THE SCRODINGER WAVE EQUATION

Introduction
So far we have seen that a wave like characteristic could be associated with a material
particle like electron, proton, neutron, atoms etc. In 1926, Erwin Schrodinger developed an
equation for the wave associated with these elementary (small mass) particles which would
describe the behaviour of the particles. The solution of the wave equation should describe the
particle aspect, wave aspect and should also be consistent with the uncertainty principle.
Wave function
The quantity that characterises the de-Broglie wave is called the wave function. It is usually
r
r
denoted by (r , t) . It is a function of space, variables r ( x, y, z ) and time t. This gives complete
information about the state of a physical system at a particular time. It is also called the
state function and represents the probability amplitude. lf is large the probability of
finding the particle is also large. lf is small then the probability of finding the particle is
small. The wave function gives the likelihood of finding the particle at a given instant and at a
given position.
Physical significance of wave function
As explained earlier, the wave function signifies the probability of finding the particle
described by the wave function at the point (x, y, z) and at time t. The wave function has the
following three basic properties.
(i) It can interfere with itself (phenomenon of electron diffraction)
(ii) lt is large in magnitude where the particle (electron) or photon is likely to be
located and small at other places.
(iii)The wave function describes the behaviour of a single particle or photon and
not the statistical distribution of a number of such quanta.
Probability density
2

The probability of finding a particle described by the wave function is proportional to i.e.,
the square of the magnitude of the wave function (amplitude). We say

is the probability

density. If is complex then the probability density is given by *, where * is the

complex conjugate of . The wave function must obey the following conditions:
(i)
(ii)

must be finite for all values of x, y and z.

must be single valued i.e., for each set of values of x, y and z, must have a unique
value.
(iii) must be continuous in all regions except in those where the potential energy V(x, y,
z) is infinite.
(iv) The partial derivatives of i.e.,

,
,
must also be continuous.
x y z

Time-dependent Schrodingers equation

Consider a plane wave moving in the x-direction with a frequency , wavelength and
velocity v so that = 2 and k =
can be represented by,

2
, the propagation constant. The equation of the wave

y = A e -i (t - kx)
The energy of the wave is E = h , according to the quantum theory and hence

E
h

= 2 =

Similarly the momentum, p x

k=

2 E
E
=
h
h

h
1 px

or
and

h
p
2 2

px x

h
h

Substituting in equation of wave we get,

y = A e-i (t - kx)
=Ae
=Ae

Et p x
-i
x
h h
-

i
Et - p x x
h

If is the wave function associated with a particle then the equation can be given by

(x,y) = A e

=Ae

i
Et - p x x
h

i
px x - Et
h

Differentiating w.r.t. t,
i
p x x - Et -iE

h
=Ae
h
t
-i
=
E
h

Or

E -

h
i t

Differentiating wave equation w.r.t. x we get,

i
p x x - Et i p x

h
=Ae
h
x

i
p x x - Et i 2 p 2x
2
h
=Ae

2
x 2
h

And

p 2x
= - 2
h
2
2
2
p
x = - h
x 2

For a particle of mass m, moving with a velocity v; the total energy of the particle is given by
E = KE + PE = T + V

E=

p 2x
+v
2m

E =

p 2x
+v
2m

h
h2 2
=+v
i t
2m x 2
ih

h2 2
=+v
t
2m x 2

Extending this to three dimensions, the equation becomes

ih

h2 2
=+ v

t
2m

This is called Schrodingers time dependent three-dimensional quantum mechanical

wave equation for a non-relativistic particle.
Note:
1. For a free particle i.e., when the particle is not subjected to any force, the potential
energy V becomes
zero and the total energy is purely kinetic. The above equation becomes,

h2 2
ih
=

t
2m
2. For a given system when we solve the Schrodingers equation, substituting the proper
value of potential
energy, we get the solutions of the differential equation which are called Eigen
functions. The corresponding energy values are called Eigen b values.
3.

h2 2

+ v is called Hamiltonian and is represented by H . The operator operated on up

2m
gives E.

Hence Schrodinger equation can be written as H = E .

