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PROCEEDINGS, INDONESIAN PETROLEUM ASSOCIATION

Twenty-Sixth Annual Convention, May 1998

IMPACT OF THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM APPROACH TO EXPLORATION

AND APPRAISAL EFFICIENCY IN THE MAHAKAM DELTA
Bemad C. Duval*
Christian Cassaigneau"*
Ghislain Choppin de Janvry**
Bemad LoiEt**
Michel Leo * *
Alibi * * *
Yves Gmsjean"* * *

ABSTRACT
Oil production in the Mahakam Delta area started a
century ago. In the late ~ O ' S , exploration was resumed
in the swampy delta and offshore area and led to the
discovery of several giant oil and gas fields. At that
time, drilling was focused on structural plays.
By the mid ~ O ' S , when production started to decline,
a global requestioning was undertaken through a
regional synthesis, based on the reinterpretation of
existing seismic and well data. One of the tools of
choice used during this study was sequence
stratigraphy. A new petroleum system model was
defined, and allowed to revitalize exploration and
identify targets linked to stratigraphic concepts within
or near the identified kitchens.
Some of these targets were successfully drilled, and
one of them, Peciko, was quickly recognized as a new
giant gas and condensate field. Understanding the
trapping model, and particularly its hydrodynamic
component was a key factor for fast and successful
delineation.
Sedimentological studies (including field observations
on similar sand bars of the modern delta) combined
with systematic pressure measurements, greatly
contributed to the field model. The thin sand

*
**
***
****

Institut Franpais du Petrole - France

Total S.A. - Paris
Total Indonesie
Total Oil Marine - Aberdeen

reservoirs were found to be more continuous than

expected; and, thus were organized into more
manageable thicker flow-units.
The Peciko model was in turn applied to the
previously discovered Tunu field, leading to
spectacular new reserve additions. The creaming
curves at both basin and field scales clearly reflect the
level of maturity for oil and gas in the Mahakam.
Improved exploration and appraisal efficiency has
resulted in rapid increases in production.

INTRODUCTION
The Mahakam Delta area is part of the Kutei Basin,
located in Kalimantan, Indonesia on the Eastern Coast
of the Island of Borneo. It is a very old petroleum
province, where the production started in the onshore
one century ago. However, the swampy coastal plain
and the adjacent offshore area remained untouched
until they were opened to the industry in the late 60's.
A new cycle of large oil and gas discoveries, Attaka,
Badak, Bekapai, Nilam and Handil took place
thereafter, utilizing seismic technology to locate
structural closures. Production from these fields began
to decline in the early 80's. A second cycle of
exploration starting in 1986 reversed the trend of
production decline. Huge gas discoveries were made
as a result of incorporating new stratigraphic concepts
and other techniques.
Over 25 years of active exploration and production in

278
the Mahakam area represents a balanced combination
of on-going exploration, appraisal and development. A
reasonable understanding of the petroleum system has
been reached with a high degree of confidence. This
offers a good opportunity to analyse in detail the
chronology of operations and characterise past
exploration efficiency as a function of time and
applied efforts.
The first part consists of an analysis of historical
reserve additions and the resulting creaming curves
since the early 70's. In the second part, we discuss
how the Mahakam block operator reactivated regional
studies leading to a coherent new model of the
petroleum system and set the stage for the abovementioned new cycle of discoveries. The third part is
a description of some special concepts and
technologies that were applied to appraise and develop
these fields and their impact on reserve additions.

HISTORICAL RESERVE ADDITIONS

In the Mahakam Delta area, thick deltaic sediments
(up to 12,000 m), largely sands and shales, were
deposited in fluvial to marine environments during
Tertiary-Quaternary time, from Middle Eocene to the
present days. Seismic interpretation identified t h e e
positive structural trends running in parallel along P
NNEISSW direction, East of the "old" Sanga Sanga
trend. During the ~ O ' S the
,
most prominent structure.
were drilled with discoveries on the "internal" trend
(Badak, Handil) and the "median" trend (Attaka,
Bekapai), while all wells located on the "external"
trend were unsuccessful (Fig. 1). Two graphs have
been generated and presented by Duval et a1 (1997) to
show the cumulative reserves existing in the Mahakam
delta at the end of each two year period, including
successive re-evaluations of the indicated fields.
Reserves are plotted for these fields because reliable
past evaluations were available to the authors.

