Energy

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inphysics,energyisapropertyofobjects,transferable
amongthemviafundamentalinteractions,whichcanbe
convertedintodifferentformsbutnotcreatedordestroyed.
ThejouleistheSIunitofenergy,basedontheamount
transferredtoanobjectbythemechanicalworkofmovingit
1metreagainstaforceof1newton.[1]
Workandheataretwocategoriesofprocessesor
mechanismsthatcantransferagivenamountofenergy.The
secondlawofthermodynamicslimitstheamountofwork
thatcanbeperformedbyenergythatisobtainedviaaheating
processsomeenergyisalwayslostaswasteheat.The
maximumamountthatcangointoworkiscalledthe
availableenergy.Systemssuchasmachinesandlivingthings
oftenrequireavailableenergy,notjustanyenergy.
Mechanicalandotherformsofenergycanbetransformedin
theotherdirectionintothermalenergywithoutsuch
limitations.

EnergytransformationInatypicallightningstrike,
500megajoulesofelectricpotentialenergyis
convertedintothesameamountofenergyinother
forms,mostnotablylightenergy,soundenergyand
thermalenergy.

Therearemanyformsofenergy,butallthesetypesmustmeetcertainconditionssuchasbeingconvertibleto
otherkindsofenergy,obeyingconservationofenergy,andcausingaproportionalchangeinmassinobjectsthat
possessit.Commonenergyformsincludethekineticenergyofamovingobject,theradiantenergycarriedby
lightandotherelectromagneticradiation,thepotentialenergystoredbyvirtueofthepositionofanobjectina
forcefieldsuchasagravitational,electricormagneticfield,andthethermalenergycomprisingthemicroscopic
kineticandpotentialenergiesofthedisorderedmotionsoftheparticlesmakingupmatter.Somespecificforms
ofpotentialenergyincludeelasticenergyduetothestretchingordeformationofsolidobjectsandchemical
energysuchasisreleasedwhenafuelburns.Anyobjectthathasmasswhenstationary,suchasapieceof
ordinarymatter,issaidtohaverestmass,oranequivalentamountofenergywhoseformiscalledrestenergy,
thoughthisisn'timmediatelyapparentineverydayphenomenadescribedbyclassicalphysics.
Accordingtomassenergyequivalence,allformsofenergy(notjustrestenergy)exhibitmass.Forexample,
adding25kilowatthours(90megajoules)ofenergytoanobjectintheformofheat(oranyotherform)increases
itsmassby1microgramifyouhadasensitiveenoughmassbalanceorscale,thismassincreasecouldbe
measured.OurSuntransformsnuclearpotentialenergytootherformsofenergyitstotalmassdoesnotdecrease
duetothatinitself(sinceitstillcontainsthesametotalenergyevenifindifferentforms),butitsmassdoes
decreasewhentheenergyescapesouttoitssurroundings,largelyasradiantenergy.
Althoughanyenergyinanysingleformcanbetransformedintoanotherform,thelawofconservationofenergy
statesthatthetotalenergyofasystemcanonlychangeifenergyistransferredintooroutofthesystem.This
meansthatitisimpossibletocreateordestroyenergy.Thetotalenergyofasystemcanbecalculatedbyadding
upallformsofenergyinthesystem.Examplesofenergytransferandtransformationincludegeneratingor
makinguseofelectricenergy,performingchemicalreactions,orliftinganobject.Liftingagainstgravity
performsworkontheobjectandstoresgravitationalpotentialenergyifitfalls,gravitydoesworkontheobject
whichtransformsthepotentialenergytothekineticenergyassociatedwithitsspeed.
Morebroadly,livingorganismsrequireavailableenergytostayalivehumansgetsuchenergyfromfoodalong
withtheoxygenneededtometabolizeit.Civilisationrequiresasupplyofenergytofunctionenergyresources
suchasfossilfuelsareavitaltopicineconomicsandpolitics.Earth'sclimateandecosystemaredrivenbythe
radiantenergyEarthreceivesfromthesun(aswellasthegeothermalenergycontainedwithintheearth),andare
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sensitivetochangesintheamountreceived.Theword"energy"isalsousedoutsideofphysicsinmanyways,
whichcanleadtoambiguityandinconsistency.Thevernacularterminologyisnotconsistentwithtechnical
terminology.Forexample,whileenergyisalwaysconserved(inthesensethatthetotalenergydoesnotchange
despiteenergytransformations),energycanbeconvertedintoaform,e.g.,thermalenergy,thatcannotbeutilized
toperformwork.Whenonetalksabout"conservingenergybydrivingless",onetalksaboutconservingfossil
fuelsandpreventingusefulenergyfrombeinglostasheat.Thisusageof"conserve"differsfromthatofthelaw
ofconservationofenergy.[2]

Contents
1Forms
2History
3Measurementandunits
4Scientificuse
4.1Classicalmechanics
4.2Chemistry
4.3Biology
4.4Earthsciences
4.5Cosmology
4.6Quantummechanics
4.7Relativity
5Transformation
5.1Conservationofenergyandmassintransformation
5.2Reversibleandnonreversibletransformations
6Conservationofenergy
7Transferbetweensystems
7.1Closedsystems
7.2Opensystems
8Thermodynamics
8.1Internalenergy
8.2Firstlawofthermodynamics
8.3Equipartitionofenergy
9Seealso
10Notesandreferences
11Furtherreading
12Externallinks

