
= ex
dx
du
= cos x
dx
e sin x dx
x
v = ex
= sin x . ex
e cos x dx
x
&
du
= sin x
dx
e sin x dx
x
e sin x dx
x
v = ex
= ex sin x cos x . ex
= ex sin x ex cos x +
= ex sin x ex cos x
e sin x dx
x
sin x dx
e sin x dx
= ex (sin x cos x) + c
e sin x dx
e ( sin x) dx
dv
= ex
dx
1 x
e (sin x cos x) + c
2
425
Let: u = ex
&
du
= ex
dx
dv
= sin x
dx
v = cos x
e sin x dx
= ex ( cos x)
e sin x dx
= ex cos x +
cos x . e dx
x
cos x . e dx
x
dv
= cos x
dx
&
du
= ex
dx
e sin x dx
x
= ex sin x + ex cos x
e sin x dx
= ex sin x ex cos x + c
e sin x dx
426
ALevelNotesv7OPae
v = sin x
sin x . e
dx
e sin x dx
x
1 x
e (sin x cos x) + c
2
18-Jan-2012
61 C4 Integration by Parts
#
e cos x dx
x
Find:
Solution:
Let: u = cos x
&
dv
= ex
dx
du
= sin x
dx
v = ex
e cos x dx
= cos x . ex
e cos x dx
= ex cos x +
(sin x) dx
e sin x dx
x
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
u = sin x
&
du
= cos x
dx
v = ex
e cos x dx
= ex cos x + sin x . ex
e cos x dx
= ex (cos x + sin x)
e cos x dx
e cos x dx
x
dv
= ex
dx
e
x
cos x dx
cos x dx
= ex (cos x + sin x) + c
=
1 x
e (cos x + sin x) + c
2
427
Find:
2x
sin 4x dx
Solution:
dv
= e2x
dx
du
1
= 4 cos 4x
v = e2x
dx
2
1
e2x sin 4x dx = sin 4x . e2x 1 e2x . 4 cos 4x dx
2
2
e2x sin 4x dx = 1 e2x sin 4x 2 e2x cos 4x dx
2
Let: u = sin 4x
&
Now integrate by parts again and then one final integration to give
u = cos 4x
&
du
= 4 sin 4x
dx
dv
= e2x
dx
1
v = e2x
2
1 2x
1 2x 1 2x
2x
1 2x
2x
1 2x
2x
2
1
5
e2x sin 4x dx = e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x + c
2
1
2
= e2x sin 4x e2x cos 4x + c
2
2
1
5
e2x sin 4x dx = e2x (sin 4x 2 cos 4x) + c
2
1 2x
e2x sin 4x dx =
e (sin 4x 2 cos 4x) + c
10
dx
dx
428
ALevelNotesv7OPae
u
a
b
dv
dx = uv
a
dx
v
a
du
dx
dx
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
OCR C4 / AQA C3
If
f (x) dx
dy
= f (x)
dx
From the chain rule, if u is a function of x
dy
dy
dx
=
du
dx
du
dy
dx
= f (x)
du
du
dy
dx
du du = f (x) du du
y =
dx
f (x) du du
dx
f (x) dx = f (x) du du
429
a (n + 1)
1
1
dx = ln | ax + b | + c
ax + b
a
e(ax + b) dx = 1 e(ax + b) + c
f (x) dx
dx
f (x) du du
3
Use substitution to find: (5x 3) dx
Solution:
Let: u = 5x 3
du
= 5
dx
dx
1
=
du
5
dx
f (x) dx = f (x) du du
Substituting:
(5x 3)3 dx = (u)3 1 du 1 (u)3 du
5
5
1
1
=
u4 + c
5
4
1
(5x 3)4 + c
=
20
"
1
Use substitution to find:
dx
4x + 2
Solution:
Let: u = 4x + 2
du
= 4
dx
dx
1
=
du
4
Substituting
1 1
1 1
1
dx =
du =
du
4x + 2
u 4
4 u
1
= ln u + c
4
1
= ln (4x + 2) + c
4
This is a standard result:
1
1
dx = ln (ax + b) + c
ax + b
a
430
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
The integration process can be streamlined somewhat if we find dx in terms of u and du, rather that find
dx
du specifically each time, as in the following examples.
dx
x + x
Solution:
Let: u =
x,
du
1 1
= x 2
dx
2
du =
1
2 x
dx
u = x2
du
1
=
dx
2 x
dx = 2 x du
dx = 2u du
dx =
2u du
du
du
2
x + x
u + u
u (u + 1)
(u + 1)
= 2 ln | u + 1 | + c
= 2 ln | x + 1 | + c
3x
1 + x2 dx
Solution:
Let: u = x2
du
= 2x
dx
dx =
du
2x
Substituting:
3x 1 + x2 dx = 3 x (1 + u)12 du 3 (1 + u)12 du
2x
2
3
3
3
2
=
(1 + u)2 + c = (1 + u)2 + c
2
3
3
= ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
Alternative solution:
Let: u = 1 + x2
du
= 2x
dx
x2 = u 1
dx =
x = (u 1)2
du
du
=
1
2x
2 (u 1)2
Substituting:
du
3 12
3x 1 + x2 dx = 3 (u 1)12 (u)12
(u) du
1
2
2 (u 1)2
3
3
2 3
(u)2 + c = (u)2 + c
2
3
3
= ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
431
Solution:
du
= 2x
dx
Let: u = (1 + x2)
dx =
du
2x
Substituting:
3x (1 + x2)5 dx = 3 x (u)5 du 3 (u)5 du
2x
2
3
1
1
=
u6 + c = u6 + c
2
6
4
6
1
= ( 1 + x 2) + c
4
6x
Use substitution to find:
dx
2x + 1
Solution:
du
= 2
dx
Let: u = (2x + 1)
dx =
du
2
Substituting
6x
6x du
3x
2x + 1 dx = u 2 12 du
u
We have an x left, so go back to the substitution and find x
u = 2x + 1
3x
12 du = 3 x
u
3
=
2
u 1
2
1
u 1 1 du
1 du = 3
1
2
u2
u2
u 1
3 u
1
du =
1
1
1 du
2
u2
u2
u2
x =
3 + 12
1
u u 2 du
3
=
2
2u 2
1
2u 2 + c
3
= u 2 [ u 3] + c
= u 2 3u 2 + c
1
= 2 (x 1) (2x + 1)2 + c
<
2x e dx
2
Find:
Solution:
du
= 2x
dx
Let: u = x2
2x e
x2
dx =
=
2x e
e
dx =
du
2x
du
2x
du = eu
= ex + c
432
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
&
ex
dx
(1 ex)2
Note ex is a derivative of 1 ex not (1 ex)2, so use substitution.
Find:
Solution:
Let: u = 1 ex
du
= ex
dx
dx =
du
ex
Substituting
ex
ex du
1
dx
=
2 x 2 du
x
2
(1 e )
(u) e
u
2
=
u du
= u1 + c
1
+ c
1 ex
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
Solution:
Let: u = 3x 1
du
= 3
dx
dx =
du
3
Substituting
1
= (x + 5) (u)5 du
(x + 5) (3x 1) dx
5
1
3
1
=
3
1
=
9
=
x =
(
(
u + 1
3
u + 1 + 5 u5 du
3
u + 1 + 15 u5 du
3
(u + 16) u5 du = 1 (u6 + 16u5) du
1 u7
16u6
1 u7
8u6
+ c
+
+ c = +
97
6
97
3
1 3u7 + 56u6
1
(3u7 + 56u6) + c
+ c =
9
21
189
u6
(3u + 56) + c
189
(3x 1)6
[ 3 (3x 1) + 56] + c
189
(3x 1)6
(9x + 53) + c
189
433
4 x2 dx
Solution:
Let: x = 2 sin u
dx
= 2 cos u
du
dx = 2 cos u du
Substituting
4 x2 dx =
4 4sin2u 2 cos u du =
4 (1 sin2u) 2 cos u du
= 4
4 cos 2u 2 cos u du =
2 cos u
2 cos u du
cos u du
2
2 cos2u = 1 + cos 2u
but:
1
= 4
(1 + cos 2u) du
2
= 2
(1 + cos 2u) du
1
= 2 u + sin 2u + c
2
= 2u + sin 2u + c
Substituting back:
x = 2sin u
Given:
Identity:
sin2u = 1 cos2u
Identity:
x
2
sin2u =
&
( 2x ) = u
x2
4
cos2u = 1 sin2u
cos2u = 1
cos u =
434
ALevelNotesv7OPae
4 x2
4
1
4 x2
2
Substituting:
x2
4
= 2sin1
4 x2 dx = 2sin1
( 2x ) + 2 ( 2x ) 12 4 x
( 2x ) + ( 2x ) 4 x + c
+ c
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
;"'%'!(()*+,-./0
!
[ Has form
4 x2 dx
Solution:
Let: x = 2sin u
dx
= 2 cos u
du
Limits:
dx = 2 cos u du
2sin u
sin u
1
2
0
6
0
4 x2 dx = 2u + sin 2u + c
1
x2
u = 6
dx = 2u + sin 2u
0
3
+
0
3
2
3
+ 3
+
=
3
2
6
"
1
dx
2
01 + x
Solution:
Let: x = tan u
dx
= sec2 u
du
dx = sec2 u du
Limits:
x
tan u
Substituting:
1
dx =
2
01 + x
=
x=1
0
1
sec2 u du
1 + tan2u
x=1
1 du
0
[]
= u
u = 4
u=0
435
x (2x 1)6 dx
Solution:
Let: u = 2x 1
du
= 2
dx
Limits:
x =
dx =
1
2
1
2
(u + 1)
du
x u = 2x 1
2
Substituting:
x (2x 1)6 dx =
1
4
u=3
u = 1
(u + 1) (u6) 12 du
1
2
u7 + u6 du
1 1 8
1 7 3
u + u 1
4 8
7
1 1 8
1 7 3
u + u 1
4 8
7
1 1 8
1 7
1 1
1
8
7
3 + 3 (1) + (1)
4 8
7
4 8
7
1
(113257) = 28314
4
x2 (x3 + 1) dx
Solution:
Let: u = x3 + 1
x =
du
= 3x2
dx
Limits:
dx =
1
2
(u + 1)
1
du
3x2
x u = x3 + 1
2
9
1
0
Substituting:
x2 (x3 + 1) dx =
1
3
u=9
u=0
x 2u 2
1
du
3x2
u 2 du
0
9
1 1 23
1 2 3
u = u 2
3
3 2 0
3 3 0
1 2 23
2 3
9 0 = 9 2
3 3
9
= 6
436
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
;"';'!(()*+,-./0
!
1 ln x dx
Let: x = eu
dx
= eu
du
dx = eu du
Substituting
1 ln x dx = 1 ln eu eu du ln eu du
x
eu
but:
u2
= u du =
+ c
u ln e = u
x = eu
u = ln x
(ln x)2
1
ln x dx =
+ c
x
2
"
Find:
6x
dx
1 + x2
Solution:
Let: u = 1 + x2
du
du
= 2x
dx =
dx
2x
6x
6x
du
3 du
dx
=
1 + x2
u
u
2x
1
3u 2
3u 2 du = 1 + c
=
2
1
= 6u 2 + c
1
= 6 ( 1 + x 2) 2 + c
6 1 + x2 + c
Let: u = 1 + x3
du
= 3x2
dx
dx =
du
3x2
x2 1 + x3 dx = x2 u du = 1 u 12 du
3x2
3
1 2 3
= u 2 + c
3 3
=
3
2
3 2
(1 + x ) + c
9
437
Consider:
7x
dx
(1 + 2x2)3
Solution:
Let: u = 1 + 2x2
du
du
= 4x
dx =
dx
4x
7x
7x du
7
dx =
.
=
du
3
3
2
(1 + 2x )
(u) 4x
4u3
7 3
7 3
=
u du =
u du
4
4
7 1
7
7
= u2 + c = u2 + c 2 + c
4 2
8
8u
2
7
7
(1 + 2x2) + c
+ c
8
8 (1 + 2x2)2
In the following two questions, note that we have a fraction, of which the top is the differential of the
denominator, or a multiple thereof.
f (x) dx = ln | f (x)
f (x)
+ c
Try:
cos x sin x dx
sin x + cos x
Solution:
dx =
dx
cos x sin x
du
cos x sin x dx = cos x sin x
sin x + cos x
u
cos x sin x
1
=
du
u
= ln u + c
= ln | sin x + cos x | + c
438
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
;
Try:
ex ex
dx
ex + ex
Solution:
Let: u = ex + ex
du
= ex ex
dx
dx =
ex
du
ex
du
ex ex
ex ex
1
dx
=
x
= du
ex + ex
u
u
e ex
= ln u + c
= ln (ex + ex) + c
<
( ex
Try:
sec2 x
dx
tan3 x
Solution:
dx =
du
sec2 x
du
sec2 x
sec2 x
dx
=
tan3 x
u3
sec2 x
1
=
du
u3
3
=
u du
1 2
u + c
2
1
=
+ c
2 u2
1
=
+ c
2 tan2 x
=
f (x)
The common trig functions that are of the form
f (x) dx are:
Function y = f (x)
Integral f (x) dx
tan x
ln | sec x | + c
cot x
ln | sin x | + c
cosec x
sec x
ln | cosec x + cot x | + c
ln | sec x + tan x | + c
439
use
use
a
tan u
b
a
x = sin u
b
x =
;"'<'!(()*+,-./0
!
25 + 16x2 dx
i.e a = 5, b = 4
dx
5
= sec2 u
du
4
5
dx = sec2 u du
4
1
1
5
dx =
sec2 u du
25 + 16x2
25 + 16 ( 54 tan u)2
4
Let: x =
5
tan u
4
1
5
2
=
25 + 25 tan2u 4 sec u du
1
5
=
sec2 u du
25 (1 + tan2u)
4
1
5
2
=
25sec 2u 4 sec u du
1
1
1
=
5 4 du = 20 du
1
=
u + c
Note:
20
1
4x
=
tan1
+ c
Note:
20
5
( )
440
ALevelNotesv7OPae
tan u =
4x
5
u = tan1
( 4x5 )
18-Jan-2012
62 C4 Integration by Substitution
"
(1 x2) dx
dx
= cos u
du
Let: x = sin u
dx = cos u du
u = sin1x
Limits:
x
1 sin1 x = 2
0 sin1 0 = 0
(1
x2) dx
(1 sin2u) cos u du
=
=
cos2 u du
1
=
2
(1 + cos 2u) du
1
1
2
= u + sin 2u
0
2
2
) (
1
1
1
+ sin 0 + sin 0
2 2
2
2
Try :
(ax + b)n
u = ax + b
(ax + b)
un = ax + b
a bx2
x =
a sin u
b
a + bx2
x =
a tan u
b
bx2 a
x =
a sec u
b
ex
ln (ax + b)
u = ex
ax + b = eu
: x = ln u
:
x = 1a eu ba
441
Let: u = ax + b
ax = u b
du
du
= a
dx =
dx
a
u b
x =
a
Substituting:
x (ax + b)n dx = u b (u)n du
a
a
1
= 2
(u b) un du
a
1
n+1
= 2
bun) du
(u
a
442
ALevelNotesv7OPae
1 un + 2
bun + 1
+ c
a2 n + 2
n + 1
1 (ax + b)n + 2
b (ax + b)n + 1
+ c
a2 n + 2
n + 1
18-Jan-2012
63 C4 Partial Fractions
63.1 Intro to Partial Fractions
If:
3
2
7x 8
+
=
2x + 1
x 2
(2x + 1) (x 2)
+
(ax + b) (cx + d)
(ax + b)
(cx + d)
! Squared terms in the denominator (includes quadratics that will not factorise easily)
x
A
Bx + C
+
(ax + b) (cx2 + d)
(ax + b)
(cx2 + d)
! Repeated Linear factors in the form:
x
A
B
C
D
+
+
+
3
(ax + b) (cx + d)
(ax + b)
(cx + d)
(cx + d)2
(cx + d)3
! Improper (top heavy) fractions in the form:
xn + m
axn + bx + d
To solve for the unknown constants, A, B & C etc., we can use one or more of the following four methods:
!