Liquid Reserve Additions (Fig. 2)

The liquid reserve curve makes a distinction between
the reserves attributed to Bekapai and Handil (mainly
oil), and "other liquids", mainly composed of
condensates and therefore associated with gas
discoveries. The upwardly convex curve reflects an
early and high efficiency of exploration, an expected
situation when dealing with structural targets, more
easily identified during the first years of exploration.

However, the actual experience was not quite so

simple. Bekapai was found only after five dry wells
were drilled in succession (1971-1972), within a
contract area covering a large sector of the coastal
area and the offshore. The Handil discovery occurred
only two years later and no additional oil discovery of
such magnitude was made thereafter in this contract
area.

Gas Reserve Additions (Fig. 3)

The graph generated by plotting cumulative gas
reserves displays a different profile. There is no
simple curvature, like in the case of liquids. The
overall shape of the curve reflects a lower exploration
efficiency in the early years than in the oil case and,
accordingly, a lower stage of maturity at the present
time. This reflects not only a more complex
geological setup, but also the influence of more
favourable market conditions for natural gas in the
recent years (Howes and Tisnawijaya, 1995). Around
the mid SO'S, oil production started to decline.
However, the perception that the gas discovery rate
was still in an immature stage and that this prolific
basin had not said its last word, and the pressure from
a strong, growing demand for gas in the Far East,
required some decisive steps be taken to increase our
kiiowledge of the area, to re-evaluate the potential for
additional gas and hopefully to generate new ideas
that would revitalize the exploration program.

REACTIVATION OF REGIONAL STUDIES AND

PETROLEUM SYSTEM APPROACH
To achieve these objectives, a new technical and
management approach had to be defined, which would
include an extensive re-interpretation and synthesis of
all geological and geophysical data. The key was to
get the best people to work at it, and give them time
to accomplish their mission. Periodic progress reviews
with senior head office executives reinforced the
perception of management's interest in the project.
The team was based in Balikpapan and was part of
the operating organization to benefit from field
experience. The variety of skills and experience
represented in its composition made it versatile and
flexible. It included a senior interpretor with previous
experience in the area. This work had been published
by Loiret and Mugniot (1982).

279

Sequence Stratigiaphy
Sequence stratigraphy was used extensively
throughout the study. The main reason for this
emphasis was that the structural picture was well
known and considered fully exploited for prospect
definition. Therefore, the key to future discoveries
seemed linked to generating new plays of stratigraphic
nature. The usual configuration of a deltaic basin can
be recognized on Fig. 4 with an evolution from delta
plain to delta front and shelf facies into the slope
facies. This slope facies is represented by
overpressured shales that extend from the oblique
dotted line into the pink area to the right, underlining
the overall progradation towards the East. Seismic
interpretation in terms of sequence stratigraphy,
although calibrated with numerous wells, was not easy
because the seismic quality is not good in this deltaic
area, due partly to near surface conditions and partly
to the monotony of lithology, composed of
intercalated shales and thin sands (particularly in the
median trend).

characteristics. The source pods of the petroleum

system could be mapped.
The main kitchen, thick and rich in coals and organic
shales, sits across the synclinal axis that separates the
internal and median trends (where Tambora and Tunu
are respectively located in the section of Fig. 5 ) . The
oil potential of coals in the Mahakam has been
studied by Durand and Paratte (1982), and is related
to the resinitic and exinitic vegetation that gave birth
to these coals (analogous to present day "Nipa-Nipa").
A "secondary" kitchen, thinner and containing leaner
organic shales deposited in a mostly marine
environment is identified between the median and
external trends (where Tunu and Sisi are respectively
located in the section of Fig. 5). This concept
provides mainly lateral short distance migration paths
from the sources, linked to the compressional folds,
and constrained at intervals by the shaly beds of the
flooding surfaces, which act as effective vertical seals.
Fluid segregation can therefore be explained by
combining stratigraphic and geochemical factors :