Forms

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Thetotalenergyofasystemcanbesubdividedandclassifiedinvariousways.Forexample,classicalmechanics
distinguishesbetweenkineticenergy,whichisdeterminedbyanobject's
movementthroughspace,andpotentialenergy,whichisafunctionofthe
positionofanobjectwithinafield.Itmayalsobeconvenientto
distinguishgravitationalenergy,thermalenergy,severaltypesofnuclear
energy(whichutilizepotentialsfromthenuclearforceandtheweak
force),electricenergy(fromtheelectricfield),andmagneticenergy
(fromthemagneticfield),amongothers.Manyoftheseclassifications
overlapforinstance,thermalenergyusuallyconsistspartlyofkineticand
partlyofpotentialenergy.Sometypesofenergyareavaryingmixofboth
potentialandkineticenergy.Anexampleismechanicalenergywhichis
Thermalenergyisenergyof
thesumof(usuallymacroscopic)kineticandpotentialenergyinasystem.
microscopicconstituentsofmatter,
Elasticenergyinmaterialsisalsodependentuponelectricalpotential
whichmayincludebothkineticand
energy(amongatomsandmolecules),asischemicalenergy,whichis
potentialenergy.
storedandreleasedfromareservoirofelectricalpotentialenergybetween
electrons,andthemoleculesoratomicnucleithatattractthem..Thelistis
alsonotnecessarilycomplete.Wheneverphysicalscientistsdiscoverthatacertainphenomenonappearsto
violatethelawofenergyconservation,newformsaretypicallyaddedthataccountforthediscrepancy.
Heatandworkarespecialcasesinthattheyarenotpropertiesofsystems,butareinsteadpropertiesofprocesses
thattransferenergy.Ingeneralwecannotmeasurehowmuchheatorworkarepresentinanobject,butrather
onlyhowmuchenergyistransferredamongobjectsincertainwaysduringtheoccurrenceofagivenprocess.
Heatandworkaremeasuredaspositiveornegativedependingonwhichsideofthetransferweviewthemfrom.
Potentialenergiesareoftenmeasuredaspositiveornegativedependingonwhethertheyaregreaterorlessthan
theenergyofaspecifiedbasestateorconfigurationsuchastwointeractingbodiesbeinginfinitelyfarapart.
Waveenergies(suchasradiantorsoundenergy),kineticenergy,andrestenergyareeachgreaterthanorequalto
zerobecausetheyaremeasuredincomparisontoabasestateofzeroenergy:"nowave","nomotion",and"no
inertia",respectively.
Thedistinctionsbetweendifferentkindsofenergyisnotalwaysclearcut.AsRichardFeynmanpointsout:

Thesenotionsofpotentialandkineticenergydependonanotionoflengthscale.Forexample,
onecanspeakofmacroscopicpotentialandkineticenergy,whichdonotincludethermal
potentialandkineticenergy.Alsowhatiscalledchemicalpotentialenergyisamacroscopic
notion,andcloserexaminationshowsthatitisreallythesumofthepotentialandkineticenergy
ontheatomicandsubatomicscale.Similarremarksapplytonuclear"potential"energyand
mostotherformsofenergy.Thisdependenceonlengthscaleisnonproblematicifthevarious
lengthscalesaredecoupled,asisoftenthecase...butconfusioncanarisewhendifferentlength
scalesarecoupled,forinstancewhenfrictionconvertsmacroscopicworkintomicroscopic
thermalenergy.

Someexamplesofdifferentkindsofenergy:

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Formsofenergy
Description

Typeofenergy
Kinetic

(0),thatofthemotionofabody

Potential

Acategorycomprisingmanyformsinthislist

Mechanical

Thesumof(usuallymacroscopic)kineticandpotentialenergies

Mechanicalwave

(0),aformofmechanicalenergypropagatedbyamaterial'soscillations

Chemical

thatcontainedinmolecules

Electric

thatfromelectricfields

Magnetic

thatfrommagneticfields

Radiant

(0),thatofelectromagneticradiationincludinglight

Nuclear

thatofbindingnucleonstoformtheatomicnucleus

Ionization

thatofbindinganelectrontoitsatomormolecule

Elastic

thatofdeformationofamaterial(oritscontainer)exhibitingarestorativeforce

Gravitational

thatfromgravitationalfields

Intrinsic,therest
energy

(0)thatequivalenttoanobject'srestmass

Thermal

Amicroscopic,disorderedequivalentofmechanicalenergy

Heat

anamountofthermalenergybeingtransferred(inagivenprocess)inthedirectionof
decreasingtemperature

Mechanicalwork

anamountofenergybeingtransferredinagivenprocessduetodisplacementinthe
directionofanappliedforce

History
ThewordenergyderivesfromtheAncientGreek:
energeia"activity,operation",[3]whichpossiblyappearsforthe
firsttimeintheworkofAristotleinthe4thcenturyBC.Incontrasttothe
moderndefinition,energeiawasaqualitativephilosophicalconcept,
broadenoughtoincludeideassuchashappinessandpleasure.
Inthelate17thcentury,GottfriedLeibnizproposedtheideaoftheLatin:
visviva,orlivingforce,whichdefinedastheproductofthemassofan
objectanditsvelocitysquaredhebelievedthattotalvisvivawas
conserved.Toaccountforslowingduetofriction,Leibniztheorizedthat
thermalenergyconsistedoftherandommotionoftheconstituentpartsof
matter,aviewsharedbyIsaacNewton,althoughitwouldbemorethana
centuryuntilthiswasgenerallyaccepted.Themodernanalogofthis
property,kineticenergy,differsfromvisviaonlybyafactoroftwo.
In1807,ThomasYoungwaspossiblythefirsttousetheterm"energy"
ThomasYoungthefirsttousethe
insteadofvisviva,initsmodernsense.[4]GustaveGaspardCoriolis
term"energy"inthemodernsense.
described"kineticenergy"in1829initsmodernsense,andin1853,
WilliamRankinecoinedtheterm"potentialenergy".Thelawof
conservationofenergy,wasalsofirstpostulatedintheearly19thcentury,andappliestoanyisolatedsystem.It

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wasarguedforsomeyearswhetherheatwasaphysicalsubstance,dubbedthecaloric,ormerelyaphysical
quantity,suchasmomentum.In1845JamesPrescottJoulediscoveredthelinkbetweenmechanicalworkandthe
generationofheat.
Thesedevelopmentsledtothetheoryofconservationofenergy,formalizedlargelybyWilliamThomson(Lord
Kelvin)asthefieldofthermodynamics.Thermodynamicsaidedtherapiddevelopmentofexplanationsof
chemicalprocessesbyRudolfClausius,JosiahWillardGibbs,andWaltherNernst.Italsoledtoamathematical
formulationoftheconceptofentropybyClausiusandtotheintroductionoflawsofradiantenergybyJoef
Stefan.AccordingtoNoether'stheorem,theconservationofenergyisaconsequenceofthefactthatthelawsof
physicsdonotchangeovertime.[5]Thus,since1918,theoristshaveunderstoodthatthelawofconservationof
energyisthedirectmathematicalconsequenceofthetranslationalsymmetryofthequantityconjugatetoenergy,
namelytime.