Time independent Schrodingers wave equation
In many cases the potential energy V does not depend on the time t explicitly. In these cases
the forces acting on the particle and hence the potential energy depend only on the position
of the particle. The wave equation for such a case can be obtained as follows:

(x,y) = A e
Differentiating w.r.t. t we get,

i
Et - p x x
h

i
p x x - Et -iE

h
=Ae
h
t
-i
=
E
h

Consider the one-dimension Schrodingers Time dependent equation,

h2 2
ih
=+v
t
2m x 2
ih

-i
h2 2
E = +v
h
2m x 2

E = -

h2 2
+v
2m x 2

2
m 2 2
m
=+ 2 v
2
2
h
x
h

2 2m
+ 2 E - V

x 2
h
This is Schrodingers time independent wave equation. The wave function is a function
of only one variable x. Extending this to three-dimensions,

2 +

2m
E - V
h2

Note:
1. Schrodingers wave equation is not valid for relativistic particles since in deriving the
equation the classical expression for energy and momentum are used namely

E=

p2
+ V and p = mv.
2m

Further, the kinetic energy =

1
mv 2 which is also a non-relativistic expression.
2

2. Alternative derivation of time independent equation

The wave equation of a particle is given by,
= A sin 2t where
A is the amplitude at the point considered and independent of t but a function of(x, y, z) and
is the
frequency.
Differentiating above equation twice w.r.t. t, we have


= A 2 cos 2 t
t
2
= - A (2 ) 2 sin 2 t
2
t
= - 4 2 2
=-

4 2 v 2

But, the differential equation for a wave is given by,

2
4 2 m 2 v 2
+
=0
x 2
h2
The total energy of the particle is given by,
E = kinetic energy + potential energy
E=

1
mv 2 + v
2

mv 2 = 2 (E - V)
m 2 v 2 = 2m (E - V)
2
8 2 m
+
(E - V) = 0
x 2
h2
2
2m
+ 2 (E - V) = 0
2
x
h
Extending this to three dimensions, the Schrodingers time independent equation for a nonrelativistic particle
is given by,

2 +

2m
(E - V) = 0
h2

Since this equation is independent of time, it gives the steady state form. It is very useful in
systems when the energy of the particle is very small as compared to the rest energy of the
particle.
Borns interpretation of the wave function
An analogy between the wave function(x, t) and the location of the particle was given by
Born in terms of the relation between intensity of light and the intensity of electron beam.
Consider a beam of light (electromagnetic wave) incident normally on a screen. It is the result
of periodically varying electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation of the wave. The electric field vector is given by, E = A sin (kx t),
where A is the maximum value of the electric field. We know that, the intensity I of an
2

electromagnetic wave of frequency v is given by I = c 0 E , where E 2 is the average of the

square of the instantaneous magnitude of the electric field vector over a complete cycle, c is
the velocity of light and 0 is the permittivity of free space.
If the number of photons is N, then the intensity is also given by
I = N h (per unit area per second)
2

Hence, I = c 0 E = N h

c 0 2
E
h

N E

This however is true only when the intensity of the beam is large i.e., N is large. The
probability of striking of a photon on the screen is large at points where the intensity in the
diffraction pattern is a maximum. In the case of a single photon, the probability of striking the
screen is maximum at points where the wave theory predicts a maximum and lowest at place
where the wave theory predicts a minimum. Thus, E 2 is a measure of the probability of
the photon crossing unit area in unit time at the point under consideration. In one
dimension, E 2 is a measure of the probability per unit length of finding the photon at the
position x at time t.
In a similar way, Max Born interpreted that the square of the amplitude of the wave function
at a point is a measure of probability density (i.e., the probability per unit volume) of the
particle. It is given by P = * , where * is the complex conjugate of . it should be
remembered that is a complex quantity while E is real and observable. Hence, itself has
no physical significance but only 2. Thus the integral of 2 over all space must be equal to 1.

i.e.,

dv = 1 . Such a wave function is called a normalized wave function. The process of

integration over all space to give unity is called normalization.

Particle in a one dimensional box (potential well)
Consider a free particle confined to a box of length L with
infinitely high walls. The particle recoils back and forth
elastically as in figure. The conditions for the particle
motion are,
(i) The particle moves along x-axis between x = 0 and x
= L and since the recoiling is elastic, it does not lose
energy during collision. Hence, the total energy
remains a constant.
(ii) The particle is a free particle i.e., not subjected to
any external force. The potential energy is thus taken to be zero inside the box. The
particle corresponding x 0 and x 0 i.e. V=0 for
0 < x < L. (The potential outside
the box is infinite).
(iii) The value of the wave function outside the box is zero i.e., = O for x O and x L.
Applying the Schrodingers steady state form for one dimension,

2
8 2 m
+
(E - V) = 0
x 2
h2
This equation is of the form

2
8 2 m
2
2
,
where
+
k

=
0
k
=
E
x 2
h2
The solution is of the form
= A cos kx + B sin kx
where A and B are constants depending on the boundary condition.
At x = 0, = 0

Hence,

0 = A cos 0 + B sin 0
A = 0.

