INTRODUCIION

TO

TEXIITE ENGINEERING
8Y
MD, SAJJAK IIOSSAIN

Contents
Pag.

Lo39on

Unit

lnlrodudion lo Sorne Texliles

01

09

02

lnlrodudon lo Textile Testing

30

03

TednicrlTexti,es

10

Coton

12

Ginning

50

cotlon Spinning Flow Chart

51

Mrxing and Elending

58

Cotlon

Blow Room

61

Spinning

Carding

75

0{

Dmwing

89

Srmplex Madrine

100

Ring Frame

105

Combing

,09

Jute

115

Jde Spinning Flow Chart

123

Jde

Balch and Balching, Batch Mixer

125

Splnniog

Spreader m/c, Soltener lvVC

Jute C

131

137

ule Spinning

139

Counl

111

Different 'ems and Defnation About Yam Manufacludng

151

Ftow Chart of

I having Manu'faclunng

165
168

Technology

05

\fbrping

176

Sizing

181

Looming

191

Terms and Defnilion About Vlhaviog

200

Terms and DefnitionAbott

Kn

inq

211

Knitting

Texlile Fabdcs

221

Tecinology

Elements of Knitling TechnologY

n5

Kn

n1

trng

Maclines

\ /eft Knitling Machrnes

Wbrp Knitting Machines

233

Contents
Unit

Lesson
Flow Charl oI \ ret Processing Technology

R
TreaLTent
05

Dyeing

Page
211

Sinoeing

218

Desizing

250

Scounng

251

Bleaciing

253

Dyeing

257

Pinling

278

and

Pdniing

Finishing Process

orflerenl Terms and Definition Abooul Wel Prccessing Technology

06

281
285

Hislorical Developmenl of Gamenls Manufu c1unrc

2U

Flow Chad of Garmenls Manulacluring

295

Sample

291

Pallem

299

Marker

299

oifferent Tenns and Definilion Aboul

303

Garlnenls Technology

INTRODUCTIONTOSOMETEXTILES ..

ofTertiles:

/.,

An Evolution
Although man's first articles of clothing and fumishing were'Fibably
animal skin wraps, sometimes stitched together using bone needles and
animal sinews, he soon attempted to manipulate fibrous materials into textile
fabrics, encouraged by experience gained fiom interlacing branches , leaves
and grasss in the production of primitive shelters.
The word 'Textile' originates from the latin verb "Texere'- to weave
but , as the Textile Institute's Terms and Defmition Glossary explains , it is
now " a general term applied to any manufacture from fibers , f aments or
yarns characteristics by flexibility , fineness and high ratio of length to

thickness,'

Textile:
Textile is a very widely used term which includes:
i) AII kinds of fibers (e-g: Cotton , Jute, Wool, Viscose etc)
ii) Alt kinds of process (e-g: Spinning, Weaving, Knitting, Dyeing,
i)r'inting, Finishing etc).
iii) Ali kinds of machineries (e-g: Spinning Machineries, Weaving
Machineries, Knitting Machineries etc).

iv) 1b convert textile fiber into finished or end use products (e g':

Garments, Fumishing Materials, Household Textiles, Medical'Iextiles,

Shoes Textiles, Fishing Nets etc).
Basic Textiles:

Fiber

I
Yarn

I
Grey Fabric

I
Finished Fabric

I
End Products

l0

VGro"ation

of Different Basic Textites Briefly

Pr9parltory
proc6sges

t2

Tf,XTILE FIBERS

It is defined as one of the delicate, hair portions of the tissues of a

-^ffA"r,
v plant or anirnal or other substances
that are very smatl in diameter in relation
to dreir length. A fibcr is a material which is several hundred times as long as
its thick.

dy'fextile Fiber: Textile fibers are the materials at natuml or artificial origin
rvhich can be conyerted into yarn and fabric for clothing and also for
domestic and industrial purposes by interlacing or interlooping. [n other
words, the raw materials (natural or artificial origin) which is used to produce
yarn in order to make fabric is called textile fiber. In simple words, a slender
filament or fine strand of sufficient length pliability, fineness, flexibility and
strength to be spun into yams and woven into cloth is called textile liber.

Historical Development of Natural Fiber, Filament aod Man Made

l'iber : There are two types of history for fiber . Such as : History for natural
fiber and history for man made fiber. The first uses of natural fibers are
ocurred in 8000 B.D. in Egypt. ln Indian sub - continent man tried to use lhe
natural fiber from many ) ears ago. Specially in this continent men tried to
use the

silk firstly.

Man - made fibers are those that are made by drawing and orientation of
suitable semi - synthetic and synthetic polymers that are commonly called
fiber - tbrming polymers. Semi- synthetic polymers are infact , chemically

modified natural polymers where only the side groups are partly

significantly or fully modified by a chemical process. Synthetic polymers are

completly man - made and nature is unable to synthesize them.
The synthetic polymers are prepared from the respective monomers by a
process called polymerization. Polymerization can be accomplished by
intermolecular reactionThe historical development ofman made fibers are very interesting and
challenging science. The idea of producing artificial and man - made fibers
arose from a desine to make a substitute for silk.

In 1664, the famous English scientist Robert Hooke published a book

called " Micrographia ". Amongst the many subjects Hooke discussed the
possibility of imitating the silkworm to make an artificial fiber. Here was an
insect that made the finest known textile fiber simply by forcing a liquid
through a tiny hole in its head. Why could not we do the same tlring
mechanically and make an artificial silk?

It was neady two hundreads years before Hooke's suggesstion was

successfully tried out. Only the silkworm knew how to make the hardened

l3

into silk after

it

had been squired into the air. Nobody could suggest

anything els to do the job.

The production of man made fiber such as myon ' the first of the man
made fibers , had been prophesied as long ago 1664 by Robert Hooke' He
believed that it was possible to make an artificial glutinous composition or
other subslances, It be out of which the silk wom wire - draw his clew'

1710, Rene A de - Reaumer the Frence scientist suggested the

possibility of making silk filament out ofgun and resins'

In

, Dubert initiated the idea on experimental scale and produced

filament from silky gum , extructed from dead silk wom'
ln 1842 , an English weaver, l.ouis Schwabe , devised a machin for

ln

1770

making artificial filaments by forcing liquid through very fine holes'

In 1855, Gorges Audemers , a swiss chemist, discovered how to

cellulose mitrate.
nraking rayon.

ihis

make
process
of
was the first step toward the nitro cellulose

produced the first man made

known as " Rayon " He
which
solution
textile fiber from Nitro cellulose
became the "Father of RaYon " .

In l884,Count Hilaire de Chardonnet ,

In 1890 , l,.H.Despaisses of France developed the cuprarnnrum

process

for making rayon, which had some properties'

1891, the first cupramnium rayon fiber uas manufactured itl

Germany. Another method of conversion of cellulosic naterial was

In

discovered in England by Cross and Bevan.

In

1892

, they discovered xanthation reaction i.e cellulose disolved in

sodium hydroxideand carbon disulphide to give spinnable liquid from which

could be recovered by acidification. They also developed cellulose

cellulose

tri acetate fiber in 1894 and in 1898.

1903 , secondary cellulose acetate was prepared by partial hydrolysis
ofcellulose triacetate. Sec.ondary acetates was found to b soluble in acetone'

In

In lgl4,commercial cellulose fiber was manufactured ' During this time

Henry Drefus develoPed cellulose easter in Switzerland'

From lhese research activities, it was recognised that the fibers like
natural fibers and rayons were composed of linear organic macromolecules
having molecular arangement oriented along three major dimension' The
major
subjec-ts of synthetic fibers has developed from this knowledge' The
A
and
place
in
U
S
fibers
took
synthetic
of
the
in
evolution
invlntive step

Cermany during the period 1928

ll

- 1936.

In 193,1 , the first synlhetic fiber developed in Germany from tle copolymers ofVinyl halayde and Vinyl ester. The fiber was known as.. Vinvon
and "Pe-Ce" .Which many claims as the first synrhetic texrile fibers wliich
,
was never of great commercial importance. The real beginning of synthetic
fiber industry was to stcm from the work of Dr. Wallaie , H--Carothers on
polyesters and polyamides.
ln 1935 , he and his six workers prepared fiber forming polymers frorn
polyesters and polyamides and they discovered nylon 6,6 i.e. poly hexa
methyline adipornide and cold drawing phenenrenon. On the other hand,
PShlack ofCermany began a work on condensation polymer He discovered

Nylon 6,6 i.e. poly caprolactum in 1937-38.

. Poly ethylene terepthalate was first made in England by J.R. Whinfiekl
and J.T. Dickson of Calico prinlers Association in i941. foly acrylonitrile
was developed by Du - Pont in 1945.
In 1954, Ziegler and Natta patented a process lo manufacture
polypropyline. Poly vinyl alcohol was produced in 1957 followed by
production ofpolyurethene elastomeric fiber in 195g.
The development of textile fiber are occurring still now. These are the
historical development of textile fiber.

Natural fiber (Cotton)

Man

ma& fikr (poiyotefn)

Filament

Classification of Tertiles Fibers in Difiercnt Sense:

Classification oftextiles fiber can be done in many ways. Some ofthem are
as

follows:
i) Classification according their nature and origin .
ii) Classification according to botanical or zoological/chemical name.
iii) Classification according to the ability to attack water.
iv) Classification according to thermo plasticity.
v) Classification according to their utility.
vi) Classifi cation according to length.

l5

(i) Classilicarion According to Their Nature end Origin:

Mineral( e.g. A sbestos)

Leaf (e.9.: Sb8l,

Vegetable

Pinappls etc)

Seed (e.9.: Cotton, Kapok

.-+

Bast Fber (e.9.:

Jute, Fluxetc

Wool(e.9.: Sheep)

Ani(Ital----)

sitk
Hair

( e.g.: Horse, C8nB0

Cellular

e.9.: Vscose Ralon)

Celluiose Ester

-,

Fegene

e.g.:Acetate Ralon)

rareo---.|ll

F
*

Prorein ( e s : Azbn, casin)

others ( e.s.: Rubbe0

|
I

dd

--'lnorgarrb (

g : Glass, Carbon MetaD

Ip
I

Polyamlles

e g.: Nyton

6.)|}

lrr.rv*,"*
*',"""

I ft

lit

Poly Vinyl Derivatives

tt

-+>
Urethanes

fPory
Lfothers

[
I

Poly Acrylonilriele
eotyvinyt

cnro'ae

eoFinvtitenc crroriie
Poly VinylAhohol

PovuinllJhe

fI Dirtrle

L'ornu"'".
Ethylene ard

Rehted poyrners

rI

l6

(ii) Classification According to Bolenical,lZoologicaUChemical Name:

Fber

BotanicalNarne

Zoobgi:alNarne

Vegetable Fiber

(e.9.:Cotton,

Chemical Narne

Fber

Jute)

(e.9.:Wool,

(iii) Classifcation Accordino to

ilk)

(e.9.: Povesler, Polyethylene etc)

he Abilitv to Attack Water i.e.

Hydrophilic Fibers

Moislure

Hydrophobic Fibers

(e.9.:All qmthelic Fber i.e. Potyester)

(e.9.: Cotton, Jute)

(iv) Classification Accordino to Their Thermo Plastkity

(v) Chssification Accordinq

to

Utilitv:

--t
Maior Textile Fiber
(e.9.: Cotton, Wbol, Sik

etc.

Minor

Ten

Fibred

(e.9.: Abaca, Asbestos ,C asein

etc)

t7

Longitudinal rIounts of dilferent fibers:

\<.
Regular coton

(Xclir)

Re$ia cotb.l
ooogitudinal vl6r)

erized cdtoal
(X-sedioi)

Tniobal Polyesler

Rular Poly6ter
(X-sedion)

Me

(Lor!

oeluslered ilylon 6 ($sectio,r)

itl"dinal vier )

(x secton)

Del6tered l,iylon 6 (longitodinal visi.)

Silt (lorEilldlnal view)

l8

Merino wool (X-sec.tion)

Trilobal nylon 6.6 (6oss seclion)

Trilobal nylon 6.6Polypropylene

Orion Asylic (cross sciion)

Merino wool (longitudinal view)

Trilobal nylon 6.6 (longitudinal view)

Polypropylen6 (longitudinal view)

lq

,fir{til" Fiber Prcperties :

" a) Physical properties
b) ivlechanical ProPerties
c) Chemical proPerties
6df,Pf, vsicat Properties :
*i;,||;,.5.
(ii) Fineness.
(iii) CrimP'
(iv) MaturitY.
(v) Lusture'
(vi) softness.

gfffihenical

w(i)

(vii)ResiliencY'
(viii) Work of rupture'
(ix) DensitY'
(x) APPearance'

(xi) FlexibilitY'
(xii) Toughress'
(xiii) Elorgation.

Properties:

strength.

(ii) Elasticity.
(iii) Extensibility.
(iv) Rigidity.
ical Properties:
*{dtZhem
(i) Solubility in aqueous salt.

(ii) Solubility in organic

salt.

Factors of a Model Textile Fibrt :

(i) The fiber should be straight, continuous and allinged. They
should be uniform in cross- section and strength through out
their length.
(ii) The elemenl or matrix offiber be homogeneous and free from
cracks.

(iii) The bonding between fibers and matrix should be perfect.

(iv) Fiber chain should be free from any cracks.
(v) The fiber as well as the matrix should be elastic.

Characteristics of Poorly Oriented Fiber :

(i) t ow tenacity.
(ii) High elongation.
(iii) Plasticity
(iv) Less lusture.

20

(v) IIigh moisture absorption.

(vi) Low chemical stability.
(vii) High dyeing affinity.
(viii) Warm and soft handle.

All Fiber Are Not Tertile Fiber r All the fibers can not be textile fibers
because to be a textile fibers it should posses some important qualities. It
should have suflicient strength, length, fineness, elasticity, crimp, friction
power to protect the effect of biological agents etc. It should b available too.
Cotton, jute elc ar the textile fibrs as they have the above qualities but
fibers of banana tree only fiber and not textile fibers as they do not posses
quality like strengfi, elasticity, appearance etc. So we can say, all fibers are
not textile fibers.

ffi

Mscos fiber

Jute fiber

Between Natural and Men Made Fibre

S.L

Man

Natural Fiber

Made Fib6r

calhd natureal fiber

The fters whi$ arc developed

are calH man rnade fibef.

02

Cf,nerally fibr are hydrophilic.

Generally fibers are hydrophobic

03

ll,o. of molecule conlrolled by natura.

No.

04

The letth can not be controlled.

Lrqth can be controlH

05

Ih hbric made from natursl fibe, b

combrtable ard good bI hoelh.

Man rEde fiber b not combrtabls ard

not good br heaih.

06

It b xpensive

It b cheaper.

07

For

01

The fibers which we get

mtural

fom nature

fter

Yre have to depend on

of

:"e! l"+:{ rat',e br finbhing.

08

It

09

Hygienic

No dpfldence on naturs. lt can grow

10

ConpaEtivev less durabls

Irb fvorable lor fnishirE.

SonE ars not htgienic

.
.

bY man

ryroleqrlo controlled by man.

every where.

natur3.

8re

Conparsti\ly rnoIe durable.

2t

Spinnerator neds to pmduce filanlent

No need spinnerator.
No spinning process

!3

Difierent sphning nrethods

b requird to

(li(e

produc filarnent.

wet ,dry etc are rcquired. )

Dusl 8nd trash are rernaioed in fibr.

No dust and tlash are rerlBined.

nEl,

Possible to dlange strudure.

to ciange strudure.

14

lrnpossble

Natural color are found.

No natural cobr are fuund.

'16

Natural crimp is rernained

No natural cdmp is rernained

17

ln rosl cases scouring and bleaching

Very l,ttle tirne scouring and bleaching

are done.

are done.
Not easy to dle.

't8

Easy to dye

'19

Conparatively have less lib time.

20

Uses of natural

fiber b limled.

Corparatively have rnore lib tkrE

There are many uses of nstural fibers

i$ ffi-w
Sisal

Kapok fiber

Silk

Hair fiber

YARN

a product of
According to textile institute yam may be defined as
of fibers or
consisting
.uU.t"ntiui t"ngttiand relatively small cross-section
filaments with or without twist'

n
Clr$lfcltioo ofY.m

:
Yarn ouy ta chssified on tlB bosis ofstnrdlEe

Yarn

Muhi- Folded Yrn

Modified Continuous t ilarnor

Iontinuous Filarnent

MuhiFilsnEr{

tvionoFilarnenl

23

Collectively Yarn Are Classified as Following:

(i) Staple / spun yarn.
(ii) Mono filament yarn .
(iii) Multi filament hvisted yam.
(iv) Multi filarnent untwisted yam.
(v) Multi filament false-twisted and heat set yam.
(vi) Folded ( untwisted yam).
(vii) Twisted multiply sinrple yarn.
(viii) Twisted multiply fancy yam.
(ix) Slub yarn.
(x) Core spun yam.
(xi) Wrapped yam;
(xii) Cable yarn.
(xiii) Multi - filament textured yam.

Differnt types ofyaro with sketch3

Ring Spun yam

Single or Spun yam

Carded couon (ring) yam

Monc,filment y8m

False-twist Texured yarn

Rotor

Spu yarn

Combed co[on (ring) yarn

FIat

mullifilnEnt yam

Stufler-box Texured yam

T*isled multi-fi lment yam

Kpil{ekint Txured }am

Folded tx ply yarn

Thre.

l'ol,,l.

1wo-fold

(lairiri i ant

Mffi

Three Folded or ply ysm

'nrrec fokl, two-tbld,

fold Cablcd yarn

Four Folded or ply yanr

(lore spun lam

actors Affecting Yam Strrngth:

The various factors rhat affect the strength ofyarns are:
(i) Slapl;: irngth.

(ii) tlnift;rrniO'in fiber length,

(iii) Fiber iength distributiorr.
(iv) Maturity of fiber.
(v) Iriber fineness.
(vi) Yam twist.
(vii) Iribcr strength.
(viii) Yam twist.
(ix) Yarn evenness.
(x) Moisture.
(xi) Yarn finish.
(xii) No. of major beating points used during opening and cleaning.
(xiii) No. of drawing passage.
(xiv) Roller setting in spinning.
(xv) OtheB.
Properties of a llighly Oriented Yarn :
(i) IIigh tenacity.
(ii) Lorv clongation.
(

iii) Brillleness.

2i

(iv) lncreased lusture.

(v) Low moisture absorption .
(vi) High chemical stability.
(vii) Low dyeing affinity and
(viii) Unattractive handle.
Yarn Designation :
The factors which are required to express yarn structure and properties
wholly are called yarn designation. The factors are :(i) Yam count (linear densitY)
( ii) No. of filament.
(iii) No. of componnt in folding
(iv) Direction and amount of twist.
(v) No. of components in cabling.

(vi) Fiber components.

Yarn lWist :

According

to textile institute, "Twist is the spiral

components

of

a thread rvhich is usually the result

of

two ends."

Classification of Yarn Twist I

i. S- twist
ii. Z- twist

Amount of T*ist :
No.

Amount of

of Tums of Twist

twist:
Unit Length

Amount of T\wist Express :

Amount of twist expressed in (D

rPl.

(iD TPM.

(iii)TPCm.
TWist Messurtment Method of Yarn :
(i) Single untwist method.
(ii) Fiber straightened method .
(iii) Single tsrist - untwist mcthod.
(iv) Double twist - untwist method.
(v) Multiple twist - untwist method.

disposition

relative rotation

of
of

the
the

26

Tivist Measurrment of Plied Ygrns:

(i) Ordinary twist tester.
(ii) Take up twist tester and.
(iii) The quadrant twist tester.

FABRIC
Fabric :
A manufactured assembly of fibers and / or yams that has substantial surface
area in relation to its thickness and sufficient cohesion to give the assembly
useful mechanical strenglh is called fabric.

Tlpes of Fabric :
(i) Woven Fabric
(ii) Knitted Fabric
(iii) Non- Woven Fabric
(iv) Braid
Frctons Thst Determine the !'abric Pmperties :
(l) Fiber Pmperties :
(a) Chemical content.

(b) Molecular weight.

(c) Molecular arangement.

(2) Yarn Pmpeflies :

(3)

(a) Fiber properties.

(b) Fiber arrangement.
(c) TPI.

Fabric Construction
(a) EPL
(b) PPI.
(c) Warp count

(d) Weft count.

(4)

Weave Structure:
(a) Plain.
(b) Twill.
(c) Satin.
(d) Derivatives.

5. Brsic Knit Structur :

(a) Plain.
(b) Rib.
(c) Purl.

21

(d) Interlock.
(e) Derivalives.
6. Fabric Engineeritg :
(a) Yarn specification.

(b) Fabric specification.

(c) Yam crimp.
(d) Weave structure.
7.

Fabric Finishing

(a) Mechanical or physical finishing.

(b) Electrical finishing.
(c) Physio chemical finishing.
End Product :
There are a lot

ofend

producLs. Such as:

(a) Shirts.

(b) Pants.
(c) S\4eaters.
(d) T - shirts.
(e) Curtain.

(f) Shoes etc.

Properties of Textile lflaterials :

l. Strength.
2. Durability / Sen,ic:ability.
3. Degradation.
4. Weight.
5. Thickness.

6. Pliability.
7. Absorbency.

Air permeability.
/ Softness.
10. Abrasion resistance.

8.

9. Stiffiress
I

l. Compressibility.

12. Elasticity.
13. Frictional / Surface characteristics.
14. Electrical properties
I

5. Thermal properties.

16. Crease recovery.

17

. DraSx.

I8. Handle.
19. Lusture.

20. Regain.

Introduction of liber, yarn and fabric atructurc and properties:

Molecular Pr(

i:!:ics

aod

Yams Properths

i-nd Usr Brhavior

Anofi,lches lo T.nsile Slrr!rL r.

l_fure arc lwo t)?s

(A) Non

of leosi::

suilclure. Such ar

Eryineering A!,i,r.acf'it

(B) Engireering Approaciil.

No[-

Ense

Appr0!cb..

{C.H,O.N)

tI

Chemical Contenl

Molecular - Pmpen i's

Moleculsr Struclure

-'
----.>

Yam Structure

Fabric Propertics

End

- tt.. - tc.fo,rnancr

Fahic Structure

t9
{B)Engq Appmrct.s:
Dclermincl r]n oI Fnd Use Requiremenlj

r.,r'ic PIomhs

t
Yarn Prcpc.n

ie

Fsbric PropenEs

Yarn Structure

Fabria Properli{s

Molecular Structurc

Molecular Pmpeflles

I
Chemical Conlent

I
( c, lr, o, N)

ScrtioE Wisc now

Chlrt

of

T.

il. f,rgir.crirg
OulDut

Fiber --|'

Spiru ng

Yarn --------)

Weaving

_--+

yarn

-----+

Grey Cloth

I
Grey

Wel Prccfssing

cloth

-4

--)Dytd/

Can*ntt*orfa.tu.iry

DtdPrinted Fahic

Printd Fabric

------+

End Producl

30

INTRODUCTION TO TEXTILE TESTING

Testing:
The Process to determine the properties of different kinds
substances is called testing .

nf

Tlpes ofTesting:

(i)

Routine Process Testing

(ii) Quality Recond Testing.

(i) Routine Pmcess Testing:

routine

The testing whose result can get quickly in working field is called
process testing.

(ii)Quality Record Testing:

The testing whose result is to be recorded for different objects to

finish the u'ork is called quickly record testing.

Objects of lesting:
(i) Researrh

(ii) Sclection of raw material.

(iii) Process control .
(iv) Product control .
(v) Process development .
(vi) ProdLrct develogrment.
(vii) Specification test.
f'actors Afferting lbst Result:
(i) Atmospheric conditions during test.
(ii) Method of test.
(iii) 'lesting instruments used.
(iv) The efiiciency oftechnicians etc.
The Necessary Test ofDilferent Textiles:

Fibcr Test:

(i) Identification of fiber.

( ii) Grading.
(iii)

Fiber lenglh.

(iv) Strength and elongation i.e. .tensile properties

(v) Fineness or linear density test.
(vi) Maturity test.
(vii) Trash ,neps test etc.

lt
Yrrn Tst:
(i) Yam count or linear density.
(ii) Twist per unit length.

(iii) Strength

and elongation i.e. tensile properties

(iv) Appearance.
(v) Evenness and regularity.

(vi) Hairiness

(c) Fabric Test:

(i) Strenglh and elongation i.e. tensile properties.

(ii) width.
(iii) 'fhickness.
(iv) Number ofends and picks per unit length.
(v) The count ofyarn used.
(vi) Fabric weight per unit length.
(vii) Design and construction ofthe cloth.
(viii) Air permeability.

(ix) Thermal properties.

(x) Stiffness, handle, drape.
(xi) Crease resistance and recovery.
(xii) Abrasion.
(xiii) Pilling.
(xiv) Shrinkage.
(xv) Water absorbency or resistance etc.
Testing Machineries of an Ideal Spinning and Weaving Mill

(D

Psychrometer or hygrometer

(xiiD

Twist tester.

(iD Drying over

(iii) Microscope
(iv) Lengthmeasurementinstrument.
(v) Fiber streng& tester.
(vi) Fiber fineness and maturity tester.
(vii) Lap meter.
(viii) Roving reel and yam reel.
(ix) Different types ofbalance.
(x) Dircct yc.:r count balance
(xi) Yam winding unit for prcparing black board for yarn appearance.
(xii) Evenness tester.

32

(xiv)
(xv)
(xvi)

Tensile strength tester.

