CHAPTER 11 SUB-SECTION SUMMARIES:

11.1 Manufacturing Processes. A working drawing provides a

manufacturer the information needed to produce a part. Drafters and
designers have to have a basic understanding of the various processes used
to produce parts. Generally, the production of a part has three main stages:
rough forming, finishing, and assembling. There are three important types of
rough forming: casting (in a foundry), forging (in a forge shop), and welding
(in a welding shop). Finishing is often done in a machine shop, and the
completed machine is put together in the assembly shop. The part drawing
generally shows the part in its completed state. But for more complicated
castings, a special pattern drawing may be made. This drawing gives only
the information needed in the pattern shop.
11.2 Sand Casting. To produce a part, a rough sand casting is made. The
part is then machined. The casting is made by pouring molten metal (iron,
steel, aluminum, brass, or other metal) into a cavity in damp sand. The metal
cools and hardens, then is removed from the sand. The cavity is made by
placing a model of the object, called a pattern, in the sand and then
withdrawing it. This leaves an imprint of the model in the sand. Patterns are
usually made from wood (Basswood and mahogany). In some cases,
duplicate patterns are made of metal. Since shrinkage occurs when metal
cools, patterns are made slightly oversize. Patternmakers use a shrink rule
with slightly oversize units. Different metals have different shrink rules to
match their tendency to shrink. Draft is the taper given to a pattern to permit
it to be easily withdrawn from the sand without damaging the shape of the
mold. It is not shown on the drawing, and it doesnt have to be large. The
sand is contained in a two-part box called a flask. The upper part is called
the cope and the lower part is called the drag. For more complicated work,
one or more intermediate boxes, called cheeks, are used between the cope
and drag. Patterns are often split so that half can be placed in the cope and
half can be placed in the drag. The metal is poured into the mold, it flows
around the core, and leaves a hole in the casting. When the casting cools, it
is removed from the sand. The dry sand core is then broken out. The casting
is cleaned, and the rough casting is now ready for the machine shop.
11.3 Fillets and Rounds. A rounded inside corner on a casting is called a
fillet. A rounded outside corner is called a round. Rounds are formed by
rounding the edges with a plane or sandpaper. Fillets are formed by gluing on
leather or wood strips. They can also be made by forming wax into the
patterns sharp corners, but sharp corners should be avoided on a casting.

Inside corners should have fillets as large as possible. It is difficult to obtain

sharp corners in the casting process. Sharp corners are also weak. A
compass is used for large fillets and a circle template is used for smaller
ones.
11.4 Runouts. If fillets and rounds are present, an exact representation is
not only difficult, but usually unnecessary. Points of tangency should be
shown in the top view. They must then be projected to the other views where
runouts are carefully drawn freehand, or with a circle template. If runouts are
large, an irregular curve should be used, otherwise they should be drawn
freehand.
11.5 Conventional Edges. It is often necessary to draw lines representing
rounded edges when no edges exist. If an edge has only a small radius, a line
should be shown. If the radius is large, no line should be shown. Follow this
rule: Draw lines for rounded edges whenever such lines make the drawing
clearer.
11.6 Forging. A forging is produced by hammering heated bars of billets of
metal between dies. Forging presses, or hammers, are used to exert great
pressure that forces the plastic metal into the dies. If the pressure used
during the forming process was exerted by the impact of heavy blows, the
process is called drop forging. If the pressure is from a slow squeezing action,
it is referred to as press forging. The forging dies have machined cavities and
projections of the shapes desired. Forgings are stronger, tougher, and less
brittle than sand castings. The working drawing as it comes to the forge shop
may show the finished machine part. Separate forging drawings are often
made with only the dimensions needed in the forge shop. As in sand casting,
a draft must be provided for forgings so they will withdraw easily from the
dies. In most cases this draft is from 5 degrees to 7 degrees. It may be less.
11.7 Die Casting. Die casting is the fastest of the casting processes. It is
used when rapid production and economy are needed. It is used in
automobile carburetors, door handles, and toys. Die castings are formed by
forcing molten metal, usually a zinc alloy, into the cavities between metal
dies. Die castings are much more accurate than sand castings. They require
little or no machining.
11.8 Stock Forms. Many standardized structural shapes are available in
stock sizes for use in the fabrication of parts or structures. Among these are
bars of various shapes, flat stock, rolled structural shapes. Many of the
smaller machine parts, especially screw-machine work (which requires the