!
!
!
Equating coefficients
Substitution in the numerator
Separating the unknown by multiplication and substituting
Cover up method (only useful for linear factors)
8x
A
B
C
=
+
+
(2x 1) (x 2) (x + 4)
(2x 1)
(x 2)
(x + 4)
443
;#'#'!(()*+,-./0
The first task is to factorise the denominator:
7x 8
7x 8
=
2
2x 5x + 2
(2x 1) (x 2)
Then set up the identity with the correct number of partial fractions:
7x 8
A
B
+
(2x 1) (x 2)
2x 1
x 2
Add the fractions on the RHS to give:
7x 8
A
B
A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
(2x 1) (x 2)
2x 1
x 2
(2x 1) (x 2)
7x 8 A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
7x 8 Ax 2A + 2Bx B
: 7x = Ax + 2Bx
7 = A + 2B
2A + B = 8
A = 7 2B
2 (7 2B) + B = 8
14 4B + B = 8
3B = 6
B = 2
3B = 6
&
A = 3
7x 8
3
2
=
+
(2x 1) (x 2)
2x 1
x 2
;#'$'!(()*+,-./0
7x 8
A
B
(2x 1) (x 2)
2x 1
x 2
A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
(2x 1) (x 2)
7x 8 A (x 2) + B (2x 1)
B = 2
Find A by choosing x =
444
1
(to make 2nd (B) term zero)
2
7
1
8 = A
2
2
2
9
3
= A
A = 3
2
2
7x 8
3
2
=
+
(2x 1) (x 2)
2x 1
x 2
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
63 C4 Partial Fractions
;#'%'!(()*+,-./0
x2
4x
A
B
+
4
x + 2
x 2
+
2
x 4
x + 2
x 2
Cancel common terms:
4x
B (x + 2)
A+
x 2
x 2
4x
B (x + 2)
A =
x 2
x 2
Now substitute a value for x such that the B term is zero:
If x = 2 : A =
8
0 = 2
4
Now multiply both sides by one of the other factors, (x 2) in this case:
4x (x 2)
A (x 2)
B (x 2)
+
2
x 4
x + 2
x 2
Cancel common terms:
4x
A (x 2)
+ B
x + 2
x + 2
4x
A (x 2)
B =
+
x + 2
x + 2
Now substitute a value for x such that the A term is zero:
If x = 2 : B =
8
= 2
4
Hence:
x2
4x
2
2
+
4
x + 2
x 2
Test this by substituting a value for x on both sides. Dont use the values chosen above, as we need to
check it is valid for all values of x.
4
2
2
If x = 1 :
+
1 4
1 + 2
1 2
4
2
2
3
3
1
2
6
4
=
3
3
3
445
+
2
(ax + b) (cx + d)
(ax + b)
(cx2 + d)
Note that the numerator is always one degree less than the denominator.
;#';'!(()*+,-./0
4x
A
Bx + C
A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
(x + 1) (x2 3)
x + 1
x2 3
(x + 1) (x2 3)
4x A (x2 3) + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
4 = A (1 3) + 0
A = 2
A = 2
C = 6
B = 4 C = 4 6 = 2
Hence:
4x
2
6 2x
=
+ 2
2
(x + 1) (x 3)
x + 1
x 3
Check result by substituting any value for x, except 1 used above. So let x = 1
4
2
6 2
=
+
(1 + 1) (1 3)
1 + 1
1 3
4
2
4
=
+
(2) (2)
2
2
1 = 1 2 = 1
"
2
x 4
x + 2
x 2
(x + 2) (x 2)
4x A (x 2) + B (x + 2)
If x = 2 :
8 = A (0) + B (4)
If x = 2 :
8 = A (4) + B (0)
446
ALevelNotesv7OPae
B = 2
A = 2
4x
2
2
+
x2 4
x + 2
x 2
18-Jan-2012
63 C4 Partial Fractions
;#'<'!(()*+,-./0
!
x
(x + 1) (x + 2)2
x
A
B
C
+
+
2
2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
x + 1
(x + 2)
x + 2
x A (x + 2)2 + B (x + 1) + C (x + 1) (x + 2)
x = 2
B = 2
x = 1
A = 1
Look at x2 term:
A+ C = 0
B = 2
A = 1
C = 1
x
1
2
1
=
+
+
2
2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
x + 1
(x + 2)
x + 2
447
+
2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
x + 1
(x + 2)2
x A (x + 2)2 + (Bx + C) (x + 1)
x = 1
1 = A (1)2 + 0
A = 1
x = 2
2 = 0 + (2B + C) (1)
2 = 2B C
Equate constant terms
0 = 4A + C
2B = C 2
C = 4
B = 1
x
1
x + 4
+
2
(x + 1) (x + 2)
x + 1
(x + 2)2
x2 + 7x + 5
A
B
C
+
+
3
2
(x + 2)
x + 2
(x + 2)
(x + 2)3
Compare numerators:
x2 + 7x + 5 A (x + 2)2 + B (x + 2) + C
Let: x = 2
4 14 + 5 = C
Compare coefficients: x2
C = 5
1 = A
5 = 4A + 2B + C
5 = 4 + 2B 5
B = 3
448
ALevelNotesv7OPae
x2 + 7x + 5
1
3
5
(x + 2)3
x + 2
(x + 2)2
(x + 2)3
18-Jan-2012
63 C4 Partial Fractions
;#'&'!(()*+,-./0
!
6x 8
A
B
+
(x 1) (x 2)
x 1
x 2
To find A, we cover up its corresponding factor (x 1) and then set x = 1
6x 8
A
=
(7777) (x 2)
(7777)
6 8
2
=
= 2 = A
1 2
1
Similarly, to find B, we cover up its corresponding factor (x 2) and then set x = 2
6x 8
B
=
(x 1) (7777)
(7777)
12 8
4
=
= 4 = B
2 1
1
Hence:
6x 8
2
4
+
(x 1) (x 2)
x 1
x 2
Why does this work? If we did it the long way by multiplying by one factor, say (x 1), we get:
(6x 8) (x 1)
A (x 1)
B (x 1)
+
(x 1) (x 2)
x 1
x 2
Cancelling terms we get:
(6x 8)
B (x 1)
A+
(x 2)
x 2
When x = 1 the B term becomes zero, so we have:
(6x 8)
A
(x 2)
So the Cover Up Method is just a short cut method for multiplying out by one of the factors.
449
The cover up method can be used on the linear parts of other more complex partial fractions.
This speeds up the process, and simplifies the subsequent calculations.
For example, in the problem earlier, we had this to solve:
4x
A
Bx + C
+ 2
2
(x + 1) (x 3)
x + 1
x 3
To find A: cover up (x + 1) and set x = 1
4x
A
(7777) (x2 3)
(7777)
4
A
(1 3)
4
A
A = 2
2
The other constants can now be found using the other methods.
The cover up method can also be used to partly solve problems with repeated linear factors. The
proviso is that only the highest power of the repeated factor can be covered up.
6
A
B
C
+
+
2
2
(x + 2) (x 1)
x + 2
(x 1)
x 1
To find A: cover up (x + 2) and set x = 2
6
A
2
(7777) (x 1)
(7777)
6
A
(2 1)2
6
A
9
A =
2
3
(x + 2) (7777)
(7777)
6
B
3
B = 2
The cover up method cannot be used to find C, so one of the other methods is required.
To find C set x = 0
6
2
2
C
+
+
2
2
(x + 2) (x 1)
3 (x + 2)
(x 1)
x 1
6
2
2
C
+
+
2
2
(2) (1)
3 (2)
(1)
1
6
2
2
C
=
+
2
6
1
1
1
3 =
+ 2 C
3
2
C =
3
6
2
2
2
=
+
2
2
(x + 2) (x 1)
3 (x + 2)
(x 1)
3 (x 1)
450
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
63 C4 Partial Fractions
+
+
x3 4x
x (x2 4)
x (x + 2) (x 2)
x
x + 2
x 2
A (x 2) (x + 2) + Bx (x 2) + Cx (x + 2
x (x + 2) (x 2)
16 = A (x 2) (x + 2) + Bx (x 2) + Cx (x + 2)
Let x = 0
16 = A (2) (2) = 4A
A = 4
Let x = 2
B = 2
Let x = 2
16 = C (2) (4) = 8C
C = 2
"
x3
Express
16
4
2
2
= +
+
4x
x
x + 2
x 2
13x 6
x (3x 2)
as partial fractions.
13x 6
A
B
=
+
x (3x 2)
x
3x 2
A (3x 2) + B (x)
x (3x 1)
6 = 2A
2
3
26
2
6 = B
3
3
3
4
=
+
x
3x 2
Ans :
A = 3
B = 4
12x
A
B
C
=
+
+
(x + 1) (2x + 3) (x 3)
x + 1
2x + 3
x 3
=
A (2x + 3) (x 3) + B (x + 1) (x 3) + C (x + 1) (2x + 3)
(x + 1) (2x + 3) (x 3)
36 = C (3 + 1) (2 3 + 3)
x = 1
12 = A (2 + 3) (1 3)
x =
Ans :
3
2
)(
36C = 36
4A = 12
3
3
3
9
= B + 1 3 B = 18
2
2
2
4
3
8
1
=
+
x + 1
2x + 3
x 3
12
C = 1
A = 3
B = 8
451
;#'!>'!(()*+,-./0
x2
(x 1) (x + 2)
B
C
+
x 1
x + 2
Note: A in not divided by another term because the fraction is a top heavy one and dividing out a
top heavy fraction will give a whole number plus a remainder.
A+
x2 A (x 1) (x + 2) + B (x + 2) + C (x 1)
1
3
x = 1
1 = 3B
B =
x = 2
4 = 3C
C =
4
3
A = 1 (coefficient of x2)
"
x2
1
4
= 1 +
(x 1) (x + 2)
3 (x 1)
3 (x + 2)
3x2 + 6x + 2
(2x + 3) (x + 2)2
e.g.
A
B
C
+
+
2x + 3
(x + 2)2
x + 2
x = 2
2 = B
B = 2
etc
3x2 + 6x + 2
(2x + 3) (x + 2)
e.g.
A +
ALevelNotesv7OPae
B
C
+
2x + 3
x + 2
x = 2
etc
452
2 = C
18-Jan-2012
63 C4 Partial Fractions
$
Here is an alternative method, which splits the numerator into parts that can be divided exactly by
the denominator, giving the whole number part immediately.
x2 + 3x 11
x2 + 3x 11
=
(x + 2) (x 3)
x2 x 6
=
x2 x 6 + 4x 5
x2 x 6
x2 + 3x 11
x2 x 6
4x 5
= 2
+ 2
(x + 2) (x 3)
x x 6
x x 6
4x 5
x 6
A
B
= 1 +
+
x + 2
x 3
= 1 +
x2
4x 5
A
B
=
+
x 6
x + 2
x 3
453
;#'!!'!(()*+,-./0
!
x + 9
+ x 6
x + 9
A
B
f (x) =
=
+
(2x 3) (x + 2)
(2x 3)
(x + 2)
2x2
x + 9 = A (x + 2) + B (2x 3)
Let x = 2 :
7 = 7B
3
3
+ 9 = A
+ 2 3 + 18 = A (3 + 4)
2
2
3
1
f (x) =
(2x 3)
(x + 2)
Let x =
3
:
2
B = 1
y = [ f (x)] n
Recall:
A = 3
dy
= n f (x) [ f (x)] n 1
dx
2
(x + 2)
(2x 3)2
We could have used the quotient rule, but this method is sometimes easier.
f (x) =
+
+
3
2
(x + 2)
x + 2
(x + 2)
(x + 2)3
! The denominator on the LHS is a degree 3 polynomial, so the number of constants on the RHS = 3
! A rational function is one in which both numerator and denominator are both polynomials.
454
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Find
(x2
(x
1
dx
1)
1
A
B
A (x 1) + B (x + 1)
=
+
=
1)
(x + 1)
(x 1)
(x + 1) (x 1)
1 = A (x 1) + B (x + 1)
1
2
Let x = 1
1 = 2B
B =
Let x = 1
1 = 2A
A =
(x
1
dx =
1)
=
1
2
2 (x 1) 2 (x + 1)dx
1
2
(x 1)dx 2 (x + 1)dx
1
1
ln | x 1 | ln | x + 1 | + c
2
2
1 |x 1|
= ln
+ c
2 |x + 1|
=
"
Find
5 (x + 1)
(x 1) (x + 4) dx
5 (x + 1)
A
B
A (x + 4) + B (x 1)
=
+
=
(x 1) (x + 4)
(x 1)
(x + 4)
(x 1) (x + 4)
5 (x + 1) = A (x + 4) + B (x 1)
Let x = 4
Let x = 1
15 = 5B
10 = 5A
5 (x + 1)
B = 3
A = 2
3
(x 1) (x + 4) dx = (x 1) dx + (x + 4) dx
= 2
(x 1) + 3 (x + 4) dx
= 2 ln | x 1 | + 3 ln | x + 4 | + c
455
1
dx
1 x (x 5)
1
A
B
A (x 5) + B (x)
+
=
x (x 5)
x
x 5
x (x 5)
1 A (x 5) + Bx
1
5
1
Let x = 0
5A = 1
A =
5
1
1
1
=
+
x (x 5)
5x
5 (x 5)
Let x = 5
5B = 1
1
1
dx =
5
1 x (x 5)
B =
1
1
+
dx
x
(x 5)
4
= ln x + ln (x 5)
5
1
1
[ (ln 4 + ln (4 5)) (ln 1 + ln (1 5))]
5
1
= [ (ln | 4 | + ln | 1 | ) + ln | 1 | ln | 4 |]
5
1
2
= (2 ln 4) = ln 4
5
5
=
(but ln 1 = 0)
1
dx
(x + 1) (2x + 3)
1
A
B
A (2x + 3) + B (x + 1)
(x + 1) (2x + 3)
(x + 1)
(2x + 3)
(x + 1) (2x + 3)
1 A (2x + 3) + B (x + 1)
x =
3
2
x = 1
1
B = 1
2
B = 2
2A + 3 = 1
=
A = 1
1
2
(x + 1)
(2x + 3)
1
dx =
(x + 1) (2x + 3)
1
2
dx
(x + 1)
(2x + 3)
= ln (x + 1) 2 ln (2x + 3)
0
=
1
x + 1
1
x
1
ln
=
ln
+
2 2x + 3 0
2 2x + 3
2x + 3 0
()
x + 1
1
1
Rearrange & substitute into this bit... = ln
2 +
456
ALevelNotesv7OPae
()
()
1 1
1
ln
ln
2
2
3
3
x
()
1
1
+
= ln
2x + 3 0
2
()
1
3
ln
2
2
18-Jan-2012
65 C4 Binomial Series
65.1 The General Binomial Theorem
In C2, the Binomial Theorem was used to expand (a + b)n for any +ve integer of n, and which gave a finite
series that terminated after n + 1 terms. This was given as:
2
n1
+ nCn b
The coefficient of each of the above terms can be found using a calculators nCr button, however, this is only
valid when n and r are positive integers.
n!