Measurementandunits
Energy,likemass,isascalarphysicalquantity.Thejouleisthe
InternationalSystemofUnits(SI)unitofmeasurementforenergy.Itisa
derivedunitofenergy,work,oramountofheat.Itisequaltotheenergy
expended(orworkdone)inapplyingaforceofonenewtonthrougha
distanceofonemetre.Howeverenergyisalsoexpressedinmanyother
unitssuchasergs,calories,BritishThermalUnits,kilowatthoursand
kilocaloriesforinstance.Thereisalwaysaconversionfactorfortheseto
theSIunitforinstanceonekWhisequivalentto3.6millionjoules.[6]

AschematicdiagramofaCalorimeter
Aninstrumentusedbyphysiciststo
measureenergy.Inthisexampleitis
XRays.

TheSIunitofpower(energyperunittime)isthewatt,whichissimplya
joulepersecond.Thus,ajouleisawattsecond,so3600joulesequala
watthour.TheCGSenergyunitistheerg,andtheimperialandUS
customaryunitisthefootpound.Otherenergyunitssuchastheelectron
volt,foodcalorieorthermodynamickcal(basedonthetemperaturechangeofwaterinaheatingprocess),and
BTUareusedinspecificareasofscienceandcommerceandhaveunitconversionfactorsrelatingthemtothe
joule.

Becauseenergyisdefinedastheabilitytodoworkonobjects,thereisnoabsolutemeasureofenergy.Onlythe
transitionofasystemfromonestateintoanothercanbedefinedandthusenergyismeasuredinrelativeterms.
Thechoiceofabaselineorzeropointisoftenarbitraryandcanbemadeinwhateverwayismostconvenientfor
aproblem.ForexampleinthecaseofmeasuringtheenergydepositedbyXraysasshownintheaccompanying
diagram,conventionallythetechniquemostoftenemployediscalorimetry.Thisisathermodynamictechnique
thatreliesonthemeasurementoftemperatureusingathermometerorofintensityofradiationusingabolometer.
Energydensityisatermusedfortheamountofusefulenergystoredinagivensystemorregionofspaceperunit
volume.Forfuels,theenergyperunitvolumeissometimesausefulparameter.Inafewapplications,comparing,
forexample,theeffectivenessofhydrogenfueltogasolineitturnsoutthathydrogenhasahigherspecificenergy
thandoesgasoline,but,eveninliquidform,amuchlowerenergydensity.

Scientificuse
Classicalmechanics
Inclassicalmechanics,energyisaconceptuallyandmathematicallyusefulproperty,asitisaconservedquantity.
Severalformulationsofmechanicshavebeendevelopedusingenergyasacoreconcept.

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Work,aformofenergy,isforcetimesdistance.

Thissaysthatthework( )isequaltothelineintegraloftheforceFalongapathCfordetailsseethe
mechanicalworkarticle.Workandthusenergyisframedependent.Forexample,consideraballbeinghitbya
bat.Inthecenterofmassreferenceframe,thebatdoesnoworkontheball.But,inthereferenceframeofthe
personswingingthebat,considerableworkisdoneontheball.
ThetotalenergyofasystemissometimescalledtheHamiltonian,afterWilliamRowanHamilton.Theclassical
equationsofmotioncanbewrittenintermsoftheHamiltonian,evenforhighlycomplexorabstractsystems.
Theseclassicalequationshaveremarkablydirectanalogsinnonrelativisticquantummechanics.[7]
AnotherenergyrelatedconceptiscalledtheLagrangian,afterJosephLouisLagrange.Thisisevenmore
fundamentalthantheHamiltonian,andcanbeusedtoderivetheequationsofmotion.Itwasinventedinthe
contextofclassicalmechanics,butisgenerallyusefulinmodernphysics.TheLagrangianisdefinedasthe
kineticenergyminusthepotentialenergy.Usually,theLagrangeformalismismathematicallymoreconvenient
thantheHamiltonianfornonconservativesystems(suchassystemswithfriction).
Noether'stheorem(1918)statesthatanydifferentiablesymmetryoftheactionofaphysicalsystemhasa
correspondingconservationlaw.Noether'stheoremhasbecomeafundamentaltoolofmoderntheoreticalphysics
andthecalculusofvariations.AgeneralisationoftheseminalformulationsonconstantsofmotioninLagrangian
andHamiltonianmechanics(1788and1833,respectively),itdoesnotapplytosystemsthatcannotbemodeled
withaLagrangianforexample,dissipativesystemswithcontinuoussymmetriesneednothaveacorresponding
conservationlaw.

Chemistry
Inthecontextofchemistry,energyisanattributeofasubstanceasaconsequenceofitsatomic,molecularor
aggregatestructure.Sinceachemicaltransformationisaccompaniedbyachangeinoneormoreofthesekinds
ofstructure,itisinvariablyaccompaniedbyanincreaseordecreaseofenergyofthesubstancesinvolved.Some
energyistransferredbetweenthesurroundingsandthereactantsofthereactionintheformofheatorlightthus
theproductsofareactionmayhavemoreorlessenergythanthereactants.Areactionissaidtobeexergonicif
thefinalstateislowerontheenergyscalethantheinitialstateinthecaseofendergonicreactionsthesituationis
thereverse.Chemicalreactionsareinvariablynotpossibleunlessthereactantssurmountanenergybarrierknown
astheactivationenergy.Thespeedofachemicalreaction(atgiventemperatureT)isrelatedtotheactivation
energyE,bytheBoltzmann'spopulationfactoreE/kTthatistheprobabilityofmoleculetohaveenergygreater
thanorequaltoEatthegiventemperatureT.Thisexponentialdependenceofareactionrateontemperatureis
knownastheArrheniusequation.Theactivationenergynecessaryforachemicalreactioncanbeintheformof
thermalenergy.

