SEISMIC WAVES

(Lecture Note:IEQ-02, H.R.WASON)

Earthquakes produce different types of seismic waves. These

waves travel through rock, and provide an effective way to see
events and structures deep inside the earth.

Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden

breaking of rock within the earth or an explosion. They are
recorded on Seismographs. Seismic waves produced by explosions
have been used to map salt domes and other oil bearing rocks,
faults (cracks in deep rock ), rock types etc.

TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES

Two basic types of elastic waves or seismic waves are generated by
an earthquake; these are body waves and surface waves. These
waves cause shaking that is felt, and cause damage in various
ways. These waves are similar in many important ways to the

familiar waves in air generated by a hand clap or in water

generated by a stone thrown into water.
1 Body Waves
The body waves propagate within a body of rock. The faster of
these body waves is called Primary wave (P-wave), or
longitudinal wave or compressional wave, and the slower one is
called Secondary wave (S-wave) or shear wave.
P-wave : The P-wave motion, same as that of sound wave in air,
alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock (Fig.1).
The motion of the particles is always in the direction of
propagation. The P-wave, just like sound wave, travels through
both solid rock, such as granite, and liquid material, such as
volcanic magma or water. It may be mentioned that, because of
sound like nature, when P-wave emerges from deep in the Earth to
the surface, a fraction of it is transmitted into atmosphere as sound
waves. Such sounds, if frequency is greater than 15 cycles per
second, are audible to animals or human beings. These are known
as earthquake sound .

Fig. 1 Diagram illustrating ground motion for body waves

(a) P-wave, (b) S-wave (Bolt, 1999).
The relation between compressional or P-wave velocity (Vp) and
the elastic constants E (Youngs modulus), (Poissons ratio), K
(bulk modulus), (rigidity modulus), (Lames constant) and
density is given as follows:

Although Lames constants are convenient, other elastic constants

are also used. From Hookes law we can obtain the following
relations:

Thus Vp can be expressed as:

The above equations show that the P-wave velocity in a

homogeneous solid is a function only of elastic constants and
density. One might expect that the elastic constants would be
relatively insensitive to pressure, whereas density would increase
with pressure. This would mean that the velocity should decrease
with depth of burial in the Earth. In fact, this is contrary to actual
observations. An explanation for such paradoxical observation is
that with increase in density the elastic constants increase much
more, which cause higher velocity with higher density. The
variation of velocity with depth is reasonably systematic as we go
to greater depth.
Polarization of P-wave, when propagating in a homogeneous and
isotropic medium, is linear. In inhomogeneous Earth higher
frequency waves are, however, affected; they show irregular
particle motion.
S-wave
It is known that the S-wave or the shear wave shears the rock
sideways at right angle to the direction of propagation (Fig.1). As
shear deformation cannot be sustained in liquid, shear waves
cannot propagate through liquid materials at all. The outer
portion of Earths core is assumed to be liquid because it does not
transmit shear waves from earthquakes. The particle motion of the
S-wave is perpendicular (transverse) to the propagation. In Fig.1
the particle motion of the S-wave is up and down in vertical plane;
it is named SV wave. However, S-wave may also oscillate in
horizontal plane, which is called SH wave.
The relation between S-wave velocity Vs, the elastic constants and
density is given as:

An alternative expression is

Motion of the medium in P-waves being longitudinal, there is

no polarization of a P-wave, it is linear, but S-waves being
transverse are polarized. A horizontally travelling S-wave if so
polarized that the particle motion is all vertical, then it is called an
SV wave, and if particle motion is all horizontal, it is called SH
wave. The velocity ratio VP/VS is

Either expression tells that the P-wave velocity is always greater

than the S-wave velocity. The ratio is always greater than 1; first,
because K and are always positive, second, because cannot be

greater than 1/2 in an ideal solid ( Poisson solid for which = ).

For most consolidated rocks, Vp/Vs ranges between 1.5 and 2.0.

2 Surface Waves
The second general type of earthquake wave is called surface
wave, because its motion is restricted to near the ground surface.
Such waves correspond to ripples of water that travel across a lake.
The wave motion is located at the outside surface itself, and as the
depth below this surface increases, wave displacement becomes
less and less. Surface waves in earthquakes can be divided into two
types: Love waves and Rayleigh waves. The Love waves are
denoted as LQ (or G) and the Rayleigh waves as LR (or R). While
Rayleigh waves exist at any free surface, Love waves require some
kind of wave guide formed by velocity gradient. Both conditions
are fulfilled in the real Earth.
Love Wave (LQ)
The British mathematician A.E.H. Love demonstrated that if an SH
ray strikes a reflecting horizon near surface at post critical angle,
all the energy is trapped within the wave guide (Love, 1911).
These waves propagate by multiple reflections between the top and
bottom surfaces of the low speed layer near the surface. The waves

are called Love waves, and denoted as LQ or G. Its motion is same

as that of the SH-waves that have no vertical displacement.