Abrasion tester.
Thickness tester etc.

Auriliary

Equipments:

(i) Scissors.
(ii) Pick out needles and combs.
(iii) Steel rulers ofdifferent measursment.
(iv) Trveezers.
(v) Stop watch.
(vi) Magniffing glass.
(vii) Snrall velvet covering board.
(viii) 'femplate of different size.
(ix) Nep counting board.
(x) Calculator etc.

Some Psychrometer

or Hygrometer Which are Generally Used in

Industry--:
(i) Wet and dry bulb hygrometer
(ii) Hair hygrometer

(iii) Electrolytic

hygrometer.

(iv) Dew point hygrometer.

(v) Chemical hygrometer.

(vi) Gravirnetric hygrometer etc.

Measurement of Humidity of Textile Materiak:
There are two types of humidity measuring method. such as:

(i) Direct method

(ii) Indirect method
a) Direct Method :
In this method the following instruments are used:
(i) The WIRA rapid drying oven.
(ii) Drying by means ofa chemical oven.
(iii) The Reynolds and Branson rapid regain tester
(iv) The CSIRO direct reading regain tester
(v) Drying by Infra red radiation.
(vi) The WIRA electrical hygromter etc.
b) Indirect Method:
In this method the following instruments are used:
i) Electrical Resistance Principle:
l. The Shirley moisture meter
2. The Hart moisture meter

J)

ii) Electrical Capacitance Principle:

l. The Shaw moisture meter.
2. The Fielden dry meter .
3. The Forte electronics moisturc content analyzer.

Fiber Sampling Method:

i) The squaring technique.
ii) The cut squaring lechnique.
iii) The zoning technique.
iv) Dye sampling method .
v) The tong sampling method .
vi) T'he core sarnpling method.
vii) Length and extent biased sample etc.

Yarn Sampling Method :

i) Determination ofcount

ii) Count ofyarn removed from fabric.

iii) Twist in yam in package form.
iv) Lea strenglh ofspun )ams.
v) Single thread tensile test.

Textil. Testing Laboratory

v
FIBERTESTING
Identification of Tertile Fibers:
a) Physical Test:

l. Determination ofmorphological
a microscope. The features are

features by using

i) tongitudinal view of fiber.

ii) Cross-sectional view of fiber.
2) Buming test.
b) Chemical or confirmation test.
(c) Staining test.
Fiber Length Measurement Melhods:
i) Single Fiber method.
ii) Photoelectric method.

Fiber Lenglh Measuring lustrunretrts:

i) Fibmgraph machine.
ii) Digital fibrograph.

Principle of Fib*r Fineness Me&surement :

(l)

Direct Method :
(iravimetrice method.
Optical method.
Geometric rrrethod or dimensional method.
(2) Indirect Method :

Air flo*'

ur;rllrr-rti

Vibroscope rnethod

l'actors Infl ucncing Fiber strcngth:

a) Test specimen length
b) Tuff method:

TUII Method:

l) Fiber Shorter lllethod:

i) The Shirley comb sorter

iii) The double sorter.

ii) The sledge sorter
2) Photoelectric Stapling Method:
i) The USTER stape diagram nr/c.
ii) The Shirley photoelectric model stapler.
iii) The digital fibro graph etc.

l5

Fiber Strength Mersurtment aod Instrument:

a) Single Fiber Strtngth Measurement:
The following instruments are used:
i) Pendulum type (e.C: Balls, Magazine hair tester)
ii) Hydraulic type (e.g O.Neil's hair tester)

iii) Balance type (e.g: Baratts hair tester

iv) Spring type (e.g: Cambridge Erensometer)
v) Strain gauze type (e.g: The Instron Tester)
vii) lhe WIRA single fiber strenglh tesler etc.
b) Fiber Bundle Strength :
i) The Presley fibre strength tester.

ii) The stelometer

iii) l'he Scott Clemson tester etc.
Fiber Fineness Measureme nt Melhod:
a) Direct Method :
i) Gravimetric method
ii) Geometric or dimensional method
iii) Optical method.
b) Indirect Method:
i) Vibroscbpe method

ii) Air flow method:

l. At a constant rate ofairflow

2. At a constant pressure deterrence.

Fiber Fineness Measurement Instrument:

i) The WIRA fineness meter for wool.
ii) The WIRA fineness meter for Cotton.
iii) The Sheffield micronaire for wool and cotton.
iv) The arealometer

v)

The speed dar.

vi) The Portar etc.

'[}pes of Neps:
i) Process neps.
ii) Mined neps .
iii) Homogenious dead nePs.
v) Fuzz nePs.
Neps Measuring Method and Instrument3
a) QuantitatiYe Method :
,) Shirley Template
ii) Readese Projector
iii) Nep Counting Device'

36

b) Qu antitative Method

Maturity Measuring Method:

a) Direct Method
b) In direct Method: i) Air- flow method.
ii) Polarized light method.
iii) Dyeing method .

YARN TESTING
Yaru Count Measuring Instrument:
i) Warp reel and analltical balance

ii) Warp reel and Knowle's balance.

iii) Template and Beesley's yarn balance.
iv) Template and Casartellis yam balance.
v) Count data system or CDS.
vi) Warp reel and quadrant balance.
vii) Sliver, roving count by measuring drum.
viii) Auto sorter by uster etc.
Yam

'frrist Measurement

Method:
i) Single untwist method.
ii) Fiber straightened method.
iii) Single trvist-untwist method.
iv) Double twisruntrvist method.
v) Multi twist-untwist method.

TWist MeasrrrenreDt Instrumcnts:

i) 'lhe ordinary twist lcster.
ii) Tlic ciniin*oiir rwist tester.
iii) The tension twisl tester
iv) The contraction method.

v) 'I'ake-up twist tester.

vi) The quaCrant twist tester.
vii) Tu,ist nieasurentenl bl microscope.

viii) Automatic t*,ist tester.

ix) Semi automatic twist tester

etc.

l7

Irregularity Measuring Method and Instrumenls:

i) Visual Methods: By using:
- Blackboards, drums.

- Photographic devices, projeclion.

- Patterning predict lap melers etc.
ii) Cutting and Weighting Method :By using:
- Lao scales, lap meters, sliver tests.
- Hank rvrapping, count variation, short cut lengths etc.
iii) Variation in Thickness Order Comprcssion: By using:
- WIRA roving levelness tester.
- LINRA roller yam diameter tester.
iv) Electric Capacitance Testers: By using
Fielden-rvalker, uster-

v)

Photo Electrical Tester: By using:

WIRA photoelectric tester, LINRA testers.

r

i) Miscellaneous Methods: By using

Air flow, Mercury displacement etc.

Yarn Strrngth Measurement Method and instrument:i) Single Yarn Strength Test: By using following Instruments:
a)

According Loading By Spring Principle:

l. The Cambridge extensomter.

2. The Pendulum lever machine.
b)

According the Inclined Plane Principle:

I . The Soctt Serigraph
2. The USTER single yam strenglh tester.

c) The Ballistic or Impact testes.

d) The strain Gavze, Transducer or electronic dynamometer e.g.: The instron

tensile testing machine.

38

FABRICTESTING
l'abric Strcngth Measurtment Method:
!) T:n:ile Strength lbst:
f----->Ravll.i

s) Slrip method

sttiD melhod

-----+l
LCursripmethod

b) Grab test.
c) Modfied grab Test.

ii) Tearing Strength Test:

a) Trapezoid tear test.
b) Tongue tear test.

Fabric Thickness Measuremnt Instruments:

i; lleals Thickness Gauze.
ii) Reynolds and Branson's cloth thickness testes
iii) The shirley thickness gauze.
il') W.l.R.A. thickn.rss garze etc.
Fabric f,lrimp Measurrrnent Instruments:
i)'I he WIRA Crimp Meter.
ii) The Shirley Crirnp Meter .
iii) 'l he Manra Crimp Meter of B.R.R.A.

ii)

Quick Nonstaridard Method.

v) [-lCl RA Crimp Tester.

vi) li.R.R.A. Crimp Tester.

Fabric Stiffness fnstruments

i) The shirley stiffness tester

ii) I he lleafi-Loop tcsler .

iii) 'lte Draprmeler etc.

Fabric Stiffness Measurtment Method :

i) By measuring the thickness ofa folded sample
ii) By measuring the lengttr ofheart loop.
iii) By means of a flexometer.
iv) By The moment of rotation
v) By nreans ofa planoflex
vi) Ry rneans ofa drape-meter

l9

Fabric Ahrasion - Resistance Mrasuremenl Instrument:

i) 1'he Martindale abrasion tester

ii) The WIRA abrasion tester

iii) 1he LINRA abrasion tcsrer.
iv) l}le tabr tester (American)
v) The shiefer machine.
vi) The Wyzenbeek abrasion tester.
vii) The stool universal wcar tester.
viii) The LINRA wear testing method.
ix) The accelerator
x) The B.F.-f.abrasion testcr

vi) By means ofa drape-meter

Fabric Crcasc Measuremenl Inslruments:
i) t he total crease recovery tesier .
ii) Ihe shirley crease rccovcry tester

iii) The LINRA sunray crcase evaluation.

Fabric Crease Measurement Meth{rd:
i) The total crease recovery test.
ii) fhe Shirley crease recovery test.
iii) Continental rnethod.
iv) The LINRA sunray crease e..,aiu:t,)r rxrtilod.

Fabric Air Permeability Measurmnt Instrumcnls:

i) l he shirley air permeability apparatus.
ii) Irraize permeability tester.

iii) 'lhe appermeter etc.

Fabric Flammability Measurement Method :

i) Vertical strip test.
ii) The Visual timing tesr.

iii) The ticcp test.

iv) The 450 test.
Fabric Pilling Metsurrment Tesier:
i) The Martindale abrasion tester.
ii) Braid, Hat f:eld and manis's pill tester
iii) The ICI pilling Box icst irieals Pilling Boxes).
iv) The Du-pont random pilling tester .

TECIINICATTEXTILES

'!le n-"'.lt
Technical teriiles approximately 2l percent of all textil"!
markets are :'fraditiorral fabrics, for example, canvas, fents cto (437;),
transportation and automotive (237o), leisure (12%), geotextiles (101'6)
rnedical textiles (10%) and protective apparel2%),
Two thirds of automotive materials go into interiortrim, forseat coveis,
roof and door liners and carpets, where woven fabrics still dominate.
Other uses include tyres, air bags and filters.
Although non woveru and woven fabrics accourt for the majouity of
technical textiles, r'arp knitted and to lesser estcnt, weft knitted
strdcturcs have captured some special end use markets. These are
particulars u4rere ler{bin prcpertics such as drapability, mouldabitity,
knining to shape. open-rvork, estensibility, strength, lightrress of
*,eighr and cost are ai a fremium and can be tailorde for requirernents.
End Gi,af*x{ilcs for 'fechnicnl Textiles:
Possible specifrc applications for technica! textiles are as follo*'s :
i) (i;.o!exii!es: I}ainage, filter and membrane material, read nnd
f.rnnel reinforcentent, crosion protection.
ii) llhrpal:lins Covcrings: Air inflated stractures, farpanulines'
ir)ot crverings, telnperatune resist3nt sails. back bit adberrising

--

signs.

Ssfetv Textiles : lleat and flame resistant profective clothing

for civil and mititary purposes' fluonescent safely clothing,
inflatable lif,: rails, bullet proof bests, hclmets, sun protection
blinds, radiation prcltection, parachutes, oil trap mats.
iv) Industrial Textiles: Filter fabrics, conveyor belts, adhesrttapses.
v) Medical Textiles; Plasters, tapes, gause' artificial arterics,
bandages, dialysis filters, clastie net bandages, blankets and

iii)

covers.

vi) Compositcs:

Composites for buldings, aerospzr, auto mobiles,

boats.

vii) Active

Sportsrvear: Clothing and equiprnent.

viii) Nets: Fabrics {iir construction, agricuhure' for safety' ueather
and pest protection, blinds, fences, storage nets, fish nets.

1t

ix) Geotertiles: Geotextiles art ploymer fabrics used in the

construction of roads,drains, harbour works and breakwaters
and for land reclamation and many other civil engineering

purposes. The geotextiles market requires bulk quanlities of

material.
MESHES

Gnd

It-lLltJLJu

Itrloor

]DDtrAI
]trOEEL
TtrNtrL
-rTranrT-

k*ffis
D.O.S.
Dirctionalty Oienlated

Structrss

UNIAXIAL

ltllts
MULTI.AXIAL

ffi,-ffi
Hffi;

ffi
1J1

OTHER CONSTRUCTIONS

BELTSANDSTRIPS

OOUBLESIDED

Composites: Composites are products formed by combining two

or more discrete physical phases, usually a solid matrix and a
fi brous reinforcing material'

COTTON
Cotton :
The seed hair of a wide variety plants of the Gossypiurn ibmill. is
called cotton.

Botanical Namc of Cotton

Gossypium herboceunt
Gossypiam arboreum
Gossypium hinatun
Gossypium barbedense.

Gossypium herbaceum

Pmducing Country : Indi4 Chinq Bangladesh.

[-iber Length
: 20mm- 26mm.

Pmducing

l'iber

Country

Length

: India, Chinq Pakistan, Russian, America.

: l5mm- 30mm.

Pmducing Cou*try : Pakistan , Russian , South America, India , China.

Fibe r Length
i 25mm- 30mm.
Gossypium barhedense

Producing Country : Egypt.

Fiber Length
: 30mm- 60mm.
production in percentage of cotton in Different Countries

Country

(%\

America
hrdia
Pakistan
Ee!,Dt and Sudan
Russian
China
Brazil
Others countries

60-65

'lotal

l0-12
5-6
5-6
3-4

34
2-2.5

l0
100%

4i

Chelnical Composltlon of Cotton

cellulose

94o./a

Protein

1.30/o

Petin

1.20/"

Ash

1.20h

\vax

o.6vo

Total Sugar

O.1o/o

Pignent

IJss

Others

t .40/"

Total

IOOVu

Chemicalt structurc of Sugar

-l'

al'

chemical structure of cotton

CelI

'20

e ,

41

Struclure Yiew ofCotton Fibre :

The cotton fiber is a single plant cell. It cross section is oval , compared
with the normal hexagonal plant cell. However, like all plant cell cotton has
the following:
(i) Cuticle.
(ii) Primary cell .

(iii) Secondary cell

(iv) Lumen.
I-umen

and.

tnt6o. ( e

Microscopic View ofcotton fibr

l= Cuticlo
2=Primary

Cdl

3= Secondary Cell

4=Lumeo
5= Center

45

(1) Cuticle:
The cuticle is the very outside or skin ofcotton fiber.

It is composed ofa

waxy layer only a few molecular ttrick. The waxy nature of the cuticle
enables it to adhere tenaciously to the primary wall ofthe fiber.
(2) Primary Cell:
The primary cell wall is immediately undemeath the cuticle, is about
200nm thick. It is composed ofvery fine threads ofcellulose called fibrils'
(3) Secondary Cell:
Beneath the primary cell wall lies the secondary cell wall which forms

the bulk

of the fiber. Concentric layers of spiralling cellulosic fibers, not

untike the growth rings of tees, make up the secondary wall. The more thick

of this layer means more matured fiber, and more thin of this layer means
more immature fiber.
(4) Lumen:
The hollow canal running the length ofthe fibre is called the lumen. Its
walls arc the innermost, concentric layer ofspirals ofthe secondary cell watl.
The lumen was once the central vacuole ofthe growing cotton fibers.

Cmss Section

of cotton
ofcotton

Microscopic view of cotton

Frults ofCotton:
(i) Damp Cotton:
This R.pes of problems are shown due to collection the fiber in moist
and cold weather. After drying in sunlight this problem can be removed.

(ii) Immatur Fiber:

If the hee cotton plant is affected by the insects then this problem will
be shown.

(iii) Dead Fibcr:

About l0-15% cotton fiber become dead when we collect it before perfect
time. So, If we collect this cotton in schedule time this problem will be solved.

(iv) Cake Formation :

Due to the attack of insecs, this ry?e of pmblem is created.
(v) P$te Formation :
This type of problems also be found due to the attack of insecrs.
(vi) False Mildew or Grow Mildew :
It is occurred due to attack offungus and dew to bad weather.
(vii) Cotton Rust:
Due to cultivate the cotton in dry weather or after rain, cotton rust be
found.

(viii) Powdery Mildew:

Powdery mildew is one kind of problem which is created due to
cultivating cotton in excess dry weather.
(ir) Lint Rot:
To bear yellorvish or brownish color of fiber is called lint rot. This may
occur when cotton be remained in damp environment after collecting.

(x) Sticky Cotton:

Sticky cotton is another type of defects which is found because of

attacking fungus.

(xi) Cellulose Degradation :

Degradation means deformation.
'

It

is occurred due to beating the cotton

byfnsects on by using excess insecticides.

.pf,ysical Properties of Cotton Fibe r:

'

(i) l*ngth: t/2" - 2 Vz"

(ii) Strength, Tenacity ( gn / denier) : 3-5
(iii) Density ( grn / cc ) ; less than both silk and wool, but more
(iv) Elasricity : I.50 - 1.58

than linen.

(v) Moisture Regain: 7- l0o/o (Standard 8.5% )

(vi) Resiliency : Iow
(vii) Abrasion Resistance : Medium.
(viii) Color : Yellowish or cream, like clean white
(ix) Heat Preventive Power : Medium
(x) Specific Gravity : 1.52 - I .55
(xi) Stiffiress : 57 - 60 gld due to high crystallinity
(xii) Dimensional Stability : Medium
Chemical Properties of Cotton Fiber:

(i) Action With Acid:

Stmng acid damage the fibre. Concentrated sulphuric acid and

hydrochloric acid damage fibre. But weak acid does not damage the
fibre-

47

(i) Action With Alkali:

Preventive power is good. Alkali does not damage cotton fiber.

(ii) Action With Blmching:

No damaging event is occurred. Cotion is converted into oxicellulose in
stsong oxidizing bleaching.

(iii) Sunlighl Prcvsntive Power:

Ultraviolet ray converts the cotton into oxicellulose.
(iv) Acdcn With Organic Solvent:
Resistance, so dry is possible .
(v) Illildew.Preventive Power:
Untreated not easy ; There is possibitity to be af[ected.
(vi) hsects Prcventive Power:
Not affected by moth.

(vii)\eAbility:
Afrinity to color

is good. Direct, Reastive, Sulphur and val dye are tsed.

(viii) Heat:
Conductive Ironing temperature: I 500C
Decompose: 24000C

Ignition temperature: 3900C

Microscopk View of Cotton in Different Strge:

s'l/,i o'
f'f fi{ry
,'fr

ff Qa rg

49

Properties of Spinable Fiber:

(i) Staple lengdr

(ii) Srength
(iii) Fineness
(iv) Color
(v) Flexibility
(vi) M8turity.

and

Fiber Morphologr:

Morpholory is the study ofthe size, shape and structure ofa material or
textile fiber, the relationship between these properties. The morphologr of a
textile fiber may be divided into followingr
The macro structure of textile fibre (length, thickness, fineness, color,
transluccncy, lusture etc)

The micro structure of textile fibre (Microscopic longitudinal and Xsectional structur and appearanc).

The Macm Structurc of Cotton:

trngth : l0- 65 mm
Dia: ll-22 micron

Fineness : 350 : I
The Micro Siructurc of Cotton :
The microccopic appoarance ofe cottoD ,ibr:
flnder a microscope, a cotton fibre looks a twisted ribbon or a collapsed
and twisted tube.

Cotton :
Cotton grown where toxic chemicals have been eliminated in all

./,drganic

growing process steps.

Organic cotton is manufactured from organically grow collon plants. No
chemical, pesticides or fertilizers are used to grow it and the final cloth is
unbleached and dyed with natural plant dyes , which produces healthier
fabrics.

End Uses of Cotton :

Apparel Fabrics:
Shins, Blouses, Night Wear, Outerwear, Rain Wear, Trousers, leisure's
Wear etc.

Accessories :
I{and, Kerchiefs, t aces, Ribbons, Trimming, Umbrclla etc.
House Tertiles :

Bed Cloth, Table Cloths, Kitchen Cloths, Furniture Covering, Hand

Towels, Bath Towels, Carpets etc.

Industrial Tertiles

50

Worker Protective Clothing, Sewing threads, Cords, Bags, Shoes,

Medical Supplies elc.

GINNING
Ginning:
The process to remove cotton fibrs ( Iint ) from the seed is called
ginning.
Objects of Ginning:
(i) To removes $e fiber liom the seed.
(ii) To remove the neps and wastage in some extents.
(iii) To collect the seed and seedless cotton fiber separately.
(iv) To separate the cotton fiber from the root position ofthe seeds.
Faults of Ginning:
(i) Fiber are broken at the middle position so that it becomes shorter irr
length.

(ii) Crush seed remain with the conon.

(iii) Neps are formed in cotton.
(iv) Remaining excessive trash in the cotton.
(v) Remaining fibres with seed.
Classification of Ginning :
Ther are thrce types ofginning machine such
(i) Saw ginning
(ii) Knife roller ginning
(iii) Mechartlry ginning

as :

(i) Saw Ginning :

Saw gin is most widely used for short and medium length cotton. In
gin
saw
seed cotton is bmught into contact with about 60- 100 circular
disk. Saw usually 12" in diameter mounted on a horizontal shaft at %,,
intervals.

Part ofthe M.chine ,

A = Saw Roller,

M = Channel

{age

B = Beater,

C=Bar

P =Feed Lattice

D :Bmsh Roller,
F =Hopper

Q =Spike Roller
R =Pressure Roller

5l

The saw disk are located between two grids in such a way that the saw
projected between them with a narrow space. The space is too small for seed
passing but suffrcient for cotton to pass through it.
'
ei nrst the seed cottons are feed to the hopper "F" by feed lattice and
spike roller "G" where a leather beater open and clean the fiber in some
extent and pass the seed cotton to come in contact to the saw teeth The teeth
of the saw hotd the seeds cotton and carried the fiber through the gids bar
but the seeds are not allow to pass through it. As a result fiben are separated
from the seeds.

The cotton are then removed front the saw teeth $'ith a circular brush
"D" which is moving faster than the saw. The separated fibers are then
carried through a channel "M" and deposite on the surface of the cage'N"
by air current produced from a exhaust fan. Finally the seeds free cotton are
collected fiom the surface of the cage with the help of pressure roller "R"'
Seed fiee cotton are then broken to tlte bale section where a 500 lbs ofbale
ofsize ( 54'x 27" x 48") is Produced.

(ii) Knife Roller Ginning :

ioller gin which has only a limited used for long cotton fiber are separated
from the see.ds by drawing the fibers between a rapid revolving roller So,
that the fiber are cut off near the point ofthe attechment to the seed'
Main Parts of the Machine :
A=Table

52

B{ompressing Roller
C:Knife Roller
D=Leather Roller,
E=Spring
F=Doctor Krife

G{rid

H=Stripping Board

The usual method is to placc the sed cotton on a table. From where it is
gradually feed into the hopper and then to a mller called knife roller by mean
of compressing roller. Compressing roller opens this seed and helps to move
the seed cotton to a roller covered by heary leather heaving a rough outer
surface by mean knife roller.

A sharp edged knife is placed near the revolving leather roller so that
the fine fiber are allow to pass but not seed. The fine liber stick to the leather
cover of the roller and arc drawn between it. As a result, fiber are cut off
from the seed.
The same seed is drawn continuously against the knife edge until all the
fineness fiber are cut off. Then the seds ar fallen down through the grid.
The seeds free cotton and then removes from the leather roller by mean of
stripping brush "H" and pass to delivery for further uses.

53

Mechrthy Ginning:
Mecarthy Gin is different from knife roller gin At frst se'ed cotton is
kept on feed table I, Which runs into the machine slowly i. e. after entering
hopper feeder it comes in contact of leather covering rcller B. Vibrating bar
of ieeder bar A Vibrates by tlre help of crank N, and which falls the seed
cotton on leather roller and compresses doctor knife C by spring D. Roller
arrow mtates according to marking direction. For this resson some cotton be
separated and rest sed cotton siores at the side of knife. Steel beater blade is
connected with crank and md H. Due rotatig crank, besfer blade of rod hites
seed cotton successively. Then rest seed be spaated due to successive hitting
and this seed is stored under position after coming through the gnd bar G'
A-djusting nut E is used to adjust blade. bar and leather roller distance, Then
seed freqcotton fibre becomes separated by the help of stoipping board'

Machine's parts:
A= Feed Bar
B= leather Roller,
C= Doctor knife

D:

Spring

E= Adjusting Nut

F= Beater Blade
G= Grid Bar
Il= Connecting Rod

I= Feed Table
J= Crank.

Motions: lrather Roller r.p.m:

150

Crank shaft r.p.m= 800

Production per hour : 30 lbs

54

SPINNING
Spinning: The conversion of polymer iDto liber is called spinning.
Chssilic.tior of Spiooing :

Filament Spinning

Long Slaple Spinning

Short Stsple Spinnilg

Melt
Spinning

Wet
Spinniog

Spinning

Airjet

Frictional
Spinning

Dry

or Vorlex

Spinning

Rotor or Open

Ring

Spinning

End Spinning

I
Cuded

Spinning

Conbs

Spiirning

Weg Melt and Dry Spinning are given below with sketch respectlvely:

l'\__

V-

lll

t;

?,

irdrnMr

55

Florv

Itrout

of Crrdod YrrI
Scctio!