Biology
Inbiology,energyisanattributeofallbiologicalsystemsfromthebiospheretothesmallestlivingorganism.
Withinanorganismitisresponsibleforgrowthanddevelopmentofabiologicalcelloranorganelleofa
biologicalorganism.Energyisthusoftensaidtobestoredbycellsinthestructuresofmoleculesofsubstances
suchascarbohydrates(includingsugars),lipids,andproteins,whichreleaseenergywhenreactedwithoxygenin
respiration.Inhumanterms,thehumanequivalent(He)(Humanenergyconversion)indicates,foragiven
amountofenergyexpenditure,therelativequantityofenergyneededforhumanmetabolism,assumingan
averagehumanenergyexpenditureof12,500kJperdayandabasalmetabolicrateof80watts.Forexample,if
ourbodiesrun(onaverage)at80watts,thenalightbulbrunningat100wattsisrunningat1.25human
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equivalents(10080)i.e.1.25He.Foradifficulttaskofonlyafewseconds'duration,apersoncanputout
thousandsofwatts,manytimesthe746wattsinoneofficialhorsepower.Fortaskslastingafewminutes,afit
humancangenerateperhaps1,000watts.Foranactivitythatmustbesustainedforanhour,outputdropsto
around300foranactivitykeptupallday,150wattsisaboutthemaximum.[8]Thehumanequivalentassists
understandingofenergyflowsinphysicalandbiologicalsystemsbyexpressingenergyunitsinhumanterms:it
providesa"feel"fortheuseofagivenamountofenergy[9]
Sunlightisalsocapturedbyplantsaschemicalpotentialenergyin
photosynthesis,whencarbondioxideandwater(twolowenergy
compounds)areconvertedintothehighenergycompounds
carbohydrates,lipids,andproteins.Plantsalsoreleaseoxygenduring
photosynthesis,whichisutilizedbylivingorganismsasanelectron
acceptor,toreleasetheenergyofcarbohydrates,lipids,andproteins.
Releaseoftheenergystoredduringphotosynthesisasheatorlightmaybe
triggeredsuddenlybyaspark,inaforestfire,oritmaybemadeavailable
moreslowlyforanimalorhumanmetabolism,whenthesemoleculesare
ingested,andcatabolismistriggeredbyenzymeaction.
Basicoverviewofenergyandhuman
Anylivingorganismreliesonanexternalsourceofenergyradiation
life.
fromtheSuninthecaseofgreenplantschemicalenergyinsomeformin
thecaseofanimalstobeabletogrowandreproduce.Thedaily1500
2000Calories(68MJ)recommendedforahumanadultaretakenasacombinationofoxygenandfood
molecules,thelattermostlycarbohydratesandfats,ofwhichglucose(C6H12O6)andstearin(C57H110O6)are

convenientexamples.Thefoodmoleculesareoxidisedtocarbondioxideandwaterinthemitochondria
C6H12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O
C57H110O6+81.5O257CO2+55H2O
andsomeoftheenergyisusedtoconvertADPintoATP
ADP+HPO42ATP+H2O
Therestofthechemicalenergyinthecarbohydrateorfatisconvertedintoheat:theATPisusedasasortof
"energycurrency",andsomeofthechemicalenergyitcontainswhensplitandreactedwithwater,isusedfor
othermetabolism(ateachstageofametabolicpathway,somechemicalenergyisconvertedintoheat).Onlya
tinyfractionoftheoriginalchemicalenergyisusedforwork:[10]
gaininkineticenergyofasprinterduringa100mrace:4kJ
gainingravitationalpotentialenergyofa150kgweightliftedthrough2metres:3kJ
Dailyfoodintakeofanormaladult:68MJ
Itwouldappearthatlivingorganismsareremarkablyinefficient(inthephysicalsense)intheiruseoftheenergy
theyreceive(chemicalenergyorradiation),anditistruethatmostrealmachinesmanagehigherefficiencies.In
growingorganismstheenergythatisconvertedtoheatservesavitalpurpose,asitallowstheorganismtissueto
behighlyorderedwithregardtothemoleculesitisbuiltfrom.Thesecondlawofthermodynamicsstatesthat
energy(andmatter)tendstobecomemoreevenlyspreadoutacrosstheuniverse:toconcentrateenergy(or
matter)inonespecificplace,itisnecessarytospreadoutagreateramountofenergy(asheat)acrossthe
remainderoftheuniverse("thesurroundings").[11]Simplerorganismscanachievehigherenergyefficienciesthan
morecomplexones,butthecomplexorganismscanoccupyecologicalnichesthatarenotavailabletotheir
simplerbrethren.Theconversionofaportionofthechemicalenergytoheatateachstepinametabolicpathway
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isthephysicalreasonbehindthepyramidofbiomassobservedinecology:totakejustthefirststepinthefood
chain,oftheestimated124.7Pg/aofcarbonthatisfixedbyphotosynthesis,64.3Pg/a(52%)areusedforthe
metabolismofgreenplants,[12]i.e.reconvertedintocarbondioxideandheat.

Earthsciences
Ingeology,continentaldrift,mountainranges,volcanoes,andearthquakesarephenomenathatcanbeexplained
intermsofenergytransformationsintheEarth'sinterior.,[13]whilemeteorologicalphenomenalikewind,rain,
hail,snow,lightning,tornadoesandhurricanes,areallaresultofenergytransformationsbroughtaboutbysolar
energyontheatmosphereoftheplanetEarth.
SunlightmaybestoredasgravitationalpotentialenergyafteritstrikestheEarth,as(forexample)water
evaporatesfromoceansandisdepositeduponmountains(where,afterbeingreleasedatahydroelectricdam,it
canbeusedtodriveturbinesorgeneratorstoproduceelectricity).Sunlightalsodrivesmanyweatherphenomena,
savethosegeneratedbyvolcanicevents.Anexampleofasolarmediatedweathereventisahurricane,which
occurswhenlargeunstableareasofwarmocean,heatedovermonths,giveupsomeoftheirthermalenergy
suddenlytopowerafewdaysofviolentairmovement.
Inaslowerprocess,radioactivedecayofatomsinthecoreoftheEarthreleasesheat.Thisthermalenergydrives
platetectonicsandmayliftmountains,viaorogenesis.Thisslowliftingrepresentsakindofgravitational
potentialenergystorageofthethermalenergy,whichmaybelaterreleasedtoactivekineticenergyinlandslides,
afteratriggeringevent.Earthquakesalsoreleasestoredelasticpotentialenergyinrocks,astorethathasbeen
producedultimatelyfromthesameradioactiveheatsources.Thus,accordingtopresentunderstanding,familiar
eventssuchaslandslidesandearthquakesreleaseenergythathasbeenstoredaspotentialenergyintheEarth's
gravitationalfieldorelasticstrain(mechanicalpotentialenergy)inrocks.Priortothis,theyrepresentreleaseof
energythathasbeenstoredinheavyatomssincethecollapseoflongdestroyedsupernovastarscreatedthese
atoms.