toughness and strength of rolled metal), are machined altogether from these
stock forms. On drawings of such part, finish marks, (or finish-all-over
notes) are usually omitted. The parts are understood to be finished.
11.9 Welding. Welding is the fusion or joining of two pieces of metal by
means of heat, with or without the application of pressure. Welded structures
are usually built up from stock forms, such as plate, tubing, and angles.
These parts are cut to shape, assembled, and welded together. Often, heat
treating and machining operations are performed after the parts are joined
together.
11.10 Measurements. The machinists steel rule, or scale, is a commonly
used measuring tool in the shop. The smallest division on a scale is 1/64
(.016). Such a scale is used for common fractional dimensions. The outside
spring calipers are used to check the nominal size of outside diameters. The
measurement is then read off on the steel scale. The inside spring calipers
are used to measure inside nominal size of inside diameters. The outside
calipers can also be used to measure the nominal distance between holes
(center to center). A combination square is used to give the nominal height
of an object. If dimensions require more precise measurements, the vernier
caliper and/or the micrometer caliper may be used. By means of the vernier
graduations, measurements may be made to four decimal places, or
1/10,000. Computerized measuring devices provide greater accuracy. They
contain integral micro-processors. The hand-held printer/recorder provides a
hard-copy output of measurements. The printer also calculates and lists
statistical values of the measurements. These assist machinists in
maintaining a high level of quality.
11.11 The Lathe. Cylinders, cones, and other rounded shapes are often
machined on a lathe. A long piece of stock is usually held between centers.
The left end of the stock is fastened securely to a face plate by means of a
dog. A short piece of stock is usually held in a chuck (essentially a
revolving vise).The cutting of an external cylindrical surface is called
turning. The cutting of a flat surface is called facing. Other common
operations performed on the lathe include drilling, boring, and reaming.
Threads are often cut on the lathe. In all of these, the stock rotates and the
cutting tool is fed into or along the stock as required. Knurling is also done on
the lathe by using a knurling tool in the tool holder and forcing it against the
revolving work. The result is a roughened surface composed of crossing
diagonal grooves or of parallel groves lengthwise of the piece. These are

common on thumbscrews and handles of various kinds to provide a better

grip. Knurls can be fine, medium, or course.
11.12 How Finished Holes Are Made. The revolving drill is fed into the
work, which remains stationary. The drill is also used in the lathe, the milling
machine, and other machines. The drill does not provide a very accurate hole
in either roundness or straightness. For greater accuracy, the drill is followed
by boring or by reaming. Boring enlarges the drilled hole slightly and makes
it rounder and straighter. Reaming enlarges the drilled hole or bored hole
slightly, and improves its surface quality. Its good to drill, bore, and then
ream to make an accurate hole. Counterboring is the cutting of an enlarged
cylindrical portion at the top of a hole. This is usually done to receive the
head of a fillister-head or a socket-head screw. Spotfacing is simply the
cutting of a shallow counterbore, usually about 1/16 (.062) deep or deep
enough to get under the scale on the rough surface, or to finish off the top of
a boss to form a bearing surface. The depth of a spotface is usually not
indicated on the note in the drawing, but it is left to the manufacturer. They
provide an accurate bearing surface for the underside of a bolt or screw
head. Countersinking is the cutting of an enlarged conical portion at one end
of a hole to receive the head of a flat head screw. Tapping is the threading of
a small hole with one or more taps.
11.13 The Shaper. The stock is held in a vise. A single-pointed, nonrotating cutting tool similar to that used in the lathe cuts as it is forced
forward in a straight line past the stationary work. The tool then returns to
the starting position to start another cut. The work is then fed, or moved
slightly to the side. This places a fresh portion of the work in the path of the
tool for the next cut.
11.14 The Milling Machine. In the milling machine, the work is fastened to
the table by means of clamps or a vise, then fed into a rotating milling cutter.
Cutters of different shapes provide a large variety of cuts that can be made
on a milling machine. The accuracy of a milling machine and many other
types of machine tools depends upon the degree of accuracy with which the
machine is set up and maintained. A laser-based measurement system is
used in the calibration of the positioning accuracy of numerically controlled
machine tools, such as milling machines.
11.15 The Grinding Machine. The grinding machine removes a small
amount of metal to bring the work to a very fine and accurate finish. In
surface grinding, the work is moved past the revolving grinding wheel. The