Again at x = L, = 0
Hence

0 = B sin kL

Since B 0, sin kL = 0

8 2 mE
h2

sin

L = 0

8 2 mE
L = n
h2
Where n = 1, 2, 3 ,

8 2 mE 2
L = n 2 2
2
h
n 2 h2
En =
8m L2
This equation gives the Eigen values of energy (proper values). The energy corresponding to
n=1 is called the ground state energy. The other energies are called excited states.
To evaluate B
Consider

8 2 m E
x
h2

= B sin

Since the particle is inside the box, the probability of finding the particle is 1. Hence, using the
normalization condition,
L

dx = 1

sin

sin 2

B2
2

8 2 m E
x dx = 1
h2

n x
dx = 1
L

2sin
0

n x
dx = 1
L

L
B2
n x
1-cos
dx = 1
2 0
L

B2
L
x 0 = 1
2
B2 L
=1
2

B=

2
L

Hence, the Eigen functions are

n =

2
n
sin x , where n=1,2,3
L
L

1 =

2
sin x ;
L
L

2 =

2
2
sin
x;
L
L

3 =

2
3
sin x
L
L

These functions are identical with the allowed amplitude functions for the standing waves in a
vibrating string fixed at both ends. The energy levels and the corresponding wave functions
and the probability densities for the first three states are show.

Schrodingers equation for a particle in a three dimensional box

Consider a free particle of mass. m confined to move non- relativistically in a rectangular box
of sides lx, ly, lz. The sides are parallel to the co-ordinate axes X, Y and Z. The potential energy
of the particle inside the box is zero. i.e., V = 0. Hence the total energy E of the particle is
equal to the kinetic energy (always a positive quantity). The Schrodingers equation becomes,

 2 +

2m
(E - V) = 0
h2

2 +

2m
E=0
h2

2 2 2
p2
2 2 + 2= 0

2
y
z
h
x
where is E =

p2
,and p is the magnitude of the total momentum of the particle. is a function
2m

of x, y and z coordinates. Solving the equation we obtain,

px
p
x + Bx sin x x
h
h
p
p
y = A y cos y y + B y sin y y
h
h
pz
pz
z = A z cos
z + Bz sin
z
h
h
x = A x cos

Applying the boundary conditions namely when x = 0, x = l x , y = 0, y = ly and z = 0, z = lz

and x = y = z = 0
Bx = 0, By=0 and Bz=0

x y z

= A x A y A z sin
= A sin

n
n x
n
x sin y y sin z z
lx
ly
lz

n
n x
n
x sin y y sin z z
lx
ly
lz

where A = Ax Ay Az and nx, ny, nz are independent integers. Since the particle exists inside the
box, the probability of finding the particle inside the box is one.
l x l y lz

dx dy dz = 1

0 0 0

Substituting for and solving we get,

A=

8
=
l x l y lz

8
v

Thus, the Eigen functions are,

(n x , n y , n z ) =

n
8
n
n
sin x x sin y y sin z z
v
lx
ly
lz

The Eigen values of energy are,

2 h2
E(n x , n y , n z ) =
2m
Note:

n 2x n 2y n 2z
2 + 2 + 2
l x l y l z

1. In one dimensional box we use only one quantum number n while in a three
dimensional box we require, three quantum numbers one corresponding to each coordinate x, y, z.
2. If nx, or ny or nz is zero, = 0. This implies the absence of the particle inside the box.
But this is not physically acceptable. Hence, none of the quantum numbers can be zero.
The ground state corresponds
nx = ny = nz = 1. Hence

(1,1,1) =

sin x sin y sin z

v
lx
ly
lz

The zero point energy is given by

E(1,1,1) =

2 h2
2m

1 1 1
2 + 2 + 2
l x l y lz

3. For a single value of energy or momentum there are three different quantum states.
The property of two or more quantum states of a particle having different
sets of quantum numbers and different Eigen functions to have the same
value of momentum and energy is called degeneracy.