So the formula nCr =
cannot be used for fractional or negative values of n and r.
(n r)! r!
Because the expansion is finite, the RHS exactly equals the LHS of the equation. Plotting both sides of the
equation as separate functions would give identical graphs.
Now we want to be able to use the Binomial Theorem, for any rational value of n.
In fact, restricting n to +ve integers is a just a special case of the general Binomial Theorem, in which n can take
any rational value (which of course includes fractional and ve values of n).
Rearranging the binomial (a + b)n into the form (1 + x)n; the general Binomial Theorem now becomes:
n (n 1) 2
n (n 1) (n 2) 3
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) 4
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
x +
x +
x +
2!
3!
4!
n (n 1) (n r + 1) r
+
x +
r!
The big change here, is that the expansion has an infinite number of terms, (except for the special case
mentioned above) and the RHS is now only an approximation of the function on the LHS (unless you can
calculate all the infinite terms:-).
We must also determine if the expansion diverges or converges towards the value of the LHS.
a (1 rn)
(1 r)
S =
a
(1 r)
|r|
< 1
457
We say the expansion is valid for | x | < 1. Valid just means convergence in this instance.
In the formula above, the role of x is a generic one. We can replace x with any variation of the term, so, for
example, the binomial (1 + bx)n is only valid for | bx | < 1.
[Note: do not confuse the choice of variable letters used here with those used for a GP]
Another way of looking at the validity of the expansion is to plot the LHS and RHS of the equation as two
separate functions.
The two graphs will only have a close match when | x | < 1.
The example below shows how the expansion of (1 + x)1 compares when plotted on a graph.
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 +
The RHS matches the LHS most closely between the valid values of 1 < x < 1 (i.e. | x | < 1)
The best approximation is when x is small and close to 0. In this region the expansion converges quickly, with
fewer terms required. When x is closer to 1, but still in the valid range, the convergence is slow, and many
more terms are required.
Note the difference between the expansion to 5 terms and the one to 8 terms.
y
4
y = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4
5 terms
y = (1 x)1
y = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 x5 + x6 x7
8 terms
?2:0(@258,2+.()*-+5A285A(B8,-+4/C
458
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
65 C4 Binomial Series
In evaluating the coefficients, note the pattern that they form. Each succeeding value in the bracket is one less
that the previous.
E.g.
459
Expand
1
up to the term in x3
2
(1 + x)
Solution:
2 (2 1) 2
2 (3) (4) 3
x +
x
2!
3!
2 (3) 2
2 (3) (4) 3
= 1 + (2x) +
x +
x
2!
3!
2 (3) 2
(2 3 ) (4) 3
= 1 2x +
x +
x
2 !
3 !
(1 + x)2 = 1 + (2x) +
(1 + x)2
(1 + x)2
"
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 +
3 1
()
3
(3x) + 2 2 (3x)2 +
2
2!
( ) ( 12 )
3 1
2 2
3!
(3x)3
3
3
9
x + 4 9x2 + 8 27x 3
2
2!
3!
3
9
27 2
27 3
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 + x +
x
x
2
8
16
|x| < 1
Valid for | 3x | < 1
or
3
3
(1 + 3x)2 = 1 +
Expand
5 + x
in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3
1 2x
Solution:
5 + x
= (5 + x) (1 2x)1
1 2x
Expand: (1 2x)1 = 1 1 (2x) +
1 (2)
1 (2) (3)
(2x)2 +
(2x)3
2!
3!
= 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3
(5 + x) (1 2x)1 = (5 + x) (1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3)
= 5 + 10x + 20x2 + 40x3 + x + 2x2 + 4x3 + 8x4
= 5 + 11x + 22x2 + 44x3 + 8x4
Ans :
Valid for | 2x | < 1
460
ALevelNotesv7OPae
|x|
<
1
2
18-Jan-2012
65 C4 Binomial Series
+ x)n.
1
.
b
;%'%'!(()*+,-./0
!
Expand (1 2x) in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x3 and hence by
choosing values for x, find an approximation for 2.
Solution:
1
2
(1 2x) = 1 +
1
(2x) +
2
1
2
(1 2x) = 1 x
1
2
( 12 )
(2x)2 +
2!
1
2
( 12 ) ( 23 )
3!
(2x)3
1 2
1
x x3 +
2
2
( )
x =
1
2
( )
( )
1
1 12
1 13
2
2 2
2 2
1
1
1
1
1
1 +
2
2
4
2
8
1
1
1
1 +
+
2
8
16
23
14375
( 2 = 141421 by calculator)
16
|x| < 1
Valid for | 2x | < 1
or
2
1
22 1 +
"
Using the above expansion find the approximate value of 21 by substituting x = 0.08.
Substituting & using the rules for surds:
Solution:
(1 2x) =
=
1 2 008 =
084
4 21
2
=
21
100
10
84
=
100
2
1
1
21 1 008
(008)2 (008)3 +
10
2
2
09165
21
09165 10
2
21 45827 (5 sf )
21 = 458257 (by calculator)
Valid for | 2x | < 1
or
|x|
<
1
2
461
(a + bx)n
65.6 Expanding
This requires you to change the format from (a + bx)n to (1 + kx)n by taking out the factor an. Thus:
bx
bx
n
(a + bx) = a 1 +
= a 1 +
a
a
n
( )
b
n (n 1) b
= an 1 + n x +
x
a
2!
a
b
a
Valid for x < 1 or | x | <
a
b
| |
( )
n (n 1) (n 2) b
x
3!
a
( )
4
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b
x
4!
a
;%';'!(()*+,-./0
!
( )
( )
( ) 3
3
1 3
Now: (1 x ) = 1 + ( x ) +
x +
4
2 4
2! ( 4 )
3
3
1 9
2 (1 x ) = 2 1 x ( x )
4
8
8 16
(4
3x2)
2
1
3
3
= (4 3x ) 4 1 x2 42 1 x2
4
4
2 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
2 1 x2
4
1
2
3
9 4
= 2 1 x2
x
8
128
3
9 4
= 2 x2
x
4
64
From (1 34 x2) expansion valid for
"
Expand
4
3
4 x
up to and including the term in x3
2
(2 + x)
Solution:
4 x
1
= (4 x) (2 + x)2 = (4 x) . 22. 1 + x
2
(2 + x)
2
1
3
1
(4 x) 1 x + x2 x3 +
4
4
2
1
=
4 4x + 3x2 2x3 x + x2
4
1
11 3
=
4 3x + 4x2
x +
4
4
3
11 3
= 1 x + x2
x
4
16
1
From 1 + 12 x expansion valid for
x < 1 or
2
=
(
(
462
ALevelNotesv7OPae
| |
3 3
x +
4
|x|
< 2
18-Jan-2012
65 C4 Binomial Series
1
in ascending powers of x up to the term in x3
(1 + x) (1 2x)
Solution:
1
A
B
+
(1 + x) (1 2x)
(1 + x)
(1 2x)
A (1 2x)
B (1 + x)
+
(1 + x)
(1 2x)
1 A (1 2x) + B (1 + x)
Let x =
1
2
Let x = 1
1
1 = A (0) + 1 B
2
3
1 = B
1 = A (1 + 2) + B (0)
1 = 3A
2
3
B =
1
3
A =
1
1
2
+
(1 + x) (1 2x)
3 (1 + x)
3 (1 2x)
3 (1 + x)
3
3
2!
3!
=
1
(2) 2
(1) (2) (3) 3
x +
x
1 x +
3
2!
3!
1
[ 1 x + x2 x3
3
1
x
x2
x3
3
3
3
3
2
2
= (1 2x)1
3 (1 2x)
3
=
2
(1) (1 1)
(1) (1 1) (1 2)
(2x)2 +
(2x)3
1 + (1) (2x) +
3
2!
3!
2
[ 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 8x3
3
2
4x
8x2
16x3
+
+
+
3
3
3
3
1
x
x2
x3 2
4x
8x2
16x3
1
=
+
+ +
+
+
3
(1 + x) (1 2x)
3
3
3 3
3
3
3
= 1 + x + 3x2 + 5x3
2
1
(1 2x)1 is valid when |2x | < 1 or when | x | <
3
2
1
Note that (1 + x)1 is valid when | x | < 1
3
1
combined expansion is valid when | x | <
2
Note that
463
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
( )
b
n (n 1) b
n (n 1) (n 2) b
= a 1 + n x +
x) +
(
( a x)
a
2!
a
3!
b
a
Valid for | x | < 1 or | x | <
a
b
n
bx
bx
n
(a + bx) = a 1 +
= a 1 +
a
a
n
( )
4
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b
x
4!
a
! For the general Binomial Theorem any rational value of n can be used (i.e. fractional or negative
values, and not just positive integers).
! For these expansions, the binomial must start with a 1 in the brackets. For binomials of the form
(a + bx)n, the a term must be factored out.
n
b
n
n
Therefore, the binomial (a + bx) must be changed to a 1 + x .
a
! When n is a positive integer the series is finite and gives an exact value of (1 + x)n and is valid for all
values of x. The expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, because coefficients after this term are zero.
! When n is either a fractional and/or a negative value, the series will have an infinite number of terms.
and the coefficients are never zero.
! In these cases the series will either diverge and the value will become infinite or they will
converge, with the value converging towards the value of binomial (1 + x)n.
! The general Binomial Theorem will converge when | x | < 1 (i. e. 1 < x < 1). This is the
condition required for convergence and we say that the series is valid for this condition.
| |
b
b
! For binomials of the form an 1 + x , the series is only valid when x < 1, or
a
a
a
|x| <
b
! The range must always be stated.
! When the series is convergent it will make a good approximation of (1 + x)n depending on the
number of terms used, and the size of x. Small is better.
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 +
(1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + 5x4 +
(1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 +
All valid for | x | < 1
464
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
66 C4 Parametric Equations
66.1 Intro to Parametric Equations
Some relationships between the variables x and y are so complicated that it is often convenient to express x and
y in terms of a third variable called a parameter.
x = t4
y = t3 t
E.g.
(1)
(2)
The equations (1) & (2) are called the parametric equations of the curve. By eliminating t from both equations
it is possible to find a direct relationship between x and y, which is of course the Cartesian equation of the
3
1
curve. (In this example we obtain y = x 4 x 4 , a very tricky equation to deal with, which nicely illustrates the
reason for using parametric equations).
;;'!'"(()*+,-./0
If y = t 3, & x = 2t 3 + 2 sketch a graph to see how the curve is represented.
Solution:
30
t = 2
t = 1
t = 0
t = 1
t = 2
t = 3
x = 14
x = 0
x = 2
x = 4
x = 18
x = 56
y = 8
y = 1
y = 0
y = 1
y = 8
y = 27
25
20
15
10
0
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
-5
-10
"
Solution:
3 15
2 0
1 3
0
0
1 3
2
0
3 15
8
3
0
1
0
3
8
-15
-10
-5
10
15
-1
465
;;'"'!(()*+,-./0
!
Express the parametric equation x = t 2 & y = t 2 1 in cartesian form and sketch the
curve.
Solution:
x = t 2
y = t2 1
x
6
4
2
0
2
4
15
3
1
3
15
35
t = x + 2
y = (x + 2)2 1
20
15
10
-6
-4
-2
-5
"
1
t
Solution:
x = t + 1
y =
1
t
ALevelNotesv7OPae
y =
1
x 1
6
9
01
4
02
1
05
05 0666
0
1
05
2
1
15
2
2
1
4
0333
11
02
466
t = x 1
-10 -8
-6
-4
-2
10 12
-1
-2
18-Jan-2012
66 C4 Parametric Equations
#
1
& y = t 2 + 4 in cartesian form.
1 + t
Solution:
1
1 + t
1
1 + t =
x
1
t =
1
x
x =
2
1
y =
1 + 4
x
1
2
y = 2
+ 1 + 4
x
x
1
2
y = 2
+ 5
x
x
1
1
and y = at n can be given in the cartesian
n
t
t
(x y) (x + y)n = 2n + 1an
Solution:
( ) ( )
2at + 1 at 1 at + 1 + at 1
(
t ) (
t )
t
t
( t2 ) (2at) t2 2 a t = 2 a
n
at + 1 at 1 at + 1 + at 1
tn
t n
tn
t n
n n n
n+1 n
t = 1
t2 = 4
y = 3
t = 2
x = 1, 3,
10
-1
-3
-4
467
y = rsin
468
ALevelNotesv7OPae
y = b + rsin
18-Jan-2012
66 C4 Parametric Equations
and
= dx
dx
dt
dx
dx
dt
;;'%'!(()*+,-./0
!
t =
dy
1
= x 2
dx
y = 2 x = 2x 2
=
1
x
When t = 3, x = 32 = 9
Gradient
dy
1
1
=
=
dx
9
3
Method 2
x = t2
y = 2t
dy
dy
dt
=
dx
dt
dx
When t = 3,
"
dx
= 2t
dt
dy
= 2
dt
dy
1
1
= 2
=
dx
2t
t
dy
1
1
=
=
dx
t
3
Find the equation of the normal at the point (8, 4) to the curve given parametrically by:
x = t 3,
y = t2
Solution:
1
t = x3
y = x3
dy
2 1
= x 3
dx
3
2
2 1
1
1
Gradient: = (8) 3 = .