Cosmology
Incosmologyandastronomythephenomenaofstars,nova,supernova,quasarsandgammarayburstsarethe
universe'shighestoutputenergytransformationsofmatter.Allstellarphenomena(includingsolaractivity)are
drivenbyvariouskindsofenergytransformations.Energyinsuchtransformationsiseitherfromgravitational
collapseofmatter(usuallymolecularhydrogen)intovariousclassesofastronomicalobjects(stars,blackholes,
etc.),orfromnuclearfusion(oflighterelements,primarilyhydrogen).ThenuclearfusionofhydrogenintheSun
alsoreleasesanotherstoreofpotentialenergywhichwascreatedatthetimeoftheBigBang.Atthattime,
accordingtotheory,spaceexpandedandtheuniversecooledtoorapidlyforhydrogentocompletelyfuseinto
heavierelements.Thismeantthathydrogenrepresentsastoreofpotentialenergythatcanbereleasedbyfusion.
Suchafusionprocessistriggeredbyheatandpressuregeneratedfromgravitationalcollapseofhydrogenclouds
whentheyproducestars,andsomeofthefusionenergyisthentransformedintosunlight.

Quantummechanics
Inquantummechanics,energyisdefinedintermsoftheenergyoperatorasatimederivativeofthewave
function.TheSchrdingerequationequatestheenergyoperatortothefullenergyofaparticleorasystem.In
resultscanbeconsideredasadefinitionofmeasurementofenergyinquantummechanics.TheSchrdinger
equationdescribesthespaceandtimedependenceofslowchanging(nonrelativistic)wavefunctionofquantum
systems.Thesolutionofthisequationforboundsystemisdiscrete(asetofpermittedstates,eachcharacterized
byanenergylevel)whichresultsintheconceptofquanta.InthesolutionoftheSchrdingerequationforany
oscillator(vibrator)andforelectromagneticwavesinavacuum,theresultingenergystatesarerelatedtothe
frequencybyPlanck'srelation:
(where isthePlanck'sconstantand thefrequency).Inthecaseof
electromagneticwavetheseenergystatesarecalledquantaoflightorphotons.
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Relativity
Whencalculatingkineticenergy(worktoaccelerateamassfromzerospeedtosomefinitespeed)relativistically
usingLorentztransformationsinsteadofNewtonianmechanics,Einsteindiscoveredanunexpectedbyproduct
ofthesecalculationstobeanenergytermwhichdoesnotvanishatzerospeed.Hecalleditrestmassenergy
energywhicheverymassmustpossessevenwhenbeingatrest.Theamountofenergyisdirectlyproportionalto
themassofbody:
,
where
misthemass,
cisthespeedoflightinvacuum,
Eistherestmassenergy.
Forexample,considerelectronpositronannihilation,inwhichtherestmassofindividualparticlesisdestroyed,
buttheinertiaequivalentofthesystemofthetwoparticles(itsinvariantmass)remains(sinceallenergyis
associatedwithmass),andthisinertiaandinvariantmassiscarriedoffbyphotonswhichindividuallyare
massless,butasasystemretaintheirmass.Thisisareversibleprocesstheinverseprocessiscalledpair
creationinwhichtherestmassofparticlesiscreatedfromenergyoftwo(ormore)annihilatingphotons.Inthis
systemthematter(electronsandpositrons)isdestroyedandchangedtononmatterenergy(thephotons).
However,thetotalsystemmassandenergydonotchangeduringthisinteraction.
Ingeneralrelativity,thestressenergytensorservesasthesourcetermforthegravitationalfield,inrough
analogytothewaymassservesasthesourceterminthenonrelativisticNewtonianapproximation.[14]
Itisnotuncommontohearthatenergyis"equivalent"tomass.Itwouldbemoreaccuratetostatethatevery
energyhasaninertiaandgravityequivalent,andbecausemassisaformofenergy,thenmasstoohasinertiaand
gravityassociatedwithit.
Inclassicalphysics,energyisascalarquantity,thecanonicalconjugatetotime.Inspecialrelativityenergyis
alsoascalar(althoughnotaLorentzscalarbutatimecomponentoftheenergymomentum4vector).[14]Inother
words,energyisinvariantwithrespecttorotationsofspace,butnotinvariantwithrespecttorotationsofspace
time(=boosts).

Transformation
Energymaybetransformedbetweendifferentformsatvariousefficiencies.Itemsthattransformbetweenthese
formsarecalledtransducers.Examplesoftransducersincludeabattery,fromchemicalenergytoelectricenergy
adam:gravitationalpotentialenergytokineticenergyofmovingwater(andthebladesofaturbine)and
ultimatelytoelectricenergythroughanelectricgenerator.
Therearestrictlimitstohowefficientlyenergycanbeconvertedintootherformsofenergyviawork,andheatas
describedbyCarnot'stheoremandthesecondlawofthermodynamics.Theselimitsareespeciallyevidentwhen
anengineisusedtoperformwork.However,someenergytransformationscanbequiteefficient.Thedirection
oftransformationsinenergy(whatkindofenergyistransformedtowhatotherkind)isoftendeterminedby
entropy(equalenergyspreadamongallavailabledegreesoffreedom)considerations.Inpracticeallenergy
transformationsarepermittedonasmallscale,butcertainlargertransformationsarenotpermittedbecauseitis
statisticallyunlikelythatenergyormatterwillrandomlymoveintomoreconcentratedformsorsmallerspaces.
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Energytransformationsintheuniverseovertimearecharacterizedbyvariouskindsofpotentialenergythathas
beenavailablesincetheBigBang,laterbeing"released"(transformedtomoreactivetypesofenergysuchas
kineticorradiantenergy),whenatriggeringmechanismisavailable.Familiarexamplesofsuchprocesses
includenucleardecay,inwhichenergyisreleasedthatwasoriginally"stored"inheavyisotopes(suchas
uraniumandthorium),bynucleosynthesis,aprocessultimatelyusingthegravitationalpotentialenergyreleased
fromthegravitationalcollapseofsupernovae,tostoreenergyinthecreationoftheseheavyelementsbeforethey
wereincorporatedintothesolarsystemandtheEarth.Thisenergyistriggeredandreleasedinnuclearfission
bombsorincivilnuclearpowergeneration.Similarly,inthecaseofachemicalexplosion,chemicalpotential
energyistransformedtokineticenergyandthermalenergyinaveryshorttime.Yetanotherexampleisthatofa
pendulum.Atitshighestpointsthekineticenergyiszeroandthegravitationalpotentialenergyisatmaximum.
Atitslowestpointthekineticenergyisatmaximumandisequaltothedecreaseofpotentialenergy.Ifone
(unrealistically)assumesthatthereisnofrictionorotherlosses,theconversionofenergybetweenthese
processeswouldbeperfect,andthependulumwouldcontinueswingingforever.
Energyisalsotransferredfrompotentialenergy( )tokineticenergy( )andthenbacktopotentialenergy
constantly.Thisisreferredtoasconservationofenergy.Inthisclosedsystem,energycannotbecreatedor
destroyedtherefore,theinitialenergyandthefinalenergywillbeequaltoeachother.Thiscanbedemonstrated
bythefollowing:

Theequationcanthenbesimplifiedfurthersince
height)and
adding

(4)

(masstimesaccelerationduetogravitytimesthe

(halfmasstimesvelocitysquared).Thenthetotalamountofenergycanbefoundby
.