To set up the Hamiltonian for a linear harmonic oscillator

A particle which executes simple harmonic motion about at mean position is called a harmonic
oscillator. At any instant, the acceleration of the particle is proportional to the A displacement
and is directed towards the equilibrium position. The oscillations of a simple pendulum, the
vibrations of a diatomic molecule or the vibrations of atoms in a crystal lattice are examples
of harmonic oscillators.
Consider a particle executing linear simple harmonic motion. When the amplitude is small, the
restoring force is proportional to the displacement and is directed towards the equilibrium
position. Hence, F -x or F = - kx. The potential energy of the particle is given by,
x

V(x) = - F(x) dx
0

= k x dx
0

1
k x2
2

For the particle executing simple harmonic motion

d2 x
= - kx
dt 2
d2x
-k x
=
= - 2 x
2
dt
m

wkt,

k = m (2) 2
= 4 2 m 2

Substituting in equation

1
4 2 m v 2 x 2
2
= 2 2 m v2 x 2

V(x) =

The Schrodingers equation becomes,

2
2m
+ 2 (E - V) = 0
2
x
h
2
2m
+ 2 (E - 2 2 m v 2 x 2 ) = 0
2
x
h
2m E
h2
2 m
=
h
=

Let

2
2m
+ 2 ( - 2 x 2 ) = 0
2
x
h

Introducing a new variable,

y= x

y
=
.
x
y x

2

=

2
x
x x
=

y
y
. =

x y x
y x x

=
y
=

2
y 2

y x

2
+ ( - y 2 ) = 0
2
y

2
+ y 2 = 0
2
y

For acceptable solution of the above equation,

= (2n + 1) where n is an integer.

Hence,

2m E
h2
2 m

(2n + 1)

En
= (2n + 1)
h
E n h (2n + 1)
h
= (2n + 1)
2

En h n +

Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 etc. These are the Eigen values of energy.

The Eigen values are discrete and are given by
energy values are quantised.

1
3
5
h , h , h etc. This shows that the
2
2
2

Again, when n = 0, the energy is not zero. This is the zero point energy which is a
consequence of the uncertainty principle.
The Eigen wave functions can be shown to be

n (x) =

Where =

2n n!

1
2

- x 2
2

H n ( x)

mk
and Hn (x) is the Hermite polynomial of the nth order.
h2

The quantised energy levels of the harmonic oscillator are shown in the figure below.
Note:
1. The energy levels for the harmonic oscillator are equally spaced while in the case of
particle in a box
the energy levels diverge.
2. The wave function is given by,

2n n!

n (x) =

1
2

- x 2
2

H n ( x)

When n = 0, the ground state wave function 0 is given by

0 =

1
4

- x 2
2

The plot of the ground state wave function is shown in figure below
When n=1,

H n (x) = 2 x

1
2

1 =

1 =

1
4

- x 2
2

2 x

x e

- x 2
2

The plot of the first excited state wave function is shown in figure below

Comparison of classical and quantum ideas

It has been discussed at length in the first chapter, how the classical theory fails to explain
the distribution of energy in the spectrum of a black body, photoelectric effect, Compton
effect, etc. and what was the need for the quantum theory. Now, we will try to bring out a
comparison between the two.
Quantization of energy and angular momentum
According to classical ideas, a particle can have any energy continuously from zero to infinity.
No restriction is laid on the amount of energy a body can have. The energy changes of
radiators take place continuously. But according to Plancks hypothesis radiations are in
discrete quanta called photons. A black-body radiation chamber is filled up not only with
radiation but also with simple harmonic oscillators called Plancks oscillators which can vibrate
with all frequencies. The energy of an oscillator of frequency vg cannot vary continuously but
is limited on the discrete set of values , 2, 3, etc., where is the quantum (photon). The
energy of the photon is h. This shows that energy is quantised. We have seen that the
electrons in Bohr orbits have discrete energies.
According to Bohr the angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of
angular momentum is quantized and given by

h
. The
2

nh
where n, the principal quantum number can
2

have integral values 1, 2, 3 etc.

In 1915, W. Wilson and A. Sommerfeld discovered independently a general rule which
successfully predicts the allowed energy values of periodic system. If the system has N

degrees 2 of freedom with position coordinates q 1, q2, q3... qn and with momentum coordinates
p1, p2, p3, ..., pn then the phase integral of such a system can be defined as J i =

dq i

According to the quantization rule only those orbits are allowed as stationary states for
which each phase integral is Integral multiple of Plancks constant in a complete
period.
i.e.

dq i = ni h, where ni = 1, 2, 3, etc.