Ctrrt

Ml!tficturhs
OrtDut

Fiber

Llp
Sliver
Sliver
Sliver

Roving

Yam

RinC

lramc
Yarn
Conc
Hank

----.--'

--------...--+

Y*

Buftine

Honk

Bundle

Flow Charl of Combed Yam Manulgoluhg

IrDut
Fiber

txp
Sliver

Output

ertio[

BIo\r

room

t
t"y'
Ite '

Lap

---

Sliver

Comber Dtawi

_..-.-.-.>

SliYcr

Sliver

sti,{ran ro*cr

Sliver lap

Combine

Slivet

o*,L**"

Sliv"'

PociDr--ine (2)

Slivet

si.**

Roving

Roving

ningll,...

YBm

Yam

c",{rnr,ar,u

Corr

Cone

Redios

tlrnk

llanl

Bd

(l)

_--.--_>

Sliver

---------------.>

Sliver

Bundl

Bundling

J
Bundlc

Sliver lap
Sliver

l-

---------+

ing

Bsle

56

Proccss and product of the cotton

lling spinniog:

Product

Process

ffi

Process

Cotton bale

l. Mixing

and

blending

6. Combing

Drawo silver

7. Finishcr

2- Blow-Room

Drawing

Roving

Carded sliver

3. Carding

L Simplex

4. Breaket

4. Ring

Dmuing

Spinning

YaIn (coni)
5. Lap

formiog

5. Winding

rf*

57

Diflcrtlct

Bctwcen Crrded rnd Conbcd

Serid

Yrrn

Cerded Yern

Nor

Combcd

The yarn which is obtained by combing

The yam which is obtained

0l

rvithout combing is called

Yrn

cardd

is

calld cardd yarn.

}am.
Quality ofcombed yam is belter than
combed vam.

02

Quality ofcarded yam not better

than oomM yam.

03

Short fiber % is high

Short fiber % is

low

04

Combing action is not done here.

Combing action

is

05

Less streng6.

Higher strength.

06

Inegular.

Regular.

done here.

Flow Chart of Cotton Solnnlno

Section /

Mining

CottonFiber------------r,

Mixine----------------

Mixedcotton

Mixed Conon

BlotY Room

Lap

Lap

-----.---.-r'

Sliver

---------------+

Drating---->Drawing Sliver

Pre.

fomber
Lan

comb

frmer-----r

Sliver----------r

Drawing Sliver

ComH Sliver
Drawing SIiver
Finisher
Drawing Sliver

--------)

Finisher Drawing

Sliver [,ap

Sliver--;

Roving

Roving---;

Yam Cope

-----------.|

cole windine

Yam in Cone Form

Reelinc

Yam Hank

Yam Hank ----------------

Bgndling

Yam Bundle

Yam Bundle

Baling

Yam Cope

Yam in Cqne Fo.m

----->

I"

---=>

Yam Bale

58

Lini:
lhe

seed free conon fibers which is got after ginning is called Iint.

Linters:
After ginning some short fibers are remained with the surlace of the
cotton seed which is called linters.
Mixing:
When same kind but diflerent graded of fibers are mixed together then it
is called mixing.

Example: Low graded cotton

High gfaded cotton = Mixing.

Blending:
When different type of fibers it may be equal or nearly equal graded are
mixed together are within a particular ratio then the mixture is called
blending:

Example: 35% Polyester+65% Cotton=Blending

Polyester + Nylon=Blending
Nylon + Cotton = Blending
Importance of Mixing and Blendingl
(i) To give the required characteristics to the end product.
(ii) To compensate for variation in the characteristics

of the raw

materials.
(iii) To hold down raw materials cost.
(iv) To achieve effect by varying color, fibers characteristics and so on.
(v) To achieve uniform quality.
(vi) To use waste cotton in mixing.

(vii) To meet function and end used requirements.

Objects of Mixing and Blending:
(i) Economy:
Blending influences the reduction of the final product through blend
composition , availability of fiber quality and inherent fiber properly
variations.

(ii) Processing Performance:It helps in processing of following process

Carding:
Blending influences the process performance of carding through control
ofnep level variation, waste level variation, fly, roving twist variation,

59

machine adjustnent, static electricity formation'

(b) Spinning:
Blending influences the processing performance of spinning through
control ofyam twist variation , end breakage, machine adjustments etc.
(c) Wrrping

rnd Weaving:

Blending influences the processing performance of warping and weaving

through control ofend break, m/c adjustrnent etc'

(d) Dyeing aud Finishing:

Blending influences the behavior ofdyeing and finishing through conaol
ofshrinkage variation, dyeing defects etc.
(e) Functional PmPerties:
Blending influences:

l.

Pbysical Properties:
It influences to increase textile and tear strenglh, elasticiry abrasion

resistance , stretch etc.

2. Aesthetic pmPerties:
It influences to increase luster, apparance, cover and color etc.
3. Subjective Proprtica:
It increascs comfort and the properties like handling, abrasion resistance,
stretch etc.
Difference Betwern

Bhodirg

Serlrl Miring
No.

0l

Miri[s rnd Blendirs:

When same kind but different When difrerent type of fibrs it may be
of fibers ue mixed together qual or nearly equal g raded are mixed

graded

then it is called mixing.

02

There is no particular ratio

to mix \Yith each other.

03

It is a costly proc{is.

04

Example:

of fiben

Low Grade Cotton+ tligh

Cotton = Mixing

toge$er [ilhin a parlicular ratio, then the

mirture is called blending.
There is a particular ratio of fibers to mu
with each otlrer.
It is

Gmde

a chaD

process.

Example:
65% Conon + 35% Poll'ester = Blending

Fsctors to be Considered Incase of Mixing and lllending:

(i) Fiber length.

(ii) Color.
(iii) Fineness.
(iv) Tuff.
(v) Flexibility.

Ilpos of Miring:
(i) Volume mixing.
(ii) Weight mixing.

(iii) Mixing by hopper.

(iv) Hand stack mixing.
(v) Bin mixing.
(vi) Lap mixing.
(vii) Card mixing.

(viii) Sliver mixing and

(ix) Automatic mixing.
Classifi crtion of Blending:

(6-60

blending
bales) - Before blow room.
-/[Bale
(ii)
Flock
blending
Within
the blowroom.
.
-

- @ - 6 Laps)- Using the doubling scutchers.

y'v) Web blending - At the ribbon lap machine.

.;(rrif-ao

blendin c

Sliver blending - At the draw fiame/ At the sliver lap machine.

' -lv) Fiber blending At the card or At the spinning machine.
..,(Vii) Roving blending - At the ring spinning machine.
Bale Managementr
The choice of cotton bales according to the fiber characteristics in order
to achieve acceptable and economical processing condition and a constant
yam quality is called bale managemnt.

y'i)

Objects of Bale Menagement3

(i) Aa evening out ofthe quality characteristics ofa yam.
(ii) A mean of avoiding quality jumps.
(iii)A possibility reducing costs as a result ofan improved knowledge
of the fi ber characteristics.

Managing Bales:
To manage the bales we need four modules of fibers and the relation
exist between fibers and yam .They are:
(i)Srrcngth .

(ii) kngth.
(iii) Color gra.de and
(iv) Micronaire value.

61

BLOW ROOM
Blow Ror.m:

The . ection where the supplied compressed bale is tumt into a uniform
lap of particular length by opening, cleaning, blending or mixing is called
blow room scction. It is the first steps of spinning'

Objects of Blow Room:

(i) Openirg:
Further opeling of compressed cotton bale and cotton are made into
small tufts.

(ii) Cleaning :
To eliminate dust, dirt, broken leaf, seed particles, grass and other
foreign impurities from the fiber.

(iii)
' ' Mixing artd Blending:
To produce a complrratively good quality cotton fibre by mixing
different types of cotton to:iether.
(iv) To produci a uniform lap of particular weiglt per unit length'
(v) To convert ti.e opened and cleaned fiber into a sheet of particular width
and uniform weight pr uait lcngth is called lap.
Basic Operations Involved in the Blow Room:

(i) Opening:
'

'

Opening is the first operation in the blow room carried out to the stage
flocksln the-blow room and to the stage ofiddividual fibers in the cards'

of

(ii)
' - Cleanning:

To remove the impurities and foreign materials and the raw material as

clean as possible.

(iii) Dust Removal:

To remove dust which are completely enclosed in the flocks and hence
are held book during suction.

(iv) Blending:

To achielve the required quality ofyam by blending different qualities of

cotton into a padicular ratio.
(v) Even Feed ofthe Material:
To produce a lap of uniform weight per unit length or to process the
cotton fibr to the maximum optimum quality which is suitable for carding'

(?

Action of Blow Roon :

(a) Action of opposite spike (Opening)
(b) Action ofair crrrent (Transport + Cleaning)
(c) Action of beater and grid bar (Cleaning and Opening)
(d) Action ofregulating motion (Uniform Output).
Mechines Used in Blow Room:
The machines in blow rcom can be divided into four sroups. 'Ihese arc:
(a) Mixing and BleMing m/cs
(b) Opening and Cleaning m/cs

(c)

lap forming m/cs

(d) Auxiliary m,/cs

(a) Mixing and Blending Machines:

(i) Bale plucker.
(ii) Hopper bale breaker.
(iii) Hopper feeder.
(iv) Automatic blnder.
(v) Mixing bale opener
(vi) Multi bale opener .

(vii) Automatic bale opener.

(viii) Padal bale breaker.

(b) Opening and Cleaning Machines:
It is divided into three groups, They are:
(i) Conventional opener and beater
(ii) lmproved opener and beater.

(iii) Modem opener and beater.

(i) Conventional Opener and Beater:

L Vertical and crighton opener

2. Thre bladed beater
3. Two bladed beater and
4. kirshener beater.
(ii) Impmved Opener end Beater:
L Twine opener.
2. Step cleaner.
3. Porcupine opener.
4. S.R.R.L. opener.
5. Air jetlAir steam claner.
6. Shirley opener.

(iii) Lap Forming Machines:

I.

2.

Double hopper feeder.

[:p former.

63

3. Two way distribution.

(d) Auxillary tlachines:

There are scme equipments in blow room section which are mainly used
for regulating uniform feed and delivery to product uniform lap are given
belorv:

(i) Condenser.
(ii) Swing door

(iii) Photo cell.

(iv) Piano feed regulator.
(v) Shirley wheel and far.
(vi) Filter room.
Blow Room Line:
The number of machines arranged in a line on series to perfonn all the
function to form a uniform lap form cotton bale is called blow room line.
Convcntional Blorroom

Lim

There are different tyes of conventional blow-room line. lt difers manufaclurer

to manufadurer. For example a typical blow-room lines as follows:

opener
deaner

5. Porcupine opener
1. Hopper bale
6. Hoppa feeder-2
2. Uttra cleaner or step
3. Vedical or twine opener or cleaner 7. Scutder
4. Hopper feederl

[ffi
'1.

Bale lay{ovrn, Mixing

2. Bals opener

3.

opener l

SaruEr o{ Picter

u
bbu{oom

A modam

SrE

p follorr:

Bale plucker or b8h opfler

The rollorling

Uo.*room &E prwih by tE Trutzsddr.

gecforic metal extrador finfrsd e0

Rieter Unimix

Regdsted

of nralerial

h ttE

Tnnzsciler

Odical regdatbn

BC,v./room

Xodem Bloix.roorn seclbn

R! Chamr

Truczshler

dut feed

u'
Process Layout of the yarn manufacturing system

rlith

-od"-

Blow-room line:
Bale Plucker

Metal

Ttector

Uniclean

,n,f

,,,

,rtl",
visionf hield
ConJnscr
Chute Ged

."*"*
I

i-"::::i:::::*,
Breaker
Prawing

(FORCOMBEDYARN)

_ +

FinisherPrawing
Simplex or rovil9 frame or sped

Ring

+l
irame

LaR

fi-ame

.+
(spinninp lrame)

eu,J.on".
J
Settrng
I
Paciing

Heat

l---

Pre-com$ Drawing

former
Co*U..

Post -comb urawing 3r Finisher Drawing

Simplex or Roving lrime or Speed frame

*rJr""-"
(Spinning frame)
I

eutJconer

u.u,{"ning
+
Packing

6
Cleening Point;
There are several machines remained in blow room line for various
purposes. But drose machines which are involved specially for cleaning the
fiber is called cleaning point. In other words, beaters are called cleaning
point. The name ofcleaning point are:-

(i) Step clener or ultra cleaner.

(ii) Porcupine beater.
(iii) Kitschner beater.
(iv) Coson cleaner.
(v) R.N. beater.
(vi) S.R.R.L. beater
(vii) Mono cylinder beater.

Metal Detector:
Magnets are used in blow room line to remove iron or irony substance
from the cotton. This magnets is called metal detectector.

Rsw Msterirls:

of leed material.
(ii) Density offeed material.
(iii) Fiber alignment.
(iv) Size flocks in feed.
ll{achine or Device:
(i) The type ofopening device.
(ii) Speed ofopening device.
(iii) Degree of penetration.
(iv) Spacing ofthe feed from opening device.
(v) Type ofgrid.
(vi) Greed setting.
(vii) Air flow through feed.
(viii) Condition of pre- opening.
(ix) Position ofthe mlc in Blow room lin"
(i1 Thickness

HOPPER FEEDER
Working Principte: This kind of machine is used at the first line of the blow
room sction and before the scutchur m/c. The cotton from opning section is
reserved in reserved box B with the help of shirley wheel. The amount of
cotton is cortrolled with photocell. The cotton from B reach to the main
hopper D with the help of a pair of feed roller C and feed lattice G. The
cotton is contacted with spike lattice because of the upward movement of fed
Iattice. An evener roller is set up on the spike lattice. It obstacles going on the
big tuft cotton to the uprvard and come back to the hopper. The setting of the
spike lattice and evener roller is more nearer, the more opening is done. But
the production will be rised on this case, it is needed to increasc the motion
of the m,/c. Then the leather beater I collect cotton from the spike ofthe spike
lathic and delivery it into the delivery chute J. This always filled so that same
amount at cotton is feeded to lhe next machine- After fulfill the delivery
chute, tlre addition cotton is removed with the wiper roller and then enter in
to the main hopper. In general, cotton is filled about three fourth of the
hopper. A swing dour system is used to preserur this amottnt ofcotton.

Essential Figure:

0
B

Mein Parts of the Machine:

A= Shirley

B:

Reserve Box,

C= Feed Roller S,
fF Main Hopper,

E: Swing Door,
F: Spike Lattice,
G= Feed Lattice,
H= Evener Roller

I= Bater
J= Delivery Chute,
K= Wipper Roller.

Hopper Fesder Machine

STEPCLEAIYER
Objects :

(I) To open and clean cotton tuft by opposite spikes and beating action.
(II) To remove the heary impurities such as leaves , sand without
damaging the fiber .
(III) To make or convrt the cotton tuft to small size ofcotton fiber.

Basic Function
actions

Opening and cleaning are done by the following two

(i) Action ofopposite spikes and

(ii) Action of beater
Working Principle :
(i) The cotton or materials falls into the feed hopper at first.
(ii) Then press to the first beater.
(iii) Then it is transported upwards by the six beaters rollers , each
carrying 0 profiled bars and the bars are arranged on a line inclined
upwards at 450.

(iv) The trashes

are extracted by the help of opposite spike and beating

function extracts the trashes and falls into the chamber through grid

bars hole.

(v) Cotton tuft open and make small size tuft wift beating action.
(vi) A buckle is in the middle of per two beaters and it control flow
materials.

Main parts of the Machine

A = Feed Trunk
B= First Beater
C= Grid Bar

D- 2d

Beater

E= Bafile Plate
F= Dust Chamber

G= Delivery

'sloy'ultre

deaner

of

PIANO Ff,f,D Rf,GULATING MOTION

Working Principle of a Piano Feed Regulating Motion or Cone Drum

Feed Regulator:
This drawn figure indicates that how the cotton is feeded uniformly in
the scuther of the piano feed regulator or cone drum regulator. Generally
sixten pedal are remained below flutted feed roller togetherly. These padals
are linked by levers A, B, C, D, E, F,G and H that ar in tum linked by levers
I, J, K and L.

1 23 15 6 7 I I

1011 1213 1115

16

The levers I, J and K, L are connected together by levers M and L

respectively with the long lever O, joining M and N together. A link, B
connects the lever O to the long, weighted lever Q which is provided at R.
The weight ofall levers A to O and the long weighted leven Q are held by
the wire, I at S , that passes over pulley, U to the strap fork, V of the driving
strap between the cone drum pulleys, W and X of which the former is a
constant speed driver and the lattr connected to the feed roller by a series of
gear wheels. The speed of driven cone drums X , varies according to the
position of the cone drum sfap, which is determined by the average
thickness ofcotton passing under the feed roller.
Assume that at any time a thick piece of cotton (excess) passes over
padals I and 2 causing the lever A will be lifted . As result levers I,M,O as
well as weight lever Q also will be lifted. The upward to movement of lever
Q will allow the str*ap fork V to move form left to right and it causes the
slower speed

of

the feed roller.

The padals are constantly measuring the average thickness of the cotton
pcssi::g under the padal rollcr snd the speed is being adjusted accordingly.
The cotton variation in the speed of the feed rollers, according to the
thickness or the amount of cotton being feed in most important factor and an
investigation ofhow this is achieved

will be interested.

70

Cleeniug Efliciency:

'the ratio between bssh extracted to lotal trash expressed in percentage is

called cleaning efiiciency.

Blow Room By- Prst :

'

,o

By pass

A = Blender
B = Weste Blender
C=Fan
D = Conveyor
E = Step Cleaner
F = Porcupine Opener
G = Criton Opener
H = Shirley wheel &Fan
| = Step Cleaner
J = Porarpine Opener
K = Two-way Distributor
L = Shidey wheel
M = Hooper Feeder
with reserve box

Faults in Blow Room:

N-

Sortcher

O=

Lap forming unit

P=

Roller lap extraclor

Following comnron defects nray occur lo the lap in Blorv Room:

(i) Uneven Lap:
Patchy, sticky, thick and thin places in lap
Ceuses:
(a) Uneven feed of material.
(b) Faulty regulating motion.
(c) Improper m/c maintenance.
Remedies:
(a) To ensure even feed ofmaterial
(b) Connect bale opening.
(c) Proper m/c maintenance.

(ii) Irregular Lap:

Lap should se of definite shape, length and weight per unit length.lfthe
lap length is less than the required length then it is called irregular lap.
Causes:
(a) Uneven feed of fibers to feed laftice.
(b) Presence of weak, small and immature fibers

in lap fibers during

mixing.
(c) Faulty regulating motion, cage, swing door.
(d) Improper machine maintenance.
Remedies:
(a) Even feed of fibers to feed lattice.
(b) To ensure weak, small and immature fibers mixing.
(c) To ensure perfect regulating motion.
(d) Proper m/c maintenance.

(iii) Soft Lap:

Ifthe lap is less compact then it is called softlap.
Causes:
(a) Low pressure ofcalendar roller.
(b) trss relative humidity .
(c) More trash content ofroller.
Remedies:

(a) Pressure ofcalender should be controlled.

(b) Relative h,umidity should be controlled.
(c) Cleaning should be conect.

(iv) Conical Lap:

If the width of lap increases or decreases with respect to its initial width,

72

the lap is said to be conical lap.

Ceuscs :
(a) Air suction varies due to fan speed variation , so uneven drawn of
material at both side ofcage.
(b) Pressure variation at both sides of calendar roller.
(c) Dirt drain in one side of cage.
(e) More air intel 8t one side.
Remedies:
(a) To ensure proper airflow
(b) Calender roller pressure must be controlled.
(c) After a certain time, cage must be cleaned,
(v) Borrel Shaped lapr
If the thickness of lap in middle is more than drat ofat the border sides
then this lap is called as barrel shape lap.

Caurs:
(a) More air suction in the middle position ofthe cage due to excessive
fan speed and so more fiber is drawn in the middle position.
O) Due to accumulalion of dirt at both sides ofthe cage.
Remedies :
(a) Fan speed should be conholled.
(b) After certain time cage must be cleaned.

(vi)Licking Lap :
Causes :
(a) [,ow pressure ofcalender roller.

(b) Excesssive far speed.

(c) Improper roller motion setting.
(d) tnw opening of cotton and
(e) Used soft waste at greaest rate with general cofton.
Remedies :
(a) Proper fan speed.

(b) Proper pressure ofcalender roller

(c) Proper opening ofcotton.

(d) Correct fan speed.

(vii) Defective Selvedge :

Causes :
(a) Waste accumalation at m\c sides.

(b) Waste accumalation at grid bars and cage sides.

(c) Broken gear teeth or m\c parts.
(d) Faulty cage and faulty surface of lattice.
Rcmedies :

1r

Proper maintenance ofcage and latice.

(viii)Split Lap ;
Causes :
(a) [.ow prssure ofcalender roller.
(b) t w temperature in blow room section.
(c) Variation ofsurface speed oftop and botom cage.

Remedig :
(a) Proper pressure ofcalender roller.

(b) Proper temperature.

(ir)Dirty Lrp

Causes :

(a) In sufficient dust retnoval.

(b) Dirty machine due to improper maintenance.
Remedies :

(a) Sufiicient dust removal management.

(b) To ensure proper maintcnance and treatnent oldirty machine.
Faults due to Cege :
(a) Defective selvedge
(b) Conical lap.
(c) Split lap and
(d) Barrel shaped lap.
Blow Room Mathematical Problems

l.

Find out the blow room cleaning efiiciency, when

Cotton trash : 4.5o2
LaP trash

:l

.7

sYo

Sol ' :We know,

Trash extracted

Cleaning efliciency=

100 0A

Total trssh
Cotton trashoz-lap trashoz
So, Blow room cleaning efiiciencY

Cotton trashoz
4.5 -t .73
x

4.5

= 6l -llo/o

(Ans)

100

100

o/o

74

2. Find out beats/inch from the following

Beater r.p.m :720
No. of strikes=16
Feed roller r.pm=24
Dia of feed roller-3"
Sol

'r

Beats /min

Beat

/ inch =
Surface speed ofthe feed roller
Beater r.pm x No. of beater

IlxDia of feed roller xfed roller r.p.m

720x16

flxlxrd

(Ans)
76.43 > 76
Find out the production ofblow room line with 2 scuthers

it

Calendar roller dia =7"

Calendar roller ppm=10
Etr

40%o

Wastes = 4%

Lap u.t =1403 yds

Sol " :-

l4

llxl0x

7x60x0.90x

Production of m/c =
36x 100

=55s.176 lb/h (Ans)

l6

x(100-4)x 2

CARDING
Carding :
The reduction ofentangled mass of fibers of filmy web by working them
between two closely spaced relatively moving surfaces closed with sharp
points is called carding. It is the preliminary process in spun yarn technology
just after the blow room process. Card is the heart of spinning mill and well
carded is halfspun.

Objecls of Carding :
(i) To open the fiber at single stage.
(ii) To make the fiber straight and parallel.
(iii) To remove the small trash particles which have not been laken out in
the opening and cleaning.

(iv) To remove neps and motes.

(v) To give some degree of blending.
(vi) To remove the short fibers which affects the straight and quality.

(vii) To remove the remaining impurities.

(viii) To produce a thick untwisted rope of fibers called sliver which is

suitable for subsequent processing, which is uniform.

2.

Ud.rn

3 B'ur
4.

C.riln!

Ibl

5.06itr

Drrrho urn

7.

Cold

CardiIE

rEdirE

Sedionh vier

d he cading

madtino wih trcpper ftder

Why Carding is CrlH the Heart of Spinning :

The first condition of spinning is to open the fiber at single stage and
which is possible only by carding. The quality of the yam specially depends
on the carding action , so that carding is called the heart ofspinning .
Classilication of Carding :
Based on oprating principle and construction carding machines can be
classified as the following types :
(i) Stationary flat carding machines
(ii) Revolving flat carding machines
(iii) Duo or tandern carding.
Carding machines also classified depending on the card clothing into two

76

(i) Conventional or traditional revolving flat cad

(ii) Modern card or high production card.

Feoturee of High Production Card :
Modern carding machine manufacturers ensures the following features:
(a) High production with even card feeding.
@) Magnetic flat system.
(c) Change offlat tops directly at the machine widrout tools.
(d) Short wave leveling for a sliver count variation.
(e) Completely maintenance fiee.
(Q Precision knife sfting system.
(g) Adjustnent ofwaste amount in no time at sll.
(h) Aluminium flats bars without screw connection.
(i) Quick flat exchange , without tools.
() Precision flat setting system.
(k) Reproducible flat stting in only a few seconds .
(l) Electronic cylinder brake.
(m) Reduces cleaning and maintenance times.

(n) Nep sensor.

(o) Online measurement ofneps and trash particles.
(p) Computer control with touch screen.
(q) Simple operation and targeted maintenance.
(r) Digital motor control.
(s) Maintenance free and high precission.
(t) Thick place monitoring.
(u) Stops the card incase ofexcessive thick places in the sliver.

(v) Specto$am analysis.

(w) Assists in finding the causes of spectogram enors.
(x) Management ofmaintenance and clothing.
(y) Tangled maintenance support.
(z) Higlr production card are now suppied only with flock feed
installation.