It moves the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane parallel

to Earths surface, but at right angle to the direction of propagation
(Fig. 2); so the wave motion is horizontal and transverse.

Fig. 2. Diagram illustrating ground motion for surface waves

(b) Rayleigh wave and (d) Love wave (Bolt, 1999).

The Love wave velocity (VL) is equal to that of shear waves in the
upper layer (VS1) for very short wave lengths, and to the velocity of
shear waves in the lower layer (Vs2) for very long wave-lengths,
i.e., velocity VS1 < VL< VS2
The effects of Love waves are result of the horizontal shaking,
which produces damage to the foundation of structures. Love
waves do not propagate through water, it affects surface water
only. It causes the sides of the lakes and ocean bays to move
backwards and forwards, pushing the water sideways like the sides
of a vibrating tank.
Rayleigh Wave (LR)
Rayleigh (1885) demonstrated that the surface boundary condition
can be satisfied leading to the existence of a coupled and
trapped P-SV wave travelling along the surface, such as the
Earth-air interface, with a velocity lower than shear velocity, and
with an amplitude decaying exponentially away from the surface.
This second type of surface wave is known as Rayleigh wave.

The free surface boundary equations yield the following equation

from which velocity( c) of Rayleigh waves may be determined.
c6/6 8 c4/ 4 + c2 ( 24/ 2 - 16/ 2) 16 ( 1- 2/ 2) = 0
If we substitute the values c = and c = 0 in the l.h.s. of the above
equation , we obtain unity and - 16 ( 1- 2/ 2), respectively; this
last expression is negative, since < . Hence the Rayleigh
equation has a real root of c lying between 0 and . When
Poissons relation holds , this equation yields three real roots of c 2/
2 , namely 4, ( 2+ 2/ 3 ) and ( 2 2/ 3). The first two of these
values are both greater than 3 and thus make both r and s real , so
that there could be no corresponding surface wave solutions. The
third value leads to the results
c = 0.92
Which shows that the speed of Rayleigh waves in a homogeneous,
isotropic, perfectly elastic half space is 0.92 of the speed of S body
waves in the medium.

In general the surface waves with periods 3 to 60s are denoted R

or LR. Like rolling ocean waves, the Rayleigh waves develop the
particle motion both vertically and horizontally in a vertical plane
pointed in the direction of wave propagation (Fig. 2). Since
Rayleigh waves generate from coupled P and SV waves the
particle motion is always in vertical plane, and due to phase shift
between P and SV the particle motion is elliptical and
retrograde (counter clockwise) with respect to the direction of
propagation. The amplitude of the motion decreases
exponentially with depth below the surface.

For short wave-lengths, VRg corresponds to ~ 0.92 VS of the

material comprising the surface layer. For very long wave-lengths,
the VRL corresponds to ~ 0.92 VS of the substratum material since
effect of the surface layer is negligible when most of the waves
travel in the zone below it.

As seen from the above equations, S-wave is slower than P wave,

and Rayleigh wave is slower than Love wave. Thus as the waves
radiate outwards from an earthquake source, the different types of
waves separate out from one another in a predictable pattern. An
illustration of the pattern seen at a distant place is exemplified in
Figs. 3 & 4.

Fig. 3 Seismogram showing P, PP, S, LQ and LR phases

(Kuthanek, 1990

3 SEISMIC WAVES AND GROUND SHAKING

The body waves (P and S-waves), when move through the layers
of rock in the crust, are reflected and/or refracted at the interfaces
between the rock types or layers.

When P and S-waves reach the surface of the ground, most of

their energy is reflected back into the crust. Thus, the surface is
affected simultaneously by upward and downward moving waves.
After a few shakes, a combination of two kinds of waves is felt in
ground shaking.

A considerable amplification of shaking occurs near the

surface. This surface amplification enhances the shaking at the
surface of the Earth. On the other hand, earthquake shaking below
ground surface, say in the mine, is much less.

Again combination of two kinds of waves in shaking is not felt at

sea. The only motion felt on ship is from the P-waves, because Swaves cannot travel through water beneath the ship.

A similar effect occurs as sand layers liquefy in earthquake

shaking, which is appropriately known as liquefaction.

