Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONTENTS
1
INTRODUCTION
INTERPRET LITHOLOGY
DETERMINATION OF SATURATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:
Methodology of Log Interpretation:
1. Describe the procedures used to interpret logs.
Correlation and Depth Matching:
2. Correlate and depth match marker beds using the gamma ray log.
Interpretation of Lithology:
3. Describe in general terms how lithology can be interpreted.
Identification of Permeable and Non-Permeable Zones:
4. Describe which logs are used to identify permeable zones.
Formation Zonation:
5. Describe how to determine water bearing and hydrocarbon bearing zones.
Porosity Determination:
6. Describe which logs can be used to determine porosity.
Saturation Determination:
7. Describe in general terms how saturation can be determined.
1 INTRODUCTION
The objective of well logging is to determine the properties of the rocks which are
potential sources of hydrocarbons. The logs are used to determine specifically :
Lithology of Formation
Porosity
Fluid Content
Saturation
Figure 1
Marker
Flow Unit 2
Flow Unit 1
3 INTERPRET LITHOLOGY
The lithology of the formations which have been drilled through is not always
immediately obvious from the logs which have been run. However in virtually all
exploration and appraisal wells the interpretation of the lithology will be supported by
evidence which is derived from drilled cuttings by the mudlogging engineer or
wellsite geologist and analysis of cores which have been cut and retrieved from the
well. In addition to the lithological description derived from the above, the mudlogger
or geologist will also provide an interpretation of the depth at which the formation
horizons were penetrated. In the case of development wells the regional geology
should be reasonably well defined.
As discussed in Chapter 2, rocks are classified on the basis of a system associated
with the chemistry of the rocks. The reason for this is that the measurements made by
the logging tools can be calibrated in terms of the properties (e.g. density) of these
specific minerals and therefore that these minerals can be clearly identified when
encountered. If the formation is made up of one mineral then a particular log
measurement may be used to identify that mineral and therefore infer the rock type
(lithology). However, if the formation is made up of a mixture of known minerals then
it is necessary to use a combination of logs to obtain a good indication of the
mineralogical content and therefore lithology of the formation. The composition of
the rock can be inferred by crossplotting combinations of the Density, Neutron and
Acoustic log data. Figure 2 shows an example of a Neutron Porosity versus Bulk
Density crossplot. The utility of this approach depends on the complexity of the rock
as well as the number of porosity logs run. This technique of crossplotting porosity
logs to identify the lithology is described in Chapter 6. This technique can also be
used to define the porosity of the formation and presence of gas. This will be discussed
in the section on porosity determination below.
Figure 2
Neutron Porosity versus
Bulk Density crossplot for
determining lithology
Figure 3
(Upper) - Invasion and
Resistivity Profile in water
bearing zone.
(Lower) -Invasion and
Resistivity Profile in oilbearing zone
SATURATION
GR
Shale
Sand
(Uncompacted)
Gas
Sand
(Uncompacted)
Water
Shale
Sand
(Compacted)
Gas
Sand
(Compacted)
Water
Shale
Sand
Gas
Shaley Sand
Gas
Grading to Shale
Figure 4
Formation gas influence on
porosity logs
The resistivity logs can only be used to differentiate between hydrocarbons and water.
This is because the conductivity of gas and oil will be similar whereas the resistivity
of (salt) water and hydrocarbons will be significantly different. The interpretation of
the response of the resistivity tools in water and hydrocarbon and water-bearing
formations relies on an appreciation of the changes in resistivity that occur in the
region close to the wellbore of a permeable zone (Figure 3).
When a permeable zone is penetrated by the drillbit the drilling mud will try to
penetrate the permeable formation. If the size of the pores in the formation are smaller
than the solids in the drilling fluid then the solids will be trapped on the surface of the
wellbore and the fluid in the drilling mud will pass through the solids into the
formation.
When invasion occurs, the wellbore is coated with a thin film of solids known as the
filter cake and the formation next to the wellbore is flushed by the mud filtrate
moving into the formation and is therefore known as the flushed zone. The
hydrocarbon saturation in the flushed zone is a minimum and all of the formation water
is removed.
The formations deeper into the formation are affected progressively less than the
flushed zone until at some radial depth into the formation the fluids in the pore space
are undisturbed. In a hydrocarbon bearing formation the hydrocarbon saturation is
reduced in the flushed zone and increases in the transistion zone until the original
saturation is reached in the undisturbed zone. In a water bearing formation the water
saturation in the zone between the flushed zone and the undisturbed zone would not
change but the salinity and therefore the resistivity may. These changes in saturation
and resistivity create resistivity profiles which can be used to identify the water
bearing and hydrocarbon bearing formations.
Figure 5
Resistivity profiles from
shallow, medium and deep
resistivity logs in fresh and
salt mud systems.