Cad Setting : The distance betwen

the two parts of the carding machine is

called card setting. Activity of a carding machine depends on the setting .
Setting point ofa carding machine is given below:

(a) Taker- in to cylinder:0.007"

(b) Feed plate to taker - in : 0.009" -

(c)
(d)
(e)

0.012"

Flat to cylinder : 0.010"

Dofter to cylinder : 0.005"
Doffer comb to doffer:0.012'-0.015"

(f)

Mot knives to taker

in

Upper knife : 0.010'

Bottom knife : 0.012"

(g) Taker in undercasing to taker

in

0.01

5'

Rearedge:516"
Forward edge : 0.030"

(h) Cylinder under casing to cylinder

Back:0.012"
Middle : 0.032"
Front : 0.064"
(i) Cylinder under casing to taker in : 32"
0) Lap guide to edges of feed mller: 0.075" - 0.001"
(k) Flat to stripper : 0.032'
(l) Bottom sheet to cylinder:
Upper edge : 0.0324"
t ower edge : 0.015'
(k) Top feather edge sheet to cylinder :
Upper edge : 0.010" - 0.060'
Lower edge : 0.032'

Card Clorhing:
To cover the surface of taker in cylinder, doffer and flat of a carding
machine with the help of a number of unlimited fine closely and specially
bented wire is called card clothing.
Tlpes ofCard Clothing:
(i) Flexible card clothing
(ii) Semi rigid clothing and
(iii) Metallic card clothing

(i) Flexible Card Clothing:

These have hooks of round on oval wire set into elastic , multiply cloth
backhg, Each hook is bent to a U-shap and is formed with a knee that flexes
under bending load and retums to its original position when the load is
removed. In short- staple spinning mills , this clothing is now found only in
the card

6o <r<

flas.

ft

ar as

78

Advantages of Flerible Clothing:

(i) Higher point density so better carding action.
(ii) Fiber damage is less due to flexible wire point.
(iii) Only damaged part ofthe clothing is needed to be repaired.

(iv) Exerts desirable force on cotton causing good cardining,

(v) lrss expensive.
Disadvantages of Flexible Clothing:

(i) Requires textile fabric or rubber

(ii) The wires can be loosened.

as foundation material.

(iii) Prcduction less due to stripping .

(iv) Needs regular grinding
(v) Wire ard foundation may be damaged as both wire and foundation
are flexible
(ii) Semi Rigid Card clothing:
These are less elastic than those of flexible clothing. These backing are
nrultiple ply structures, with more plies, then the backing offlexible clothing,
comprising both cloth and plastics layers. It is used in flat for wood and long
staple fiber.

Advrtrtqges of Semi Rigid Card Clothing

(i) No need of fre4uent sharpening.

79

(ii) No need of

stripping as well as there is no knee and no

dirt and dust

is stored.

(iii) Metllic Clothing :

These are continuous , self supporting wire stnrclures in which teeth are
cut at the smallest possible spacing. They do not need any base material The
wire has no knee. Now a days , these are used in taker in , cylinder and

doffer.
Essentiel Figure :
T.eth

rocr

lcis'N9.*

Atlvantages of Metallic Card Clothing:

(i) No need separate foundation material.
(ii) There is no possibility ofteeth loose.

(iii) Any carding angle can be chosen.

(iv) No need of regular grinding.
(v) Saved 3% good fiber and increase production l8-200lo due to no need
of stripping and grinding.
Disadvantrge of Metallic Clothing.
(i) Carding action is not better due to less point density.
(ii) More fiber damage due to metallic of teeth.
(iii) Difficult to repair, complete reclothing necessary.
(iv) Initial cost is high.
(v) Not suitable to prepare finer c,ount.
(vi) Liberates more fly and pollutes air'
(vii) Reouire higher starting torque.
Point Density in Metaltic Card Clothing:
Point density is specified in terms of points per square inch or per square
centimeter and can be calculated as follows :

80

Poinb\ioch2=
Bue Width (mm) x Pitch (mm)
100

Points\cm2=
Base

Wi&h (mm) x Pitch (mm)

Point \ inch2

Points\cm2=

6.45

Stripping:
During the carding process , fibers and impurities become embedded in
the teeth and wires of the several carding organs which may reduce their
effectiveness of carding and quality of yam. The process of removing
adhering fiber and impurities is called stripping.

Methods of Stripping.
(i) Roller stripping
(ii) Dustless shipping

(iii) Vacuum stripper

(iv) Air stripper
(v) Continuous stripper
(vi) Static stripper
Grinding:
Grinding is the operation by which the good working condition of the
wire points of all organs in the carding machine is maintained.
Object:
(i)To incrcase sharpness ofthe wire points.

(ii) To keep equal height of wires.

(iii) To get regular carding action and uniform sliver.
Methods of Grinding:
(i) Traverse wheel grinding .
(ii) The dead roller or long grinding roller.

Grinding Schedule:
It is not possible to grind all the grinding points or wire points ofcarding
machine at once, therefore lhe spinning mils follow a maintenance schedule
for grinding known as grinding schedule.

8l

Coiling Mechenism:
The sliver must be coiled in cans for storage and transpor! tfie storage is
performed in a particular mechanism which is called coiling mechanism.
Coiling:
The process (cycloidal deposition) by which the delivered sliver is
uniformly deposited in a sliver can in an orderly manner is called coiling.
Tlpes of Coiling:
(i) Under center coiling
(ii) Over center coiling
Autolevelling in Carding:
For relular delivery or regular out put of material changing draft
according to the change of input amount is called auto levelling.
Objects of Auto-leveller:
(i) The objectives of the spinning process is to produce an even strong
yarn at a competitive price.

(ii) To

assure constant qualitY.

Auto' leveller :
(i) N{echanical system ofcontrol
(ii) Electronic control

T;'pes of

and

Contrcl System of Autoleveller

(i) Open loop control
(ii) Closed loop conhol
Dilferent Setting Patterns :
l.Plain Set :
Point density is higher in plain set. It is used in cylinder and doffer.
Essential Figure :

Plain Set

2.

82

Twill Set :
It is used in flat.

Twill Set

3. Rib Set :
lt is used in cylinder and doffer

Rib Set
4. Snteen Set :
It is used for special purposes.

Dilferent Actions in Carding Machin:

Carding Action :
When the wire points of two closed surface are inclined to the opposite
direction and fiber tuft weight is reduced by the relative motion of the t\yo
surfaces then the action is called carding action. Carding action occurs
between cylinder and flat.

(i)

83

(ii)

Stripping Actions
When the wire points of two closed surface are inclined to the same
dircction and both the surfacs mtate to dre opposite direction then the action
is called stripping action. Stripping action occurs between taker-in and
rylinder.

(iii) Dolfing Action:

When the wire points of two closed surfac.e are inclined to the opposite
direction and both the surfac rotate to the same direction then the action is
called doffing action. Doffrng action occurs between cylinder and doffer.

Combing Action:
This action take place between feed roller and taker in. Here pin
direction is same.

Working Principle of a Carding Machine:

At first lap fiom blow room is fitted to the lap stand. With the rotation of
lap roller, the lap on rolled and prociding forward through feed plate and feed
roller to the talier in. Feed roller control the lap to be feed. Taker in roller
which is covered by sharp wire point like saw teeth moving at a speed of900
to 1100 rp.m.When laps comes in contact to the taker - in tum come in
contact to the cylinder. The cylinder of 50 diameter is moving faster then
taker - in.
Essential Figure:

Essentiel Parts:

l.

Lap stand

2. I^ap rcller
3. Feed plate
4. Feed roller
5. Taker-in
6. Cylinder
7. Flats

8. Doffer
9. Stripping roller

10.
I

Conveyor roller

l. Crushing roller/l-ong calender roller

12. Calendar roller

13. Coiler head
14. Can
|

5. Mote Knife

16. Taker-in under cage

17. Cylinder under cage
18. Back plate
19. Front plate

20. Flat strip comb

Taker-in Region:
The region from lap roller up to the cylinder is known

as

taker-in region.

Tasks:

(i) To unwind the lap continuous feed without uncontrolled stretching.

(ii) To eliminate the impurities.

(iii)

To transfer the fibers as evenly (both transversely) and

(longitudinally) as possible.
(iv) To perform the primary cleaning and opening ofcotton fiber.
Specification of Taker-in Region:
(i) Taker-in roller dia : 9-9.5

(ii) Speed:300-600 r.p.m

(iii) Wire point direction: Anticlockwise
(iv) Surface speed: 1000 ft /mioute
The Cylinder and Flat Regionr
The cylinder is usually manufactured from cast iron but it is now sometimes
made of steel.

Tasksr
(a) Back

(D
(iD

Plater
To hold the fiber on cylinder.
To prevent the development ofindefinable air current.

@) Top Feather Edge Sheet:

It conhols the weight and thickness of the flat ship.

(c) Cylinder Stripping Door:
This door is used to strip the wire point ofcylinder.
(d) Bottom Sheet:
Work like back sheet
(c) Cylinder Under casing:

85

(i) Remove dust by.

(ii) To maintain constant airflow.

Flst3-

'Ihe bars ofthe flats are made of cast iron and are sonie what longer
than operating with ofthe card since to left and right ofthe main cylinder
they rest on adjustable bands and must slide on these guide surface.

Tasks:

(i) Opening the flocks to individual fibers.

(ii) Elimination of remaining impurities.
(iii) Elimination of same of tre short fiber.
(iv) Distangling of nePs.
(v) Dust removal.
(vi) High degree of longitudinal orientation ofthe fibers.
Specification of FIal:
Flat width: 7/4"
No of flats:100- 120
Wire point direction: Clockwise
Surface speed : 2-7 inclr/ minute

Faults in Carding:(a) Sliver variation:

Ceuse: (i) Inegular feed.
(ii)Uneven feed .
t iii)Damaged or ecentric feed roller:
Remedies:
(i) Regular and even fceding.
(ii) Grinding doffer , making effective feed roller and calendar roller.
1iii.1 Controlling tension is delivery region.
b)

Cloudy Web :

Causes:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

Overloading of wires.
Damage taker-in wires.
Excessiveproduction,
Feed plate st too far from taker-in.

Taker-in under casing set too from iaker - in.

Wide setting between cylinder and flat.

Remedies:

(i) Grinding the orange ofcard.

(ii) By correction the error setting.

(iii) Improvement

feed roller grip.

86

c) High Nep Count:

Causes:
(i)
lncorrect setting (e.g.: doffer to cylinder, cylinder to flat etc).
(ii) Damaged cylinder , doffer or taker-in..
(iii) Dull or damage flats.
(iv) Wider setting between flat and cylinder or doffer and cylinder or
taker-in and cylinder.
(v) Excessive cylinder loading.
(vi) Tbo high a relative humidty.

Remedies:
(i) Conection the incorret setting.
(ii) Grinding wire points.
(iii) Maintaining R. H%.

(iv) For cotton R.H 45-55%, Temp' 70-800 F

(v) For synthetic, R.H 55-56% ,Temp' 80-90'F
(d) More Cylinder Loading:
Causes:

(i) Doffer set too far from cylinder.

(ii) Dirty cylinder wirc.
(iii) Local damage on cylinder wire.
(iv) Flat setting too close.

(c)

(v) Double thickness being Ged at the selvedge.

Broken or Malformed Selvedge:

Causc-s:

(i) Card feed too wide.

(ii) Accumulation fiber between card framing and undercasing.
(iii) Leakage ofoil and grease from bearin!.
(iv) Rough and broken under casing.
(v) Wrong lengtfi ofunder casing.
(f) Exeessive Blowout:
Causes:

(D
(ii)
(iii)

Improper setting ofunder casing.

Broken bars in the casing.
Cylinder bends incorrectly st.

(g) Dissppea.ring Web:

Causes:
(i) Under casing nose too Iong for the type of material being carded.
(ii) Dull on damaged doffer.
Strip too Heavy:
Flat
@)
Causes:
(i) Front Plate top edge setting to cylinder too wide.

87

(ii)Overloaded cylinder.
(iii) Excessive speed ofcylinder.
(i) Takenin Snatch;
Cnuees:

(i) Wom feed roller bearings.

(ii) Bend side shaft.
(iii) Feed roller to feed plate sefring too wide.
(j) Loss in Yarn Strength:
Causes:
(i) Crush roller pressure too high.
(ii) Excessive taker-in speed.
(iii) Incorrect type of taker-in wire.

(iv) lnsufficient flat strip.

Carding Mathematical Problems
Find out the production per day in lbs ofa modem carding machine from
following data :

l.

Dofferspeed=200m\min
Delivery sliver weight = 68 grains \ yds
Waste = 3 %

Efficiency = 95 %
Tension draft

l.l

Solo:

Given that ,
Delivry speed : 200
Delivery

m / min

- 200 x l.O9 yds / min

weight :68 grlyds
68
7000

Efficiency

lbs/yds

95
957o

lo0

We know,
Prod' per day = Delivery spced x 60 x ?4 x Efficiency x Delivery Weight x
Tension Draft

'

,,

,#

, IOO
No. ofcards x

os

-(2oo\ 1.09)'60r24,((--ffi
:3091.13 lbs. (Ans.)

Wasteg/"

too

| x t.1,, t,

(Lff;f )

88

2. A carding machine runs rvith following

r.p.m ofthe feed roller = 1.5

r.p.m ofthe feed doffer = l0
dia ofthe feed roller = 2.25
dia ofthe feed doffer = 27
hank = 0.14

etr = 95%o
Find out the mechanical draft and production

We know,
Solo:
Surface speed ofthe delivery roller

Mechanical draft=
Surface speed ofthe feed roller

Surface speed of of doffer

or. Meenantcat

dran='

or, Mechanical

draF

* r.p.m ofthe feed doffeu dia ofthe

II
II

or, Mechanical

Surface speed ofthe feed roller

* r.p.m ofthe feed roller x dia ofthe ferd roller

flx

10x27

dmft= il , lJ 225
^.
= 80 (Ans.)

llx
So,

or,

DN x 60 x Efficiency

Production =

36x 840x Hank

llx27 x l0 x 60 x

90

Production =

36x 840x 0.14 x 100

=

feed dofler

ll.4l

lbs \ hn.( Ans.)

89

3. Find out the sliver hank

Lap weighl = l4 ozs \ yds

Draft

'Wast-2

ofa carding machine fiom the following

100

= 4Y.

Sol':

We know , Delivery hank actual drafi x feed hank

So , sliver hank = actual draft x lap hank
(Mechanical draft x 100

or, Sliver

hank =

or, Sliver hank

l0O

waste 9/o)

(100 x 100 )

100

- 4)

10000

L
x (-x-)

lw
t1

x (-x-)

840
I

14\16
16

oq Sliver hank
96

t4

0.1416 Ne (Ans.)

DRAWING
Drawing:
A process in short staple spinning in which the sliver are blended, doubled,
leveled and drafted by passing the sliver through a series of pairs of rollers
each pair moving faster than the previous one is called drawing .
Object ofDrawing:
(i) To straighten the crimped and hooked fibers in the card slivers.
(ii) To achieve a fairly through paralization of the fibers along the sliver
axis so that when they come to be spun on the spinning frame they will be
evenly drafted and twisted to product and acceptable yam.
(iii) To improve the short medium and long term unevenness ofthe sliver
by doubling.
(iv) To produce a more uniform sliver.
(v) To reduce the weight per unit lengtlr ofthe card sliver.
(vi) To reduce irregularities of fiber by doubling and drafting.
(vii) To remove dust from fiber.
(viii) To make perfect blending ofthe sliver.
(ix) To mix the fibers more intimately by doubling several slivers.

90

Oraw frame

l)raw Frame:
Draw frame is very much important because it does the following takes:

Ta-sks of the

(i) Equalizing.
(ii) Fiber orientation.
(iii) Blending.
(iv) Dust removal.
Definition of Differtnt Terms of Draw Frame:
Doubling:The process of combing two or more sliver rovings or yams into one is
called doubling. This term is not restricted to the combination of two units
only.

Draft:
The ratio between the surface speed of the feed roller to delivery roller is
called draft.

Drafting:
The action ofreducing the thickness or linear density ofthe feed material by
drawing is known as drafting. The feed material may be sliver, lap ,slubbings

,rovings etc.

Crceling and Dofling:

The operation of replacing the cans of feed material at the back of the
machine and joining the new can full ofsliver to the old is known as creeling
and that of removing the full delivery cans from the front of the machine is
known as dofiing.

Working Principle of a Draw fnme:

Sliver from carding machine are feed to the first drawing m/c. In these
sliver fibers remain in entangled and inclined from. The purpose of drawing

9l

fram is to make the fiber saaight and parallel to each other along the axis of
the sliver. For this reason 6 to 8 carded sliver con fram carding m/c are feed
to the back side ofthe draw frame.
Cmel

.),

Chater do0r

Bacl g,"6no Flonl

Roll6r

Rollr

Ttumbed

Sliver from the can move forward over the crel to

zone ofdraw frame. The drafting zone consist
pair
picture.
of roller like
of four
In every pair , tlrere is a top and a button
roller Top roller is made of iron but covered with synthetic rubber may be
called as cot roller. On the other hand button roller is niade of galvenised
steel and nrake fluted on its surface for better gripping the fibers.
Bottom roller arc driven directly from the gear of thc top roller moves with
the surlace contact of the bottom roller In drafting material are subjected to
draft of6 to 8 times to from a single sliver. As a result the fibers are subjected
the back roller

ofthe drafting

to draft of 6 to 8 lime to form a single sliver As a result the fibers are

subjected to various stretching to make itself straight and parallel to each
other. After the drafting zone the drafted materials are passed through the
trunrped to fonn sliver again and passed through a pair of calendar roller and
finally eollect in a can by coil fronr by means ofcoiler head.
In drafting zone pressure is to be applied on the top roller or cot roller by
means of spring system or feed weight system and a clearer cloth is fitted on
the surface oftop roller to clean the rollcr continuously.

Feature ofa Modern I)raw Frame:

A Modem Draw Frame Should Have the Normal Features Listed Below:

(i) Elimination of

mechanical causes of irregularity. Provides electrical

control aulolevelling which gives and maintains higher degree of regularity
in drawn sliver.

(ii) Iligh

speed running up to 1200

ff/min for combed sliver.

(iii)
(iv)

fl:/rn

in delivery for combed sliver and 450

The drafting systenl to cut out drafting faults there by giving belter sliver.
Pneumatic suction device for removal dust.

(v) Almosr entire climination ofthe

need

oflubrication.

92

(vi)

Stop motions at strategic points to stop the m/c when needed.

Lalger cans for efficient operation. The sizes increased up to 24x48 inch on the
two delivery and 24x48 inch on the single delivery draw frame.
(viii) Increased height ofthe machine and no. of delivery reduced fiom 8 to 2 or l.

(vii)

(ix) Automatic

can changers for both the single and two delivery drawframes.

(x)

The machine is more massive than formerly and that the working parts are
particulaly will be enclosed by smooth cover which are easy to wipe down.
(xi) More machine per operatives and linle attention is needed so reduces labor cost.
(xii)lmproved top arm weighting system ( pneumatic , hydraulic etc).
(xiii) Fluted Bottom roller provide better grippings and large dianreter of bottom
roller eliminates changes ofroller lapping etc.

(xiv) Predetermined length ofsliver in the can.

(xv) Use ofhelicalgears and anli- liiction bearings provides smoorh running.
(xvi) In modem draw frame the draft is no longer adjustment by enhancing gear
whetls but by simple setting ofvariation drives.
(xvii) Modem draw frame are more flexible in terms of the raw material thev can
process.

Roller Setting:
The distance from the center ofone roller to the center of
another roller is called roller setting. In a draw frame it is necssary to space
the rollen a certain distanc apafl.

'

Standard Roller Settine for a Drawframe:

+ a to 1 in.r,.
-164
Middle zone Effective lenefi + f to 1 in"f,.
8 16
5
ll .lnch.
Back zone Effective length + -to
l6
8
Front zone Effective lensth

Facton in Determination of Roller Setting:

(i) The staple length ofcotton.
(ii) The bulk ofthe material being fed.
(iii) The frictional properties of the fibres.
(iv) Draft used.
Drafting System Used in Modern Drawframe:
(i) Conventional 4 -over-4 roller drafting system.
(ii) 3 -over- 4 roller drafting system.
(iii) 3 over- 4 roller drafting with pressure bars.

93

(iv) 4- over- 3 roller drafting with pressure bars.

(v) 5 -over- 4 roller drafting arrangements.
Drafting Weve:
The fibers in the sliver are not all the same length and are not perfectly
straight and parallel. When this sliver is passed through drawing rollers the
short fibers causes of an alternate thick and thin place due to their irregular
movement through the passage. This thick and thin places gives a wave like
surface in the sliver which is called drafting wave.
Causes of Dralting Wave:
(i) Sliver contains cotton ofdifferent length for which drafting wave may
be created.

(ii) When the fibers in the sliver are not perfectly

straightened and

parallel.

(iii) When roller seting

(iv) When roller setting

is much less than the lengtlr

is wider enough.

ofthe longest fibers.

(v) For containing excessive floating fibers in sliver

(vi) For containing more short fibers in sliver.

(vii) lfdraft in one zone is too small.

(viii) t'or the roller vibration.
(ix) Roller slip at the drarvframe.
(x) Irrcgular motion oftop roller.
l'actors Upon Which the Drafting Arrangement Depends:
(i) Diameter of the rollers.
(ii) Hardness ofthe top rollers.

(iii)

Pressure exerted by rhe top rollers.

(iv) Surlace characteristics ofthe top rollers.

(v) Flutting ofthe bottom rollers.
(vi) Type and form of fiber guiding devices such as pressurc rods, pin
bars, aprons, condenser etc.

(vii) Roller setting.

(viii) Distribution ofdraft between the various drafting stages.
Roller SIip:
If the top and bottom roller are not in contact with one another but are
separated by the thickness ofthe sliver the top roller is therefore driver by the
bottom one through the cotton and if the top roller is properly set up it tums
freely in its bearing and its surface speed is same as that of the sliver. l'he
slip therefore occurs between the bottom roller and the slivers. When the
friction between the roller and the cofton is insuflicient to draft tlre sliver in
the middle zone the. sliver slip back wards on the hottom roller and
consequently all the slivers and the top roller move at a lorver speed than the

94

bottom roller This kind ofslip is called roller slip.

Reason of Roller Slip:
(i) If lhe top and botlom roller are not in contact.

(ii) When the friction between top and bottom roller and the cotlon is
insufficient to draft sliver.

(iii) This effect is most pronounced when parallelism of fibers has not
been achieved at the first and second draw frame.

(iv) It is also most pronounced for coarse sliver say for those coarser than
0.17 hank, because the bulk material bet\r'en the roller is too
greater for the fibers to be drarvn forward by the rollers.

(v) lrregelular motion of the 2d top roller which is on by the two_major

drafting forces ofvarying magnitude in the 2tu zone.
Factors that Affect Roller Slip:
(i) Bulk of the fibers.
(ii) Nature of fiber.
(iii) Center to center distance ofthe two pairs ofrollers.
(iv) Degree oforientation ofthe fibers in the malerial.
(v) The amount ofdraft between the two pairs.
(vi) Condition ofthe roller including hardness oftop synthetic covering.
(vii) Speed with which the drafting is taking place.
(viii) Amount of weighting on the top rollen.
Autolevlling System in Drawframe:
Auto leveller is an additional device which is rneant for correcting the
linear density variations in the delivered sliver by changing either the main
draft or break draft ofthe drafting system, according to the feed variation.
There are rwo types of aolevelling system. They are .
(i) Open loop sysiem and
( ii) Closed loop system.
Autolvelling System in Drawframe Operate in Accordance Withr
(i) Open loop control
(ii) Closed loop control and
(iii) Combined system.
Stop Motion Drawframe:
(i) Mechanical stop motion
(ii) Electrical stop motion.
Use of Stop Motion:
) Sliver runs out from the creeled can.
) Sliver breaks in the rolls.
i) Lap up the drafiing rolls.
I ) Choke in the sliver collecting plate and funnel.
(v) Choke is the trumpt above the calendar roller.

95

(vi)

Lap up on the calendar roll.

(vii) Choke in the coiler tube.
(viii) Opening ofthe head and door.

(ix) Full can contains

ined amount of sliver.

(x) Additional stop motions are provided for automatic can changing and
a pre -determ

auto Ieveling.
Dificrtsca Bctw.rtr C8rdcd Sliycr rtrd Drrwn Sllycr
Scrial

Cirdcd SUv.r

Drrwn Slivcr

Fibrs are oriented in all direction.

Many fibers are projected out 8om

Fibers are oriented to the sliver a\is.

sliver.

sliver.
No Hmks formcd; straight.
More regular.
Less rhick.

No.

0l
02

Hooks formed.

03
04

Irresular unit leneth

05

More thick.

trss fibers arc projerted out

fiom

in Drawframe:
(l) End Missing:

Faults

When 6 to 8 sliver are doubled in the draw frame one of them may be
broken down. So doubling will not be proper and fine sliver will produce.
Causcs:
(a) If stop motion dose not work.
(b) Carelessness ofthe operator.
Remedies:
(a) Stop motion must be in working condition.

(b) Operafor should be careful.

(2) Irregular Drafting:

Iregular drafting will give irregularities in the drawn sliver. So sliver
may contains thick

thin places variation in count along the sliver etc.

Causes:

(a) Incorrect setting of the drafting rollers for the staple being
processed.

@) Wrong distribution of draft in the drafting zone.

(c) Roller vibration.
(d) Nip movernent due to eccentric rollers.
(e) Ecentrically bored gear or carelessly enlarged bore in the gear
which gives periodic in the sliver.
(f) Roller slip.
(g) When roller weights are wholly or partially offthe top roller.
(h) When stop motion fails to work incase ofsliver break,

lapping and empty can.