=
3
3 (2)
3
Gradient = 3
y 4 = 3 (x + 8)
y = 3x + 28
469
dx
dt
= 1,
= 1
dt
dx
dy
= 3t 2 3
dt
dy
dy
dt
=
dx
dt
dx
dy
= (3t 2 3) 1 = 3t 2 3
dx
dy
= 0
dx
1 = 1
y = 2
&
When t = 1 x = 1
&
y = 2
1 12
t =
1 12
Sign
dy
dx
Shape
(1, 2) is a max
(1, 2) is a min
1
t
Solution:
dx
dt
= 1,
= 1
dt
dx
1
y =
= t 1
t
dy
dy
dt
=
dx
dt
dx
dy
1
= t 2 = 2
dt
t
dy
1
1
= 2 1 = 2
dx
t
t
1
1
Need a general equation, so use point t,
with a gradient of 2
t
t
y y1 = m (x x1)
y
by t 2
( )
1
1
= 2 (x t)
t
t
t 2y t = x + t
t 2y t = x + t
t 2y + x 2t = 0
470
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
66 C4 Parametric Equations
%
x = t2
dx
= 2t,
dt
1
= t + t 1
t
dy
dy
dt
=
dx
dt
dx
y = t +
dt
1
=
dx
2t
dy
1
= 1 t 2 = 1 2
dt
t
dy
1 1
= 1 2
dx
t 2t
t2 1
2t 3
t2 1 1
t2
2t
dy
22 1
4 1
3
=
=
=
3
dx
2 2
16
16
1
5
When t = 2
x = 22 = 4,
y = 2 +
=
2
2
5
So we want equation of normal through point 4,
2
3
16
Gradient of tangent =
Gradient of normal =
16
3
When t = 2
( )
y y1 = m (x x1)
5
16
= (x 4)
2
3
5
16x
64
y
=
+
2
3
3
y
6y 15 = 32x + 128
6y + 32x 143 = 0
If x = t 2 3t
Find
&
y = 4t 3 3t 2 18t + 5
dy
when t = 2
dx
Solution:
dx
= 2t 3,
dt
dy
= 12t 2 6t 18
dt
dy
dy
dt
dy
12t 2 6t 18
=
=
dx
dt
dx
dx
2t 3
48 12 18
Ans :
=
= 18
4 3
471
Take the parametric curve defined by x = 2t 2 & y = 4t with two points with the following coordinates, P (2p2, 4p) & Q (2q2, 4q).
a) Find the gradient of the normal to the curve at P
b) Find the gradient of the chord PQ
c) Show that p2 + pq + 2 = 0 when chord PQ is normal to the curve at P
d) The normal to a point U (8, 8) meets the curve again at point V. The normal to point V crosses
the curve at point W. Find the co-ordinates of W.
Step 1 ----- Draw a sketch!!!!!!
t =
y
4
x = 2
( 4y )
y2 = 8x
y
P (2p2, 4p)
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
-20
Q (2q2, 4q)
= 4
=
dx
dt
dx
4t
t
1
The normal m2 is given by: m2
= 1
t
m2 = t
At point P (2p2, 4p) ; y = 4p
4p = 4t
p = t
2 (p q)
2
=
(p q) (p + q)
(p + q)
472
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
66 C4 Parametric Equations
d) Consider the line UV as the same as PQ
For U (8, 8) y 4p = 8
p = 2
4 + 2q + 2 = 0
2q = 6 q = 3
Co-ordinates of V = (2q2, 4q) = (18, 12)
Now consider the line VW as the same as PQ.
So 4p = 12
p = 3
9 3q + 2 = 0
( ( )
3q = 11 q =
( )) = ( 2429 , 443)
11
3
11 2
11
, 4
3
3
8
2
= 26 , 14
9
3
Co-ordinates of W = 2
473
474
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
67 C4 Differentiation:
Implicit Functions
67.1 Intro to Implicit Functions
For the most part we have dealt with explicit functions of x, where a value of y is defined only in terms of x.
dy
Functions have been in the form y = f (x), and the derivative
= f (x) is obtained by differentiating w.r.t x.
dx
However, some functions cannot be rearranged into the simpler form of y = f (x), or x = f (y).
If we cannot express y solely in terms of x, we say y is given implicitly by x. Similarly, if we cannot express x
solely in terms of y, we say x is given implicitly by y.
Even so, given a value of x, a value for y can still be found, after a bit of work.
E.g.
y = 2x2 3x + 4
x2 + y2 6x + 2y = 0
is expressed implicitly.
Typical examples of implicit functions are found in the equations of circles, ellipses and hyperbolae.
An example implicit function showing
the complex shape given by a cubic
function.
3y3 x3 + 2y2x = 5y
1
475
In fact, this is what we have always done, but we tend to forget that the differential of y wrt to x is dx .
The difficult part of dealing with these functions is knowing what to do with terms such as y2, x3y2 and this is
where the chain and product rules come to the rescue.
We use the chain rule such that:
d
d
dy
(y) =
(y)
dx
dy
dx
Simply stated, the chain rule says take the differential of the outside function and multiply by the differential of
the inside function.
The general rule for implicit functions becomes: differentiate the x bits as normal, and then the y bits w.r.t y and
dy
multiply by dx .
dy
;<'"'!(()*+,-./0
dy
Find dx if: x2 + 2y y2 = 5
Differentiate both sides of the equation & consider each term:
d 2
(x ) + d (2y) d (y2) = 0
dx
dx
dx
d 2
(x ) = 2x
Term 1:
dx
d
Term 2:
(2y) =?
Use the chain rule to differentiate a y term w.r.t x:
dx
d
d
dy
dy
(2y) =
(2y)
2
dx
dy
dx
dx
Term 3:
d 2
(y ) = d (y2) dy 2y dy
dx
dy
dx
dx
dy
dx
dy
dy
x +
y
= 0
dx
dx
2x + 2
476
dy
x
=
dx
(1 y)
dy
x
=
dx
(y 1)
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
y w.r.t x
dy
;<'#'!(()*+,-./0
!
x2 + y2 + 3y = 8
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
Solution:
Rearrange:
"
dy
dy
+ 3
= 0
dx
dx
dy
(2y + 2)
= 2x
dx
dy
2x
=
dx
2y + 2
2x + 2y
x2 + y2 6x + 2y = 0
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
Solution:
dy
6 +
dx
dy
2x + (2y + 2)
dx
dy
6 2x
=
dx
2y + 2
2x + 2y
Rearrange:
dy
= 0
dx
6 = 0
3x2 2y3 = 1
6x 6y2
dy
= 0
dx
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
dy
6x
x
=
= 2
2
dx
6y
y
y = ax
Solution:
ln y = ln ax = x ln a
but:
Hence:
y = ax
1 dy
= ln a
y dx
dy
= y ln a
dx
dy
= ax ln a
dx
dy x
(a ) = ax ln a
dx
477
sin (x + y) = cos 2y
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
Solution:
d
dy
[ sin (x + y)] = cos (x + y) 1 +
dx
dx
d
d
Use chain rule on the RHS:
(cos 2y) = sin (2y)
(2y)
dx
dx
d
dy
(cos 2y) = sin (2y) 2
dx
dx
dy
dy
1 +
cos (x + y) = 2 sin (2y)
(1)
dx
dx
dy
dy
cos (x + y) + cos (x + y)
= 2 sin (2y)
dx
dx
dy
dy
2 sin (2y)
+ cos (x + y)
= cos (x + y)
dx
dx
dy
cos (x + y)
=
dx
2 sin (2y) + cos (x + y)
It is not necessary to find the expression for gradient unless asked for. To find a gradient from
dy
given coordinates just substitute into equation (1), then rearrange for dx .
478
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
x and y
These need to be treated as a product of two functions, hence, we use the product and chain rules to differentiate
them.
Recall:
If
y = uv
dy
dv
du
= u
+ v
dx
dx
dx
The examples 1 & 3 below show the product and chain rule used in full. Once mastered, we can generally
dy
differentiate powers of y normally w.r.t y and append dx .
;<'$'!(()*+,-./0
!
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
xy2
Solution:
Let u = x
Let v = y2
"
du
= 1
dx
dv
dv
dy
dy
=
= 2y
dx
dy
dx
dx
d
(xy2) = u dv + v du = x . 2y dy + y2. 1
dx
dx
dx
dx
dy
= 2xy
+ y2
dx
x3 + xy2 y3 = 5
Solution:
dy
dy
3x2 + 2xy
+ y2 3y2
= 0
dx
dx
dy
[ 2xy 3y2] = 0
3x2 + y2 +
dx
dy
[ 2xy 3y2] = 3x2 y2
dx
dy
=
dx
3x2 y2
=
[ 2xy 3y2]
Differentiate w.r.t to x:
3x2 + y2
[ 3y2 2xy]
y = xey
Solution:
Let u = x
Let v = ey
du
= 1
dx
dv
dv
dy
dy
=
= ey
dx
dy
dx
dx
dy
dy
= x ey
+ ey
dx
dx
479
If exy = sin x
d 2y
dy
+ 2
+ 2y = 0
2
dx
dx
show that:
Solution:
2nd Differentiation
ex
dy
+ yex = cos x
dx
ex
d 2y
dy
dy x
+ ex
+ yex +
e = sin x
dx2
dx
dx
Product rule: u = ex
v = y
sin x = exy
But
d 2y
dy
dy
+
+ y +
= y
2
dx
dx
dx
d 2y
dy
+ 2
+ 2y = 0
2
dx
dx
Differentiate w.r.t x:
Solution:
d 2 3
(x y ) = x2 3y2 dy + y3 2x
dx
dx
v = y3
du
= 2x
dx
dv
dy
= 3y2
dx
dx
d
(5y2) = 10y dy
dx
dx
dy
dy
20x3 + x2 3y2
+ y3 2x + 10y
= 0
dx
dx
and
dy
dy
+ 2xy3 + 10y
= 0
dx
dx
dy
dy
3x2y2
+ 10y
= 20x3 2xy3
dx
dx
20x3 + 3x2y2
dy
20x3 2xy3
=
dx
3x2y2 + 10y
Differentiate w.r.t x:
xy
Solution:
(xy)2
1 1
x 2 y2
1 1 1 dy
1 1 1
d 12 12
1 x 2 dy
y2
x y = x2 y 2
+ y2 x 2 =
+ 1
1
dx
2
dx
2
2 y2 dx
x2
1
d
1
1
dy
1 x 2 dy
y2
1 d
1
+ y = 1
+ 1
(xy)2 = (xy) 2 (xy) = (xy) 2 x
dx
dx
dx
2
2
2 y2 dx
x2
1
(2)
480
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
x2 + 2y2 6y = 0
Solution:
=
dx
4y + 6
dy
x
=
dx
2y + 3
At (x1, y1)
dy
x1
=
dx
2y1 + 3
"
y y1 =
x1
(x x1)
2y1 + 3
Find the gradient for the curve x2 + 2xy 2y2 + x = 2 at the point ( 4, 1).
Solution:
d
d
(2y2) + 1 = 0
(2xy)
dx
dx
d
dy
(2xy) = 2x
+ 2y
dx
dx
d
(2y2) = 4y dy
dx
dx
2x dy + 2y 4y dy + 1 = 0
dx
dx
dy
dy
2x
+ 2y 4y
+ 1 = 0
dx
dx
dy
4y
= 2x 2y 1
dx
Product rule: u = 2x
v = y
(1)
dy
dx
dy
(2x 4y) = 2x 2y 1
dx
dy
2x 2y 1
2x + 2y + 1
=
=
dx
(2x 4y)
4y 2x
2x
dy
2 (4) + 2 (1) + 1
5
=
=
dx
4 (1) 2 (4)
12
Alternatively, save time by substituting the given coordinates in the earlier equation (1)
dy
dy
8 8
+ 2 4
+ 1 = 0
dx
dx
dy
dy
5
12
= 5
=
dx
dx
12
When at ( 4, 1)
481
Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 3x2 xy 2y2 + 12 = 0 at the point (2, 3)
Solution:
9
(x 2)
14
14y = 9x + 24
( )
Find the gradient of the curve x3y 7 = sin 2 y at the point where y = 1
Solution:
x3 7 = sin
( 2 )
x3 = 1 + 7
x =
8 = 2
( )
d 3
(x y) 0 = d sin y
dx
dx
2
d 3
(x y) = x3 dy + y3x2
Now:
dx
dx
() ( )
dy
dy
x
+ 3x y = cos ( y)
dx
2
2 dx
( )
v = y
Chain rule
When x = 2, y = 1,
( )
dy
y = cos y
sin
= cos y
dx
2
2
dx 2
2
2 dx
and:
Product rule: u = x3
dy
+ 3 4 1 = 0
dx
dy
= 12
dx
dy
12
3
=
=
dx
8
2
aeqfal
482
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Find the gradient for the curve y2 xy + 4x2 = 6 at the point where x = 1.
Solution:
2y
x
+ y
dx
dx
0
dy
dx
dy
= x
+ y
dx
= 2y
Product rule: u = x
v = y
+ 8x = 0
dy
dy
x
y + 8x = 0
dx
dx
dy
(2y x) = y 8x
dx
dy
y 8x
=
(2y x)
dx
(1)
2y
When x = 1
y2 y + 4 6 = 0
y2 y 2 = 0
(y + 1) (y 2) = 0
y = 1
(1, 1)
dy
1 8
9
=
=
= 3
(2 1) 3
dx
(1, 2)
dy
2 8
=
( 4 1)
dx
y = 2
6
= 2
3
y = 8x
etc.
483
Find an expression for the x-coordinates of the stationary points of the equation:
ax2y + by3 = cx + 6
Solution:
dx
dx
dy
dy
ax2
+ 2axy + 3by2
= c
dx
dx
v = y
(1)
dy
2axy = c
c
2ax
(2)
( )
c
c
+ b
2ax
2ax
= cx + 6
c
bc3
x +
= cx + 6
2
8a3x3
bc3
c
= cx x + 6
8a3x3
2
bc3
c
= x + 6
8a3x3
2
(cx + 3) x3 =
2bc3
8a3
aeqfal
484
Dif f erential
dy
dx
= f (x)
Function f (y)
Dif f erential
dy
dx
ax
ax ln a
sin (ky)
dy
cos (ky)
dx
akx
k akx ln a
cos (ky)
dy
sin (ky)
dx
xy
x2y
x2
ALevelNotesv7OPae
dy
+ y
dx
dy
+ 2xy
dx
uv
uv + vu
u
v
vu uv
v2
= f (x)
18-Jan-2012
68 C4 Differential Equations
68.1 Intro to Differential Equations
At last, after years of work, learning to differentiate and integrate various functions, we now get to put all this
knowledge to work on practical problems.
A differential equation is one in which the variables x, y and one of the derivatives of y w.r.t x are connected in
dy
some way. For the purposes of this section we will only consider the first derivative of the function, dx ,
d 2y
although higher derivatives such as 2 can be used. The first derivative leads to a first order differential
dx
equation.
The general form of a first order differential equation is:
dy
f (y)
= g (x)
dx
where f is a function of y only and g is a function of x only.
Typically, the differential will be w.r.t time t, such as a change of area with time, giving dA
dt .
Normally a differential equation is solved by eliminating the differential part by integration.
f (y) dx dx = g (x) dx
dy
dx = dy
dx
But:
f (y) dy = g (x) dx
dy
;&'"'!(()*+,-./0
!
Solve:
1
dy
= xy2
dx
dy =
1
dy = x dx
y2
x dx
1
x2
=
+ c
y
2
If x = 0, and y = 05, c = 0 2 = 2
1
x2
=
2
y
2
485
1 dy
2y
= 2
x dx
x + 1
dy
2xy
= 2
dx
x + 1
dy =
2xy
dx
+ 1
1
2x
dy = 2
dx
y
x + 1
x2
Tip: it is good practise to keep any constant (2 in the above case) in the numerator.