There is progressive decrease in the amount of S-wave energy that

is able to propagate through liquefied layers; ultimately only Pwave can pass through it. The above description is not adequate to
explain the heavy shaking due to a large earthquake. The effect of
surface waves (Love wave and Rayleigh wave), and various kinds
of mixed seismic waves including converted and reflected seismic
phases at the rock interfaces complicate the matter, and type of
ground shaking is further muddled together.
The horizontal and transverse motion of the Love waves, and
elliptical and retrograde motion of the Rayleigh waves cause
severe damage to the foundations of engineering structures and
buildings. The ground shaking is also much affected by soil
conditions and topography. For example, in weathered surface

rocks, in alluvium and water filled soil, the amplification of

seismic waves may increase or decrease as the waves reach the
surface from the more rigid basement rocks.

Also at the top or bottom of a ridge, shaking may intensify,

depending on the direction from which waves are coming and
whether the wavelengths are short or long. The site
amplifications play an important role in microzonation study
(e.g. Field and Jacob, 1995; Hartzell, 1992), that identifies sites
vulnerable for more damage by seismic waves.

4 SEISMIC PHASES AT THE ROCK BOUNDARIES

Snells law
It is easily deduced that
sin i/ sin r2 = V1 / V2
where r2 is the angle of refraction, V1 and V2 are the velocity of the
upper and lower layer respectively. This formula can be extended
to the case of reflection or refraction of a wave of different type,
e.g. reflected or refracted S from an incident P, leading to a
generalised form of Snells law:
V / sin i = constant (p)
where V stands for either VP or VS on either side of the boundary,
and i is the angle between the corresponding ray (incident,
reflected or refracted) and the normal on the same side, and p is

called seismic parameter or ray parameter. The ray parameter is

constant for the entire travel path of a ray. The consequence of
a ray traversing material of changing velocity, V, is a change in
incidence angle, i , with respect to a reference plane. As the ray
enters material of increasing velocity, the ray is deflected
toward the horizontal. Conversely, as it enters material of
decreasing velocity, it is deflected towards the vertical. If the
ray is traversing vertically, then p = 0, and the ray will have no
deflection as velocity changes.

The body waves (the P and S-waves) are reflected or refracted at

the interfaces between rock types. In addition to reflection or
refraction of one type, the seismic waves are also converted to
other types. As illustrated in Fig.5, P-wave travels upwards and
strikes the bottom of a layer of different rock type; part of its
energy will pass through the upper layer as P-wave and part as
converted S-wave, which is known as P to S conversion (or PS
phase), and part of energy will be reflected back downwards as P
and S waves. Similar reflection, refraction and conversion may
occur with S-wave. All these converted phases are useful for
velocity and geological structure study.

Fig. 5 Seismic waves generated by an incident P-wave at the

boundary between two rocks.

Huygens Principle
The new direction of a ray-path can be inferred from Huygens
principle. It states that an incident ray, say on a rock boundary,
may be treated as new source, about which new hemispherical
wave fronts expand on each side of the boundary (Fig.6). Since
each of these elementary wave fronts corresponds to only an
infinitesimal amount of energy, a physically realistic wave front
consists of a surface to which an infinite number of them are
tangent. Figure 6 illustrates an incoming plane wave. It strikes the
rock boundary at point A at time t1, and becomes active as an
infinitesimal source. By the time the incident wave front reaches B
at time t2, wave fronts from A have spread hemispherically into
both media. It may be noted that while

the radius of the hemisphere is V1 (t2 t1) in the upper layer, it is

V2 (t2 t1) in the lower medium. The figure further suggests that
proportionately smaller hemispheres exist about all points between
A and B. The slopping planes, which are tangential to these,
physically represent real wave fronts. The new wave directions,
reflected or refracted, are normal to these planes.

Fig 6 . Reflected and refracted wave fronts at a medium boundary

by Huygens principle.
The upper part of the diagram (Fig. 6) demonstrates the law of
reflection, i.e. angle of incidence i is equal to angle of reflection r1.

The lower part of the diagram demonstrates the law of refraction,

or Snells law.
Special Cases
1. Case of incident SH waves
When the incident wave is of SH type, then the reflected
and refracted waves can only be SH type.
When tanf(prime) is imaginary, it follows that |C/C0 | = 1.
Hence, in this case, there is total reflection of the incident
wave, but with a change of phase given by [C=C0 exp(i)]. For the angle of emergence cos (inverse)(v/vprime),
which gives fprime a zero value, there is total reflection
with zero change of phase.
If prime = 0,i.e. if medium Mprime is fluid or vaccum,
there is complete reflection without change of type or
phase.
2. P wave incident against a free plane boundary
For normal incidence, we have e=f=/2, and for grazing
incidence e = 0. There exits a reflected disturbance of
SV type for all angles of incidence except zero and /2.
For e = 12.8 and 30 degree, there are no reflected waves
of P type.
For 2deg < e < 63 deg, at least half of the reflected
energy is in the SV type.
3. SV wave incident against a free plane boundary
There are no reflected or refracted SH waves.
If e = 12.8 deg or 30 deg, i.e. if f = 55.7 deg or 60 deg,
there is little reflection in the SV type.
e is imaginary if 0 f cos -1(1/ 3) = 54.7 deg. For
this range of values of f , there is then complete