(i) Tension draft between front drafting roller and calendar roller
and coiler calendar roller.
Remedies:
(a) Corect roller setting.

(b) Conect distribution ofdraft.

(c) The various reasons such as bent roller wom bearing etc be removed.
(d) Correct bore in th gears.
(e) Roller slip should be prevented.
(f) Roller weighting should be checked.
(g) Top roller should be vanished for regular diameter.
(h) The m/c must stop instantly in case of sliver breakage , lapping and
empty can.
(i) At the final drawframe the besl tension draft varies from 0.95 to 1.03
for various cotton shorter lenglh to longer lengths. The web tension
drall at the first passage ofdrarving should alu,ays be less than that at
the latter passages.
(3) Roller Lapping :
When sliver passes through the drafting rollers, sometimes the fibers are
snarls with the roller specially bottom roiler. This is roller lapping.
Causes :

Oil on the roller covering.

b. Craked roller surface.
c. Rollers standing for a long time after revarnishing and cracked
a.

down.
d. Roller flutes contains wax, broken leafetc.
e. Rough calendar rollers and wax on their surfaces.

f.
p-

Excessive relative humidity percentage.

Roller lapping is most Iikely to occur in the processing oflong
cotton particularly when they are combed and the front roller
speed is high ( about 120 ft/min).

Remedies :
(a) The roller covering should be liee from oil and wax.
(b) The covering should be will vamished.
(c) Correct sefting ofcrmen clearer.

(d) Damaged mller should be replaced and any impurlties in the

mller futtings to be cleaned.

9t

(e) Rough culender roller surfaces require vamishing and aay wax
as thern to be removed.

(f) Conect relative humidity percentage.

(g) Adjust correct roller speed for long staple.
(4) Irregular Selvedges :
Causes :

(a) Roller weights not applying their full pressure to the top mller when
*re machine is in operation.
(b) Insufficient weighting ofthe top roller.
(c) Certain classes ofcotton are also liable to give irregular selvedges.
(d) Irregular roller surface speed.
Remedies

(a) The weight releving motion should be checked to ensure that the
weights are cleare ofthe weight bar.
(b) Conect the roller weighting.
(c) Use selvedges guides betrveen the first and second roller when the
fault is due to the cotton itself.

(5) Fuzzing at the Tube Wheel Bore

Causes:
Impurities or roughness in the tube wheel bore,
Remedies :

i. Polish the bore.

(6) Fuzing at th Fmnt Roller
Causes :-

(a) Higher front roller speed for combed sliver where

greater

parallelism and Straightening are achieved.

Remedies:
(a) Reduce front roller speed to 120
(7) Impurities An Sliver :
Causes:

(a)

ft/min

on tradition drarvframe.

Insufficient cleaning occasioned by incorrect setting

of the various

clearcn.
(b) Wom clearer cloths.
Remedies :(a) 1'he clearer setting and the condition of the cloth should be checked.

98

Mathematical Problems About l)raw Frame

l. Find out the DCP to produce 60 gr \ yd sljver from 62 gr \ yd sliver

if

Delivery speed = 400 m\min

No of doubling = $
Draft constant = 320
Soln:

Civen that,
Feed Weight = 62 gr
Delivery Weight = 60 gr
No . of Doubling = g
Draft Constant = 320
We know

Draft

Constant

Draft=
DCP

or, DCP

Draff

Constant

-----------------------(,
Draft

Again , we know,

fed Weight

Draft=

x No.

Delivery Weight
62

x8

or, Dmft=
or, Draft = 8.267

Now from equn we get,

320
DCP =
8.267

= 38.71

:39

( Ans.)

ofDoubling

99

2.Find the production per shift in lbs ofa modem draw Ilune , from the

following particulan:
Delivery s@ = 600 m\min
No. of delivery \ frame= 2
Draft = E
No. of doubling E
Feed sliver weight = 60 gr\yds
EfiiciencY = 90%
Soln:

lQjllen that ,
Delivery speed = 600 m \ min
Feed

weight:

= 600 x 1.09 yds \ min

60 gr\yds
90

F)flicicncy=9OoZ=100

No.

ofdelivery

frame= 2

Fed Weight

x No. ofDoubling

Drafl=
Delivery Weight
I

Fed Weight

or, Delivery Weight-

x No, ofDoubling

or, Delivery Weight=

x8

= 60 gr\yds

So,

60

ttlivery Weight=

lbs\yds
7000

Protlnper shiR: Delivery speed x

DeliveryF rame
=(60ox 1.09)x60,8

:4843.34

60,

Efficie.cy

'

90
60
x(--) x (-)x2
t00
7000

lbs. ( Ans.)

Delivery Wcight x No. of

SII}IPLEX
Simplex Machine

MACIIINE

lOO

The nrachine where the sliver is subjected to one or more attenuating process
and the attenuated sliver receives a small antount of twist and is then wound
on bobbins suitable for creeling at next process.

Objects or functions ofspeed frame:

Attenuation of drawframe, Silver to form roving of required hank by
drafting.
Insert small amount of twist to give required strenght ofroving.
Winding the twist roving on to the bobbin.
Build the roving in bobbin such a form, which will facilitare handling with

drawing and transfer to the next process.

Other Name of Simplex Machine :

(i) Fly frame
(ii) Roving framc

(iii)

Speed Frame

Main Operations of Simplex Machine :

(a) Drafting:
To reduce the weight per unit length by drafting i.e. passes of sliver through
three or four pair ofroller ofdifferent speed.
(b) Tivisting:
To make tum widrin the fiber ofthe drafted material to hold them together.
(c) Winding:
To wound the roving or to the upright bobbin in a particular manner so that it
can be used in the next machine easily.

(d) Building :
By this process the roving is wound in full length of the bobbin in such a
form which will facilate handling , transfer and feeding to ring frame.

Auxillary Functior.*s of Roving

Freme,

to'

(a) Creeling :
By this process the drawn sliver is introduced to the draft zone from sliver
can manually.

(b) Dof[ng:
Dofiing is to replace an empty bobbin at lhe place of fully wound bobbin.
Features of Modern Simplex Machine :
(i) Capable of imparting higher draft ( upto 20)
(ii) Absence ofnoise and sound while running.
(iii) Higher speed inreases production upto 50o4.
(iv) Offen higher output package capacity.

Working Principle of Simplex Machine

The sliver can from finisher drawing is set at the back side of the simplex
machine. There are 90 to 124 spindle in this machine .One sliver can use for
each spindle. The sliver frorn the can passes over the guide roller and enter
into drafting zone through a roving guide.

Simplex Machine

102

The drafting zone consist ofa pair of top and bottom roller like draw
frame. In modem machine , synthetic rubber aprone is used in drafting
for letter control of fibers. The drafted material is to pass through flyer
eye and then through the hollow leg of the flyer to around on the
bobbin by flyer pressure.Finally bobbin produced in around on to an
upright plastic or wooden bobbin by special mechanism to make
conical shape at each side the bobbin suitable for creeling in the next
machine i.e. ring frame. in this machine.
Faults in Speed Frame :
A. Irregular Roving :
(i) Inegular draft
(ii) Top roller dia variation.
(iii) Pressure variation.
(iv) Incorrect pressure.
(v) Rough surface ofapron.
(vi) Improper roller setting.
B. Roving Brocakage:
(i) tension variation
(ii) Irregular roving
(iii) Pressure arm variation.
(iv) Improper cleaning of flyer.
Remedies :Revese action ofcauses should be applied.
C. Slii'er Breakage :
Causes:
(i) Excessive creel draft.
liiy Inrproper coiling ofsliver in can.
1iiil Positioning of rhe can.
Remedies : Reverse action ofcauses should be applied.
D. Sloughing Off : Improper tapper end.
Causes : Improper tapper wheel.
Remedies : To ensure proper tapper rollller .
E. Roller Lapping :
Causes :
Stickness formetion:
(i) Roller surface wetty.
(ii) Roller surface excessive dry.

103

(iii)

Dust deposited on roller.

Remedies : Reverse action ofcauses should be applied.

Double roving
F. Unequal Tapering :
Causes :
(i) Improper \ wrong angle olpoocker rod.
(ii) Different lifiing and lowering distance due
building motion.
Remedies : Reverse action should be taken.
G, Slub roving.
H. Soft Bobbin :
Causes :
(i) Winding on speed is less than front roller delivery.
(ii) Less tension on roving during winding.
(iii) Less coils \ inch i.e. if top rail speed is too high
excesssive spacing between adjaccnt coils.
Remedies :
(i) Proper rate of lifting of LCP.
(ii) Proper winding on speed.
(iii) Proper tension on roving during winding.

to faulty

it

results

I. Oil Stained \ Dirty Roving :

Causes :
(i) Excessive oiling of machine parts.
(ii) Insufficient machine cleaning.
(iii) Cracked bobbin and careless handling.
J. Hard Rving Bobbin.
K. Ridgt Bobbin.
Mathematical Problems of Simplex Machine
l. A simplex have 120 spindle running with a speed of 1200 r.p.m. ,
what will be the production of the machine per shift at 907o efficiency
. When roving court 1.5 and T.M of roving is 1.3.

104

Soln:

Given that ,
No ofspindle = 120
Spindle speed: 1200 r.p.m.

EfficiencY: QQT'

Time ofprod" 8hrs

Roving count= 1.5
T.M= 1.3
We know, T.P.I T.M x (Count)lu
= 1.3 x (1.5)ru

:1.59

Spindle r.p.m x

60 xE x

No.of spindl

Production Per Shift

Effn

T.P.lx36xE40xCount
1200

x60 x8xl20

1.59 x 36 x 840

90
100

1.5

1064.85 lbs ( An s.)

For Tex

T-P.M .

'I"F

(Couot) M
Spindie r.p.m x 60

Prdn Per

Shift

8 x No. of Sfin,Jic

, Efin

for Tex =
T.P.I x 39.37

1200x60x8xl
1.59 x 39.37

99376s ( Ans )

20

90

l0

105

RING FRAME
The Objects of Ring Frame :
(i) To draft the roving fed to the ring frame.

(ii) To impact the strength to the fiber strand by twisting.

(iii) To rvind up the resulting yarn on to bobbin.
(iv) To build up the yarn on to bobbin in form of a suitable for
storage , transporation and processing'

Main Ope rations of Ring Machhe :

(a) Creeling :
By this process the drawn sliver is introduced to the draft zone from slivcr
can manually.

(b)Drafting:
To reduce the weight per unit length by drafthrg i.e. passes of sliver through
three or four pair of roller ofdifferent speed.

(c) Tlvisting:
To make turn within the fiber ofthe drafted materialto hold them together.

(d) Winding:
To wound the roving or to the upright bobbin in a particular manner so that
can be used in the next machine easily.
(e) Building

it

By this process the roving is wound in full length of the bobbin in such a
form which will facilate handling , transfer and feeding to ring fram
(f) Creeling :
By this process the drawn sliver is introduced to the draft zone from sliver
can manually.

(f) Dofling:
Doffing is to replace an empty bbbin at the place of fully wound bobbin.
Featurcs ofA Good Ring:
(i) Best quality raw material.
(ii) Good but too high surface smoothness.

(iii) An even surface.

(iv) Exact round ness.

106

(v) Good running condition.

(vi) Good , even surface hardness , higher than traveler.

(vii) Good operating life time.
(viii) Correct relationship between ring and bobbin tube diameter
(ix) Horizontal disposition.
(x) It should be exactly centered relative to the spindle.

Ring spinning machine:

Working Principle :
drafring assmbly

n-

.----

.tl

ffnaJ

spinning cop

l liis is conparatively the oldest spinning technique and is therefore also

referr'ed to as the classical or conventional process.
F'iber materi:rl supply to the ring spinning nrachine is in the form of a
roving. lts fiber nrass is reduced in a drafting unit. The twist inserted nroves
backvvards and reaches the fibers leaving the drafting unit. The fibers lay
around one another in a heliocoidal manner. The norrnal forces generated
here enlarge the adhesive forces between the fibers and prevent the fibers
from "flying off' under tensile strain.
A driven spindle, on which the yam package (tapered bobbin tube $,irh
yam) firmly sits, is responsible for twist. Around the spindle is a stationary
ring. Yam from the drafting unit is drawn under a traveler (a small metal
piece), freely moving of the ring, and then led to the yam package. This
traveler, lagging because ofthe yarn drag on it, is responsible for winding-on
the yam. A controlled up and down movement of the ring determines the
shape ofthe yarn package, called a cop or spinning bobbin.
With the ring spinning technique all kaown yam counts can b spun and
thus the entirc count range is covered ( 0.3 Ne to 148 Ne or4 tex to 2000 tex)

r07

Compared to other spinning methods the ring spinning technique.

however, has the lowest performance with a maxintum of about 20 m/min.
One significant reason for this is that the entire yam package must insert the
full amount of twist into the yarn, it therefore caflnot become too large, Twist
insertion and yam rvind-on take place in one continuous process. The method
used for this leads to large yam tensions and tensions fluctuations with
increasing package diameters and prevents the productions of large packages.
Thus the running length ofyam ofa cop is relatively short.

Recent Development of Ring Frame :

(i) Improved drafting system.
(ii) Iligher no. of spindle about 1008 spindles.
(iii) Higher draft range about upto 100' 200'
(iv) Data collection system , ring data systern.
(v) Spindle data system after spinning the ring bobbins are
transflerred to wind selection through conveyer belt.
(vi) Grooved ! in cylinder which reduce t-in cylinder'
(vii) Tangential belt drive rvhich drives many spindles.
(vii) Inverter speed controller.

(viii) Auto doffing.

(ii) Auto piecing : 60 -70% Piecing.
(x) Direct two ply in the oil bath.
(xi) Higher spindle sPeed.
Mathematical Problems About Ring Frame
l. ln a ring frame 30 Ne carded yam is to be spun in which spindle speed is
17000 r.p.m and there are 504 working spindles. If the machine mns at 90lo
elliciency and twist multiplier is 4.6. Find out its production in lbs\shift..

Soln:

Given that ,
No of working spindle = 504
Spindle speed= 1700O r.p.m.
Etlicienc5 95%
Time of prod' = 8hrs
Yam count= 30

T.M:4.6
We knorv,

T.p.l: 1.14 x (Counr)t,2

= 4.6x (30)ru
:25.195

108

Again , We know,
Spindle r.p.m

xfg xg x No.ofspindle

hoduction Per Shift

XEff

T.P.lx36xM0xCount

x60 xSxjM

17000

95

25.195x36xE40x30

I00

170.93 lbs(Ans.)

Find.out the required T.C.Pto produce 49 Ne cared wovcn yarn when twist

multiplier is 4.6 , existing T.C.p. is 48T and existing T.p.l. i; 2l .7.

Soltr:

Given that

Existing T.C.P.= 48 T
Existing T.P.l.=21 .7
T.M.= 4.6
Produced yam count = 40 Ne
Required T.PI.= ?
We know,
Required T.C.P x required T.p.l.
T. p.r.......................(i)

Existing T.C.p.

Again We know, Required T.P.l = T.M x (Coun|iu

= 4.6x (40)ru

=29
From (i) no. equn we get

Required T.C.P. x 29

Required

r.c.p.

48 x 2t .7

48;21'7

= 35.8
= 36 T (Ans)

existing

109

COMBING
Combing :
The process of straightening and parallelisings of fibers and the removal of
short fibers and impurities by using a comb on combs assisted by brushes and
rollers is called combing

Objects of Combing :-

(i.) To remove the fiber shorter than a predetermined length

so

as to enable the spinner to produce finer yarn.

(ii.) To remove remaining impurities in pre- comber lap which
helps in producing cleaner Yam.
(iii.) To remove neps in the carded sliver.
(iv.) To make the fiber more parallel and sfaight, so that the
yam becomes more even and lusture.
(v.) F-inally produce a uniform sliver of required weight per
unite length and collect into a can in coil form.

Perameters Influenc$ the Combing Opeartion :

Raw Material :

(i) Fiber tYPe

(ii) Fiber length
(iii) UniformitY of fiber length
(iv) Fiber stifttess
(v) Moisture content
Malerial Prcparation :
(i) Paralization ofdre fiber
(ii) Sheet $ic!'sess

(iii)

Sheet evenness

(iv) Orientation ofthe hook'

FactorA$sociated With the Machine

t0

(i) Condition of the machine

(ii) Condition ofthe can.

(iii)

Speed.

(iv) Orientation of the comb.

(v) Accuracy ofthe setting.
(vi) Drafting arangement and draft.
Machine Setting :
(i) Feed distance
(ii) Type offeed.

(iii)

De(achment setting.

(iv) Point density ofthe comb.

(v) Depth ofpenetration ofthe top comb.
(vi) Piecing.
Atmospheric Condition:
(i) Relative humidity
(ii) Moisture regain

(iii)

Room temperature

(iv) Machine.
Recent Development ofComber :
(i) l{igher production rate.
(ii) Higher lap weight can be used.
(iii) Improved modern drafting qrstem is used.
(iv) l,arger can size.
(v) Auto lubricating syslem.
(vi) Auto can changing system.
(vii) I{igher rate ofthe noil extraction.
(viii) Auto stop motion for sliver breakage , feed and roller lapping.
(ix) Noil measuring system.
(x) Production and quality monitoring system.
(xi) Fault locating system.
(xii) Diagnosis of machine stoppage.
(xiii) Gearing in oil bath.
(xi\') Timcr belr drivc.
(xv) Improved piecing mechanism.

Working Principle of Combing Machine:

All cotton com&rs operate intermittently. both ends of the fibers are
combed separately by needles and continuity ofthe stand is maintained by an
ingenious method of piecing up the separately combed hrfts, shortly the
process operate as follows:

ll3
Mathematical Pmblems About Combing
l. Find out required DCP to pmduce 3.4 ktex sl;iver from 65 ktex comhr
machine particulars are as the following,
No. of head = 8
No. ofdelivery = 2
Noil extraction = l5olo
Draft constant = 1696
Soln:

Given that ,
Delivery count = 65
Feed count= 3.4

No.ofdoubling=8
No. ofdelivery:2
Draft constant: 1696
We know,

Drafl Constart
....(i)

DCP =

Mechanic al Draft
Detivery Count x No. ofDoubling
Actual Draft
Feed

Count

x No. ofDelivery

65 x8

3.4t2
= '16.47

Again , We know,
100 -waste%

Mechanical Draft

or,

Actual Draft x

Mechanical Drafr

100

'16.47

x-

100

100

=65
Now finm (i)
r

DCP=

696
65

= 26.09

= 26 (Ans.)

. no. equation we get

15

ll2
(iv) Top comb touching the back detaching roller.
(v) Stretching on the web the sliver condensing plate.
(vi) Requirements of lubricating in top detaching roller.
(b) Curling:
Causes :

(i) Incorrect timing of detaching roller cam.

(ii) Fauhy top detaching roller covering.
(iii) Dirt in flutes ofthe steel detaching roller.
(iv) Excessive air current.
(v) Excessive brush speed.
(c) Cotton Coming Thmugh at One Head :
(i) Improper gearing ofpawl with ratchet.
(ii) Ineffective bite between nippers.
(iii) Requirements lubricatiofl on back covered detaching roller
(iv) Foreign matter accumulation in nipperjaws.
(d) Detaching Roller Lapping :
(i) Oil on roller
(ii) Sticky dirt on roller.
(iii) Defective rollr setting.
(iv) Improper atmospheric condition.
(e) Irregular Slivcr :
Causes:
(i) Defective rvearing or cylinder or top comb.
(ii) Variation of noil extractiorr.
(iii) Improper pressure in drafting roller.
(ir') Inrproper setting ofdrafting zone.
(f) l,ong Fiber in the Sliver :
Causes

(i) Faulty pre comber draft.

(ii) Faulty lap preparation method.
( iii) Improper nipping
(iv) Defective back covered dctaching roller.
(v) Foreign matler rvedge belween nipperjarvs.
(g) Waste Flocking on Needless:
Cguses:
(i) Brush loose on shafi.
(ii) Brush set too far fiom cylinder
(iii) Bent ofcylinder needle.

1r3

Mathematical Pmblems .,\bout Combing

l. Find out required DCP to produce 3.4 ktex sl;iver from 65 ktex comber
machine particulars are as the following,
No. of head = 8
No. ofdelivery = 2
Noil extraction = l5%
DraII constant = 1696
Solo:

Civen that ,
Delivery count = 65
Feed counF 3.4

No.ofdoubling=S
No. ofdelivery

Draft constant

2
1696

We know,

Draft
DCp

Constant

........................ ....... ...........(i)

Mechanic al Draft
Delivery Count x No. ofDoubling
Actual Draft
Feed

Count

x No.

ofDelivery

65 x8
3'4 '< 2
= 76.47
Again , We know,
100 -Wasteo/o

Mechanical Draft

Actual Draft x
100

or,

Mechanical DraR

100

76-47
100

=65
Now from (i) . no. equation
DCP =

1696
65

= 26.09
= 26 (Ans.)

get ,

15

I4
Calculate the prodn per day of a combing machine when

Nip\ min= 220

No. of head= 8
Feed\nip = 7n
Lap weight = 1000 frains\yds
Efficiency = 90%
Noil = l5%.
Sol':
Given that,
Nip\min= 220
Feed\min= 7mm nip

:.007m
= .007x 1.09
.00763 yds
No. ofhead : 8
Feed lap weight = 1000 grains\yds

t000
lbs\yds

Efticiency

7(r00
90elo

=*
100

Noil% = l5
Prodn pcr day =

100

Nip\min,Feed\nipxNo. ofheadxFeed Lap

=220 x.00763

xE

x-

7000
= 2113.31 lbs (Ans.)

90

I000

Weight,Eff *

- Noil%
100

100-15

100
-x
-

100

x60x

24 lbs

x 60x24

115

JUTE
Jrte:

'l-he fiber which is obtained lrom the bast layer of the planls Corchoras
capsularis and Corchorus olitorius is called jute. It is one kind of
cellulosic fiber.

Botanical Name ofJute :

i. Corchorus capsalaris ( White Jute )
ii. Corchorus olilorius ( Dark jute )
'fhses classes sre further sub- divided into numerious grades denoting quality
and other characteristies. They are

:'

i. Hibiscus canabirrt s (Mesta jute )

ii. Aburilong theopirasri ( Chinese jute )

Hibiscus sabdarffi ( Java jfie )

iY. Llruna lobula ( Congo jute )

iii.

Classificstion of Jute :
Depending on quality ofthejute,jute is classified into three types. Such as:

(i) Jatjute

(ii) District jute

(iii) Northem jute
(a) Jat Jute :

Producing Z,one : Dhakq Comilla, Mymensingh, Jamalpur, and Tangile.

Characteristics :
It is considered as best and finest in quality having strong, bald and lusters
fibers.
(b) District Jute :
It is two types. Such as :
(i) Soft District
(ii) Hard District.
1. Soft

District

Producing Zone :
Noakhali, Pabnq Barisal, Lower Comills, A Part ofDhaka.

Featurts l
This types of jute fiber becomes soft comparatively,
brightness remains less.
2. Ilard District :
Producing Dbtrict :

Faridpur.

It is oily and color

ll6
Featurcs 3
This types ofjute is better than soft district . It is famous for its color.
(c) Northern Ju& :
Producing Districts :
Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Rangpur, Bogra and Pabna.
Featurcs :
This types ofjute is most hairy and soft and has very little luster. Some
quality are heavily rooted and dark color.
In other words, jute can be classified into two type. Such as :
i. Whiie jute and
ii. Tossa jute
Symbol ofJute :
[c16H6ols],,
Chemical Components Of Jute :
Cellulose:65.2%
Hemicellulose 22.2%

Lignin:

10.8%

Water solubles I .5%

Irats and

wax:

0.3%

Chemicrl Structure of L ignin

::
OH

cl Hi

rot

or, Cdlr:00

117

Jule Grading :

The assortment of raw jute according to their quality is called jute grading.
Upon Wbich Jule Grading Depends :
The

Qualities

i. Fibcr

ProprtiB :
(i) length
(ii) srength
(iii) fineness

(iv) color
(v) lusture
(vi) roots and cleanliness
ii. Erports :
(a)

A-

Bottom

(b) B- Bottom
(c) C- Bottom
(d) X- Boftom etc
iii. Quality of Raw Jute :
(a) Pucca Grading and
(b) Kucha Grading

Grsdilq Of Tossl Jut

Pucc, Grede

Kuchi Grade

Bangle Tossa Special (B.T.S)

Top

T ossa-A ( B.T.A)
Bangle T ossa - B ( B.T.B)
Bangle T ossa - C ( B.T.C)
Banqte T ossa-D ( B'T.D)
Bangle T ossa-E ( B.T.E)

Middle

Banste

- B ottom
C - Bottom
B

X-

Bo6om

S.M.R

Pucca Grading Tossa Jute:

Bnagla Tossa SPecial:
Uniform color, golden / red, Tossa offinenest texture, very shong and very
good lusture. Completely free from any defects. Clean cut and well hackled'

BetrgleTocsr-A:

U'niform silver gtey to golden color or uniform light golden to reddish

color, fme textur, strong and good lusture, free from any defects, clean out
and well hackled.

BangleTossa-B:

Light to medium grey or reddish color, sound clean, good textur, average
lusture, defect less, clean cut and well hackled'

ll8
Bangle Tmsa

-C

Mixed colors, average strength, occasionally bark and soft speaks

allowable, but fiee faom n,nners, slighty croppy and gummy tops possible,
well cut and hackled but fre from root ends.