1
y dy = x
2x
dx
+ 1
Recall:
ln y = ln (x2 + 1) + c
ln y ln (x2 + 1) = c
Rearrange:
ln
f (x)
f (x) dx
= ln | f (x)| + c
( x y+ 1 ) = c
2
y
= ec
+ 1
x2
y = ec ( x 2 + 1 )
where ec is a constant, k
y = k ( x2 + 1)
2 dy =
cos x
dx
y
2y dy = cos x dx
2y dy = cos x dx
y2 = sin x + c
(general solution)
4 = sin 0 + c
y2 = sin x + 4
Ans :
c = 4
(particular solution)
A curve is such that the gradient of the curve is proportional to the product of the x & y
coordinates. If the curve passes through the points (2, 1) & (4, e2), find the equation.
Solution:
dy
xy
dx
1
dy =
y
kx dx
1
dy = kx dx
y
ln y =
kx2
+ c
2
2 = 8k + c
(2, 1)
0 = 2k + c
6k = 2
k =
substituting:
Ans :
486
dy
= kxy
dx
ALevelNotesv7OPae
1
3
ln y =
y = e
c =
x2
2
6
3
2
3
ln y =
x2 4
6
x2 4
6
18-Jan-2012
68 C4 Differential Equations
;&'#'!(()*+,-./0
!
If y = 4 cos 2 and increases at 5 radians per second, find the rate at which y is increasing when
= 2.
Solution:
Given:
d
= 5
dt
y = 4 cos 2,
Required:
dy
dt
when
dy
dy
d
=
dt
d
dt
= 2
dy
= 8 sin 2
d
dy
= 8 sin 2 5 = 40 sin 2
dt
dy
When = 2,
= 40 sin 4 = 0
dt
In this case y is not increasing or decreasing.
"
A spherical balloon is inflated, such that its volume is increasing at a steady rate of 20 cm3 per
second. Find the rate of change of the surface area when the radius is 10 cm.
Solution:
dV
= 20
dt
4
V = r3
3
A = 4r2
dV
= 4r2
dr
dA
= 8r
dr
dA
dt
dA
dA
dr
dV
=
dt
dr
dV
dt
dA
1
= 8r
20
dt
4r2
dA
40
=
dt
r
When r = 10
dA
40
=
= 4 cm2 sec1
dt
10
487
y dt
1 dy = k dt
ln y = kt + c
y = ekt + c
y = ekt ec
y = Aekt
where
A = ec
;&'$'!(()*+,-./0
!
A wonder worm experiment has found that the number of wonder worms, N, increases at a rate
that is proportional to the number of worms present at the time.
Solution:
dN
dt
dN
N
dt
dN
= kN
dt
1 dN
= k
N dt
"
A chemical reaction produces two chemicals A and B. During the reaction, x grams of chemical A
is produced during the same time as y grams of chemical B. The rate at which chemical A is
produced is proportional to ex, whilst the production rate for chemical B is proportional to ey.
Show how A & B change w.r.t each other.
Solution:
Given:
488
ALevelNotesv7OPae
dx
ex
dt
dy
ey
dt
dy
dy
dt
=
dx
dt
dx
dy
1
= kyey
= key x
dx
k x ex
18-Jan-2012
68 C4 Differential Equations
At each point P of a curve for which x > 0, the tangent cuts the y-axis at T. N is the foot of the
perpendicular from P to the y-axis. If T is always 1 unit below N, find the equation of the curve.
y
)44(D(E86(68(AF+./
N
1
{
T
x
x
Solution:
Gradient of tangent =
1
x
Gradient of tangent
dy
1
=
dx
x
y = ln x + c
"
A rat has a mass of 30gms at birth. It reaches maturity in 3 months. The rate of growth is modelled
by the differential equation:
dm
= 120 (t 3)2
dt
where m = mass of the rat, t months after birth. Find the mass of the rat when fully grown.
Solution:
Given:
dm
= 120 (t 3)2
dt
m = 120
(t 3)
dt
(t 3)3
m = 120
+ c
3
m = 40 (t 3)3 + c
Evaluate c:
t = 0,
m = 30
30 = 40 (0 3)3 + c
c = 1110
m = 40 (t 3)3 + 1110
When t = 3,
m = 40 (3 3)3 + 1110
m = 1110 gm
489
A farmer thinks that the rate of growth of his weeds is proportional to the amount of daylight that
they receive. If t = the time in years after the shortest day of the year, the length of effective
daylight, on any given day, is given by:
12 4 cos (2 t) hours
On the shortest day of one year, the height of the plant is 120cm. 73 days later the weed has grown
to 130 cm. What will the height be on the longest day of the following year?
Solution:
D (t) = 12 4 cos (2 t)
dh
= growth rate
dt
&
dh
12 4 cos (2 t)
dt
dh
= k [ 12 4 cos (2 t)]
dt
h = k
12 4 cos (2 t) dt
h = 4k
3 cos (2 t) dt
sin (2 t)
= 4k 3t
+ c
2
Substitute to find c
When t = 0 (shortest day), h = 120
120 = 4k (0 0) + c
Hence c = 120
Substitute to find k
When t =
73
1
= , h = 130
365
5
sin (2 t)
130 = 4k 3t
+ 120
2
sin ( 2
3
5 )
130 = 4k
+ 120
5
2
130 = 4k (0600 0151) + 120
130 120 = 1795k
k =
10
= 5572
0449
h = 4 5572 3 05
+ 120
2
h = 22290 [ 15 0] + 120
h = 33435 + 120
h = 153 cm (3 sf)
490
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
68 C4 Differential Equations
$
A spherical balloon is inflated and when the diameter of the balloon is 10cm its volume is
increasing at a rate of 200 cm3/sec. Find the rate at which its surface area is increasing at that time.
Solution:
4 3
r
3
dV
Required: rate of change of volume:
dt
dV
dV
dr
Connection:
=
dt
dr
dt
dV
3 4 2
=
r = 4r2
dr
3
dV
dr
= 4r2.
dt
dt
dV
Now
= 200
when 2r = 10
dt
dr
Hence:
200 = 100
dt
dr
2
=
rate of increase of radius at this particular time.
dt
V =
S = 4r2
dS
dS
dr
dr
=
= 8r.
dt
dr
dt
dt
dr
2
=
so that:
dt
Connection:
When 2r = 10,
dS
2
= 40. = 80 cm2 / sec
dt
A culture of bacteria grows at a rate proportional to the number of bacteria in the culture. The
number of bacteria in the culture is 1000 at lunch time. After 1 hour the number of bacteria is
3300. What is the number of bacteria after 3 hours and 24 hours?
Solution:
Given:
dP
P
dt
dP
= kP
dt
dP
=
P
dP
= k dt
P
k dt
ln P = kt + c
Find c:
ln 1000 = c
c = 69
Find k:
ln 3300 = k + 69
k = 81 69 = 12
After 3 hours:
ln P = 12 3 + 6.9
ln P = 105
P 36315
After 24 hours:
ln P = 12 24 + 6.9
ln P = 357
P 32 101
491
A single super cell starts to divide and grow and after t hours the population has grown to P. At
any given time the population of bacteria increases at a rate proportional to P2.
Find how many hours it takes for the population to reach 10,000, given that after 1 hour the
population is 1000, and after 2 hours the population is 2000.
Solution:
dP
P2
dt
Given:
dP
= kP2
dt
dP
k dt
P1 = kt + c
P =
dP
= k dt
P2
dP =
k dt
1
= (kt + c)
P
1
(kt + c)
Find c:
At time t = 1, P = 1000
1
(k + c)
1000 =
1000 (k + c) = 1
At time t = 2, P = 2000
2000 =
1
(2k + c)
2000 (2k + c) = 1
(1)
4000k + 2000c = 1
(2)
2000k + 2000c = 2
(3) = (1) 2
= 1
2000k
k =
1
2000
1000
+ 1000c = 1
2000
3
1000c =
3
2000
1
(kt + c)
kt + c =
t =
1 1
c
k P
t = 2000
t = 3
492
ALevelNotesv7OPae
1
P
1
3
+
10000
2000
kt =
1
c
P
t =
2000
6000
+
10000
2000
2
= 28 hrs
10
18-Jan-2012
68 C4 Differential Equations
<
The population of a small village is 1097 in the year 1566. Assuming the population, P, grows
according to the differential equation below, and where t is the number of years after 1566:
dP
= 0.3Pe 0.3t
dt
1) Find the population of the village in 1576, correct to 3 significant figures.
2) Find the maximum population the village will grow to, in the long term.
Solution:
dP
= 0.03Pe 0.03t
dt
dP
= 0.03e 0.03tdt
P
dP
=
P
0.03e
ln (P) =
0.03t
dt
0.03 0.03t
e
+ c
0.03
ln (P) = e 0.03t + c
To find c: P = 1097 & t = 0
ln (1097) = e0 + c = 1 + c
7 = 1 + c
c = 8
ln (P) = e 0.03t + 8
= 8 e 0.03t
To find the population in 10 years time:
1
e 0.03t
1
Note that as time increases, the term e 0.03t
0
Therefore, in the long term:
ln (P) = 8 e0.03t = 8
ln (P) = 8 0
P = 2980 (3 sf)
493
Solve
dy
= y sin t and assume the starting conditions to be y = 50 when t = secs
dt
Solution:
dy
= y sin t
dt
1
dy = sin t dt
y
1
y dy = sin t dt
ln y = cos t + c
y = ecos t + c
y = ec ecos t
ec = A
To find A:
50 = A ecos
50 = A e(1)
A =
y =
50
e
50 cos t
e
e
y = 50 e1 ecos t
y = 50 e(1 cos t)
p = 60 1 e 4
After T hours, p is 48 cms. Show that:
T = a ln b
Find a & b.
Solution:
48 = 60 60e
4t
48 60 = 60e
4t
12
t
= e 4
60
1
t
= e 4
5
1
t
ln
=
5
4
1
t = 4 ln
5
()
t = 4 ln 5
494
ALevelNotesv7OPae
()
where a = 4 & b = 5
18-Jan-2012
68 C4 Differential Equations
!>
p = 60 60e
4t
( )
dp
1 t
= 60 e 4
dt
4
= 15 e
But
60e
4t
4t
= 60 p
60 p
p
= 1
60
60
dp
p
15p
= 15 1
15
dt
60
60
dp
p
= 15
dt
4
4t
!!
p
= 15 13 = 2
4
p = 8
The gradient of the tangent at each point P of a curve is equal to the square of the gradient OP.
Find the equation of the curve.
Solution:
Gradient of line OP =
y
x
y
dy
Gradient of tangent at P =
dx
Now
()
dy
y2
y2
=
= 2
dx
x
x
1
1
dy = 2 dx
2
y
x
dy =
y2dy = x2dx
dx
1
1
= + c
y
x
1
1
=
c
y
x
y =
1
1 cx
=
y
x
x
1 cx
495
t
14
show that t = 14 ln
( ab ) when x
Solution:
10 = 15 12e
t
14
10 = 15 12e
t
14
10 15
5
t
t
= e 14
= e 14
12
12
5
t
ln
=
12
14
5
12
t = 14 ln
t = 14 ln
12
5
dx
1
Show that
=
(15 x)
dt
14
dx
1 14t
12 14t
= 12
e
e
dt
14
14
15 x
t
But e 14 =
12
dx
12 15 x
1
=
=
(15 x)
dt
14
12
14
( )
( )
( )
( )
(y + 2) (4x 5) + 3
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first:
ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)]
(y + 2) = 3 (4x 5)
ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x
"
(y + 2) 2x
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first:
(y + 2) = x2
ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x
496
ln (y + 2) = ln x2
ALevelNotesv7OPae
(y + 2) ex + e3x
(y + 2) = ex
2 + 3x
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
69.1 Vector Representation
A scalar has magnitude only, e.g. length or distance, speed, area, volumes.
A vector has magnitude AND direction. e.g. velocity, acceleration, momentum. i.e. A journey from one point to
another. Moving from point A to B is called a translation, and the vector a translation vector.
Notation: Three ways of expressing vectors:
AB = from A to B
() ()
x
5
= 5 across; 4 down
y
4
where 5 & 4 are the components in the x & y direction.
(1, 7) A
&
AB = 45
a
B (6, 3)
The translation vector can be calculated from the co-ordinates A (1, 7), B (6, 3):
AB = a =
( ) ( ) ()
Bx Ax
By Ay
6 1
5
=
3 7
4
The length of the line in the diagram represents the magnitude of the vector
and vectors are equal if the magnitude and direction are the same.
Vectors are parallel if they have the same direction and are scalar multiples of
the original vector. e.g. the vector 3b is parallel to the vector b, and three
times longer.
3b
2b
Be aware that the notation only tells you in which direction to move a point and nothing about its position in
space. In effect the vector carries two pieces of information, its magnitude and the inverse of its gradient. Hence
these are sometimes called free vectors.
()
x
and k is a constant number then:
y
If AB = a =
ka =
()
kx
ky
The constant k is called a scalar because it scales up the length of the vector
a
c
If a =
()
()
()
0
0
0
and c =
then a and c are parallel because a = 3
= 3c
15
5
5
497
()
x
y
AB = a =
If
BA = a =
then
()
x
y
|
OP |
|( )|
x
y
| OQ |
or for 3-D
|( )|
x
y
z
|( )|
a
b
| AB |
a2
| AB |
25 = 5.
= a2 + b2
=
b2
32
If AB =
()
3
4
(4, 6)
b 4
42
a
(1, 2) A
| OQ |
|( )|
a
b
c
a2 + b2 + c2
;='%'!(()*+,-./0
!
A line is drawn between two points A (1, 4, 2) and B (2, 1, 3). Find the distance between the two
points.
|
AB |
|
AB |
1 + 25 + 1 =
27
= 3 3
() ( ) ( )
6
2
4
+
=
3
9
6
RT = RS + ST
c = a + b
If RS = a then
498
ALevelNotesv7OPae
()
( )
a
S
2
4
and b =
then: a + b = b + a (commutative rule)
3
1
SR = a
69 C4 Vectors
In a similar manner, larger paths can be added or subtracted.
For example:
S
c
P
R
a
Q
PT = PQ + QR + RS + ST
e = a + b + c + d
;=';'!(()*+,-./0
!
() ( ) ( )
2
5
1
+ t
=
3
4
13
2s t = 5
3s + 4t = 13
s = 3 & t = 1
b
a
ab
a+b
499
() ()
0
1
or
0
1
e.g.
AB =
() () ()
4
0
1
= 4
+ 5
5
0
1
()
()
2-D
0
1
and j =
0
1
This enables us to write vectors in a more compact format.
i =
e.g.
i
x
() () ()
4
0
1
AB =
= 4
+ 5
= 4i + 5j
5
0
1
e.g.