reflection in the SV type, with a change of phase in

general e

Polarization
At appreciable distances from an earthquake or
explosion source, S seismic waves can be treated as
plane waves in which the particle of the medium
vibrate in planes normal to the direction of wave
advance. As a result of prior reflections or refractions
of the waves at one or more boundaries, the particle
vibrations may be confined to straight lines in the
plane , and the waves are then raid to be polarised
(plane polarised), similarly to the case of optical
waves. The polarised waves are referred to as SH.
when the particles vibrate horizontally, and as SV
when they vibrate in vertical planes.
Case of Plane Waves
Sufficiently distant from the source of an initially
confined disturbance, the waves may be regarded as
plane. This approximation is relevant to many
seismological problems, for the distance of a station
recording the local seismic displacements is often
great compared with the dimensions of the initially
disturbed region. In this case, called the far field,
the displacements associated with the P and S waves
are in effect longitudinal and transverse, respectively.
The theory of plane waves may be setup
independently of the scalar and vector wave
equations by making a trial substitution of the form

ui = Ai exp {ik (ljxj ct)},

where lj2=1, in equation the equation of motion in
terms of displacements. On eliminating the three A i,
it is found that the above form is a possible solution
of equations of motion if and only if the square of
the speed c obeys a cubic equation whose roots are
2, 2, 2, where (VP), (VS) are given by

The speeds , are found as before to be associated

with longitudinal and transverse waves, respectively;
it follows that the types of waves described in the
last paragraph are the only possible types of body
plane waves.
It emerges also that the two types P and S are
independent of each other, and further that the latter
may be plane polarised. In seismology, when an S
wave is polarised so that all particles of the
substance move horizontally during its passage, it is
denoted SH; when the particles all move in vertical
planes containing the direction of propagation, the
wave is denoted SV.

Dispersion
Dependence of wave velocity on wave
number and hence on the wavelength
and period implies that the shape of the
disturbance will in general continually
change as time goes on, since each simple
harmonic constituent will now travel with a
wave velocity special to itself.

If the initial disturbance is confined to a

finite range of values of x and the medium
is unlimited, it follows that as time goes on
there will be a continual spreading out of
the disturbance into trains of waves. This
phenomenon is called dispersion.

Scattering
Deflections of a portion of wave energy
occur when elastic waves encounter an
obstacle or a region in which the elastic
properties of the medium differ from
values outside the region (small scale
heterogeneities). As a result a seismic
wave incident on an anomalous region in
the earth will produce, in addition to an
undisturbed plane wave, an interfering
scattered wave that will spread out
from the obstacle in all directions.
Small scale heterogeneities cause
scattering that partitions the highfrequency wave field into a sequence of
arrivals that are often called coda waves.
Scattering
can
also
decrease
the
amplitude of a seismic phase by shifting
energy from the direct arrival back into
the coda.

Seismic Diffraction
Diffraction
is
defined
as
the
transmission of energy by non-geometric
ray paths. In optics, the classic example of
diffraction is light leaking around the
edge of an opaque screen. In seismology,
diffraction
occurs
whenever
the
radius of curvature of a reflecting
interface
is
less
than
a
few
wavelengths
of
the
propagating
wave. Whenever the wave strikes an
edge or end of a reflecting surface, this
edge/corner of the boundary acts like a
secondary source (Huygens principle) and
radiates energy forward in all directions.
The waves produced are called diffracted
waves. The phenomenon is called seismic
diffraction.
Attenuation
Thus far we have been concerned with the
elastic properties of the Earth in our
discussion of wave propagation. In an
idealized, purely elastic Earth, geometric
spreading
and
the
reflection
and
transmission of energy at boundaries

control the amplitude of a seismic pulse.

Once excited, these waves would persist
indefinitely. The real Earth is not
perfectly elastic, and propagating
waves attenuate with time due to
various energy-loss mechanisms. The
successive conversion of potential energy
(particle velocity) to kinetic energy
(particle velocity) as a wave propagates is
not perfectly reversible, and other work is
done, such as movement along mineral
dislocation or shear heating at grain
boundaries, that taps the wave energy. We
usually
describe
these
processes
collectively as internal friction, and we
model the internal-friction effects with
phenomenological descriptions because
the microscopic processes are complex.