Salt Mud
System
Rx0
Resistivity, R
Fresh Mud
System
Resistivity, R
When using freshwater mud, the resistivity of the mud filtrate is higher than that of
the formation water and therefore in a water bearing zone the resistivity of the flushed
zone is high and the resistivity readings decrease with movement out into the
undisturbed zone. In a hydrocarbon bearing formation the resistivity of the zone
behind the flushed zone may be higher or lower than the flushed zone depending on
the water saturation and resistivity of the formation water. The resistivity profiles and
relative readings which would be expected from the shallow (S), medium (M) and
deep (D) reading resistivity logs for each of the above conditions are shown in Figure 5.
R*
DMS
Fresh Mud
Salt
Water
Zone
R0
Rt
Rx0
Rw So
increasing
R*
SMD
When using a salt water mud the flushed zone has a lower or similar resistivity than
the undisturbed zone if the undisturbed zone contains high resistivity water. The
undisturbed zone will have higher resistivity if the formation contains hydrocarbons.
Acoustic log,
Density log and/or
Neutron log.
The measurements of the neutron, density, and sonic logs depend not only on porosity
() but also on the formation lithology, on the fluid in the pores, and, in some instances,
on the geometry of the pore structure. When the lithology and, therefore, the matrix
parameters (tma, ma, ma) are known, correct porosity values can be derived from any
one of these logs, appropriately corrected for environmental effects, in clean waterfilled formations. This procedure is described in Chapter 5.
Accurate porosity determination is more difficult when the matrix lithology is
unknown or consists of two or more minerals in unknown proportions. Determination
is further complicated when the response of the pore fluids in the portion of the
formation investigated by the tool differs appreciably from that of water. In particular,
light hydrocarbons (gas) can significantly influence the response of all three porosity
logs. Even the nature of type of pore structure affects the tool response. The neutron
and density logs respond to total porosity - that is, the sum of the primary (intergranular
or intercrystalline) porosity and the secondary (vugs, fissures, fractures) porosity. The
sonic logs, however, tend to respond only to evenly distributed primary porosity.
When any of these complicating situations exists the porosity of the rock can only be
determined by crossplotting the measurements from two different log types. In other
words the porosity cannot be determined from a single porosity log. The way in which
the porosity can be determined in these situations will be described in Chapter 6.
7 DETERMINATION OF SATURATION
The electrical resistivity of a formation is a very good indicator of the fluid in the pore
space of that formation. Neither oil nor gas conducts electrical current but water does.
It is very rare however for a formation to contain no water at all and there is generally
some level of water saturation of the pore space, Sw in all formations. If Sw is the
fraction of the pore volume occupied by formation water then (1-Sw) is the fraction of
the pore volume occupied by hydrocarbons.
The proportion of water and therefore hydrocarbons in the pore space of formations
is generally determined from the levels of resistivity of the formations in question. The
resistivity of the formation is however also a function of a number of other variables
such as porosity and the salinity of the water in the pore space.
There are a number of techniques available to determine the water saturation of a
formation and therefore the hydrocarbon saturation and these are presented in chapter
7. However the most commonly used techniques and the ones that will be examined
in this course are the following:
10
Calculate
Porosity,
Zone Logs as
Water or Hydrocarbon Beds
Identify
Permeable Beds
Interpret
Lithology
Correlate and
Depth Match Logs
Calculate
Saturation, Sw
Flowchart 1
Log Interpretation Flowchart
Overview
11
12
Consider
Hydrocarbons
Shales
Carbonates
Consider
Hydrocarbons
Shales
Carbonates
Pressure
Wyllie Equation
Empirical Equation
Consider
Shales
Carbonates
Uncompacted Sand
Pressure
Neutron Log
Density Log
Limestone
Sonic Log
Clean Sand
Identify
Permeable Beds
Interpret
Lithology
Correlate and
Depth Match Logs
Flowchart 2
Log Interpretation Flowchart - Porosity
Monomineral Lithology
Humble Equation
Micro Res. vs
Crossplot
Consider
Hydrocarbons
Shales
Carbonates
Pressure
Res. vs Crossplot
Consider
Shales
Carbonates
Uncompacted Sand
Pressure
Rwa to Rw Comparison
Technique
Determine
Saturation
Determine
Porosity
Logarithmic
Overlays
Identify
Permeable Beds
Interpret
Lithology
Correlate and
Depth Match Logs
Shaly Formation
Models
Laminated Shale
Dispersed Shale
Total Shale
Resistivity Ratio
Methods
Flushed Zone
Invaded Zone
RXO/Rt
Dispersed Shale
Total Shale
Flowchart 3
Log Interpretation FlowchartSaturation Interpretation
13
14