BangleToasa-D:
Mixed color, sverage strength, occasional bark and speck but free from
runners. Croppy and gummy tops permissible rough cut and hackled but fre
from black root ends.

BangleTossa-E:
Any color, any strength but free &om perished fibers, free from unretted
jute and stick. But bark and hard center permissible.
Gradinp of Whitc Jute
Pucca Grade
Bansle White Spcial ( B.W.S )

Kucha Grade

White -A (B.W.A)
Bangle White -- B ( B.W.B )
Bangle While -C (B.W.C)
Bangle Whitc - D( B.w.D)

Middle

Bangle

Top
B

-Bottom

-Bottom

X -Bottom

Pucca Grading of\ hite Jute :

Bangla White Special :
White or creamy, finest texture, very strong, bright, defect [ess, clean, lvell
hackled and entirely tree from red ends.

BanglaWhite-A:
White to cream, jute of fine texture, strong and very good

lusture,

completely free from any blemish, clean and free from red ends.
Bangla \Vbile -B :
Light cream to straw color, jute of good lusture, stmng and fiee fiom
blemish, clean cut and well hackled, red ends excluded.
Bangle White -C :
Light brownish, light reddish to sEaw color, clean and stsong, bright,
average lusture, free fmm hark speaks and cropp or hard gummy tops well
cut, well hackled free from black, roots, red soft ends permissible.
Bangla Wbite -D:
Any color, average strength, occasional bark and specks permissible
slightly croppy and gummy tops , permissible well cut on the hard and
hackled, red ends perm issible.

ll9
&
1

i
I

i
i\

Cradiog of Cuttings

\\1lite Jute

utite

Jute

G I rrde
C -A (B.W.C.A)
irangle white C -B ( B.W.C.B )
Pucca

Kucha G

Bangle white

S.N.C

Tossa

Bansle white

Tossa Jute

Bangle white

c
c

-A ( B,T.C.A )
-B ( B.T.C.B )

Grading of Cuttings : (Kucha )

S.N.C:
Superion Narayangonj cutting's are got
u hite jute.

by

ltt(e

N.C
T.S.N.C

T.N.C

cufting the robits of well grade

N.C:

Narayangoni cuttings is the root of low graded which jute.

T.S.N.C :
Tossa superion Narayangonj cutting is the root of the high graded tossajute.

T.N.C:
Tossa Narayangonj cuttings are the root of the

Kuche Grading Jute

low graded tossajute.

Top :
Very strong fibre, excellent color and luster, free from all dcfecls, cutting is
not mor than for u'hite l5olo and fortossa l0olo.

lliddl3

Strong sound fiber, average color for the district free from speack runners
and harsh crop

end ( white 25% and Tossa 15% )

Bottoms :
Sound fiber, medium length, free from hard centered jute ( White 30% and
Tossa 20% )

Botton l
Sound fibre, medium strenglh, not suitable for higher grade ( white 30%
and Tossa 25% ).
C-Bottotr :
Medium strength fiber, any color, free from runners and croppiness.
X-Botton !
Wealq hanh jute but free from tangledjute and stick.
Ilabijabi :
Tangled raveledjute of any sort, free from dust and cuttings.
Jute Growing Countrier :
Bangladesh , lndia, Nigeria, Africa, Brazil, Japan, Myanmar, China' and
Formosa. Bangladeshi and Indianjute are good than other producing country'

r.

r2o
F.ults ofjute
L Rooty

Fibre

The defecs occurs due to various reasons. Such as :

(a) Due to less rotteo.
(b) Due to unremoving ofthe bark and adhesive substance.

ii. Spocky Fibrcs :

the jute fibers are not rotten and washed properly, the barks adhere to the
fiber coming then speck.
iii. Cnoppy Fiber :
The top end of the fibers are rouglq black and hard due to careless steeping
for roting and for which this problem is found.
iv. Sticlry Fiber :
It is occurred due to the cutting of immatured jute plant. Because when we
separat the fibers from thejute sticks , then some pieces of sticks remained
with fiber. This problem can be removed by carding.
v, Knotty Fibers :
This ty'pes ofdefects is created due to the beating of insects to tree jute plant.
vi, Dead f itrer:
It is occurred due to the over rotting or strong in moist condition. This types
of defects decrease the strengtl of fibr.
vii. Hunka :
Hard, dried and barky jute is responsible for dris types of problem'
viii. Weak Fiber :
Over rotting is the main causr, of weak fibers, also due to undcr dying and

If

storing in nroist condition.

ix. Mossy Fiber :

IfJute plant grows in stagnant water, then this problem be shown.

x. Runners :
For carelcss steeping and washing this problem is occurred.
ri. Glossy Fiber :
Denoting the quality ofjute, which this passes a good lusture.
xii. Flabby :
Due to over retting and careless steeping this is happened.
xiii. Heart Damage :
Badly damages rotten or lendered fibers caused excess moisture in jute while
baled.

riv. Transit Or Exterion Damage :

This problem is occurred due to transport the jute bale from one place to
another by the steam of the vehicles.

I
I

121

Why Jute is Called Bast Fibre :

From the definition of bast fiber we know tha! "The fiber which is
obtained fiom the stem, bark or leaf of certain vegetables plants is called bast
fiber. Jutc fibcr is obtained from the ba* of the jute plants, so jute is called
the bast fiber.

Microscopic Structurt of Jute

There are more or less polygonal in shape with sharply defined angles.
Between two separated elements, there is a narrow medium layer.
Ultimate length: 1.5-4 mm
Dia ; 0.015 - 0.02 mm
Fibre length : 150-300 cm ( 5-12 ft )

Length: width=90:

Color : yellow to brown to grey.

Physical Properties ofJule Fiber3 :
(i.) trnglh = 0.2 inch - 30 inch
(ii.) Strength, tenacity : 5- 8 ( gm / denier )
(iii.) Density : 1.48 - 1.5 ( gm / cc )
(iv.) Elasticity : Less.
(y.) Breaking at elongation.. ZYo
(vi.) Moisture content:. 12.lo/o (standard )
(vii.) Abrasion resistance : Moderate
(viii.) Color : yellow , brorvnish, golden.
(ix.) Moisture regain : 13. 7 5 ok
(x.) Specific gravity : 1.48
(xi.) Specific heat : 0.325
(rii.) Dimensional stability : Good
(xiii.) Heat preventive power : Not Good.
Chcrnical Properties of Jute Fibers:
(i) Action \Yith Acid :
It forms hydrocellulose when heat in strong acid. Cold weak acids do not
affect it.
(ii) Action With Alkali :
Strong alkali danrage the fiber, hydrocellulose can be removed by heating
in caustic soda solution.

(iii) Action With Bleaching :

Not affected by oxidizing and reducing agent.

(iv) fffect ofSunlight

Colcr will be changed due to sunlight. This change is occurred due to lignin.
(v) f,fTec( of Organic Solvents :
Prcventive power in organic solvent is good.

(vi) Etrect of Mildew :

Mildew preventive power is good than cotton
(vii) Insects Preventiye Power :
Good

17)
and linen.

(viii) Effect of lleat

Burns rapidly, soldering red after glow.

(ix) Dye Ability :
Good affinity to basic dyes, but light fastness and wash fastness are poor

(x) Conductivity:
Moderate conductors ofheat and electricity.

End Uses ofJute Fiber:

(i.) It is used to produce bags, blanket etc.
( ii.) It is uscd to produce carpet, tufted etc.
(iii.) It is used to produce C.B.C
(iv.) l'amiliar uses for jute inctuding the following: wrapping foundation,
boot and shoc linings, cargo and other separating cloths, cables,
plastics, tilter cloths, fire curtains, hand bag, up holsters, wall
covering etc.

(v.) Used to produce tire, geo- textile.

(vi.) It is used to producejutex ( jute + cotton )

(vii.) It is used to produce paper.

(viii.) Curtain, wall matt, fumishing etc are produced by jute fibers.
(ix.) Jute fiber is used to produce twine yarn, ropes etc.
Physical and Chemical Slructure ofJute Fiber

CH,t,,,,,.

*\

/o'
, Ho-f-\-z
N

CH,CHfl'""

%_-i-A-_l_CjtL,

123

f,'low Chrrt of .Irte Yrrn And Cloth Mrnufrcturins

Selection ofJute for a Batch

pioiL - up
soft

"l

"r,inn

Jd Lrbri*tio.,

Conditionile or Pilline

Breakef ardinS
Finishlcardine
First D rawing

s""onLru*ine
rnira Ja*ing

.j",",
Weft Yam

Cop winding

Warp Winding

I
Beaming

Twisting

I
Doybling
+
Reeling

+
Bundling

Weaving

Finishing

124

Flor Charl of Hcssian Warp Y8rn Manufscturins

Input

Machine / Section / Svstem

Jute+

Selection of lute for

Output

Batch------)

lligh Craded Raw

ute

High

Craded+

Sprcatder

Roll

Spreader

Raw Jute
I

Spreader

Roll

Breaker Rol

Drawing Sliv
Drawin g

SI

Roll feed Breaker

CarC-->

rtnirt", cad

------------>
Roll---r

tinisher

Finisher

-----------)

Finisher Roll

Fint Drawing

Drawing Sliver

----+

-)---+

er--+

Drawing Sliver

Seclrnd Drawine

iver--'-'--------->

Finisher S

Drawing"-----+

IIrut

Mrhitrrs \

Jut

Sleclion ofJut

iver-----+

Finisher Drawing Slive

FramE-'-'---+

Spinning

Ilow Chart ofSackinp Wrro Yrm

Breaker Roll

Yam Sliver

rnufactu rioq

SYshm

Medium or

ulput

Graded Raw Jute

Medium Or

Gra&d

'

ilw

Raw Jute

J**,

Emulsified Loos Jute

+
Emulsified

Loos

Jute

Brmter Roll
Finisher Roll

Ila*n Sliver
Drswhg

Hand FeedBreakerCrd

Fhisher

-}

---------)

Breaka Roll

Finisher Roll

Crd

Slivu

--f

FiNl DnninS

Drawn

--+

Finishtr DrawrlB

Drawilg Sliwr

Sliver

----+

t
I

Spinnilg Frane

+sacking

\YrpYam

Flow Chrrt

of

125

SEckine Weft Yrru Mrnuf.ctudns

Itrput
Mrchim/System
------------) &ledion of ,utr

Jute

Output

kw

Graried Rrw

iutc

t ow craded Raw

Juie

------+ Sofunt
I

Emulsified toose Jute

--+Hand

Emulsified Lmsc ,ute

---)
Card

Feed treaker
I

Brealier

Roll -----------'---|

Finisher

-------.>

Card

Breaker Roll

Finisher Roll

Finisher

Roll

--------'+

First

------------'

Finisher Drawing

Dravrn

Sliver

Dra*n

Sliver

--------'-+

Drawing
+

------+
-----'-------+

Spinning Fmme

Drann Sliver
Drawn Sliver

Sacking Weft Yarn.

Batch : A blend ofdifferent types ofjute is nrade up to suit particular class

yarns being spun,

tiis

of

blend is known as batch.

Batching : All the process form preparatory to carding includes in the

bathing. It is the primary stage ofjute yam processing.
Ohjelt of Batching :
(i.) To help the fiber movement freely during processing.
(ii.) To get expected dampness and flexibility.
(iii.) To reduce hairiness or stiffness.
(iv.) To control and reduce the yam cost.
(v.) To reduce waste.
(vi.) To intermix the batch component effectively
(vii.) To produce improved graded yam.
Factors Considered for Batcb Selection :

(i.) Cost of raw materials

(ii.) Physical properties and quality ofjute.
(iii.) Availability and duration ofjute.
(iv.) Quality ofyam being spun.
(v.) The processing machineries

(vi.) Suitability ofspinning and weaving

(vii.) Customers demand and
(viii. ) Cosr ofproduction.

126

Emulsion :
An emulsion is an intimate mixture of two imnriscible liquids where one is
dispersed in small globules on the other and addition of a third substance
brings stability.

A Standard Permanetrl f,mulsion's Recipe is Given Bclow :

Water

79.50/o

Mineral oil : 20%

Emulsifier : 0.5 %
Functions of Emulsion Ingredients :(A) Function of Water:

(i.) It increases extensibility of fiber which resist fiber breakage

during processing.

(ii.) It gives sufficient dampness and flexibility.

(B) Funclion of Mineral Oil :(i.) It lubricates the fiber
(ii.) It helps free rnovement offiber during processing.
(iii.) It cleans pins and rollers ofthe machine.
(iv.) It makes fiber soften and gives good spinning property.
(C) Funcfion of Emulsifier :(i.) It removes temporary hardness of water.
(ii.) It helps emulsion to be in stable form.
(iii.) It makes droplet formation easier.
(iv.) It prevents separation ofoil from water.
(v.) It reduces surface tension
Characteristics of Good Quality Emulsion :(i.) It should be stable for certain time.
(ii.) It should have no bed effect onjute fiber.
(iii.) It should be colorless.
(iv.) It should have high softening capacity.
(v.) The droplet of emulsion should be so small that it can easily
penetrate on the fiber.
(vi.) It must be odorless
(vii.) It must be cheap and available .

Emulsion Producing Machineries :

(a) Paddle mixture and agitators ( OD Batch Mixer Machine )
(b) Homogenizers
(c) Colloid mills
(d) Ulaasonic emulsion plant.

Objects of Emulsion PIant :

(i) To produce emulsion mixing oil and water.
(ii) To keep the proper ratio ofoil and water.

127

(iii)

To reach the emulsion to softener or spreader drachine.

(iv) Emulsion is produced in such a way for which emulsion can be k6 for 24 hours.

Clmk Length

3-

When clock pointer moves one complete revoluiion during this time feed
roller feeds certain length offiber This length is known as clock length.
Clock length = p6volution no. offeed roller x Circumference offeed roller.
Clock length can be changed according to our need.
Dollop Weight : When clock pointer moves one complete revolution during
this fixed weight ofjute fibers is feed ro the machins. This fixed weight of
jute is known as dollop welght . It always be constant for uniform feeding.

Draft

s@

The ratio ofsurface

ofdelivery roller and surface speed offeed roller
or delivery hank and feed hank is called draft.
Surfac speed

Dmft

ofthe delivery roller

=
Surface speed

offeed roller

Delivery hank
Feed hank
Fed

Te\
( Jute )

Delivery Tex

Lead Percentage : The ratio ofthe difference between faster surface speed
and slower surface speed to the slorver surface speed expressed in percenlage
is called lead percentage.
Faster surface

speed Slower surface

speed

LeadYo

I00

Slower surface speed

Pilling \ Conditioning :
The process by which after applying emulsion
condition for certain time is called pilling.
Objects of Pilling :

jute is stored at a specific

(a) To soften and split up ofjute fiber.

1b) To loosen the fiber
(c)'Ib convert the rooty material into spinnable fiber

128

Automatic Balch Mirer ( James Mackie and Sons Ltd):

The 'OD' batch mixer is a simple automatic machine
for producing stable batching emulsion forjute. 11te percentage of emulsion ,
oil and waler are i:ccurately and automatically measured by volume. The
prcentage of oil and emulsifier can be easily adjusted with in a wide range
by setting relevant pointer on the emulsifier and oil scale.
Essential Figure :

When adjusled the m\c automatically adds the requird percentage ofwater,
oil and emulsion to complete predetermined amount of emulsion each time.
At first emulsifier and equal quantity of mineral oil arc placed in the mixing
tank and mixed them into jetly take substances with the agitator which is
driven by a motor about tex minuts . Remaining oil is then added slowly and
agitator runrling approximately 35 minutes. Then water of required irmount is

slowly addod and agitator running approximately for 20 minutes. When

emulsion is completed , the mlrture is ptrmped to the reserver tank for supply
to the machine.

Spreeder Machine

Objecb!
(a) To comb and open the pieced out oflong reeds ofjute.
(b) To convert them into an even and continuous sliver which
receives an even application ofbatching emulsion.

ln

sliver.

(c) To prcpare ribbon like

(d) To remove some dirt , sands and jute sticks.

Working Principle :

The machine consist of two sectlons slow chain and a fast chain. Jute is
feed
rynyllly on the feed lattice and a slave poinrer regulates this feeding.
After feeding the material enters the slow section via a pair of flutted feed
roller. In slow section , it is carried over a slow moving gill bed or pin bed.
The fibers are pressed on this pin - bed by three heary lantem rollers. This
gill bed contains 32 gill bars. Then the materials goes to fast section or
combing section which is formed by a gill bed with l0
12 times faster
than slow sections. Generally draft is 10.
Essential Figurr :

Ldnm

rtitxth.d,orr6.

rc{rr

Fbuod

ddi^c

rcllor

I \

#hft#4ffis**
066,,"",",,

'lhen it goes to conductor plate while emulsion is

applied on it.After
spraying enrulsion , jute is received by a rolt fonner in roll form.

r30

Softener Machine :

Classificrtion ofJute Softeuer I{achine

(a) Single softener machine

(b) l andem softener machine
(c) Good softener machine
Working Principle of Single Softener Machine :
In this machine, material is feed manually on feed sheet which is 6 feet long.
Then through the flutted feed roller the material goes through a series of
spirally fluted rollen. Spirally flutted rollers have right hand and left hand
spiral flutes altemative. After passing lU area between the feed rollers and
delivery roller , emulsion is applied over the material, which soften jute , and
a tray below the machine collects excess emulsion. Then through delivery
roller, the material is delivered from delivery sheet.

Essential Figure

trIztrNrll-"-[Nr/NU

BSE-"
"=SEBB

l3l
Dirf.rrlar Bctiatr Sprctdar ud Softricr Mrctir!

sN.
0l

Mrclilr

Spradcr
slow clBin and

only longjute

03

Easy controlling of cmulsion

is fccd.

High maintain

0!i

Uscd for high quality yam.

06

Can

t7
m

Needs less labor.

aoolia.

os.

is

ofdnin ofphned

bn.

Ajl ldrds ofjutc ircluding curing is fccd.

Dfficult to rnainain cmulsion ardi
Used for low quality 1am.

No drafling.
Nceds more labor-

applied

at last ane.

drafting.

Absencc

Low rnaintain cost.

given draft.

Emulsion

fist cl&in.

t2

SolhrcrMrclirt

of ctnin of pinnd ilars

Proseme

Emulsion is sprayd when fiben

lurt

passed

2-3 ofrollers.

Orly feed and draring roller

are

25{4

oairs ofrollers arc flutued.

fluted.

l0

Prepares

roli of ccrtain length

and

No roll is produced.

weight.

II
t2

Firstly back mlt

Draft h given.

of6c

iute is feed.

Firstly front pan ofthe iute is feed.

i.lo anangement for draft or drafting.

Jute Carding
Objects of Carding :
(a) To produce lcrrg continuous jute fiber licnr general stage for
keeping thern nearly and separately.
(b) To straight and parallel the the fiber

(c) To remove the dart, leaves, broken parts and very small
fi bers.

(d) lo finish the ditlerent jute

blending and mixing by different

types ofjute in carding.

(e) To paralyze the fiber separately.

Classification ofJute Carding

(i) In General CoDditions :

Jute Carding

Finisher Carding

llall Circular Finisher

Card

Full Circular Finisher Card

't32

(ii) According torAngement :

Jute Carding

(iii) According to Cylinder Moving and Worker Stripping Arrangement :

Jute Carding

Up Striking

Breaker Carding Machine

Prrt of the Mechine :

FF= Fluted Roller
F= Pin Feed Roller
C= Cylinder.
Mein

D= Doffer
W= Worker
S = Stripper
T = Tin Cylinder
B= Bright Roller
P, = Bright Top Pressing Roller
Y= Delivery Roller
P, = Delivery Pressing Roller
Z= Conductor
X= Cover
Essential Figurc :

Down Striking Half Circular

Full Circular

Working Principle of Breaker Carding Mchine :

Two nrain functions which take place in carding nrachine are

Carding action
Stripping action
The action of the breaker card on dre material passing through the nrachine
may be described briefly as follows:

The pin feed roller F passes the material from the

feed cloth and the fluted fc.ed rollers FF at a definite rate govemed by the
cloth length and draft in the machine . The pointing pins of the feed roller F
in mnjunction with the cast iron I provide the necessary restraining action.
The pins on the feed rollers F and positioned at such an angle that they are
sufficiently strong to pull - in the fibers over the cast iron shell I and to hold
the fibers against the pull of the faster running cylinder C and thus prevents
thus the material from being gulped ( jammed ) in the machine.
As iute is feed in , the pins ofthe faster moving cylinder C split up and
vigorously comb away the ribbon of fibers so that it is fleeced out and carried
on the cylinder. Pins of the cy linder are set such an anglc so that material is

r34

being combed. The inclination of the pins together with the surface of the
worker rollers W, and W, is such that the material is carded and not stripped
from the cylinder pins. The back pointing pins of the workers opposing
cylinder pins point against point catch - up loose fibers and at ihe same time
opn

- out and card the fibers held by the cylinder

as they are carried passed.

The fibrous tow retained by the workers are carried round with them and is
ultimately stripped away by the pins ofthe faster running stripper rollers S'
and S, respectively whose pins are forward pointing.
The attenuated fibrous tow carried round by the strippers is carried away
from their surface by the faster running cylinder. The fleece is so much
thinned - down at this stage that the cylinder pins take the material from the
stripper pins mainly in the form of individual fiben which merge with the
bulk on the cylinder.
As the angle of the pins of the doffer D is comparable to those of the
worker rollers , it follows that there is similarity in action. But as the surface
speed of the doffer D is about three times to that of the worker rollers , the
fleece of fibers caried by the cylinder C is worked and stripped from its
surface by the doffer D. The fleece of fibers now carried round by the doffer
is stripped from its surface by the drawing and pressing rollers B and P,
respectively. This fleece is then condensed into a sliver at the V - shaped tin
conductor Z and then delivered by the delivery roller Y and delivery pressing
roller Pr. Boxing and in cylinder T,, T, and T, are inhoduced at suitable
points to conserve fibers losses.

Finisher Carding Machine:

Main Parts of the Machine:

A = Cylinder

B:

Feed Sheet

C= Pin Feed Roller

D= Feed Stripper
E = f!.,offer
F= Top Feed

G= Top Bright Pressing Roller

H: Top Bright Roller
I= Delivery Pressing Roller
J= Delivery Roller
T = fin Cylinder

135

Essential Figurr

Working Principle of Finisher Card

Feeder of finisher cards acts as receiver. l0 - l2 slivers obtained
from the breaker card are placed side by side at the fed of the finisher card.
Two types of feed system such as shell feed system and double pinned feed
system are used here. The fibers come in contact *ith top feed roller , pin
feed roller and feed stripper. Pin feed roller and feed stripper have pins point
against back and only small amount of carding action takes place here. Then
the fiber transfer to the worker . 1'he pin direction between the cylinder and
worker is pint against pint and cylinder speed is quite higher than the worker.
Here carding action takes place. When the fibqrs are combed between
wo*ers a stripper the stripper takes the fiber forward to the cylinder surface
it to the coming second worker strippcr. Here the fibers are thinned down and
individualized. The same action is repeated along thc 2nd, 3d and 4s pair of
worker and stripper. While leaving 4e pair of worker -'stripper the fibers
come to the action of doffer where the fiber is received and combing action
takes place since the pin direction ofdoffer and cylinder is opposite. Then the
fiber are passed through the drawing rollers and are transfered to the 2d
doller and drawing roller and delivery roller. Finally the finisher sliver is
condensed to delivery in roll form.

tJb

Differetre Batryccn Brcaker Card rnd Finishcr Card

Brealcr Cerd

Finisher Card

It is halfcircular cardins machine

It is halfor full circular carding machine.

Only roll feed is can be done.

s.N.
OI

02

Both roll feed aad hand feed can be

done-

03
04

h has sinsle doffer.

It has trvo pain of worker and

It has double doffer.

It has four pairs ofworkers and stripper.

striDDer.
05

Less pin densih'.

More oin density.

06

Pins are coaner and set rvider.

Pins arc

07

Less

08

More production (600650 lbs per

hour)
Wider setting.

Closer setting.

09

Doubling is not done here.

Doubling is done here.

l0

Sliver rveight per unit is high.

Slirer weight per unit lenglh is low.

lt

Comparatively roller speed is less.

Comparatively roller speed is more.

t2

Only one doffer is used

Trvo doflers are used.

l3

More draft is given.

Less

l4

Less carding and stdpping action

are

l5

l6
t7

mcurred

In hand feed breaker card, one

dollop jute is feJ matching the one
dial rounding in clocklv'ise
direction.
More wastage is removed.
Weight per unit length ofsliver is

finer and st closer toAether.

production.(,lO&450 lbs per hour)

drafl is given.

More carding and stripping action ar

occured.

No need dial. Roll feed is done.

Comparatively less wastage is

eliminated.
Weight per unit length is less.

more-

Dillcrencc Betwccn Cotton Cardins and Jutc Cerdins

s.N.

Conon Cardins

Jute Cardins

lons reeds ofiute.

Feed malerial is neo-

Feed material is

One carding machine is usd.

03

It rednoves dirl . dust and neDs.

Two cadinc machine is used.

It breaks down and split up of the fiber.

01

It is easy Drocess

It is difficult procss.