The various contributions of sequence stratigraphy are

listed in the caption of Fig. 4. Two of them are
particularly worth commenting on.
The delta plain facies displays abundant coals (found
in wells and recognizable through seismic facies
analysis) and organic shales, over a significant
thickness, thus qualifying the related Miocene
sediments as a good quality source rock.
Another important issue is the identification of
maximum flooding surfaces, associated with the delta
front encroachments. They are correlatable both at
field scale and regionally. These transgressions are
critical, because they correspond to more marine
episodes, coeval throughout the basin, more shaly
lithologies, and they provide very effective vertical
seals.'
The Petroleum System (Fig. 5 )
Understanding the petroleum system was a critical
issue of the synthesis. Until this work was completed,
no global satisfactory answer had been given to the
questions of source, migration and fluid segregation
within the basin. The deeper actual base of the kitchen
was found to be close to the top of the
undercompacted section which has no source rock

Oil and gas are found in Handil and Tambora

along the internal trend, with more oil present as
the richest coal-bearing sediments are encountered
downdip.
*

Gas and condensate are found in the median and

external trends, because of leaner source rocks
and facies contrasts. Only the lighter fluids
migrate easily through pathways which become
increasingly more shaly eastward.

Two notable exceptions to the above scenario are the

Bekapai and Attaka fields of the median trend. These
pronounced anticlinal features contain mainly light oil,
which can be explained by dysmigration through
faults and retrograde condensation.
2D basin modeling was applied and confirmed the
interpretation (Bums et al, 1992). One of the
conclusions of the study was that no significant
hydrocarbons was to be found at distances greater
than 10-15 km from the identified kitchens. That
observation explained most dly wells, particularly in
the southern Mahakam area, and allowed us to focus
on areas within or near the kitchens for further targets.
Different types of prospects were recommended, like
lowstand wedges and distal bars, successfully tested in

'

280
Sisi and Nubi, on the external trend. In that area, 3D
seismic helps map subtle traps associated with the
listric faults of the shelf margin and ensures a high
success ratio. Seismic quality becomes better in the
distal part of the province, with more marine
sedimentation and continuous reflectors.
Still more important, although risky, was the concept
of stratigraphic traps on the west flank of the median
trend, in conjunction with the shaling out of sands and
well exposed to charging from the main kitchen. The
best test of this play was NW Peciko-1 drilled in
1991, 7 km distant and slightly downdip from
Peciko-1, a well drilled years before that found some
gas in deep sands. Considering the increasing
shaliness as one goes distal, it was hoped that more
gas would be found downdip from the earlier well,
thanks to better sand development and favourable
structural conditions (north plunging nose, visible at
the bottom of Fig.1). This prospect was also not far
from the main kitchen, located between the internal
and median trends, and therefore well within the areal
limit of the petroleum system.

THE PECIKO DISCOVERY AND APPRAISAL

EFFICIENCY
Actually, a very thick column of gas - much higher
than expected (160 m instead of 30 m), was
encountered, with no obvious model, stratigraphic or
otherwise to explain it. However the model was
quickly understood and the full evaluation of the field
was attained only two years thereafter, which denotes
a high degree of efficiency (Figs. 6, 7).

In contrast, Tunu, took quite a few wells, over a long

period, to reach significant results; but a remarkable
acceleration has taken place in the last years (Fig. 6).
This recent sharp increase was not a coincidence : it
was directly related to the successful delineation of
Peciko and the subsequent understanding of the
entrapment mechanism and its application to Tunu, in
conjunction with the petroleum system defined in the
above mentioned synthesis study (Duval et al, 1997).
The model is complex and unconventional and, in
order to understand how this new model evolved and
could impact all subsequent programs, it is necessary
to put every phase in perspective within the whole
story, since the early ~ O ' Sand
,
describe the sequence
of events.