Conservationofenergyandmassintransformation
Energygivesrisetoweightwhenitistrappedinasystemwithzeromomentum,whereitcanbeweighed.Itis
alsoequivalenttomass,andthismassisalwaysassociatedwithit.Massisalsoequivalenttoacertainamountof
energy,andlikewisealwaysappearsassociatedwithit,asdescribedinmassenergyequivalence.Theformula
E=mc,derivedbyAlbertEinstein(1905)quantifiestherelationshipbetweenrestmassandrestenergywithin
theconceptofspecialrelativity.Indifferenttheoreticalframeworks,similarformulaswerederivedbyJ.J.
Thomson(1881),HenriPoincar(1900),FriedrichHasenhrl(1904)andothers(seeMassenergy
equivalence#Historyforfurtherinformation).
Mattermaybeconvertedtoenergy(andviceversa),butmasscannoteverbedestroyedrather,mass/energy
equivalenceremainsaconstantforboththematterandtheenergy,duringanyprocesswhentheyareconverted
intoeachother.However,since isextremelylargerelativetoordinaryhumanscales,theconversionof
ordinaryamountofmatter(forexample,1kg)tootherformsofenergy(suchasheat,light,andotherradiation)
canliberatetremendousamountsofenergy(~
joules=21megatonsofTNT),ascanbeseeninnuclear
reactorsandnuclearweapons.Conversely,themassequivalentofaunitofenergyisminuscule,whichiswhya
lossofenergy(lossofmass)frommostsystemsisdifficulttomeasurebyweight,unlesstheenergylossisvery
large.Examplesofenergytransformationintomatter(i.e.,kineticenergyintoparticleswithrestmass)arefound
inhighenergynuclearphysics.

Reversibleandnonreversibletransformations
Thermodynamicsdividesenergytransformationintotwokinds:reversibleprocessesandirreversibleprocesses.
Anirreversibleprocessisoneinwhichenergyisdissipated(spread)intoemptyenergystatesavailableina
volume,fromwhichitcannotberecoveredintomoreconcentratedforms(fewerquantumstates),without
degradationofevenmoreenergy.Areversibleprocessisoneinwhichthissortofdissipationdoesnothappen.
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Forexample,conversionofenergyfromonetypeofpotentialfieldtoanother,isreversible,asinthependulum
systemdescribedabove.Inprocesseswhereheatisgenerated,quantumstatesoflowerenergy,presentas
possibleexcitationsinfieldsbetweenatoms,actasareservoirforpartoftheenergy,fromwhichitcannotbe
recovered,inordertobeconvertedwith100%efficiencyintootherformsofenergy.Inthiscase,theenergymust
partlystayasheat,andcannotbecompletelyrecoveredasusableenergy,exceptatthepriceofanincreasein
someotherkindofheatlikeincreaseindisorderinquantumstates,intheuniverse(suchasanexpansionof
matter,orarandomisationinacrystal).
Astheuniverseevolvesintime,moreandmoreofitsenergybecomestrappedinirreversiblestates(i.e.,asheat
orotherkindsofincreasesindisorder).Thishasbeenreferredtoastheinevitablethermodynamicheatdeathof
theuniverse.Inthisheatdeaththeenergyoftheuniversedoesnotchange,butthefractionofenergywhichis
availabletodoworkthroughaheatengine,orbetransformedtootherusableformsofenergy(throughtheuseof
generatorsattachedtoheatengines),growslessandless.

Conservationofenergy
Accordingtoconservationofenergy,energycanneitherbecreated(produced)nordestroyedbyitself.Itcan
onlybetransformed.Thetotalinflowofenergyintoasystemmustequalthetotaloutflowofenergyfromthe
system,plusthechangeintheenergycontainedwithinthesystem.Energyissubjecttoastrictglobal
conservationlawthatis,wheneveronemeasures(orcalculates)thetotalenergyofasystemofparticleswhose
interactionsdonotdependexplicitlyontime,itisfoundthatthetotalenergyofthesystemalwaysremains
constant.[15]
RichardFeynmansaidduringa1961lecture:[16]
Thereisafact,orifyouwish,alaw,governingallnaturalphenomenathatareknowntodate.There
isnoknownexceptiontothislawitisexactsofarasweknow.Thelawiscalledtheconservation
ofenergy.Itstatesthatthereisacertainquantity,whichwecallenergy,thatdoesnotchangein
manifoldchangeswhichnatureundergoes.Thatisamostabstractidea,becauseitisamathematical
principleitsaysthatthereisanumericalquantitywhichdoesnotchangewhensomethinghappens.
Itisnotadescriptionofamechanism,oranythingconcreteitisjustastrangefactthatwecan
calculatesomenumberandwhenwefinishwatchingnaturegothroughhertricksandcalculatethe
numberagain,itisthesame.
TheFeynmanLecturesonPhysics
Mostkindsofenergy(withgravitationalenergybeinganotableexception)[17]aresubjecttostrictlocal
conservationlawsaswell.Inthiscase,energycanonlybeexchangedbetweenadjacentregionsofspace,andall
observersagreeastothevolumetricdensityofenergyinanygivenspace.Thereisalsoagloballawof
conservationofenergy,statingthatthetotalenergyoftheuniversecannotchangethisisacorollaryofthelocal
law,butnotviceversa.[2][16]
Thislawisafundamentalprincipleofphysics.AsshownrigorouslybyNoether'stheorem,theconservationof
energyisamathematicalconsequenceoftranslationalsymmetryoftime,[18]apropertyofmostphenomena
belowthecosmicscalethatmakesthemindependentoftheirlocationsonthetimecoordinate.Putdifferently,
yesterday,today,andtomorrowarephysicallyindistinguishable.Thisisbecauseenergyisthequantitywhichis
canonicalconjugatetotime.Thismathematicalentanglementofenergyandtimealsoresultsintheuncertainty
principleitisimpossibletodefinetheexactamountofenergyduringanydefinitetimeinterval.Theuncertainty
principleshouldnotbeconfusedwithenergyconservationratheritprovidesmathematicallimitstowhich
energycaninprinciplebedefinedandmeasured.
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Eachofthebasicforcesofnatureisassociatedwithadifferenttypeofpotentialenergy,andalltypesofpotential
energy(likeallothertypesofenergy)appearsassystemmass,wheneverpresent.Forexample,acompressed
springwillbeslightlymoremassivethanbeforeitwascompressed.Likewise,wheneverenergyistransferred
betweensystemsbyanymechanism,anassociatedmassistransferredwithit.
InquantummechanicsenergyisexpressedusingtheHamiltonianoperator.Onanytimescales,theuncertaintyin
theenergyisby