0t

117

DRAWING
Objecb of Jute Dmwlng Frrme :
(a) Straightening of fibers in the in the sliver.
(b) Parallelization offibers in the sliver.
(c) To reduce the weight per unit length ofsliver.
(d) To reduce the thick and thin places in the sliver.
(e) To make the slivo spinnable.
Main Functions of the Drawing Frame:
(a) Drewing:
The regular and uniform elongation of the sliver is
called drawing. Drawing takes place between retaining roller and drawing
roller.
(b) Doubing :
To produce one sliver from two or more sliver is
called doubling. It is done by doubling plate.
(c) Drafting :
The sliver speed to the machine is to reduce weight per unit lenglh
according to the count oflhe yarn by drafting.
Main Perts of the Drarr Frame:

I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

l0

ll

l2
l3
l4

Feed plate

Back retaining mller

Front retaining roller

Jocky pully

Gill pin
Faller bar.
Drarving pressing

roller

Drawing roller
Guide plate
Doubling plate.
Delivery pressing roller
Delivery roller
Crimping box
Sliver can

B8

Essential Figure:

vv

{}
-44
5 99??9?9
6

Jule Drawing Frame

Working Principle of Draw Frame :

At first the slivers at the feed end pass side by side over the feed plate
and under the back retaining roller, over the jockey pulley and then again
under the front retaining roller. The slivers then pass over the moving gills
being embedded in the pins. After necessary drafting, the slivers pass bef the
drawing roller and the drawing - pressing roller to the Suide plate. In front of
the guide plate is the doubling plate where the slivers are grouped in equal
numbers for doubling and then delivered between dre deliver roller and
deliver- pressing roller. Then they passes through the crimping box and
finally collect in a sliver can.

139

JUTE SPINNING
Objects ofJute Spinning :

(r) Draftlng

The sliver speed to the machine is to reduce weight per unit lenglh
according to the count ofthe yarn by drafting.

(b) Ttvilting :
The required amount of twist should be applied to the drafted
material so that the component fibers of yarn in position to make I stronger
yarn.
(c) Wioding :
Twisted yam is to be wound on a upright bobbin in a particular way
and make easy to transfer fiom one place to another.

Ilpes ofSpinning :
(a) Sliver

spinning

(b) Roving spinning

Drsfting System Used in Jute Spinning :

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Breast plate Lype.

Breast plate and intermediate.

Grooved intermediate roller type.

Faller bar type.
Single apron and intermediate roller type.
(f) Double apron and drafting intermediate system used.
Working Principle of Sliver Spinning :
The sliver spinning frame is used for hessian warps , hessian rveft and
sacking warp, sacking weft yam. Spinning frame used frrr light yarn has a

pitch of 4 %"
For heary yarn lick sacking weft has a pitch of 5 %". Pitch ofmachine is the
distance from the centre ofone to the next. The number of spindles per frame
is 80 to 100.
The path of sliver

of 4 % pitch mlc is shown in abovc diagram. The crimped

fiom
finisher
drawing feed to the m./c. After passing through the sliver
sliver
guide, it passes betn top retaining roller B and retaining pressing roller B,
.'l1e sliver then passes under the inverted breast plate C, betn the draft conhol
roller D and the idle roller E which is fulcrumed al F, and rests loosely upon
the draft control roller D. The inverted breast plate C is adjustable to vary
the tension on the sliver as required. The sliver then passes bet*'een the
drawing roller H and drawing pressing roller by nreans of a conductor G
which is fitted to a conductor rod R. After passing the drarving roller it skims
over the automatic yam stop detector J which is placed just blow the bottoln
drawing roller.

140

Finally . the material passes through the hole at the top of

the llyer then to the eye ofthe flyer and wound on to the bobbin fitted to the
bobbin rail of the machine. The pressure on the retaining - pressing rollcr is
applied by means of a dead weight W, hung at the end of the lever and
fulcrum of F, during lhe running of the m\c.
When a yam breaks or a sliver run - out the yam
stop detector J swing up and it operates necessary rnotion which release the
weight lever W,, which then fall down. At this time the nipping pawl Q
mounted on the weight leaver W, , pushes back the retaining pressing roller
B, against the weight W, and thus stopped the sliver to pass forward. The
pressurc on the rubberied drawing pressing roller is applied by spring with
the help of nut and jum - nut . The draft of the machine is calculated by the
ratio of the surface speed of retaining roller and drawing roller. For average
quality ofyam, the shorter draft the better the spinning. For fine yam higher
draft may be employed.
Essentiel Figurt:

Main Parts of the Machine :

B=
Top retaining roller
Br= Retaining prcssing roller

C=
DE=
G=
R=
H=

Breast plate

Draft control roller

Idle mler
Conductor
Conductor rod
Drawing roller

141

l=
J=

Drawing pas:'ing roller

Yam defector
Fulcrum
F,.F..F,

o=
S:

Nipping pawt

x=

Crir':rped sliver

L,eaver

Weight

Specifications

Motor r.p.m = 1450

Motor pulley = 69/8
Machine pulley: 173 / l6
Machine pitch =
Tin cylinder = 47 \ 8
Drawing pressing roller = 2.5 x 3.14 (circumference)
Drawing roller = 2.14 x3.14 ( circumference )
Flyer roller = 2 x 3.14 (Circumference )

COUNT

Ysrtr Coutrt:

length
"Count is a number which indicates the mass per unit length or the
per unit mass ofyarn"- Ac.ording to textile Institute.

Tlpes ofYarn Count:(i)lndirect system - English ,metric ,worsted '

(ii) Direct system- Tex, denier, lbVspindle'
(i)Irdirct Count:.
The count of yarn expresses the no. of length units in one weight unit'
Higher the count , finer'the yam. This system is generally used for cotton'
worsled , linen (wet spun) etc.

Indirect count: N

I
=Y:
Wxl

Where,
W = The weight of ih sarnPle

w = The unit weight of&e system

142

The length of the sample

I = The unit length ofthe sample.

(ii) Direct Count SystemF
_ . The count ofyam expresses the no. ofweight units in one length
unit. Higher the counl coarser the yam. This system is generally used for
synthetic fibr, jute, silk etc .

Count N =W

Dirct Yam

14/

'l

xL

Where, N =

The yanr number or count.

w = The weight of the sample.
L: The length ofthe sample.
I =The unit of length ofthe system.

Count in Dillerent Svstem

(i)

[ndish svsJeta:: 'lle

number 0f hanks 840 yds per

trngth(Yd$

pund

is called yam count

lPound

Iirglish mttcn itrurrt. N..

840 yds

(ii)

Metric

Srllent

It is defined

lengh

l,lelric

(iii)

(m)

Count.
1000 m

(iv) Ter System

Tex

kg.

weigr (kg)
as rhe

(yds)

(yd,

or Ler Countr

count =

pr

Length

560

of hank ( 1000m )

I kg

weight ( prund )

as the no.

Wonted Syslcmr It is defined

Worsted Count

no. of hanks (560ydg per pound

x-

Weigt(pound)

The weight in grams of 1000m is

Weight(gn) I000m
x-_I

I pound

gm

Lengh (m)

calld

tex count.

143

(v)

lgglgi

The number or

Texcount

munl

in the denier sy$e m is the

Weight(gn)

lgm

wei$t in gains of 9ffi0 m'

9000m

x
[*n$h(m)

(vi) Pounds Per Snindh (Jute Sv$em)r The yam number

or count in the

spindle system is the wei$t in pounds of 14400 yards ofyams ofyam.

Wei$t(pound)
Pounds / spindle =

lpund

14400 y-ards

lengh (yds)

pund

pr

't44

Sf!!e!q:
(illndirectofl*dirg_cti

Coversion of Count

Where

1,,

N,= tt"rJ_
wL

N* = Count of required

system

N* = Count ofknown system

l* = Unit lcnglh ofknown syslem

l* = Unit length of rcquired system

w|(: Unit weight of known system

w* = [Jcii rveight ofrequired system
tril-Dscg-!9-Pti.$!..-.

!'t
1/* = Nt

'-F
:r
t,

(iii)_lqgreclto-D j_r_c-cj,-.*o

l',^NRl!
=1,5
t,
(iv) Direct to Indirect:

It

,,11,
^ /Y( lt
19,

't45

Calculation of Conversion Factor:

(i) Enslish (Cotton) to Metric:
ln English system,
Indirect to indirect system
In English system, 11= 840 yds

lL

N-=N.x-:L

= 840x0.9144x 103 km

19t

wt=llb
840x0.9'l44x l0

N-:N",

-3

453.6x 10-3
-'_-Em-_

lKg
.. N, = l.69 x N.
In denier system.

(ii)

Denier to Tex:

wk=gn

Direct to direct system:-

lr = 9000m

\rfk
WR

Nn:Nr '

]*-

In tex system.

rR

lgm
lgm

Or, Np*: Na*;",

"

-100061000 m

Ns=N6"n;.,

-9

wR=glt
lp: lkm:1000m

l,16

(iii) Enelfuh to Denier: (Indirect to Direct )

In english system.

Nn:---!-

wt:

WR

--lk

Nr

-l-

|6=

I pound =453.6 grn

8,10

yds =

M)

x 0.9144m

In denier system.

wR: lgm

I
I\denier -

840 x 0.9144 m

Ne

I n:9000M

lm
N*,,",xN"=5315.
(iv) Denier to_Elqlirh (Di{est lo Indirect)

ll;
ND=-- x
'' Nx

l1

in English syslem.
.

u'!

lp = 840 yds

WR

wr=llb
9000

M.

0.9144
840

N.

In denier system.

wr = I gm=
453.6

45\6
I

N"

Na--

5315

9000

lr

= 9000m =

)'ds
0.9144

147

(v) Tex to Enelish (Direct to Indirect)

In English System
lp

lr
--E-

Np

=-

Nr

840 yds

wn: llb

WR

In tex system.
1000 x1.09

-Of,Ntex =

N"
-x

840

4s?'6

11

= 1000m

1000

w1: I

x 1.09 yds

gm

NexNtex=590.5
453.6

Mind

it:
I Yds:0.91'14 m

lb = 453.6 grn

I kg:2.204 lb
1 ounce

=---1l6

148

Problems
l. find out the cotton count it weight of8400 yds yam is 1 pound.

Sof:
We know,

I (pound)

length (yds)

English cotton count =

8a0

$d$

8400 yds

84i) yds

= 10"

weight (pound)

I pound

pound

(Ans.)

(2) F-ind out English couon counr ifrhe weight of 120 yds yam is 0.2 ounce.

kngth (yds)

Sof:

l(pound)

English cotton count =

840

_
ll''

fds)

weight (pound)

120 yds

I pound

840 yds

0.2
l6

(Ans,)

pound

149

2. If the weight of960 m yarn is 20 gm. FSind out the tex count.
Solo

We know

weisht (gm)

Tex :

1000m

length (m)

lgm
20 gm

1000m

960

1gm

2l lex

ans.

4. Find out the metric count if weight of the 400m yam is 40 gm.

Solo: Metric count :

Lenglh

(m)

1 kg

weight (kg)

1000(m)
400m

lkg

1000m

= 10" (Ans.)
5. Find out the worsted count ifthe weight of80 yds is 50 graim.
Solu :

Length

(Yds)

I (Pound)

Worsted count =

s60 (yds)
80 yds
560 yds

weight (pound)

I pound
50

7000

20" (Ans.)

pound

6. The weight
Solo :

of

150

1350 m silk yam is 7.5 grn. Find out denier count.

Weight (em)

Denier count

9000(m)

Igm

length (m)

7.5 gm

9000m

lgm

1350m

(Ans.)

50 denier

7. Weight of 7200 yds jute yam is

Ibs, find out jute count

Solo :

We know

jute cor"urt

weight (lb)

I4400 (yds)

ilb

length (yds)

3lb

14400 vds

Lb
:

6 pounds/spindle.

8. A yam count is 40', find out the lea count

Sol':

7200 vds

ofthat )am without using conversion.

WI
I

WR

Nn=-t
Nx

-T-

-[-

lx
: 40
14.76

tex

wn: I gm

453.6

l1n = 840 yds =840x0.9144 m

840x0.9144

ln:

1000

wk: I lb = 453.6 gm

(Ans.)

1000m

151

9. A trading corporation provide you a24.3 Ne yam

Find out the Tex and dcnier oi that yam.
Sol

o:

Wr:1 lb:453.6

wp:

We know,

1 gm

11:840 yds =840x0.9144 m

Wr

v-

ln-

1000 m

tt.

Nr

l1

-l453.6

Tex:

--24.3

840x0.9144
1000

:24.3 Tex (Ans)

Again ,we kiow Denier =9 xTex
-9 x 24.3 Tex

:218.7

gm

denier

(Ans)

152

10.2000m ofnylon yam l.69,Find denier, Tex, Ne, Nm,

and worsted court ofyam .
!:
Sol
We know,
weight(gm)
9000(m)
Denier =
lgm
lenglh (m)

l.6gm

9000m

lgm
= 7 .2 denier

Tex=
Again

Denier

--T-590.5
'I

2000m

(Ans)

7.2

=0.8Tex

(Ans).

s
590.5

735.75
ex

0.5905

In worsted syslem

N.

0.8

0.5905

Worsted count

length (yds)
s60 (yds)

2000x 1.09 yds

560 yds

I (pound)
weight (pound)

pound

1.6
4s3.6

I103.62s

I y ard= 0.9144 m

(Ans.)

pound

153

Conversion

Denier:9x'Iex
N" x denier : 0,531 5
Metric x Tex: 1000

TexxN.:590.5
N":metricx0.5905
Metric x denier:9000
lb

Tex:34.45

x
spindle

I yd:0.9144 m
I m:1.0936yard
I m: 39.37 inch
1 cm = 0.3937 inch

I gm - 0.0353 oz
I oz:28.350 gm
I pound = 453.6 gram
I kg:2'264U *rn.
I m/kg

0.4961 Ydllb
I inch = 2.54 cm
1 sr2 = 1,1969y72
I vd2 - 0.8361 m2
lgrn/m2 = 0.0295 ozlYd2

I ozlydT =33.9lgrnlm2
I pound = 0.4536 kg

lyd/lb:

2.0159 mlkg

Different Terms And Definition of

Manufacturing

yarn

154

Fiber :
The materials which is used to produce textile articles is called fiber
Tertile Fiber :
The fiber which consists staple length, shength, fineness, flexibillty, color,
oZ,

Iess trash

ultimately properties ofcreamness is called textile fiber.

Yarn :
A product ofsubstantial length and relatively small cross_section consisting
of fibers and / or filaments with or without twist is called vam.
Filament .
The long continuous fiber called filament.
Staple Fiber :
The fiber which has staple length is called staple fiber
Staple Lengtb :
The.characteristics fiber length of a sample of staple fibers is called staple
.

length.

Bobbin :

.Acylindrical or slightly tapered former with or without a flange or flange for

holding slubbings, rovings or yarns.
Denier :
'lhe mass in
6gnms of 9000 nrr,-ter of a fiber , filament or yarn is called
denier
Elastic Limlt :
The limit upto u4rich a substance shows the elastic property is called elastic
limit.
f,lasticity :
The properties of a substancc by which it comes it original position after
withdrawn the applied load on it is ca[ed elasticity.
f,lastomer :
Any_polymer having high extensibility together wirh rapid and substantially
complete elastic recovery is called elastomer. Exampte: Natural rubber,
synthetic rubber, silicon rubber
Elongetiotr :
The increase in length ofa specimen during a tensile tesl expressed in units
of length is called elongation .
Extension at Break :
The.extension percentage ofa test specimen at bteaking point is called
extension at brea-k or breaking extension.

155

Feed Roller :

A roller that forwards a yam ofa subsequent Processing or take

called feed roller

up stage is

Flammebility :
The ability ofa material to burn with a flame under specified test condition
is flammability.
Hank:
Hank is the traditional unit of length in the indirect system of yam count
e.g. the cofton count of a yam is calculated as the number of hanks of 840
ydi per pound . lt is applied to sliver, slubbings or roving'

Ilumidity:

The term which is used to describe the moisture existing in the atmosphere
is called humidity.

Luster:
The display of different intensities of light, reflected both specularly and
dilirsely from different parts of a surface exposed to the sarne incident light
is called luster.

Synthetic
-The

Fibrt:

fiber which is produced artificially is called synthetic fiber ' example:

polyethylene etc.

Micronalrc Value:
Weight in micrograms per inch is called mocronaire value' The micronaire
value regarded as identification of maturity and fineness'
Mildew:
A gro*th of certain specials of fungi is called mildew'
Monomer:
The indlvidual small molecules from which the polymer is formed is called
monomer. Example : ethylene is the rnonomer ofpolyethylene'
Nep:
A small knot ofentangled fiber is called knot'

Oligomer:
A-polymer composed from only a small number of monomeric units' hence
otiglmlrisation is called oligomer. It other word, " A molecule consists with
oniy a few repetition units is called oligomer. Example:
O+b -+OO ( dimer ), O+GIO --| OOO(Trimer ).
Sample:
A separate unit or part representation of the lot, consignment or desiSn is
called sample.
Seed

Cotton:

The cotton which has been harvested but not ginned, so that the fiber is still
attached to the seed is called seed cotton.

156

sliver:
An assemblage of fibers in continuous from without twist is called sliver.
Slub :
An abnormally thick place in a yam is called slub.

Regenented Fibcr :
The fiber which we get by regeneration from its main origin is termed as
regenerated fiber. The regenerated fibers are divided into tlre following four

groups

(i.) Cellolasic fiber - Viscose rayon, cupro,

(ii.) Celluosic esters - Acetate, triacetate.
(iii.) Protein fibres - Casin, zeir, azlon.
(iv.) Miscellaneous -Alginate , rubber.

modal etc.

Stsole Fiber :
A fiber of limited and relatively short length is called staple fiber.
Stless :
The restoring forcc per unit area ofa substance is called stress.
Applied force
Sl.rcss =
Area

'Islracitv

'Ihe tensile force per unit linear density

corresponding with
ihe ntaximum force on a force / extension curve is called tenacirv_
Max, tensile force ( N)
-I
erucity :
Linear Density (tex)
'l'ex :
The basic unit of the tex system is called tex.
Moisture Regain :
The ratio of w?ter in a materials to the over dry weight of this maferial
expressed in percentage is called moisture regain. If over dry weight of a
material : D, weight of water in the material = W, then moisture regain,

R=Y,
D

loo

Moisture Cotrtent :
The ratio of *,ater in a material to the total weight ofthe material exprsssed
in percentage is called moisture content. It is denoted bv C.
l[, oven dry weight ofa material =D
Weight of *atcr in this material =W

r5i

Moisttlre content'

ES'5*

,,io

of

C yr,*; '
wo*

tOO

of rupture to breaking load x breaking extension is

called work faclor'

Work of rupture
\\'ork factttr

work

@jl

'

of Runture

Breaking load

breaking extension

l
The load at which rnatcrial break is called breaking load.

hc ,,pplication

11nclop.a

"

of a load to

a specimen

in is axial direction cauvs a tension to be

wl pounds'
inii,. spcimen. lhe load is usually expressd in gn- or

Ihc ratio ofrhe force applied to the linear density is cailcd ntass stress'

Mass

slrcss

Edii#"n*f

Force Applied

L*" d.-,tythe specimen which will just break under its own

called breaking length '

weight whcn hung vertically is
Unit : kg

Hrffi'.

limit when stress is increased the material can nol recover the
if stress is removed is known

as

plasticity'

"*,.nrion

EIE!g+h.

rutio of elongation to initial length of a specimen is called strain'

Strain

Elongation

Initial length

158

Elastic Recoverv :
The ratio ofelastic extension to total extension ofa specimen is
called elasiic recovery.
Elastic extension
Ela^stic Recovery

Total extension

Creep:
When a load is applied on a textile materials then instaneous strain
occurred in the fiber and after release the stress slow deformation will
be occurc'd rvith passing of time. This behavior of textile fiber is
called creep . It is two types . like;
I) Primary creep
I

l)

Secondary creep

ftsp-i.
'Ihe

ratio olthe difference of straightened length and crimped length to the

r-rimped length expresse<i in percentagt is called crimp.

( rinrp

Straiglrte,ned length- crimped length

I l9xug.qj"Ltqp;

Criruped (initial)length.

100o/o

rt ies_i.

'fir,,' bciravior shou'n by thc materials durirrg bending is called

l'lcxural irroperties;

FlexurglRlgiditv :The couple required

flexural rigidity.

tc, bend

Flexural rigidity

the fiber to unit cun ature is called

Applied couple

Unit curvatrue.
Soecific Flexural Risidih :-fhe
ratio ofthe flexural rigidity to the linear density is
called speciric flexural rigidity
Frexural rigidity
Specific flexural rigidity =
Linear density
Couple / curvature
I-inear Density

159

Shane Factor l
The quantity which determines the shape of material is called shape factor
. If shape factor is
then fiber will be completely round.

Bending Recoverv :
Recovery from a given curvature is called bending recovery.
Bending modulus :
The ratio ofbending stress and bending strain is called bending
modulus.

Torsional Properties

The behavior shown by the materials when it is subjected to a

torsional force is called its torsional properties.

Torsional Rigidity :
l'he ratio oftorque unit twist per unit lcngth is called torsional
rigidity.
'l'orsional rigidity

Torque

Unit twist per unit length

Frictional Properties :
'Ihe properties shorm by the fiber due to friction when pioccssing
is called frictional properties
Swellins :Swelling may be expressed in terms ofthe increase of diamcter, area,
length or volume ofa fiber due to absorbing rvater.
Refractive Index :The ratio of sine olangle of incidence to sine ofangle of refi:action
is called refractive index.

Refractivelndex,n=

Sine ofangle of incidencs

Sine of angle ofrefraction

Thermal Conductivity :
Thermal conductivity is the rate of transfer of heat along a body by
conduction. The higher value of thermal conductivity, the fiber will
then more conductive.
Glass Transition Temperature :

The temperature at which the fiber behaves as a glass ant! b,ittle

condition is called glass transition temperaturc. It is denoted by Tg.
The range ofTg for linear polymer is - 100" C to 3000 C

160

Melting Temperature :
The range of temperature at which the fiber melts is called melting
tempratue. It is denoted by Tm.
Prtssleys Index :
The ratio of breaking load in pound of a fiber to the weight of fiber
in milligram is called pressleys index.
Pressleys Index (P.t)

Breaking Load in Pound

Weight of Fiber in mg

Fiber Finencss :
The fiber fineness is expressed in weight per unit length or length per
weight.
Fibcr M*turity :
Fiber mahrriry is a fiber charactcristic which expresses the relative
degree of tirickening of the fiber wall. Fiber maturity depends on :(i) V'eatlier
(ii) lylie s of soi!
(iii) i'iarii diseascs
(iv) Irests, and
(v) Drad fibcrs
Classificalitn of Fibrt :
(i) n\ormal fiber
(ii) i-hirr rvalled fibcr and
(iii) Dearj fiber
Maturitl Ratie :
The mtio of actual degree of wall thickening to standard degree of
wall thickening is called maturity ratio.
Actual fiber weight per centimeter
Maturity ratio =
Standard degrce

ofcell wall thickening

Actual fiber weight per centimeter

standard fiber weight per centimeter

l6l
Sample :
The selected separated unit or part which acts 8s a rpresentative of a lot,
consignment or design is called sample.

Sempling :
The process by which a sample is collected from a large number of
materials is called samPling.
TWist :

According to textile institute, "Twist is the spiral disposition of the

components of a tlread which is usually the result of rlative rotation of the

hvo ends is called twist."
Oven Dry Weight :
The constants weight obtained 6y drying textiles at specified temperature

varying according to fiber between '17"

C and 110' C is called over dry

weight.

Correct Invoice Weight :

'lhe weight obtained after adding standard moisture regain ofthe material
with oven dry weight is called corect invoice *eight or conditioned weight.
Relative Ilumidity :
The ratio of the actual vapour pressure to the saturated vapour pressure at
the same lemperature express as a pencentage is called as relative humidity.

Relative humidig =

Actual vapour pressure

Saturated vapour pressure

100o/o

Testing Temperature :
The atmosphere with a relative humidity of ( 65%o +2o/o) and temperature
of ( 20'C+ 2"C) or (68"F +4o[r) is called testing temerature. In tropical and
sub- tropical counuies or regions the difficulties of achieving a temperature
of 20'C are understood and so a higher standard temperature may be used

zl"c

+ 2"C ( 8loF+ 4oF).

Standard Temperatur:

An atmosphere at the prevailing barometric pressure with a relative

humidity' of 65Yo and temperature of 20'C ( 68"F) is called standard
temperahrre. For tropical and sub- tropical countries.

Standard temperature is : 27'C (81"F)

Tertile Testing:
The process of determining the proPerties of textile material is called
textile testiDg

167

ofresting:

Typ6

Routine process testing and

Quality record testing

(i.) Routine Process Testing:

The testing by which the result ofexperiment can get quickly in working
field is called routine process testing.

(ii.) Quality Record Ttxting :

The testing in which the experimental data is preserved for different
purposes in future is called quality record testing.
Quality Control :
The checking verification and regulation ofthe degree ofexcellence ofan
attribute or property of material is called quality control.

Pitch: Tip to tip of teeti distance.

Common Abbreviations of Yartr Manufacturing Technology

v/AFIS =

Advance Fiber Information System.

Pl = Pressleys Index.

'Zdl ='rwist

Per Inch.

-wM.T.PI.= Mechanical

T*ist

Per Inch.

T.P.M =Twist Per Meter.

Tf.C"

=Twist Per Centimeter.

-l.R.T
J.R.E

=Cor.turt Rate of Traverse.

