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toughness and strength of rolled metal), are machined altogether from these
stock forms. On drawings of such part, finish marks, (or finish-all-over
notes) are usually omitted. The parts are understood to be finished.
11.9 Welding. Welding is the fusion or joining of two pieces of metal by
means of heat, with or without the application of pressure. Welded structures
are usually built up from stock forms, such as plate, tubing, and angles.
These parts are cut to shape, assembled, and welded together. Often, heat
treating and machining operations are performed after the parts are joined
together.
11.10 Measurements. The machinists steel rule, or scale, is a commonly
used measuring tool in the shop. The smallest division on a scale is 1/64
(.016). Such a scale is used for common fractional dimensions. The outside
spring calipers are used to check the nominal size of outside diameters. The
measurement is then read off on the steel scale. The inside spring calipers
are used to measure inside nominal size of inside diameters. The outside
calipers can also be used to measure the nominal distance between holes
(center to center). A combination square is used to give the nominal height
of an object. If dimensions require more precise measurements, the vernier
caliper and/or the micrometer caliper may be used. By means of the vernier
graduations, measurements may be made to four decimal places, or
1/10,000. Computerized measuring devices provide greater accuracy. They
contain integral micro-processors. The hand-held printer/recorder provides a
hard-copy output of measurements. The printer also calculates and lists
statistical values of the measurements. These assist machinists in
maintaining a high level of quality.
11.11 The Lathe. Cylinders, cones, and other rounded shapes are often
machined on a lathe. A long piece of stock is usually held between centers.
The left end of the stock is fastened securely to a face plate by means of a
dog. A short piece of stock is usually held in a chuck (essentially a
revolving vise).The cutting of an external cylindrical surface is called
turning. The cutting of a flat surface is called facing. Other common
operations performed on the lathe include drilling, boring, and reaming.
Threads are often cut on the lathe. In all of these, the stock rotates and the
cutting tool is fed into or along the stock as required. Knurling is also done on
the lathe by using a knurling tool in the tool holder and forcing it against the
revolving work. The result is a roughened surface composed of crossing
diagonal grooves or of parallel groves lengthwise of the piece. These are
operator can dial into the electronic memory the precise amount of metal to
be removed during each of the grinding passes. In cylindrical grinding, the
work revolves slowly on centers and is moved past the grinding wheel. On a
drawing, a surface to be ground is indicated with a letter G on the edge view
of the surface or by a note GRIND.
11.16 Broaching. The broaching machine uses a long cutting tool called a
broach. The broach has a series of teeth that gradually increase in size. The
broach is forced through a holeor over a surface to produce a desired shape.
A surface may be machined with a flat surface broach. As the broach is
forced through or across the work, each succeeding tooth bites deeper and
deeper until the final teeth form the required hole or surface.
11.17 Heat Treating. The process of changing the properties of metals by
heating and cooling. Annealing and normalizing are generally used to soften
metal. They involve heating followed by slow cooling. Hardening requires
heating and then rapid cooling (quenching) in oil, water, or other substances.
There are many other kinds of heat treatment, such as tempering,
casehardening, and carburizing.
11.18 Manufacturing Notes. The various operations described in this
chapter are specified on the drawing in the form of notes.
11.19 Automation. Automation is the term applied to systems of automatic
machines and processes. These machines and processes are essentially the
same as previously discussed. However, they also have mechanisms to
control the sequence of operations, movement of tools, and so forth.
Operator interaction is seldom required once the equipment has been set
up. Most of these machines contain built-in computers to control all their
functions. Industrial robots are often used to take the place of human
operators for the tedious load and unload cycles of the machine. Single
machining centers eliminate the need for multiple shaping, planing, and
boring machines. These centers also do away with the need for moving
machined parts from machine to machine. The automatic tool charger on this
machine stores 48 different cutters weighing up to 120 pounds each.
11.20 Plastics Processing. The plastics industry represents one of the
major manufacturing segments. The two main families of plastics are known
as thermosetting and thermoplastic. Thermosetting plastics, as their name
implies, will take a set when molded. They will not soften when reheated.
Thermoplastics, however, will soften when heat is reapplied. Typical plastic
operations include: Extrusion (pipe, profiles, film for bags), blow molding