whichissimilarinformtotheHeisenbergUncertaintyPrinciple(butnotreallymathematicallyequivalent
thereto,sinceHandtarenotdynamicallyconjugatevariables,neitherinclassicalnorinquantummechanics).
Inparticlephysics,thisinequalitypermitsaqualitativeunderstandingofvirtualparticleswhichcarrymomentum,
exchangebywhichandwithrealparticles,isresponsibleforthecreationofallknownfundamentalforces(more
accuratelyknownasfundamentalinteractions).Virtualphotons(whicharesimplylowestquantummechanical
energystateofphotons)arealsoresponsibleforelectrostaticinteractionbetweenelectriccharges(whichresults
inCoulomblaw),forspontaneousradiativedecayofexitedatomicandnuclearstates,fortheCasimirforce,for
vanderWaalsbondforcesandsomeotherobservablephenomena.

Transferbetweensystems
Closedsystems
Energytransferusuallyreferstomovementsofenergybetweensystemswhichareclosedtotransfersofmatter.
Theportionoftheenergywhichistransferredbyconservativeforcesoveradistanceismeasuredastheworkthe
sourcesystemdoesonthereceivingsystem.Theportionoftheenergywhichdoesnotdoworkdoingduringthe
transferiscalledheat.[19]Energycanbetransferredbetweensystemsinavarietyofways.Examplesincludethe
transmissionofelectromagneticenergyviaphotons,physicalcollisionswhichtransferkineticenergy,[20]andthe
conductivetransferofthermalenergy.
Energyisstrictlyconservedandisalsolocallyconservedwhereveritcanbedefined.Mathematically,theprocess
ofenergytransferisdescribedbythefirstlawofthermodynamics:

(1)

where istheamountofenergytransferred, representstheworkdoneonthesystem,and representsthe

heatflowintothesystem.[21]Asasimplification,theheatterm, ,issometimesignored,especiallywhenthe
thermalefficiencyofthetransferishigh.

(2)

Thissimplifiedequationistheoneusedtodefinethejoule,forexample.

Opensystems
Thereareotherwaysinwhichanopensystemcangainorloseenergy.Inchemicalsystems,energycanbeadded
toasystembymeansofaddingsubstanceswithdifferentchemicalpotentials,whichpotentialsarethenextracted
(bothoftheseprocessareillustratedbyfuelinganauto,asystemwhichgainsinenergythereby,withoutaddition
ofeitherworkorheat).Thesetermsmaybeaddedtotheaboveequation,ortheycangenerallybesubsumedinto
aquantitycalled"energyadditionterm "whichreferstoanytypeofenergycarriedoverthesurfaceofa
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controlvolumeorsystemvolume.Examplesmaybeseenabove,andmanyotherscanbeimagined(forexample,
thekineticenergyofastreamofparticlesenteringasystem,orenergyfromalaserbeamaddstosystemenergy,
withouteitherbeingeitherworkdoneorheatadded,intheclassicsenses).

(3)

Where inthisgeneralequationrepresentsotheradditionaladvectedenergytermsnotcoveredbyworkdone
onasystem,orheataddedtoit.

Thermodynamics
Internalenergy
Internalenergyisthesumofallmicroscopicformsofenergyofasystem.Itistheenergyneededtocreatethe
system.Itisrelatedtothepotentialenergy,e.g.,molecularstructure,crystalstructure,andothergeometric
aspects,aswellasthemotionoftheparticles,informofkineticenergy.Thermodynamicsischieflyconcerned
withchangesininternalenergyandnotitsabsolutevalue,whichisimpossibletodeterminewith
thermodynamicsalone.[22]

Firstlawofthermodynamics
Thefirstlawofthermodynamicsassertsthatenergy(butnotnecessarilythermodynamicfreeenergy)isalways
conserved[23]andthatheatflowisaformofenergytransfer.Forhomogeneoussystems,withawelldefined
temperatureandpressure,acommonlyusedcorollaryofthefirstlawisthat,forasystemsubjectonlytopressure
forcesandheattransfer(e.g.,acylinderfullofgas),thedifferentialchangeintheinternalenergyofthesystem
(withagaininenergysignifiedbyapositivequantity)isgivenas
,
wherethefirsttermontherightistheheattransferredintothesystem,expressedintermsoftemperatureTand
entropyS(inwhichentropyincreasesandthechangedSispositivewhenthesystemisheated),andthelastterm
ontherighthandsideisidentifiedasworkdoneonthesystem,wherepressureisPandvolumeV(thenegative
signresultssincecompressionofthesystemrequiresworktobedoneonitandsothevolumechange,dV,is
negativewhenworkisdoneonthesystem).
Thisequationishighlyspecific,ignoringallchemical,electrical,nuclear,andgravitationalforces,effectssuchas
advectionofanyformofenergyotherthanheatandpVwork.Thegeneralformulationofthefirstlaw(i.e.,
conservationofenergy)isvalideveninsituationsinwhichthesystemisnothomogeneous.Forthesecasesthe
changeininternalenergyofaclosedsystemisexpressedinageneralformby

where

istheheatsuppliedtothesystemand

istheworkappliedtothesystem.

Equipartitionofenergy
Theenergyofamechanicalharmonicoscillator(amassonaspring)isalternativelykineticandpotential.Attwo
pointsintheoscillationcycleitisentirelykinetic,andalternativelyattwootherpointsitisentirelypotential.
Overthewholecycle,orovermanycycles,netenergyisthusequallysplitbetweenkineticandpotential.Thisis
calledequipartitionprincipletotalenergyofasystemwithmanydegreesoffreedomisequallysplitamongall
availabledegreesoffreedom.
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Thisprincipleisvitallyimportanttounderstandingthebehaviourofaquantitycloselyrelatedtoenergy,called
entropy.Entropyisameasureofevennessofadistributionofenergybetweenpartsofasystem.Whenan
isolatedsystemisgivenmoredegreesoffreedom(i.e.,givennewavailableenergystatesthatarethesameas
existingstates),thentotalenergyspreadsoverallavailabledegreesequallywithoutdistinctionbetween"new"
and"old"degrees.Thismathematicalresultiscalledthesecondlawofthermodynamics.