Sequence of Events
The sequence can be divided into three phases (Table
1). During the first phase, by far the longest, from
1972 to 1991, all exploration in the Mahakam was
structurally driven. Tunu was no exception, and
almost all wells drilled on this field during this period
were located on subtle closures. This was also the
case for Peciko-I.
The regional study which led to the new strategy (and
the Peciko discovery) was carried out during a 5-year
period, from 1986 to 1991. However, it should be
pointed out that the synthesis effort has continued
after this period (although with less people), and is
still going on today. This continuity ensures that the
study is constantly updated with new data, with no
cessation of the creative process, and was decisive in
the conceptual progress made in the area. Although
initiated with a stratigraphic concept, it appeared
quickly that the trap was more complex and the
solution was found by combining the regional
knowledge derived from the synthesis with local
hydrodynamic considerations, sedimentological
observations and test and reservoir studies. This was
done during phase 2 (1991-1993). The results, in turn,
had a direct bearing on all work made in Tunu
thereafter during phase 3 (1993 to present).

Reservoir Model
When the Peciko discovery well was drilled, wireline
pressure measurements were made on many sands in
this well. By comparing these measurements with
older pressure data from wells of the Peciko and Tunu
areas, a new reservoir model was quickly proposed
and supported by systematic recordings carried out
thereafter on all delineation wells. The new model
subdivided the pay zone into packages, each
containing several individual reservoirs which were
constrained by the prominent flooding surfaces, the
same ones identified in the synthesis (Fig. 7 ) .
These sands are not more than a few meters thick
each, which had been thought in the past to reflect an
extreme lenticularity and had discouiaged both
explorers and producers from considering a
commercial issue. Now, with pressure data, we knew
that somehow these sands did communicate with each
other within larger packages, forming more acceptable
consistent flow units. This reservoir configuration has

28 1
been described by Grosjean (1994) and Duval et a1
(1995).
This new picture was supported by the results of field
studies focused on understanding the geometry and
distribution of these sand bodies. Sequence
stratigraphy had shown that, because of the rapid
subsidence of the basin, the same pattern of high order
sequences (4th order, 30 to 100 m thick) was repeated
over a tremendous thickness of 1000 to 2000 m, over
5 million years or more. It was also found that a
significant proportion of the reservoirs in those fields
consist of distributary mouth-bars deposited in a delta
front environment. Indeed the limit of the delta front
did not move very much since the Miocene in the
Tunu-Peciko area. Therefore, the facies patterns and
internal architecture of a distributary mouth-bar
system in the modern delta were studied in the field
and compared to what is known in the subsurface.
These patterns are clearly associated with bifurcations
of the distributary channels and correspond to
triangular mouth-bars or more elongated tidal bars
(Fig. 8).
Cores were taken on good outcrops and it was found
also that these bar complexes, although composed of
very thin sand bodies, could extend more than 10 km
(Allen and Mercier, 1994). A great similarity with
patterns derived from well data and 3D amplitude
maps (available in Peciko) was observed (Debec et al,
1994). Such sands can amalgamate laterally and
communicate, which fits well with the abovementioned pressure data.
Understanding this geometry WIS a key issue to define
the reservoir model and calculate reserves
(Suryodiporo et al, 1995). It should also be noted that
testing confirmed the predicted reservoir behaviour
with high productivities, in the range of 30 million
cf/D, sustainable over long periods and ensuring
commerciality .

Hydmdynamic Model
A gradual potential decrease from South to North in
Peciko was found from isopotential maps. The
interpretation is that the underlying and adjacent
undercompacted slope shales are responsible for the
observed gradient and flow created by the water
expelled from these formations, in a direction opposite
to the gas migration from the main kitchen.