Again for a particle in a box, the Eigen energy is E x =

the energy is quantized.

n 2 h2
8m L2

where n = 1, 2, T3, etc. i.e.,

1
2

For a harmonic oscillator the energy is given by, E n h n + where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, etc.

2 2

The energy of a rigid rotator is E n =

n h
where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
8 2

These expressions for energy clearly indicate that the energy levels in these cases are not
continuous but discrete and quantized. According to classical mechanics the energy can range
from zero to infinity.
Probability
In classical mechanics, the position of an electron is clearly defined. Classically the particle is
equally to be found at any point within the box for a particle in a box but according to
quantum mechanics the probability of finding the particle is maximum at the antinodes and
minimum at the nodes. in quantum mechanics, the probability of finding the particle is given
by the wave function . The probability density is given by || 2 and is a measure of finding
the particle at a particular place at a given time. In classical mechanics the position and
momentum are well defined and can be determined accurately. In quantum mechanics,
according to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle the position and momentum cannot be
simultaneously accurately determined. If x and are the uncertainties in position and
momentum then, x h . The other forms of the uncertainty are in energy and time as
given by E t h and in angular momentum and angular displacement as given by J
h.
Though the calculations involving the measurement of position and momentum of bodies of
large masses are remarkably accurate, the situation is different In the case of small particles
such as electrons. The statements regarding the exact position and velocity of an electron are
replaced by probability. In fact the Bohr concept of an atom in which the electrons revolve
round the nucleus in definite orbits must be abandoned and replaced by a theory which
considers the probability of finding the electron in a particular region of space at a given time.
Dual character
In classical mechanics, matter and energy are considered to be two separate entities having
no relation whatsoever between the two. But we have seen, according to de Broglie a wave
characteristic could be associated with a material particle. The de Broglie wavelength is given
by =

h
, where m is the mass of the particle moving with a velocity v.
mv

Shortcomings of old quantum theory

The quantum theory on Bohrs quantum condition and Wilson- Sommerfeld quantisation rule
for periodic systems could explain only certain limited, problems like the energy states of
hydrogen or hydrogen like atoms, particle in a box, harmonic oscillator and rigid rotator.

But the main shortcomings ol the old quantum theory are:

(i)
(ii)

It cannot be applied to non-periodic system.

It cannot explain the spectral lines of relatively simple cases like hydrogen molecule
and normal helium
atom.
(iii) It cannot explain the relative intensities of spectral lines.
(iv) The processes connected with the spin at the electrons and Pauli's exclusion principle
cannot be explained.
(v) The Bohrs postulate of discrete, non-radiating energy states was empirical without
supported by any theory.

WORKED EXAMPLES
1.An electron is constrained in a one dimensional box of side 1 nm. Obtain the first three
eigen values in eV.
Solution: The eigen values of energy are given by,

En =

n 2h2
8m l2

For n=1

1 (6.625 1034 ) 2
E1 =
J
8 (9.111031 ) (109 ) 2

(6.625 1034 ) 2
eV
8 (9.111031 ) (1018 ) 1.6 10 19

= 0.377 eV
The second and third Eigen values of energy are
E2 = 22 X 0.377 = 1.508 eV
and

E3 = 32 X 0.377 = 3.393 eV

2. Find the momentum and energy values for an electron in a box of length 1 for n=1and
n=2.
Solution: Momentum is given by,

pl =

nh
2l

For n=1,

p1 =

h
6.625 1034
=
= 3.313 1024 kg m s 1
10
2l
2 10

For n=2,

p 2 =2

h
6.625 1034
=2
= 6.625 1024 kg m s 1
2l
2 1010

energy is given by,

n 2h2
En =
8m l2
For n=1,

E1 =

1 (6.625 1034 ) 2
J
8 (9.111031 ) (1010 ) 2

(6.625 1034 ) 2
=
eV
8 (9.111031 ) (1020 ) 1.6 1019
= 37.61 eV
For n=2,
E2 = 4 X 37.61 eV = 150.44 eV
3. The period of a linear harmonic- oscillator is 1 millisecond. Find its zero point energy in eV.