AB =
() () ()
() () () ()
i =
4
5
6
1
0 , j =
0
1
= 4 0
0
0
+ 5 1
0
0
1 and k =
0
0
+ 6 0
1
0
0
1
x
y
= 4i + 5j + 6k
3-D
i
x
z
ALevelNotesv7OPae
Alternative view
500
3-D
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
()
5
= 5i + 2j
2
a+b
b
AB = AO + OB
AB = OA + OB
= a + b
A
(5, 2)
a
O
The vector co-ordinates of point A are the same as the translation vector
Points A & B have position vector a and b. Find the position vectors of
a) the midpoint M of AB and
b) the point of trisection T such that AT = 23 AB
Solution:
a)
AM =
a+b
M
+ b)
1 (a
2
1a
3
+ 23 b
1
3
OM = OA + AM
= a + 12 (a + b)
= 12 a + 12 b
= 12 (a + b)
b
B
b)
A
OT = OA + AT
OT = a + 23 (a + b)
a+b
M
O
T
(a + 2b)
b
B
501
"
a+b
D
F
m
k
a+b
AG = AC + CD + DG
= 2b + (a b) + m.DA
Where DA = a + b 2b
= a b
AG = 2b + a b + m (a b)
= b + a + m (a b)
= a (1 m) + b (1 m)
ii) via BE:
AG = AE + EG
= b + h.EB
Where EB = b + 2a
AG = b + h (b + 2a)
= a (2h) + b (1 h)
iii) via FC:
AG = AF + FG
= a + k.FC
= a + k (a + 2b)
= a (1 k) + b (2k)
We can say that all the above vectors are the same, and therefore equal.
Hence coefficients of a are equal and coefficients of b are equal:
Coefficients of a
(1 m) = 2h = (1 k)
Coefficients of b
(1 m) = (1 h) = 2k
(1 m) = 2k
2h = (1 k)
502
ALevelNotesv7OPae
m = k
(1)
(2)
(1 k) = 2k
2h = 1
1
3
k =
1
3
h =
m =
1
3
1
3
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
A
P
B
b
OM =
1
1
OA = a
2
2
AB = AO + OB = a + b
1
(a + b)
3
1
1
1
1
2
OZ = b (a + b) = b + a b = a + b
3
3
3
3
3
ZB =
b)
MP = MO + OP
3
3 1
OZ =
a +
4
4 3
1
1
1
MP = a + a + b
2
4
2
1
MP = (2b a)
4
OP =
2
1
1
b = a + b
3
4
2
1
1
= b a
2
4
c)
MB = MO + OB
1
1
MB = a + b = b a
2
2
1
MB = (2b a)
2
1
MP = MB
2
The vectors MB & MP are parallel [same vector part (2b a) with different scalar part] and both
lines have a common point M. Therefore, the points M, P, & B are on the same line, i.e. colinear.
503
() () ( )
ax
bx
axbx
=
= (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby
ay
by
ayby
() ()
2
3
5
4
= (3 2) + (4 5) = 26
()()
0
2
1 8 = (2 0) + (1 8) + (4 3) = 20
4
3
;='!>'!(()*+,-./0
If p = (2i + 3j) and q = (5i 9j), find p q
(2 5) + (3 9) = 10 27 = 17
The other definition of the dot product uses the angle between vectors directly and is:
p q = | p | | q | cos
cos =
p q
|p||q|
where is the angle between the two vectors and | p | & | q | are the scalar lengths or magnitudes of the vectors.
Note that is the angle between the two direction vectors of the line (more later).
Observe that the RHS of the equation is made up of scalar quantities, since | p | & | q | are scalars, as is cos .
Hence the dot product is a scalar quantity. In addition, because | p | & | q | are always +ve values, the dot
product takes the sign of cos .
P
p
!
It is important that the vectors are put tail to tail to get a true idea of
the angle between them.
504
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
The inclusion of cos in the equation brings some useful results:
! If p and q are parallel then = 0, cos = 1 and p q = | p | | q |
! If p and q are perpendicular then = 90, cos = 0 and p q = 0
! If the angle is acute then cos > 0 and p q > 0
! If the angle is between 90 & 180 then cos < 0 and p q < 0
! If p q = 0, then either | p | = 0, | q | = 0 or p and q are perpendicular
! Recall that cos = cos (180 ) (2nd quadrant)
Note also that:
i j = 0
i k = 0
j k = 0
i i = 1
j j = 1
k k = 1
p q = q p
(commutative law)
s (p + q) = s p + s q
p (kq) = (kp) q = k (p q)
(k is a scalar)
;='!!'!(()*+,-./0
!
() ()
3
4
Prove that the vectors p = 2 and q = 8 are perpendicular.
4
1
Solution:
p q = | p | | q | cos
If = 90
cos = 0
()()
3
4
2 8 = (3 4) + (2 8) + (4 1)
4
1
= 12 + 16 4 = 0
perpendicular
505
cos =
where p =
p q
|p||q|
() ()
ax
bx
; q =
and p q = axbx + ayby and | p | =
ay
by
(ax)2 + (ay)2 ,
|q|
(bx)2 + (by)2
Find the value of p q first, as if this is 0, then the lines are perpendicular.
;='!"'!(()*+,-./0
!
cos =
cos =
cos =
p q
| p|| q|
(3 5) + (4 12)
15 48
=
2
2
2
5 13
+ 4 5 + (12)
32
33
65
= cos1
"
= 1205 (1dp)
( 33
65 )
() ( )
2
1
and
3
7
Solution:
p q = | p | | q | cos
(2 1) + (3 7) =
19 =
22 + 32 . (1)2 + 72 cos
13 . 50 cos
cos =
19
= 0745
13 . 50
= 418
506
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
Since the line AB is parallel with a vector p, then AB = tp, where t is a scalar, and OB = OA + AB
Therefore, the general vector equation of a straight line is:
r = a + tp
r = a + p
or
Where:
(gives slope)
tp
r = a + tp
A
Position
Translation
Vector
Vector
i.e. start point + direction moved
p = 1/gradient
a
O (origin)
An alternative form of the vector equation of a straight line can be written in component form. If
a = ui + vj + wk and p = xi + yj + zk then
() ()
x
u
y
+
v
w
z
r =
The vector equation of a line that passes through two points A & B can be found thus:
R
B
A
a
O (origin)
The vector
but
r = OR = OA + AR
AR = t AB
AB = a + b = b a
r = OR = a + t (b a)
507
If t
If t
If 0
If t
If t
<
=
<
=
>
t=
t=
t<
0<
t<
r
A
t>
R
b
a
O (origin)
;='!#'!(()*+,-./0
!
() ()
2
2
+ t
3
1
Method 1
t
point
2
3
4
4
6
5
8
6
() () () ()
Method 2
2
2
= the gradient, so plot
and work out the other points according to the gradient.
3
1
()
()
1
2
"
Find a vector equation for the line which passes through (3, 1) and which has the gradient
3
2
r =
+ t
1
1
Find a vector equation for the line which passes through (3, 5) and (9, 2)
3
9 3
3
6
r =
+ t
=
+ t
7
5
2 5
5
Find the vector equation for the line which passes through the point A (4, 1, 3) and parallel to the
vector 2i + 3j 2k
() ()
() (
) () ( )
r = a + tp
Find the vector equation for the line which passes through the point with position vector 3i + 2j
and parallel to the vector 2i j
Find the vector equation for the line parallel to the vector 3i + 4j k and which passes through
the point with position vector 5i 2j + 7k
a = 5i 2j + 7k
r =
508
ALevelNotesv7OPae
() () ()
x
y
z
()
5
2
7
b = 3i + 4j k
()
3
4
1
3
5
= 2 + t 4
7
1
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
<
Find the vector equation for the straight line which passes through the points A, B and C, given
3
1
2
that the position vectors of A, B and C, are
,
and
respectively.
7
9
1
( )() ()
Solution:
C
B
A
( 27 ) ( 39 )
To obtain the equation we need a direction vector parallel to the line, say
BC (or it could be AB, BA etc.) and a position vector, say A (could be B or
C).
( 11)
O (origin)
Position vector
Direction vector
a =
( )
1
1
BC = BO + OC
BC =
() () ()
3
2
1
+
=
7
9
2
r = OA + BC
r =
( ) ()
1
1
+
1
2
Observe that the equation of the line can be calculated in several different ways such as:
r = OB + BC
or
r = OC + BA
or
r = OA + AB
etc.
Although this would give different equations all would be valid, and give the position of any point
on the line for a suitable value of .
Show that the point with position vector i + 2j lies on the line L, with vector equation
r = 4i j + (i j)
Solution:
If on the line, the point must satisfy the equation of the line.
i + 2j = 4i j + (i j)
i + 2j = 4i j + i j
Matching term coefficients:
i term
1 = 4 +
= 3
j term
2 = 1
= 3
As = 3 in both cases, the point with position vector i + 2j lies on the line L.
If had not matched, then the point would not have been on the line. For a 3-D example
coefficients of ALL three unit vectors must be equal for the point to be on the line.
509
r2 = a + tp
&
intersect when r1 = r2
p + sq = a + tp
i.e.
Note that in a 2-D world, individual lines either intersect or are parallel. In a 3-D world, individual lines may
also intersect or be parallel, but they may not do either, (think of a railway line crossing over a road via a
bridge). In this case they are called skew.
;='!%'!(()*+,-./0
!
() ()
( ) ()
x coefficients
1 + t = 3 + s
y coefficients
2 + t = 2 + 4s
1 = 5 3s
Intersection r2 =
( ) () ()
s = 2
t = 4
3
5
1
+ 2
=
2
4
6
Co-ordinate is (5, 6)
"
8
(5, 8)
6
() ()
x component is: x = 5 + 4t
-5
-2
y component is: y = 8 + t
( ) ()
18 4
5
+
8
17 1
17t 12 = 6
t =
( 1317, 9 171 )
18
17
Co-ordinates =
Write down in parametric form the co-ordinates of any point on the line through (5, 4) in the
3
direction of . Use these equations to find where this line meets x + y = 8
5
3
5
r =
+ t
5
4
()
() ()
x = 5 + 3t
y = 4 + 5t
Substitute into : x + y = 8
5 + 3t + 4 + 5t = 8
r =
510
ALevelNotesv7OPae
8t = 1
() () () () ()
1 3
5
4
8 5
3
8
5
8
4 85
383
t =
1
8
5 3
Co-ordinates = 4 , 3
8 8
)
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
cos =
p q
|p||q|
Note that is the angle between the two direction vectors of the lines. Where p is the direction vector of the
line r = a + sp etc.
;='!;'!(()*+,-./0
!
Find the angle between r1 = (4, 1, 2) + s (2, 2, 5) and r2 = (3, 5, 6) + t (1, 2, 1).
Solution:
() ()
()()
2
4
r1 = 1 + s 2
5
2
() ()
3
1
r2 = 5 + s 2
1
6
2
1
2 2 = 2 4 + 5 = 3
5
1
|p|
22 + 22 + (5)2 =
|q|
12 + (2)2 + (1)2 =
| p|| q|
cos =
4 + 4 + 25 =
1 + 4 + 1 =
33 = 574
6 = 245
= 3 22 = 1407
p q
3
=
= 0213
| p|| q|
3 22
= 1023
Recall that if lines are perpendicular, = 90, hence cos = 0 and therefore p q = 0
Similarly, if lines are parallel, = 0, hence cos = 1 and therefore p q = | p | | q |
() ()
2
4
r = 1 + s 3
2
5
Cco-ordinates of a point Q: =
( )
4 + 2s
1 + 3s
2 5s
Note that when s = 0 then point Q coincides with the start point (4, 1, 2).
511
69.18 3D Vectors
Note the convention that z is up.
()
5
4 means 5 in the x-direction, 4 in the y-direction, and 3 in the z-direction and
3
can also be written as 5i + 4j + 3k.
y
j
x
! The equation of a 3-D line still works the same way as a 2-D line.
! Now have the concept of planes. The horizontal plane is defined by the x-y axes and z will be zero.
Vertical planes are defined by the z-y axes (x = 0), and the z-x axes (y = 0).
! Lines in 3-D can be parallel, but non parallel lines do not necessarily intersect. (Think of railway lines
crossing a road). Lines which are not parallel & do not meet are called skew
! In 2-D, a vector direction can be thought of in terms of gradient. This does not follow in 3-D.
;='!&'!(()*+,-./0
!
() ( ) ()
4
6
The translation vector = AB = b a =
9 3
5
4
2
6
1
( ) ()
( ) () ( ) ( ) ( )
2
6
+
t
6
3
1
4
4 + t = 0
t = 4
6
8
14
=
3 + 24 = 21 (14, 21, 0)
0
4
4
"
() ()
6
9
3
2
+ t 3
1
&
() ()
1
1
r2 = 3 + s 4
5
1
Solution:
a) Equate x components: 6 + 2t = 1 s
s = 7 2t
b) Equate y components: 9 3t = 3 + 4s
12 3t = 4s
Substitute for s
12 3t = 4 (7 2t)
5t = 40
(10, 33, 5)
In second line
12 3t = 28 8t
t = 8, s = 9
512
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
#
(1)
r1 =
() ()
0
1
1 + s 2
1
1
&
(2)
() ()
1
1
7 + t 0
u
4
r2 =
x component: 0 + s = 1 + t
y component: 1 + 2s = 7
3 = 1 + t
1 + s = 4 + tu
s = 3
t = 2
2u = 3 + s
u = 3
( ) () ( ) () ()
( ) () ( ) () ()
3
0
0
3
1
+
3
2
6
7
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
(1)
r1 =
(2)
2
1
3
1
1
r2 = 7 + 2 0 7 + 0 7
u
4
4
6
2
(5, 3, 3) B
Solution:
(a)
AC =
Recall:
()() ()
6
7
1
5 4 = 1
2
2
4
()()
()() ()
5
7
2
3 4 = 1
2
1
3
6 cos
2 1 + 2 = 6 cos
cos =
1
2
Area =
=
AB =
p q = | p | | q | cos
2
1
1 1 =
2
1
(b)
1
6
2
= cos1
( 12 ) = 60
1
ab sin c
2
6 sin 60 = 3 sin 60 =
3 3
2
513
()
2
1 ;
2
a =
b =
()
3
2 ;
5
c =
()
4
5
2
Q
!
(3, 2, 5) B
A (2, 1, 2)
Solution:
(a)
OD = OA + AD
BC =
()() ()
OD = OA + BC
D =
Hence:
(b)
AQ =
()
BC = AD
3
7
4
5 2 = 3
7
5
2
and
() ( ) ( )
7
9
2
OD = 1 + 3 = 4
7
2
5
9
4
5
1
AC
2
( ) () ( ) ( )
() ( ) ()
()()
AC =
4
2
2
5 1 = 4
4
2
2
AQ =
1
2
2
3
2
1
OQ = OA + AQ = 1 + 2 = 3
2
2
0
5
1
2 =
1
2
3
(c)
5 + 2 6 =
cos =
35
9 cos
35 3 cos
9
3
=
3 35
35
= 120
514
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
;
() ()
4
1
1 + s 4
1
5
r2 =
( ) ()
3
3
1 + t a
6
b
As the vectors are perpendicular then the dot product of the vector must be zero, viz:
p q = | p | | q | cos
If = 90
cos = 0
p q = 0
In this case we only consider the directional vector part so:
()()
1
4
5
3
a
b
= 0
(1 3) + (4 a) + (5 b) = 0
3 + 4a + 5b = 0
4a + 5b = 3
b) If the lines also intersect, then find the values s & t as well as a & b.