The upper envelope of the gas sands intersects

remarkably in all directions the time lines underlining
the structure (Fig. 7). This is particularly true on the
updip "flank" of the field (along the nose axis), where
no lithological barrier exists between the sand
packages of the gas-bearing and water-bearing
sections (Grosjean, 1994; Duval and Beuque, 1995).
In fact, the Peciko-1 well had found a lot of these
sands - wet - above a limited gas pay zone.
The concept was then extended to Tunu. The hard
pressures climbing up into the section towards the
East and the compaction flow created by the water
expelled from the overpressured slope shales sort of
counterbalance the updip migration of hydrocarbons
coming up in the opposite direction. The
hydrodynamic effect is materialized by the nonsymmetrical profile of the accumulation, particularly
visible in Tunu (Fig. 5). The water tables of the
various packages of sands (as defined above) were
found "tilted" northward for Peciko and westward for
Tunu, which suggested that new pay zones could be
present in the deeper parts of the median trend.
Taking advantage of this "refined model", more flank
wells were successfully drilled downdip in this field
down to and including the deeper part of the syncline,
as reported by Duval et a1 (1997). Most of this
delineation was carried out during phase 3 (1993 to
present).
Therefore we can follow and understand better the
interplay between the 2 appraisal programs : the
model, defined in Peciko, was quickly applied to
Tunu, then refined and applied again in extending
Tunu on its West flank. Evaluating the deeper
prospective area while continuing an optimized
delineation scheme which was more consistent with a
model we now better understood, resulted in an
increase of efficiency as compared to the previous
phases.

As an illustration of this positive evolution for Tunu,

the I.G.I.P. addition per delineation well increased
from 0.2 Tcf during phase 1 to 0.35 during phase 2
and 0.6 during phase 3. In Peci!-o the average I.G.I.P.
addition per delineation well was 0.5 Tcf.
It must be added that specific technologies, like a new
high resolution logging tool, well calibrated sets of
cementation and saturation factors, well focused

282
reprocessing, also contributed to reserve additions.
These contributions have been discussed in detail by
Duval et -a1 (1997).

and Peciko giant fields. The LNG plant of. Bontang,

located 150 km North of the fields, is and will remain
the largest in the world for many years.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the Mahakam case may have benefited from

special circumstances, such as, favourable market
conditions at an opportune time and a certahamount
of serendipity in its development (like all success
stories !), the authors are convinced that the described
philosophy and technical strategy can be applied
widely in the search for hydrocarbons. Detailed
analysis of exploration efficiency can help single out
the key ingredients of success and enrich our
perception of the "art of exploration"

Exploration efficiency is generally analysed through

regional creaming curves, established at basin and
play scales. This case history shows that such an
analysis emade at prospect and field scale during
delineation can greatly help understand the subtle
interplays that can occur between various studies and
programs and their contribution to success.
The integrated petroleum system approach appeared to
be a powerful tool for reactivating exploration, after
most obvious structural objectives had been explored.
Sequence stratigraphy was particularly useful in
defining facies variations across the delta, migration
patterns, layering models and new distal reservoir
targets.
Proactive acquisition of new data (like pressure
measurements and sedimentologiial observations) and
perseverance in updating this new integrated synthetic
study helped make the most of a striking initial
conceptual breakthrough and apply regionally an
evolving model. It is thought that hydrodynamics and
the link between high pressures and. hydrocarbon
accumulations deserve more attention, as illustrated in
this example.
The team's composition and motivation are key
ingredients of success. Integration is not regulated by
decree and depends on spirit. The management must
be committed to the effort, assign adequate resources
to the project, express continuous interest in the
progress made and see to it that recommendations be
implemented fast. In that way, play identifiers and
initiators can appreciate better the link between the
results and their efforts and involvement.
The overall economic result in the Mahakam case is
spectacular. The production of the fields included in
this study (except Bad&), reached a first peak of
230,000 BOEPD in 1977, then went down to 125,006
BOEPD. It is now forecast to increase dramatically
and will reach a new record level of near 600.r)OC
BOEPD by 2004. Eighty-eight percent of the
production will be gas (with 8 trains of liquefaction,
maybe even 9), and will come principally from Tunu

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank Total S.A., Pertamina, and
Inpex for permission to publish this paper. We also
thank the management and staff of Total Indonesie for
their appreciated support and assistance.