operator can dial into the electronic memory the precise amount of metal to
be removed during each of the grinding passes. In cylindrical grinding, the
work revolves slowly on centers and is moved past the grinding wheel. On a
drawing, a surface to be ground is indicated with a letter G on the edge view
of the surface or by a note GRIND.
11.16 Broaching. The broaching machine uses a long cutting tool called a
broach. The broach has a series of teeth that gradually increase in size. The
broach is forced through a holeor over a surface to produce a desired shape.
A surface may be machined with a flat surface broach. As the broach is
forced through or across the work, each succeeding tooth bites deeper and
deeper until the final teeth form the required hole or surface.
11.17 Heat Treating. The process of changing the properties of metals by
heating and cooling. Annealing and normalizing are generally used to soften
metal. They involve heating followed by slow cooling. Hardening requires
heating and then rapid cooling (quenching) in oil, water, or other substances.
There are many other kinds of heat treatment, such as tempering,
casehardening, and carburizing.
11.18 Manufacturing Notes. The various operations described in this
chapter are specified on the drawing in the form of notes.
11.19 Automation. Automation is the term applied to systems of automatic
machines and processes. These machines and processes are essentially the
same as previously discussed. However, they also have mechanisms to
control the sequence of operations, movement of tools, and so forth.
Operator interaction is seldom required once the equipment has been set
up. Most of these machines contain built-in computers to control all their
functions. Industrial robots are often used to take the place of human
operators for the tedious load and unload cycles of the machine. Single
machining centers eliminate the need for multiple shaping, planing, and
boring machines. These centers also do away with the need for moving
machined parts from machine to machine. The automatic tool charger on this
machine stores 48 different cutters weighing up to 120 pounds each.
11.20 Plastics Processing. The plastics industry represents one of the
major manufacturing segments. The two main families of plastics are known
as thermosetting and thermoplastic. Thermosetting plastics, as their name
implies, will take a set when molded. They will not soften when reheated.
Thermoplastics, however, will soften when heat is reapplied. Typical plastic
operations include: Extrusion (pipe, profiles, film for bags), blow molding

(Used in the production of bottles, automotive ductwork, hollow toy

components, door panels) Injection molding, (housings for electronics,
automotive components, food storage containers, and other items) and
Thermoforming (thin-walled packages for the food industry and cosmetic
packaging and displays. Heavier gauge material is also thermoformed into
industrial components such as liners and door facings for refrigerators.)
11.21 CAD in Manufacturing. The advent of automated machining
processes has changed the design process from paper based to electronic
based, or as a binary format. Drawings developed on a CAD system are ideal
to automate the process of converting X, Y, and Z coordinates to the
movements of a variety of machines. These include milling machines, drill
presses, punches, lathes, and grinders. The process of developing designs on
a CAD system and producing them on computerized machines is called
CAD/CAM. Converting the vector-based drawing to a specific tool movement
is called computer numerical control, or CNC. Designs developed on the CAD
system must be extremely accurate. All lines must meet at precise points.
Such accuracy is necessary because the design geometry is used to develop
the tool path for the machine. If breaks or openings are present in the
design, the tool will not continue on the proper path to produce the part. This
results in loss of production time and expensive change orders. Another
form of manufacturing is called computer integrated manufacturing, or CIM.
In this process, the designed part may go through several manufacturing
procedures. Each design phase is converted to the particular machine
required to complete each part. Such a part is usually designed on a CAD
system. It is then run through an automated assembly line controlled by a
computer. The automotive industry uses this approach to manufacturing.