Solution: T = 1 x 10-3 s and hence =

Zero point energy

1
= 103 Hz
T

h
2

6.625 1034 103

2
3.312 1031

eV = 2.07 1011 eV
19
1.6 10
=

4. The energy of a linear harmonic oscillator in its third excited state is 0.1 eV. Calculate its
frequency.
Solution:

En h n +
2

0.11.6 1019 3 6.625 10 34

2

19
0.11.6 10
=
= 6.895 1012 Hz
34
(7 / 2) 6.625 10
5. A proton is confined to a nucleus of radius 10

-14

m. Calculate the lowest energy and also

the next two

energy Eigen values of the proton given mp = 1 .67 x 10-27 kg.
Solution:

En =

n 2h2
8m l2

For n=1

E1 =

1 (6.625 1034 ) 2
J
8 (9.111031 ) (1014 ) 2
(6.625 1034 ) 2
eV
8 (9.111031 ) (1028 ) 1.6 10 19

= 2.05 eV
The second and third Eigen values of energy are
E2 = 22 X 2.05 = 8.2eV
and

E3 = 32 X 2.05 = 18.45 eV

6. Calculate the zero point energy and the spacing of the energy levels in a one dimensional
oscillator with an oscillator frequency of 1 kHz.
Solution:

1
h
2
1 6.625 1034 103
=
2 1.6 1019
= 2.073 1012 eV

E0

E0 h n
2

3 6.625 1034 103

=
2 1.6 1019
= 6.219 1012 eV
Hence, spacing of energy levels, E = E 1 - E0 = 4.146 X 10-12 eV
7. An eigen value of an electron confined to a one dimensional box of length 0.2 nm is 151
eV. What is the order of the excited state?
Solution:

En =

n 2h2
8m l2

1 (6.625 1034 ) 2
E1 =
8 (9.111031 ) (0.2 10 9 ) 2
1511.6 1019
n2 =

n 2 (6.625 1034 ) 2
8 (9.111031 ) (0.2 109 ) 1.6 10 19

1511.6 1019 8 (9.11 1031 ) (0.2 10 9 ) 1.6 1019

(6.625 1034 ) 2

n =
n =4

1511.6 9.11 4 102

(6.625) 2

8. Find the probability that a particle in a one dimensional box of length L can be found
between 0.4 L to 0.6 L for the ground state.
Solution: The wave function in one dimensional box of length L for a free particle is given
by

n =

2
nx
sin
L
L

The probability of finding a particle in a distance x about the mean position x is

Pn x = n n* x

2
nx
sin
.
L
L

2 2 nx
sin
x
L
L

Mean position, x =

2
nx
sin
. x
L
L

0.4 L + 0.6 L
L
= 0.5 L =
2
2

And x = 0.6 L 0.4 L = 0.2 L

For the ground state, n = 1

2 2
sin
0.2 L
L
2
= 0.4

Pn x =
EXERCISES
I Questions

1. Obtain the time independent Schrodingers equation. Give its physical significance.
2.

Obtain Schrodingers time-dependent equation for a free particle.

3. Write Schrodingers wave equation tor a free particle. What is the physical
interpretation of the wave function ? Explain Borns interpretation.
4. Explain the terms eigen values and eigen functions. Give the physical significance of a
wave function.
5. Explain the requirements that are imposed on a physically acceptable wave function.
6. Obtain the Schrodingers equation for a particle in a one dimensional box and solve it to
obtain the energy eigen values. Also represent the first three wave functions in a graph.
7. Write down the Schrodingers equation for a particle in a one dimensional box. Show
that the linear momentum and energy of a particle in a one dimensional box is
quantised.
8. Obtain Schrodingers equation for a linear harmonic oscillator. Solve it to obtain the
energy eigen values.

9. Show that the energy of a harmonic oscillator is quantised in steps of h. Explain the
existence of zero point energy.

10.Bring out a comparison between the classical and quantum ideas with reference to the
quantisation of energy and angular momentum.
11.What is the basic difference between the postulates of classical and quantum theory?

II Concept questions
12.Distinguish between a free particle and particle in a box.
13.The zero point energy of a harmonic oscillator is not zero. Explain.
14.A bound particle has quantised energy values whereas it is not so for a completely free
particle. Explain.
15.The concept of trajectory has no significance in quantum mechanics. Explain.
16.Bring out the physical significance. of zero point energy.
17.Explain the concept of Bohrs stationary orbits on the basis of quantum mechanical
model of the atom.