REFERENCES
Allen, G.P., Laurier, D. and Thouvenin, J.: 1978. The
Mahakam Delta (Indonesia). Comparison of Miocene
and Recent Depositional Environments, in
International Congress o n Scdimentology, Proc., 1.
Ailen, G P and Mercier, F , 1994 Reservoir Facies
and Geometry in Mixcd Tide and Fluvial-Dominated
Delta Mouth Bars Example from the Modern
Mahakam Delta (East Kalimantan) Proceedings of the
Indonesian Petrolcum Association, 2311, 26 1-273
Burms, j , Brosse, E . Choppin de Janvry, G.,
Grosjean, Y and Oudin, J - t , 1992. Basin Modeling
in the Mahakam Delta Based on the Integrated 2D
Model TEMISPACK Proceedings of the Indonesian
Pctroleum Association, 2111, 23-43
Debec, P., Bitoun, G. and Mercier, F., 1994. The
Research of Analogues in 3D Seismic Data: a Tool
for Sedimentology and Reservoir Engineering.
Proceedings of the Indonesian Petroleum Association,
2311, 275-288.
Durand, 3. and Paratte, N.. 1982. Oil Potential of
Coals, A Geochemical Approach, in Symposium
Petroleum Geochemical Exploration Europe, Glasgow,
Proc., 255-265.

283
Duval, B.C., Choppin de Janvry, G. and Loiret, B.
1992. The Mahakam Delta Province: An Everchanging
Picture and a Bright Future, in 24th Annual Offshore
Technology Conference, Houston, Proc., 1, 393-404.

'

Duval, B.C., Choppin de. Janvry, G. and Loirct, B.,,

1992. Detailed Geoscience Re-Interpretation of
Indonesia's Mahakam Delta Scores, in Oil and Gas
Journal, 90(32), 67-72.
Duval. B C , Allen. G P . Madaoui. K . Gouadain, J
and Kremer, Y.,1995 Application of Exploration
P r e d i c t i on
an d
Re s er v o i r
Techno 1o g ie s to
Management Field examples of South-East Asia, in
Society of Petroleum Engineers. Asia Pacific Oil and
Gas Conference. Kuala Lumpur , Proc , 9-19
Duval, B C and Beuque. J-M , 1995 An International
Company's Gas Strategy in the Far East and its relatcd
offshore operations a Case History, in 27th Annual
Offshore Technology Confcrencc, Houston, Proc ,
453-463
Duval, B C . Imbert. P , Grosjean. Y and Lefort. J J .
1995 Contribution of Qualitative Log Analysis to
Reservoir Management Recent Developments and
Case Histories, in Annual Coiivcntion, Socicty of
Petroleum Well Log Analysis, Paris. Proc . Paper
KKK, 13

Duval, B.C., Cassaigncau, C.: Choppin de Janvry, G..

Loireti B., Leo. M., Alibi, Grosjean. Y., 1997.
Technology and Exploration Efficiency in the
Mahakam Delta Province, Indonesia, in 15th World
Petroleum Congrcss, Forum 13, Proc. (In press).
Grosjean, Y., 1994. Burial Hydrodynamic Trapping:
A Working Model for the Giant Peciko and Tunu Gas
Fields, (Mahakam Delta Basin, Indonesia), Annual
Convention of the American Association of Petroleum
Gcologists, Denver, Abstr.

Howes, J.V.C. and Tisnawijaya, S.. 1995. Indonesian

Petroleum
Systems, Reserve Additions
and
Exploration Efficiency. Proceedings of the Indonesian
Petroleum Association, 24/1. 1-17.

Loiret, B and Mugniot. J-F, 1982. Scismic Sequences

Interpretation, a Contribution to the * Stratigraphical
Framemork of the Malzakam Area. Proceedings of the
Iiidonesian Petroleum Association, 11/1, 323-334.

Snryodipuro: B.; Haddad, S., Heme, J. and Madaoui,

K.; 1995. lmprovcd Simulator for the Development of
Fluvio-Deltaic Typc Gas Fields. Proceedings of the
Indonesian Petroleum Association, 2412, 127-139.

284

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285

Field included *
in the studv
Oil field
Gas field
Gas & Oil field
Reverse Fault
Normal Fault
Anticlinal axis
Synclinal axis
lntra-miocene
isochrons(SEC)/''
FIGURE 1

Structural map and main fields of the study area. Line AA' indicates the location of the petroleum
system cross-section (Fig. 5). Composite two-way isochrones of top Middle Miocene (left of line
BB') and top Upper Miocene (right of line BB') undedine the internal, median and external
structural trends (after Duval et al, 1997).