( ) ( )
( )( )
4 + s
r1 = 1 + 4s
1 + 5s
r2 =
3 + 3t
1 + at
6 + bt
4 + s
3 + 3t
1 + 4s = 1 + at
6 + bt
1 + 5s
Equate x components: 4 + s = 3 + 3t
7 + s = 3t
Equate y components: 1 + 4s = 1 + at
a = 4
Equate z components: 1 + 5s = 6 + bt
(1)
s
t
7 + 5s
b =
t
(2)
(3)
(4)
( st ) + 5 ( 7 +t 5s ) = 3
4 4
16s
35 + 25s
+
= 3
t
t
41s + 35 = 3t
From (1)
41s + 35 = (7 + s)
42s = 42
s = 1
t = 2, a = 2, b = 1
c) Find the co-ordinates of the intersection.
Substitute the values for the variables into the vectors and compare LHS & RHS:
( )( )
4 + s
3 + 3t
1 + 4s = 1 + at
6 + bt
1 + 5s
()()
3
3
3 = 3
4
4
515
() ()
0
2
r = 4 + t 3
5
6
r
(0, 4, 5) A
F
x
B b) Find the distance from the foot of the perpendicular, F, on line N, to the
point B.
(5, 10, 10)
Solution:
()()(
)()
5 0
5
0
5
AB = 10 4 = 10 ( 4) = 6
5
10
10 (5)
15
(a)
()()
5
2
p q = 6
3
6
15
[
AB direction vector of r ]
= (5 2) + ( 6 3) + (15 6) = 10 18 90 = 98
|p|
|q|
25 + 36 + 225 =
4 + 9 + 36 =
p q = | p | | q | cos
(b)
&
cos =
286
49 = 7
98 =
98
= 08278
286 7
286 7 cos
= 1459
x
286
x =
If the required point has position vector p, then this must satisfy the vector equation of both lines.
p = 2i + j + (i + 3j)
p = 6i j + (i 4j)
2i + j + (i + 3j) = 6i j + (i 4j)
2 + = 6 +
1 + 3 = 1 4
= 4
3 + 4 = 2
(1)
(2)
516
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
=
A vector passes through two points A & B with the following co-ordinates:
A =
(9, 4, 5) B
B =
9
4
5
r
A
(11, 0, 1)
O
Solution:
() ()
11
0
1
AB = AO + OB =
()()()
() ( )
9
20
11
0 + 4 =
4
5
6
1
20
11
+
s
0
4
6
1
The vector ON , and the co-ordinates of N, are both given by the equation of the line r, and all that
is required is to find the appropriate value of s. Let t be the value of s at point N.
As the lines are perpendicular then the scalar or dot product is zero. Using the direction vectors of
both vectors we have:
AB ON = 0
()( )
11 20t
20
4t = 20 (11 20t) + 4 (4t) + 6 (1 + 6t) = 0
4
6
1 + 6t
220 + 400t + 16t 6 + 36t = 0
t =
Co-ordinates of point N:
Length of ON is:
Length of AB is:
226
1
=
452
2
( ) ()
11 10
1
= 2
2
1 + 3
2
|
ON | =
|
AB | =
12 + 22 + 22 =
9 = 3
(20)2 + 42 + 62 =
400 + 16 + 36 = 2126
1
3 2126 = 3189 sq units
2
517
() ()
3
1
r = 2 + s 3
3
3
Line L
r
(1, 2, 3) A
Solution:
If F represents the foot of the perpendicular from Q, then the vector OF is:
OF = OA + AF
() () ( )
3
1
OF = 2 + 3
3
3
1 + 3
2
+ 3
=
3 + 3
As the lines are perpendicular then the scalar or dot product is zero. Using the direction vectors of
both vectors we have:
AF FQ = 0
FQ = OQ OF
()( ) ( )
( )()
1 + 3
5 3
6
FQ = 1 2 + 3 = 3 3
22
3 + 3
19 3
5 3
3 3
19 3
3
3
3
= 3 (5 3) + 3 (3 3) + 3 (19 3) = 0
15 9 + 9 9 + 57 9 = 0
81 27 = 0
= 3
( ) ()
1 + 9
10
the co-ordinates of F = 2 + 9 = 7
3 + 9
12
The distance of QF
| QF | =
| QF | =
518
ALevelNotesv7OPae
and
42 + 62 + 102 =
( )()
4
5 9
FQ = 3 9 = 6
10
19 9
16 + 36 + 100
152
18-Jan-2012
69 C4 Vectors
!!
(7, 1, 6) D
C (?, ?, ?)
L1
A !
(4, 1, 5)
(9, 3, 9) B
p q
AB AD
cos =
=
| p | | q | | AB | | AD |
()() ()
()()
9
4
5
AB = 3 1 = 2
9
5
4
AB AD = 2
4
|
AB | =
|
AD | =
3
2
1
&
AD =
() () ()
7
4
1 1 =
6
5
45
9 + 4 + 1
14
15
45 14
L1 =
3
2
1
= (5 3) + ( 2 2) + (4 1) = 15 4 + 4 = 15
25 + 4 + 16 =
cos =
() ()
7
5
1 + 2
6
4
() ()
7
5
1 + s 2
6
4
DC =
|
DC |
5
= s 2
4
adjacent
=
hypotenuse
|
Au |
| AD |
(1)
|
DC | = | AB | 2| Au |
| Au | = | AD | cos =
7
1
6
() () () ()
7
5
+
s
1
2
6
4
14
| DC | = | AB | 2 | Au |
From (1) & (2) s 45 =
15
15
=
45 14
45
15
45
| Au | = | AD | cos
45 2
s =
15
15
=
45
45
(2)
15
15
1
=
=
45 45
45
3
() () ( ) ()
7
1 5
1 +
2 =
3
6
4
7 +
6 +
5
3
2
3
4
3
8 23
1
3
713
519
() ()
3
1
r = 2 + s 3
3
3
just plot the starting point A (1, 2, 3) and give
the scalar s an easy value like 1 and plot
B (4, 1, 6).
r
B (4, 1, 6)
O
(1, 2, 3) A
AB = (B co-ords) (A co-ords)
AB =
()()
Bx
By
Bz
| OQ |
|( )|
a
b
c
Ax
Ay
Az
a2 + b2 + c2
() ()
Sx
Sy
Sz
dx
+ dy
dz
() () ( )
ax
bx
axbx
=
= (ax bx) + (ay by) = axbx + ayby
ay
by
ayby
520
p q
| p|| q|
p q < 0
= 90,
cos 90 = 0
= 0,
cos 0 = 1
ALevelNotesv7OPae
p q = 0
p q = | p|| q|
18-Jan-2012
Properties
y = kx2
Quadratic Function:
k > 0
y = kx3
Cubic Function:
k > 0
y = kxeven
k > 0
Function is even
Domain: x !
Range: f (x) 0
Intercept (0, 0)
Passes points (1, 1) and (1, 1)
Line symmetry about the y-axis.
Decreasing function x < 0
Increasing function x > 0
Illustration
y
y = x2
y = x3
y=x2
y = xeven
y=x2
521
Function
y = kx
odd
k > 0
Properties
Illustration
Function is odd
Domain: x !
Range: f (x) !
Intercept (0, 0)
Passes points (1, 1) and (1, 1)
Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
Increasing function
y = kxn + xn 1
+ xn 2 + + c
n = even
k > 0
y=x2
x
Domain: x !
Range: f (x) min vertex
Intercepts yes
No of turning points: n 1
-1
y = kxn + xn 1
+ xn 2 + + c
n = odd
k > 0
y =
k
= kx1
x
(k > 0)
522
y = xodd
Domain: x !
Range: f (x) !
Intercepts yes
No of turning points: n 1
ALevelNotesv7OPae
-2
-1
Reciprocal Function:
y is inversely proportional to x.
As x doubles, y decreases 2 fold.
Function is odd
Domain: x !, x 0
Range: f (x) !, f (x) 0
No intercepts
Asymptotes are x-axis and y-axis
Decreasing function
Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
y
40
y = x 1
30
20
10
-3
-2
-1
-10
-20
-30
-40
18-Jan-2012
Function
y =
Properties
k
= kx2
2
x
k
xodd
40
k
xeven
(k > 0)
20
10
-3
(k > 0)
-2
-1
-10
-20
-30
y = x odd
-3
y = k x = kx 2
y = x 2
30
(k > 0)
y =
(k > 0
y =
Illustration
-2
-1
y = x even
-3
-2
-1
y = x
y=
(x)
523
Function
y =
1
k
= kx 2
x
(k > 0)
Properties
Inverse Square Root Function:
Illustration
y
y = kex
Exponential Function:
(k > 0)
y = x
Domain: x !,
Range: f (x) > 0
Intercept (0, 1)
Asymptote: x-axis
Increasing function for +ve x
y =
k
= kex
x
e
(k > 0)
x
y
y = k logb (x)
Domain: x !, x > 0
Range: f (x) !
Intercept (1, 0)
Asymptote: y-axis
Increasing function for +ve x
Reflection of f (x) = ex in the line
y = x, hence inverse of ex
524
(0, 1)
y = k ln (x)
k > 0
y = ex
ALevelNotesv7OPae
(0, 1)
y = ex
x
y = ln(x)
1
(1, 0)
18-Jan-2012
Function
Properties
y = k ln (x)
y = k logb (x)
Domain: x !, x < 0
Range: f (x) !
Intercept (1, 0)
Vertical asymptote: y-axis
k > 0
Illustration
y
y = ln(x)
(1, 0)
Decreasing function
y = sin x
y = cos x
Sine Function:
Odd function
Domain: x !
Range: 1 f (x) 1
Periodic function, period 2
sin ( + 2) = sin
sin () = sin
x-intercept (n, 0)
y-intercept (0, 0)
Rotational symmetry, order 2, about the
origin and also at every point it crosses
the x-axis.
Line symmetry about every vertical
line passing through each vertex.
Cosine Function:
Even function
Domain: x !
Range: 1 f (x) 1
Periodic function, period 2
cos ( + 2) = cos
cos () = cos
x-intercept
+ n, 0
2
y-intercept (0, 1)
Rotational symmetry, order 2, about the
origin and also at every point it crosses
the x-axis.
Line symmetry about every vertical
line passing through each vertex.
y
y = sin x
90
180
270
360
!"'
#!"'
'!
-1
y
1
y = cos x
90
180
270
360
!"'
#!"'
'!
-1
525
Function
y = tan x
Properties
Illustration
Tangent Function:
Odd function
Domain: x !, x
+ n
2
Range: f (x) !
Periodic function, period
x-intercept (n, 0)
y-intercept (0, 0)
Vertical asymptotes: x =
+ n
2
y = tan x
45
-90
90
180
270
360
!"'
#!"'
'!
-1
3
origin and also about , , ,
2
2
y = cosec x
y = sec x
Cosecant Function:
Odd function
Domain: x !, x n
Range: 1 f (x) 1
| cosec x | 1
Periodic function, period 2
No x or y intercepts
Vertical asymptotes: x = n
where sin x crosses the x-axis at any
multiple of (sin x = 0)
Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
Line symmetry about every vertical
line passing through each vertex.
y = cosec x
y= 1
sin x
1
90
90
180
270
360
(!"'
!"'
#!"'
'!
-1
Secant Function:
Even function
Domain: x !, x
+ n
2
Range: 1 f (x) 1
| sec x | 1
Periodic function, period 2
y-intercept: (0, 1)
Vertical asymptotes: x =
+ n
2
where cos x crosses the x-axis at odd
multiples of (cos x = 0)
Line symmetry about the y-axis and
every vertical line passing through each
vertex.
526
ALevelNotesv7OPae
y
y = sec x
y=
1
cos x
90
90
180
270
360
(!"'
!"'
#!"'
'!
-1
18-Jan-2012
Function
y = cot x
Properties
Illustration
Cotangent Function:
Odd function
Domain: x !, x n
Range: f (x) !
y = cot x
x-intercepts:
+ n, 0 where tan x
2
has asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes: x = n
where tan x crosses the x-axis at any
multiple of (tan x = 0)
Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
y = sin1 x
45
-90
90
180
270
360
!"'
#!"'
'!
!"'
y = sin1 x
Odd function
Restricted Domain: 1 x 1
Range: sin1
2
2
Intercept: (0, 0)
1
(!"'
y = cos 1 x
Restricted Domain: 1 x 1
Range: 0 cos1
( 2 )
y-intercept 0,
y = cos1 x
!"'
Decreasing function
527
Function
y = tan
Properties
Illustration
y
!"'
Odd function
Domain: x !
Range: tan1
2
2
y = tan1 x
Intercept (0, 0)
2
Rotational symmetry about the origin order 2.
Increasing function
Horizontal asymptotes: y =
(!"'
y2 = x
y = x
+
y = x
Domain: x !, x 0
Range: f (x) !
y2 = x
Intercept (0, 0)
Passes points (4, 2), (0, 0), (4, 2) plus
others.
Not a true function
y =
528
ALevelNotesv7OPae
y = 3)x
x
18-Jan-2012
( ) ()
b
b
bx + c = (x ) ( )
2
2
2
b
2
x2 + bx + c = x +
b
2
x2
+ c
+ c
If a < 0,
b
;
2a
y =
b2
+ c
4a
b
c
ax2 + bx + c = a x2 + x +
a
a
b
= a x +
2a
b
2a
ax2 + bx + c = a x +
) ( )
2
b
2a
b2
+ c
4a
b2 4ac
2a
Then
Roots or solutions
Notes
Discriminant > 0
Graph intersects
the x-axis twice
2 distinct real
solutions
Discriminant = 0
Graph intersects
the x-axis once
1 real solution
b
2a
No real solutions
=
Discriminant < 0
529
71.2 Series
71.2.1 Sigma Notation
The sigma notation can be handled according to these rules:
n
(a
+ br) =
r=1
k
a + b
r
r=1
n
r=1
r=1
ar =
r < k < n
r=1
r=k+1
kar = k
r=1
r=1
n
= nc
where c is a constant
= n
1
n (n + 1)
2
1
n (n + 1) (2n + 1)
6
r=1
n
r=1
n
1
1
r = n2 (n + 1)2 = n (n + 1) =
r
4
2
r = 1
r=1
n
or
Sn =
n
[a + l]
2
where l = a + (n 1) d
Sum to Infinity of a Arithmetic Progression
Sn =
n
[ 2a + (n 1) d]
2
U n = a + U n 1d
U n + 1 = a + U nd
530
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
a (1 rn)
(1 r)
Sn =
a (rn 1)
(r 1)
r > 1
a
(1 r)
|r|
< 1
(a + b)n = an +
n n1
n (n 1) n 2 2
n (n 1) (n 2) n 3 3
n
a b +
a b +
a b + + b
1!
2!
3!
(n !)
2
()
()
()
+ b
n
n n1
n n3 3
n n2 2
n nr r
n1
n
a b +
a b +
a b + +
a b + +
ab
+ b
3
r
n 1
1
2
(
n
(a + b) =
r=0
n nr r
a b
r
C2 =
()
or
()
n!
n
=
r
r! (n r)!