Seealso
Combustion
Indexofenergyarticles
Indexofwavearticles
Ordersofmagnitude(energy)

Notesandreferences
1. ^Energyunitsareusuallydefinedintermsoftheworktheycando.However,becauseworkisanindirectmeasurement
ofenergy,(Oneexampleofthedifficultiesinvolved:ifyouusethefirstlawofthermodynamicstodefineenergyasthe
workanobjectcando,youmustperformaperfectlyreversibleprocess,whichisimpossibleinafinitetime.)many
expertsemphasizeunderstandinghowenergybehaves,specificallytheconservationofenergy,ratherthantryingto
explainwhatenergy"is"."TheFeynmanLecturesonPhysicsVolI."
(http://www.colorado.edu/physics/phys1110/phys1110_fa10/Feynman_energy.pdf).Retrieved3Apr2014.
2. ^abTheLawsofThermodynamics(http://www.av8n.com/physics/thermolaws.htm)includingcarefuldefinitionsof
energy,freeenergy,etcetera.
3. ^Harper,Douglas."Energy"(http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=energy).OnlineEtymologyDictionary.
RetrievedMay1,2007.
4. ^Smith,Crosbie(1998).TheScienceofEnergyaCulturalHistoryofEnergyPhysicsinVictorianBritain.The
UniversityofChicagoPress.ISBN0226764206.
5. ^Lofts,GO'KeeffeDetal.(2004)."11MechanicalInteractions".JacarandaPhysics1(2ed.).Milton,
Queensland,Australia:JohnWilley&SonsAustraliaLtd.p.286.ISBN0701637773.
6. ^Ristinen,RobertA.,andKraushaar,JackJ.EnergyandtheEnvironment.NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,2006.
7. ^TheHamiltonian(http://classic
web.archive.org/web/20071011135413/http://www.sustech.edu/OCWExternal/Akamai/18/18.013a/textbook/HTML/chap
ter16/section03.html)MITOpenCourseWarewebsite18.013AChapter16.3AccessedFebruary2007
8. ^"RetrievedonMay2909"(http://www.uic.edu/aa/college/gallery400/notions/human%20energy.htm).Uic.edu.
Retrieved20101212.
9. ^Bicyclecalculatorspeed,weight,wattageetc.[1](http://bikecalculator.com/).
10. ^Theseexamplesaresolelyforillustration,asitisnottheenergyavailableforworkwhichlimitstheperformanceof
theathletebutthepoweroutputofthesprinterandtheforceoftheweightlifter.Aworkerstackingshelvesina
supermarketdoesmorework(inthephysicalsense)thaneitheroftheathletes,butdoesitmoreslowly.
11. ^Crystalsareanotherexampleofhighlyorderedsystemsthatexistinnature:inthiscasetoo,theorderisassociated
withthetransferofalargeamountofheat(knownasthelatticeenergy)tothesurroundings.
12. ^Ito,AkihitoOikawa,Takehisa(2004)."GlobalMappingofTerrestrialPrimaryProductivityandLightUse
EfficiencywithaProcessBasedModel.(http://www.terrapub.co.jp/elibrary/kawahata/pdf/343.pdf)"inShiyomi,M.et
al.(Eds.)GlobalEnvironmentalChangeintheOceanandonLand.pp.34358.
13. ^"Earth'sEnergyBudget"(http://okfirst.ocs.ou.edu/train/meteorology/EnergyBudget.html).Okfirst.ocs.ou.edu.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy

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Retrieved20101212.
14. ^abMisner,Thorne,Wheeler(1973).Gravitation.SanFrancisco:W.H.Freeman.ISBN0716703440.
15. ^BerkeleyPhysicsCourseVolume1.CharlesKittel,WalterDKnightandMalvinARuderman
16. ^abFeynman,Richard(1964).TheFeynmanLecturesonPhysicsVolume1.U.S.A:AddisonWesley.ISBN0201
021153.
17. ^"E.Noether'sDiscoveryoftheDeepConnectionBetweenSymmetriesandConservationLaws"
(http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/noether.asg/noether.html).Physics.ucla.edu.19180716.Retrieved
20101212.
18. ^"TimeInvariance"(http://ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu/eecs20/week9/timeinvariance.html).Ptolemy.eecs.berkeley.edu.
Retrieved20101212.
19. ^Althoughheatis"wasted"energyforaspecificenergytransfer,(see:wasteheat)itcanoftenbeharnessedtodouseful
workinsubsequentinteractions.However,themaximumenergythatcanbe"recycled"fromsuchrecoveryprocessesis
limitedbythesecondlawofthermodynamics.
20. ^Themechanismformostmacroscopicphysicalcollisionsisactuallyelectromagnetic,butitisverycommonto
simplifytheinteractionbyignoringthemechanismofcollisionandjustcalculatethebeginningandendresult.
21. ^ThesignsinthisequationfollowtheIUPACconvention.
22. ^I.Klotz,R.Rosenberg,ChemicalThermodynamicsBasicConceptsandMethods,7thed.,Wiley(2008),p.39
23. ^KittelandKroemer(1980).ThermalPhysics.NewYork:W.H.Freeman.ISBN0716710889.

Furtherreading
Alekseev,G.N.(1986).EnergyandEntropy.Moscow:MirPublishers.
Crowell,Benjamin(2011)[2003].LightandMatter(http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/lm/ch11/ch11.html).
Fullerton,California:LightandMatter.
Ross,JohnS.(23April2002)."Work,Power,KineticEnergy"
(http://www.physnet.org/modules/pdf_modules/m20.pdf).ProjectPHYSNET.MichiganStateUniversity.
Smil,Vaclav(2008).Energyinnatureandsociety:generalenergeticsofcomplexsystems.Cambridge,USA:MIT
Press.ISBN0262195658.
Walding,Richard,Rapkins,Greg,Rossiter,Glenn(19991101).NewCenturySeniorPhysics.Melbourne,Australia:
OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195510844.

Externallinks
Energy(https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Technology/Energy)atDMOZ
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energy&oldid=641500161"
Categories: Energy(physics) Energy Statefunctions
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