286

~M~pj

2600

2400-

Field discovery ~

2200-

1800-

i~.,~

"-

14oo-

j . , ~ ' ;

. _ ~ ,, r,~-

12oo-~

8004

,oot

,~-_...~/~///////

=-I ',

(Year)

FIGURE 2 - Cumulative liquid reserve additions since 1973. The high exploration efficiency is expressed by
an upwardly convex curve for oil (mainly from Handil and Bekapai, but also some oil from
Tambora-Nilam). In contrast, the other liquids show a continuous increase over the period, which
reflects a lesser maturity of gas exploration (after Duval et al, 1997).

Number
of
trains

(Tcf)
35
Liquefactiontrains o~o

30-

Fielddiscovery ~

'

~-~

!ililil
'- I

5-- I

/,

oi,71

FIGURE

(~), - 8
i

~
~ii::i

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"

~.

-1

',

o
73

75

77

. 79

81

83

85

87

89

91

93

95

97

99
(Year)

Cumulative gas reserve additions since 1973. The continuous increase reflects the overall low
regional efficiency of exploration over the whole period (after Duval et al, 1997).

.-a*;

*
.
I
.

LIMIT OF EXTENSION
OF SHELF FACIES
SEQUENE B O U N D ~ R ~ U5
MAXIMUM FLOODING MF6

CARBONATES, REEFS 1-1

DISTAL SANDS
HIGH PRESSURE SHALES
DELTA PLAIN FACIES F l
DELTA FRONT/
SHELF FACIES

SE

FIGURE 4 - Schematic chronostratigraphic chart (horizontal time lines); showing the following contributions of sequence stratigraphy : 1. Correlations
at regional and field scales. 2. Delta plain facies signature. 3. Flooding surface recognition. 4. Outer shelf margin mapping. 5. Distal sand
reservoir prediction (modified from Duval et al, 1992).

14

13

12

11

10

5
6

-F-l

00

FIGURE 5

Mahakam petroleum system (cross-section A-A' located in Fig. l), illustrating the profiles of the "main" and "secondary" kitchens, the
opposite directions of hydrocarbon migration paths from the main kitchen, and the hydrodynamic flow from the slope shales and the
dissymetrical envelope of the Tunu gas accumulation, intersecting the time lines (after Duval et al, 1992).

289

Number
of
Wells
2G

IPIE(Cl[IUO)

(Tcfeq.
.20

Number of exploration
& delineation welis

IGIP gas
(including condensate )

15

15

10

.lo

' 5

(Year)

dumbe!
of
Wells
20'

(Tcf eq.)
I
Number of exploration
& delineation wells

&"

IGlP gas
I includino condensate 1

15

10

0
0

11975
i75

1980
19-80

1985
19'85

1990

1995
(Year)

FIGURE 6 - Initial gas-in-place (IGIP) additions. Tunu and Peciko fields. The high observed appraisal
efficiency of Peciko is due to a rapid understanding of the field model, which in turn influences
the fast appraisal of Tunu (after Duval et al, 1997).

290
SSE

NNW

[ ~

INWP-81 I ~

2000 m

PEC~

2000 m

U5~
F7

MF7-.
MF75
MF8U8~

MF9
-

4000 m

%-

~_~

<

..... ~ F ~ . _ _ f _ M F 8
'-- U I ~

~F

~r

4000 m

LEGEND

WATER G A S +
~ 0 NDENSATE
10 0 10(m)
SAND
,

HYDRODYNAMIC
FLOW

T H I C K N E S S

F I G U R E 7 - Vertical distribution of hydrocarbons in the thin-bedded deltaic sandstones of Peciko Field,

illustrating the huge gas column developing between Peciko-1 and NW Peciko-8 and the SSE to
NNW hydrodynamic flow.

F I G U R E 8 - Aerial photograph o f a distributary triangular mouth-bar and an" elongated tidal bar in the
Mahakam Delta.