Cr =
Cr = nCn r
n (n 1)
n
=
2
2 1
C3 =
or
( )
or
()
= nCk 1 an k + 1b
For the term in br
= nCr an rb
Cr an rb
r=0
Where:
( )
()
n1
()
n (n 1) (n 2)
n
=
3
3 2 1
n
k1
an k + 1b
k 1
n nr r
a b
r
Note: the combination format will only work if n is a positive integer. For n < 1 then the full version of the
Binomial theorem is required.
Where n is a positive integer, the expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, and is valid for all values of x.
The use of the nCr form of combination symbol, is simply that this is the symbology used on calculators.
531
( )
b
n (n 1) b
n (n 1) (n 2) b
= a 1 + n x +
x) +
(
( a x)
a
2!
a
3!
b
a
Valid for | x | < 1 or | x | <
a
b
n
bx
bx
n
(a + bx)n = a 1 +
= a 1 +
a
a
( )
4
n (n 1) (n 2) (n 3) b
x
4!
a
! For the general Binomial Theorem any rational value of n can be used (i.e. fractional or negative
values, and not just positive integers).
! For these expansions, the binomial must start with a 1 in the brackets. For binomials of the form
(a + bx)n, the a term must be factored out.
n
b
Therefore, the binomial (a + bx)n must be changed to an 1 + x .
a
! When n is a positive integer the series is finite and gives an exact value of (1 + x)n and is valid for all
values of x. The expansion terminates after n + 1 terms, because coefficients after this term are zero.
! When n is either a fractional and/or a negative value, the series will have an infinite number of terms.
and the coefficients are never zero.
! In these cases the series will either diverge and the value will become infinite or they will
converge, with the value converging towards the value of binomial (1 + x)n.
! The general Binomial Theorem will converge when | x | < 1 (i.e. 1 < x < 1). This is the
condition required for convergence and we say that the series is valid for this condition.
| |
b
b
! For binomials of the form an 1 + x , the series is only valid when x < 1, or
a
a
a
|x| <
b
! The range must always be stated.
! When the series is convergent it will make a good approximation of (1 + x)n depending on the
number of terms used, and the size of x. Small is better.
(1 + x)1 = 1 x + x2 x3 + x4 +
(1 x)1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
(1 + x)2 = 1 2x + 3x2 4x3 + 5x4 +
(1 x)2 = 1 + 2x + 3x2 + 4x3 + 5x4 +
All valid for | x | < 1
Note that when the sign inside the bracket is different from the index, the signs in the expansion alternate, and
when they are the same the signs in the expansion are all positive.
532
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
b a
and
n = number of strips
n
The value of the function for each ordinate is given by:
yi = f (xi) = f (a + ih)
h =
where
f (x) dx =
xn
x0
where
b a
n
and
n = number of strips
where
h =
b a
n
and
In simpler terms:
b
a
f (x) dx
h
[ (first + last ordinate) + 4 (sum of odd ordinates) + 2 (sum of even ordinates)]
3
y = rsin
y = b + rsin
533
71.5 Vectors
Vector Equation:
r = a + p
r = OA + AB
r = a + (b a)
r = (1 ) a + b
Dot Product:
p q = | p | | q | cos
cos =
| OQ |
() () ( )
p q
| p|| q|
|( )|
a
b
c
a2 + b2 + c2
bx
axbx
ax
a b = ay by = ayby = (ax bx) + (ay by) + (az bz) = axbx + ayby + azbz
az
bz
azbz
If = 90
cos = 0
p q = 0
i k = 0
j k = 0
i i = 1
j j = 1
k k = 1
p q = q p
s (p + q) = s p + s q
p (kq) = (kp) q = k (p q)
534
ALevelNotesv7OPae
(commutative law)
(distributive over vector addition)
(k is a scalar)
18-Jan-2012
30
45
60
90
180
270
360
Radians
3
2
sin
1
2
1
2
3
2
cos
3
2
1
2
1
2
tan
1
3
AT
AT
sin2
0
1
1
2
1
2
3
4
1
4
cos2
tan2
1
4
3
4
1
3
ND
1
tan 30 =
3
360 = 2 radians
Examples:
Recall:
cos x = sin x =
1 radian =
1
2
SOHCAHTOA
sin =
opposite
hypotenuse
cos =
adjacent
hypotenuse
tan =
opposite
adjacent
1
sin x
sin x
cos x
1
sec x =
cos x
sin = cos
tan = cot
sec = cosec
cos = sin
cot = tan
cosec = sec
tan x =
cosec x =
where
+ = 90
cot x =
1
tan x
= 90
cos () = sin (90 )
sin () = sin
cosec () = cosec
cos () = cos
sec () = sec
tan () = tan
cot () = cot
535
Third quadrant
Fourth quadrant
! Sine
!
!
!
!
! Tan
!
!
!
!
Cosine rule:
a
b
c
=
=
sin A
sin B
sin B
2
a2 = b + c2 2bc cos A
cos A =
Area of a triangle:
536
ALevelNotesv7OPae
A =
b2 + c2 a2
2bc
1
1
ab sin C = bh (Half base vert height)
2
2
18-Jan-2012
( 12 )
1
cos sin ( )
2
sin cos
tan
sin
cos
(1)
1 + cot 2 cosec2
1 + tan2 sec2
tan A tan B
1 tan A tan B
(sin2 = 1 cos2 )
(cos2 = 1 sin2 )
2tan A
1 tan2A
3tan A tan3A
1 3tan2A
cos2
537
( A +2 B) cos ( A 2 B)
A+ B
A B
sin A sin B = 2 cos (
sin (
2 )
2 )
A+ B
A B
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (
cos (
)
2
2 )
A+ B
A B
cos A cos B = 2 sin (
sin (
)
2
2 )
A+ B
B A
cos A cos B = 2 sin (
sin (
2 )
2 )
sin A + sin B = 2 sin
Or
Alternative format:
t = tan
sin
2t
1 + t2
1 t2
1 + t2
2t
tan
1 t2
cos
2
2
in radians!!!!!!!
538
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
a cos x + b sin x
R =
a2 + b2
R cos = a
tan =
cos =
b
a
a
a2 + b2
(watch signs)
R sin = b
0 < a <
sin =
b
a2 + b2
Recall
sin (A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos (A B) cos A cos B sin A sin B
72.6 Formul for integrating cos A cos B, sin A cos B, & sin A sin B
2 sin A cos B sin (A B) + sin (A + B)
2 cos A cos B cos (A B) + cos (A + B)
2 sin A sin B cos (A B) cos (A + B)
2 sin A cos A sin 2A
2 cos2 A 1 + cos 2A
2 sin2 A 1 cos 2A
(sin )1 = sin1
The confusion is made worse by the fact that we use: sin2 = (sin )2.
539
72.8 Geometry
m1m2 = 1
y y1
x x1
=
y2 y1
x2 x1
D =
M =
(x
x1 y2 y1
,
2
2
radius =
(g2 + f 2 c)
72.8.3 Areas
Area of a triangle:
Area of a sector:
Arc length:
540
ALevelNotesv7OPae
1
1
ab sin C = bh (Half base vert height)
2
2
1
A = r2
( in radians)
2
A =
l = r
( in radians)
18-Jan-2012
Logarithms
N = bx
logb N = x
b0 = 1
logb 1 = 0
b1 = b
logb b = 1
aman = a(m + n)
am
= a(m n)
an
loga
1
= a(n)
an
n
(am)n = a(mn)
( mn )
( MN ) = log M log N
a
(am) n = a
Change of base
()
a
b 1
=
b
a
( )
1 = log N
loga N
a
loga n M =
m = mn
b > 0
1
loga M
n
loga Mn = n loga M
1
loga M n = 1n loga M
loga N =
logb N
logb a
loga b =
1
logb a
ln
a
b
= ln
b
a
alogam = m
alogax = x
loga (ax) = x
eln x = x
ln ex = x
ea ln x = xa
a ln ex = ax
Tips:
To solve problems like ax = b take logs on both sides first.
Note:
log x log10 x
&
ln x lne x
541
()
log (x)
! log (y) is not the same as log xy . When you divide two logs to the same base, you are in fact using the
log (x)
change-of-base formula backwards. Note that log (y) = logy (x), NOT log xy !
()
! (log x) (log y) is not the same as log (xy). Theres really not much you can do with the product of two
logs when they have the same base.
Handling logs causes many problems, here are a few to avoid.
ln (y + 2) = ln (4x 5) + ln 3
(y + 2) (4x 5) + 3
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first:
ln (y + 2) = ln [ 3 (4x 5)]
(y + 2) = 3 (4x 5)
ln (y + 2) = 2 ln x
"
(y + 2) 2x
To solve, put the RHS into the form of a single log first:
(y + 2) = x2
ln (y + 2) = x2 + 3x
542
ln (y + 2) = ln x2
ALevelNotesv7OPae
(y + 2) ex + e3x
(y + 2) = ex
2 + 3x
18-Jan-2012
y =
[ f (x)]
dy
= n f (x) f (x)
dx
n1
Inverse Rule:
dy
1
= dx
dx
dy
Chain Rule:
dy
dy
du
=
dx
du
dx
Product Rule:
y = uv
y = f (x) g (x)
dy
dv
du
= u
+ v
dx
dx
dx
dy
= f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x)
dx
Quotient Rule:
y =
u
v
y =
v du u dv
dy
= dx 2 dx
dx
v
f (x)
g (x)
dy
f (x) g (x) f (x) g (x)
=
dx
{g (x)}2
Trig Rules:
dy
= n sinn 1x cos x
dx
dy
y = cosnx
= n cosn 1x sin x
dx
dy
y = tannx
= n tann 1x sec2x
dx
y = sinnx
y = ax
dy
= ax ln a
dx
543
74.2 Integration
Standard integrals (useful for substitution or by inspection):
f (ax + b) dx
f (x) [f (x)]
f (x)
1
F (ax + b) + c
a
dx =
1
n+1
+ c
[ f (x)]
n + 1
f (x) dx
= ln | f (x)| + c
f (x) e
dx = ef (x) + c
f (x)
= sin f (x) + c
= cos f (x) + c
= ln | sec f (x)| + c
etc
By Parts:
u
a
b
dv
dx = [ uv] a
dx
v
a
du
dx
dx
Vol of revolution:
(radius)2 dx
y2 dx
x-axis
x2 dy
y-axis
y dx dx = x dx
1
dy =
ln | y | =
x dx
1 2
x + c
2
1 x2 + c
eln y = e 2
1 x2
y = e 2 ec
1 x2
y = Ae 2
544
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Dif f erential
dy
dx
= f (x)
y = f (x)
ax + c
xn
nxn 1
xn
xn + 1
+ c
n + 1
ex
ex
ex
ex + c
eax
aeax
eax
1 eax + c
a
f (x)
f (x) e
f (x)
(n 1)
(a 0)
sin x
cos x
sin x
cos x + c
cos x
sin x
cos x
sin x + c
tan x
ln | sec x | + c
tan x
ln | cos x | + c
sin kx
tan x
sec2x
sin kx
k cos kx
cos kx
k sin kx
tan kx
k sec2 kx
sin f (x)
cos f (x)
tan f (x)
cos kx
1
cos kx + c
k
1
sin kx + c
k
cos (kx + n)
1
sin (kx + n) + c
k
tan kx
1
ln | sec kx | + c
k
ln | sin x | + c
cosec2x
cot x
cosec x
cosec x cot x
cosec x cot x
cosec x + c
sec x
sec x tan x
sec x tan x
sec x + c
cot x
cosec x
For all trig:
x in radians
ln f (x)
uv
uv + vu
u
v
vu uv
v2
sec x
ln | sec x + tan x | + c
sec x
ln | tan
1
x
f (x)
f (x)
ln | tan 12 x | + c
ln | cosec x + cot x | + c
cosec2x
ln x
cosec x
sec2 kx
1
x
( 12 x
+ 14 )| + c
1 tan kx + c
k
cot x + c
ln | x | + c
ln x
x ln (x) x + c
u v
uv uv dx + c
(ax + b)
ax
(ax + b)n + 1
+ c
a (n + 1)
(x 0)
(n 1)
ax
+ c
ln a
545
tan1 x
cos 1
tan 1
= f (x)
y = f (x)
1
1 x2
f (x)
f (x)
1
1 x2
1
ax + b
1
+ 1
x2
( ax )
( ax )
( ax )
sin1
dy
dx
1
a2 x2
1
x2 + a2
1
x2 + a2
1
+ 1
n1
dy
y = uv
y =
dy
dv
du
= u
+ v
dx
dx
dx
u
v
Quotient Rule:
dv
v du
dy
dx u dx
=
dx
v2
dy
y = sin x
= n sinn 1x cos x
dx
dy
y = cosnx
= n cosn 1x sin x
dx
dy
y = tannx
= n tann 1x sec2x
dx
n
y = ax
dy
= ax ln a
dx
tan1 x + c
a
xn + 1 + c
n + 1
f (x)
dy
dy
du
=
dx
du
dx
Product Rule:
ax dx
f (x) [f (x)]
dy
1
= dx
dx
Chain Rule:
dy
= n f (x) f (x)
dx
| |
1
a + x
ln
+ c
2a | a x |
x
sin ( ) + c
a
1
x
tan ( ) + c
a
a
1
a2 x2
1
a2 x2
= axn 1
dx
[ f (x)]
1 ln | ax + b | + c
a
1
x a
ln
+ c
2a
x + a
x2
y =
ln | f (x)| + c
1
a2
x2
1
a2 x2
Integral f (x) dx
dx =
1
n+1
+ c
[ f (x)]
n + 1
f (x) dx
= ln | f (x)| + c
f (x) e
dx = ef (x) + c
f (x)
= sin f (x) + c
= cos f (x) + c
= ln | sec f (x)| + c
By Parts:
u
a
b
dv
dx = [ uv] a
dx
v
a
etc
du
dx
dx
(radius)2 dx
y2 dx
x axis
x2 dy
y axis
546
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012
Standard
Integral?
Integrate normally
(See formula
book)
If power is 1: use ln x
or
(ax +
b)n =
(ax + b)n + 1
a (a + 1)
Product
of 2 terms?
(one in x)
Top a
constant?
Can you use a
neg power?
Guess ln f(x)
and check details
If n * 0 rearrange as
f (x) [f (x)]n
dx
Top
heavy
fraction?
Is it a
quotient
(fraction)?
Form of
n
f (x) [ f (x)] dx
Guess [ f (x)] n + 1
and try differentiating
to check
Form of
f (x)
f
(x) e dx
Guess ef (x)
and try differentiating
to check
Substitution
required?
Parts
required?
Form of
f (x) dx
f (x)
Form of
f (x) dx
[f (x) n
]
Usually works if
Y
denominator factorises.
Integrate fractions separately.
Even power
of sin or cos
only
Partial
fractions?
Odd power
of sin or cos
only.
Two terms
on top?
tan ?
Substitution
required?
Is it a trig?
1
(1 cos 2x)
2
tan x dx or=
ln | sec x|
= ln | cos x |
547
The End
548
ALevelNotesv7OPae
18-Jan-2012