VC3.L

= Constant Rate of toading.

= Constant Rate

of Elongation.

\,WJRA =Woolen lndustries Research Association.

TCSIRO {ommonwealth Scientifi c and Industrial Research Organization.
C.S.P

{ount

Strength Product.

M.M.F =Man Made Fibre

T.M =Twist Multiplier

T.F =Twist Factor.

T.M =T.F.
F.F.P =Floating Fiber Percentage.

r63

U.R =Uniformity Ratio.

C.V%{o- Effrcient of Variation

Percentage.

P.S.I =Pressure Per Square Inch.

C.E

{leanine Efiiciencv.

Jf .q .t =rr*iquality Index.
I

.S. O

=Intemational Standard Organization.

llC = Intemational Institute for Cotton.

o. s =count Data System.

'l

H. S .C =Highest Standard Count.

P

.M .D =Percentage Mean Deviation.

LINM =Linen Industry

Research Association.

WI =Wear Index.
=Spinning Consistency Index.

.;dC.t

S.C.P.= Spindle Change Pinion.

S,S.C.P.- Spildie Speed Change Pinion.

14,

ot=Bale lnventory Analysis Systenr.

R.D. =Refl ectance Degree.

U.tt.M.L =Upper Halt Mean Length.

S.P.M.F =Multi Function Separator.
S.C.F =Secd- Coat [:ragments.

t!'l.R =Moisture Ratio

Ir4lC =Micronaire Value.

tJ.l =Unifonnity Index.

-1fi.vt =ltigt votume

Instrument

B.P.l =Beats Per Inch.

PC.W = Production Change Wheel.

P.R.W.= Present Ratchet Wheel.

R.R.W= Required Ratchet Whc.el.

R.W. = Ratchet Wheel.

#.,

= Draft Change Pinion.

I).C:.C.P. = Draft Constant Change Pinion.

164

R.PN{ =Revolution Per Minute.

D.V =Desirql Value.

D.C. = Draft Constant.
T.G =Tacho Generator.

T.D =Time Delay.

T.W.= Tapper Wheel.
P.W.=Pooker WheelP.W.=T.W.
T.C.P.= Twist Change Pinion.

'LC.C.P.= Twist Constant Change Pinion.

L.C.W= Lift Change Whee L

L.C.P.= Lifter Change Pinion.

Pl-.C.W.= Present Lift Change Wheel.

R.L.C.W.= Required

Lift

Change Wheel.A.D =Actual Draft.

M.D =Mechanical Draft.

C.B.C =Carpet Batching Cloth.

C.B.A = Collective Bargening Agent.

P.P.M =Picks Per Meter.

B.L.F = Bangladesh Labour Fedaration.

B.J.T.U. = Bangladesh Jute Trade Union.

165

FABRIC MAIYUTACTURING TECIINOLOGY

Flos Chrrt of Wcevlns Mrnufeclurioc
Yam From Spinning Section

Doublinsfd

TwistinC

winding

Warp

Wefi Yam Preparation

Yam Prcparation

r---=

I
Cone,Winding

Crilling

For Convgntional

[4om

( Shutle l-oom )

Pim Winding

Warping

For Modern loom

(Shutleless toom

Ccne

I
Sizing

I
Winding olr Weaven Beam

I
Dra*ing
J
l)rhtinS

kloming

Weft

wyvins
i

Inspction of Grey Cloth

[oUing BnJ Baling

Ntarktting

Send

lo

\lel

Processing Soction

166

Briefly Discuss:
Yarn From Spinning Section: Yarn comes from spinning section to
rveaving section as raw materials ofthe weaving.
Doubling and TWisting: According to the requirements of end used tu'o or
rnore yams twisted together is called doubling.

: The process of transferring yams from ring bobbins, hank etc

into a suitable package is called winding. It may be electrical or mechanical.

Winding

Cone Winding : Before crilling cone winding is done.

Crilling: The process for holding supplied

packages

on creel is called

crilling.

Warping: The parallel rvinding of warp ends in sheet forms from many small
winding packages (cone or cheese) on lo a common package ( warp beam ) is
called warping.

Sizing: The process of applying a protectiye adhesive coating nraterials on

the yarns surface is called sizing. This is the most important operalion to
attain maximum weaving efficiency, specially for blended and filament
yarns. Due to sizing increases elasticity of yams, yam strenglh, weight ofthe
yam, smoothness, frictional resistance.

Drawing or Drafting: To draw the warp yam through the heald eye by the
drawing hook according to the design or pattern of the 1'abric is called
drafting or draw- in.

Denting: To draw the warp yam through the dent ofthe reed by the drawing
hook according to the design or pattern ofthe fabrics is called denting.

Looming: The process involved in preparing a weaver's beam is set on the

loom bracket at the back side ofthe loom is called looming.

Pirn Winding: Pirn is used in shuttle for weft package for cotton. There are
two t)?es of pirn. Such as : (i) Ordinary pim and
(ii) Automatic pim
Weaving: The action ofproducing fabric by the interlacing of warp and weft
threads is called weaving.

Inspection of Grey Cloth: The activity such as measuring , examing,

testing,gauging,or more characteristics of grey cloth and comparing with
specified requiremnts to determine conformity is called inspecticn of grey
cloth. Undyed and unfinished fabric straight from the loom is called grey
cloth.

167

Send to Wet Proceariug Section

wet processing section.

If

everything is okay, dren

it

is sent to

Folding and Bailing: Folding and bailing action are done for marketing the

grty cloth.
Merketing: If everything is okay, then the grey cloth are trated to market.
Method of Producing Cloth :

(i)
(iD
(iii)
(iv)

Weaving method
Knitting method
Felting or bonding method.
Braided Method.

(i)

Weaving Method : By this process cloth is produced by right

angle bonding of two series of yams.
Knitting Method : By this process cloth is produced by creating

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

loop by needle.

Felting or Fiber Bonding Method : By this process cloth is

produced by creating bonding system by the help ofadhesive
substances or needle.

Braided Method : By this process cloth is produced by

intenvining or diagonal interlacement of at least three group of
yarns from a set.

The Frcton Upon Which the Characteristics of a Weaving Clolh

Depcnds :
(i) Design ofthe fabric
(ii) Count ofyam
(iiD Warp/inch
(iv) WefVinch

(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)

Width of cloth
Weight/yd 2
Thickness ofthe cloth
Strength
Smoothness

Required Pmperties of a Weaving Yarn

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(i\')

Yarn must be uniform.

It must be clean.
It nlust be fiee from knot.
lt should have enough strength, so that

it is not broken

b1'

168

friction in weaving process.

(u) Yam must be free from neps and slub.
(vi) It must be elastic.
(vii) Uniform sized yarn is required.

(viii)

Yarn must be free from hairiness.

WINDING
Winding : The process of tranferring yams from ring, bobbin, hank inlo a
suitable package is called winding. lt may be electrical or mechanical. Warp,
Cone, cheese, flanged bobbin. weft Pirn, cop.
Objects of Winding

(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

To transfer yam fmm one package to another suitable packages

this can be conviently used for weaving process.
To remove yams faults like hairiness, neps, slubs, of foreign
matter.
To clean yam.
To increase the quality ofyarn.
To get a suitable package.
To store th yam.

Typhal winding machln (Groovd rollr ior yam tr8verse)

169

Tlpcs of Winding Pacl<ages :

(i) Parellel Winding Prckages

(ii)
(iii)
(i)

Essential

(a)
(b)

Nearly Perallel Wound Packages :

(a) Cop

(b)
(c)

Flanged bobbin

(a)
(b)

Cone

Pim
Packages I
Wound
Crcss
Cheese

Parallel Wound Package: This comprises threads laid parallel

to one another as in a warp beam .lt is necessary to have a
flanged package or beam. Other wise the package would not be
stable and would be collapse. There is no necessity oftraversing.

Figtrtt

Advantagrs

(i)
(iD
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Warp beam
Weavers beam

wound at a titne on lile package.

No need oftraversing mechanisrn.
tiide withdrawal is not possiblc.
Yam density is nrorc.
No change ofnumbers oftums per incir.

i\4arly'yams can

bi

Disadvantages:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Two side ofthe packet need flanged.

F'or yarn unwinding need separate mechanism.
Can not be over rvith drawl.

(ii)Near Parallel Wound : This comprises one or more threads which

are laid very nearly parallel to the layers already existing on the package.
Essential

Figure:

{b)N6spGn,6 r pcr,e.

170

Advantages

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

No need offlanged
Can be side with drawl.
No change of number of yams turns per inch during winding.

Disadvantages :
(i) Need oftraversing mechanisrn.

(ii) Can be side with drawl.

(iii)

Cross Wound Packages : This types usually consist ofa single thread
which is laid on the packages at an appreciable helix angle so that the layers
cross one anolher to give stability.

Essential Figurt

:
(c) Cros!

..lo6d praas.

Advantages :
(i) No need offlanged .
(iD Can be over with drawl.

(iii)

Yarn packages are stable.

Disadvantages :

(i)
(iD
(iiD

Number ofyams turns per inch is changed in this method.

Quality ofyam is less.

Need of traversing mechanism.

Yarn withdrawel system:

.t71

Packeges Uscd For Winding :

Cone , Cheese , Bobbin , Pim.
Cotton
Jute: Cop , Spool.

.'

Winding Elliciency 3 The percentages expression ofthe ratio ofthe actual

production to the calculated production is called winding.
Winding

Actual

Efficiency =

production

Calculated production

Actual production < Calculated production

Factors Upon Which Winding f,lliciency Depends :
(a) Spindle/drum speed
(b) Yam count

(c)
(d)
(e)
(0
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)

Reasons

ofEfliciency

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(i*)

Yam quality
Worker efliciencY

Humidity
Work load per worker
Maintenance and over hauling
Power failure.
Creeling time

Doffing time
Capacityutilization.

Power failure
Maintenance and over hauling
Absentism due to emergency personal causes.

Natural disaster
Labor skillness.
Labor unrest.
Shortage ofspare parts and raw materials.

Management problem and

Strike.

Requircments of Winding :
(i) Minimum fault
(ii) No damage of yarn
( iii)
F-asy unwinding

(iv)
(v)
(vi)

Suitable size and shape ofthe package.

Economicalcondition.
Avoid excess looseness and tightness.

100

o/o

(vii)

172

Cheap cost

of package.

Efficiency loss =
Calculated production

Tlpes of Winding Macbine :

l. According to Package:
a. Flanged bobbin winding m/c.
b. Cone winding m/c
c.Cheese winding m/c

d.Pirn winding m/c.

e.Cop winding m/c.

2. According to r#inding :
Precission winding m/c
Non precission winding m/c.
l. According to Drive :
Direct drive winding m/c.
Indirect drive winding m/c.

(i)
(ii)
(i)
(ii)

1.

According to

2.
3.

Upright spindle winding m/c

Drum/cylinder winding m/c :
t Warp winding m/c
i Cheese winding m/c
I Spool winding m/c.
* Cone winding m/c.

llpes ofYarn

Used

For Warp Yarn :

For Weft Yarn :

l.

Etrnpb.

Pim Winding m/c

r
r
t
oa

FdGga

Ordinary pim winding m/c

Automatic pim winding m/c.
Cop Winding m/c
mad. srh p..dtoo

P.to.s erxhg m..tfb

sirdhg ytn

,rth

dro.dioo oo pim

. rdrrnob.

100 %

173

Difierencc
s.N.

0l

Bcttcel

Precision

Prctision Winding
the wound coil arranged parallel

rd

Non

Prccbion

lYindiu

Non-Winding
Coil is cros wise wound.

or near parallel.
02

Yam density ofthe package

low.

hish.

0l

Flansd bobbin may b used.

04

the yam package is hard and more

Not used.
'lhe yam package is soft and less compact.

compact.

ofthe package.

05

Low stability ofthe package.

His,h stability

06

Windins ansle is 90'or nearly 90'

Windinq angte is less than 80'.

07

The bobbin is wound with one or

The bobbin is wound with single thread.

more threads.
08

Yarn tension is comparatively less.

Yam tension is comparatively

hish.

Faults of Winding and Causes :

(D Yarn Breakage : The main causes are :
(a) Intproper slub catcher setting
(b) [ncorrect tensiorr level

(ii)

Stitch :

(c)

ImProPer winding used.

The main causes offormalion ofstitch are given below

(a) Excessive spindle speed
(b) Wom out spindles and bores ofcone/cheese
(c) Large tension variation during winding.
(d) Defective release ofyam after knotting.
(e) Improper alignment oftension bracket.
(0 Worn out or damaged grooves in the drum
(g) Improper setting oftraverse restrictors.
(iii) Pattern or Ribbons : The main causes are given belou' :
(a) Defunct anti pattering molion.
(b) Incorrectly set anti pattering motion
(c) Cone or cheese loose fitting on winding spindle.
(D Entanglement : The main causes are given below :
l. RePeatd knotter failure
2. Strong suclion Pressure

3.

t ack ofcare uhile knotting and releasing

yam.

4.
5.

174

Defunct rvarp stop nlotion.

Improper setting stop motion.

(iD

Wild Yern:

(iiD

1. Yam waste wrapped on hands ofworkers.

Snarls: The main causes are given below:
l. Faulty release ofyam after knotting.

2.
3.

(iv)

Strong suction pressure in the slack tube.

Inadequate sening oftwist.

Chaffed Yarn : The main causes are given below :

l. Defunct stop motion.
2. Rough damaged grooves in drum.
3. Defective yam path.
Remedies : Should apply opposite action offault creating causes.

Mathematical Problems About Winding

will be required to rvind 2388lbs of 20s cotton on 40
drums ofa super speed cone winder, if the calculated of winding is 1298 yds
per min and the efficiency is 80oZ

L Horv much

time

Sol':
Given that .
Quantity of yams in lbs= 2388 lbs.
Yarn count : 20s
No. of drums : 40
Calculated rate of winding in minutes: 1298 yds
1298

Efficiency

840
80%

80
100

Required Time
We know,

Time required :

Quantity of yarn in lbs to be wound

Actual production in lbVhrs

x No. of drums

Quantiw ofyam in hank

or, Time required =

Actual production in hanks x No. of drums

175

Quantity of yams in lbs

or, Time required =

Actual production in hanks

Again We Know,

Yarn Count

Actual Production Per Hour Per Drum in Hank

Calculated rate of winding in minutes x Efliciency
80

:1298x-

x60yds

100

1298

80

x60

hank

100

840

:74.17 hark

Now from (i) no. equation u'e get ,

2388 x 20
or, Time required
74.17 " 40

16.098 hrs. ( Ans.)

.(i)

.......(,

No. ofdrums

60

176

WARPING
many rvinding packages ( cone
or cheese ) on to a common packages ( warp beam ) is called warping.

Warping: The parallel winding of warp ends

Objects of\ arping:

The objects of warping is to arrange a packages number of warp yams of
related lenglh so that they can be collected on a single warpen beanr, as a
continuous sheet ofyars which can be used for sizing or next process.

Warping Machine
Importance of Warping :
(i) Construction of warp yam beam.
(ii) Construction ofa parallel ofyam sheet.
(iii) Modi$eing the fauls ofyam like thick and thin places
(iv) Winding the pre * determined lenglh of yam.
(v) Combination of small packages.
(vi) Finding long lengtr of warp yam.
(vii) Accelerating the next process.

, large knots etc.

Objects of Warping :
(a) The tension of wounds ends must be uniform and possibly constant
during all the time of with drawl from supply package.
(b) Warping should not impair the physical and mechanical properties of

yarn.
(c) The tension should be moderate to allow the yam compleye retain its
elastic property.
(d) Pre determined length of warping shouid ire observed.
(e) The production rate of warping should be high.
(f) The surface ofwarping package must be cylindrical.

1n

Waroing

Process Involves

Creel

Control Svstem
I

n!"a

I
Measuring Roller

Winding on a Drum or Beam

Indirect Winding

Direct Winding
Components of Warnins Machinc

Warping Machine

--l
Head Stock

l
I
Magazine
Creel

Single

Ends Traveling

Creel

Packages

Creel

Fixed

Tmveling

Types of r/Yarping

(i)

tligh

r78
:

speed uarping or beam or direct uarping

Oired or High speed warping

This types ofwarping produces fancy fabric.

(ii) Sectional warping or pattern warping

lndiled or Sodionat warping

This types ofwarping produce common fabric.

179

Sectional Waroins
To oroduce fancy fabric

s.N.

Hiqh Spced WrrDhg

OI

02

To oroouce common iabric

High pmduction

03

Large amount ofyam are required.

low oroduction
Small amount ofyam are rcquirtd

04

Weavers beam is produced afler

Weavers ham is producd before sizing.

sizins
Creel capacity is greater than 300 to 400

Creel capacity is $eater than 12000

Cone . cheese winding are used.

07

Single yam is used.

Trl ist yam is used.

08

Cheap

09

Uniform tension.

Not uniform tension.

l0

Used very much

Not used

05

procts.

Flanged bobbin is used.

Costly process.

Faults of Warping Pmcess :

(a) Warp ofcenter ofthe beam

(b) Ridgy or uneven warP beam
(c) Crossed ends
(d) Snarl formation in the warP
(e) Missing ends

(f)

(i)
()

Hard beam
Unequal length of warP
Broken ends
Warp ends round the creel Peg.
Unequal size or weight ofcone or cheese in

(k)

Lapped ends.

(g)
(h)

(l)

yhe creel.

Piecing

(m) Soft end on the warPing beam

(n) Warp ends round the creel peg ( spindle ) and results broke.

Mathematicat Problems About Warping

I . Calculate the time required to prepare of 8 rvarpers beam on
2 improved high speed beam warpers with warping speed of
'I'he length of *'arp on each
560 yds ( calculated ) per min.
beam is required to be 36,000 yds. tifliciency 80%. Also find
thc efficiency.

180

Soln:

Given that ,
Total length of warp in yds = 36,000 yds.
Yam count 20s
No- beams 8
Calculated production in yds per mcs per hour:36,000 yds

:
:

EfficiencY = $67
80
100

Required l'ime

We know,

Total length ofwarp in

or, Time required

Actual production in yds per

yds

rll.-/cs

x No. ofbeams

per hr

No.

of

mcs.

60

Again We Know,
Actual Production Per l{our Per Machine in yds :
Calculated production in yds per m/cs per hr ,. Efficiency
80
x60yds
=36,000 x

100

26880 yds.(- Ans.)

Now from (i) no. equation we get ,

36000 x 8
:
or, Time required
26880 x 2
: 5.36 hrs. ( Ans.)
Again We Know ,
Actual Production
x l00%o
Efficiency
Calculated Production

Efficiency

26880
36000

= 74.67% ( Ans.)

x 100%

.......(i)

181

SIZING
Sizing : The proces of applying a protective adhesive coating upon the
yarns surface is called sizing. This is the most important opcration to attain
maximum weaving efficiency specially for blended and filament yarns.
Objects of Sizing ;
(a) To improve the weave ability ofwarp yarn.
(b) To increase the tensile or breaking strenglh for cellulose yarn.
(c) To maintain good fabric quality.
(d) To reduce hairiness , weakness of textile materials.
(e) Toi remove eletrol).tic formation for synthetic or blended yarn.

(f)

To increase elsticity.

Changes in Yarn Due to Sizing

(a) Breaking Strength : Increase

(b) AbrassionResistance: Increase
(c) Stifhess: Increase
(d) Elasticit-v: Incr.:ase
(e) Frictional Resistence : Increase

(f)

(g)
(h)

(i)

Yarn Diameter : Increase

Extension: Decresae
Elerctmstatic Charger : Decrease

Hairi"ess:Decrease

Why Sizing is Called the Ileart of Weaving :For weaving, there is

needed ofyam which have :

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(0
(g)
(h)
(D
0)
(k)

Higher shength
Higher elasticity
Higher smoothness
Higher yam diameter
Higher weight ofyarn
Lower static electricity
Lower weakness
Lower absorbency
Lower flexibility
[ower hairiness and
Higher frictional resistance.

The above properties ofthe yam can be got by sizing in weaving section. So
sizing is called the heart ofweaving.

r82

Size Ingrtdients and Thier Function I For preparation of the size the
following ingredients are used for size materials.

Starch or Adlresive Substances : The carbohydrate component

extracted from certain plates is called starch' Example: Starch not maize,

(a)

com , potato etc.

Function :

l. To imorove tlre strength

2. To increase smoothness
3. To increase elasticitY
4. To increase stiffness
5. To reduce extension Percentage
6. To impart adhesion.

: The agent which is used to give fabrics a soft

handle and frequiently na s,nooth appearance is catled softening or

(b)

Softening Agents

lubricating agent. Example : Japan wax , tallow , lin seed oil , coconut oil ,
animal fats , mineral oil , T.R.O. , soap.

Iunction

l.

2.
3.
4.

:
To make thc yarn soft and sliPPery
'[o smoothen dre Yam
To reduce the sti{filess
To reducc

fle:iibility and fiiction

(a) Antiseptic or Anti - Mildew Agent : The substances which prevent the
mildew fomration is called anti- mildew agent Example : Carboxylic acid,
salicylic acid, Zinc chloride, phenol.

f'unction:

l.

2.
3.
4.

To prevent ,nrildew formation

To prevent size material for a long time
To help to store the size Yarn
To protect yam from bacteria or fungi.

Hygroscopic Agenb : The agents which are used to moisture yarn and
to to prevent excessive drying ofyam is called hygroscopic agent Example :
MgClr, CaClr. GlYcerin.

(d)

183

Function:
I

2.

(e)

To moisture the yanl

To prtevent exvessive prevent ofyam

Weihting Agents : The agent which is used to increase the weight of

to impart the fullness and feel to the fabric is called u,eighting

yarn and

agents. Example

China clay , sodium sulphate , French chalk.

f,'unctions:

To increase the weight ofyarn during finishing

2. To impart fullness and to feel the fabric
3. To prevent opening ofthe cloth.
I

(0

Tinting Agents: The agent which is used for the temporary coloration
of textile materials is called tinting agents. Exarnple : Blue , tinapol, optical
brightener.

Functions:

l.

2.
3.

To increase the brightness and to remove the yellowish color of yam.

To prevent dusting off.
To form a particular shade.

(g) WeftingAgents: The agents which are used for uniform distribution of
the sizing solution is called wetting agent. Example : Sulphanol , soap ,
MgClr.
Functions :

l.

To incrase size exhaust.

2. To obtain a distribution ofthe sizing solution.

(h)

Antifoaming Agents , The substances which prevent the foam

formation is called antifoaming agent. Exampl: Pyridine , Benzene.
tr'unctuions

()

To prevent foam formation

Neutralizing Agenb : This types ofagent is used to neutralize the

sizing solution.

184

The Point to be Considered to Choose Siz Ingrdients :

The recipe should be that which gives fewest end breakage.
I
2. It should that which gives the least exfoliation.
3. It should be easily washable i.e permits easy desizing.
4. It should give good fabric characteristics..

5. It should be compatible with the machinery and associated parts

6. It should not cause any health hazard.
7. It should not cause any degradation ofthe textile materials.
8. It should be cheap.
9. It should be neutral.

l0- It should available.

Tvoes of Sizins:
Sizing

I
Slasher Sizing

Ordinary Slasher
With Cylinder Drying

Hank Sizing

Ball Warp Sizing

t
With Air
Drying

Slasher

l{

(a)

lliph sr^-ed Slashcr

|-_-l
Air Drying

Slasher With Multi

Cl linder Drying

Slasher With Hot

Ak Drying

Slasher With Moist

tlot Air Drying

185

Hank Sizing :
(a) Ordinary hank sizer with separate arrangements for stetching

brushing and drying.

(b) Cohen hank sizer with auto sizing stetching , brushing and drying
on the same machine.

Tlpes of Sizing According to Application :

(a) Purt Sizing: When sizing is done in yarn which produces unbleached
fabric is called pure sizing. So , ingredients are on tle weight of yam
7 to lO Yo.
(b) Light sizing : This is used for dyeing and priuting. I I to l5 % sizing
ingredients are used on the rveight of yam.
(c) Medium Sizing : For increasement of strength and weight ofthe yam
16 to 40 ok sizing ingredients are used on the weight of yam.
(d) Heary Sizing : It is used crease the weight ofthe yam its application
on the twisted yam and lower count of yarn. Above 40 o/o sizing
ingredients are used on the weight of yam.
Techniques of Sizing :
(a) IIot meli sizing
(b) Foam sizing
(c) High pressure sizing
(d) Electrostatic sizing
(e) Ernulsion sizing
(t) Combined sizing

Slasher Sizing : A process in warp yams are sized during transfer warprs
beams to loom beam. This is the mostly used sizing process. Slasher sizing is
also known as slashing.
Units of Sl$her Sizing Machine :
(a) Back beam unit
(b) Sizing unit
(c) Drying unit
(d) Cooling unit
(e) Dividing unit
(f) Measuring unit and marking unit
(g) Beaming unit

r86

(a) Back Brm Unit : In single end sizing yams are taken from a creel
rather than from a beam- This unit contains 7 to 12 csrriers fiom
where yam is supplied. Indire.t and direct process of yam supply is
frequiently used for spun yams. Incase of indirect method beam creel
is used. This bcam creel can be armged in various ways.

ln this method a size box is used to supply size liquor

to thr yam, The warp sheet is guided through the solution by means of
the immersion roller and then through the squeeze rollers where the
yarns are passed to maintain the required size take - up % by the
yam. The box temPerature is usually cotrolled by following by
flowing through steam PiPe.
(c) Dryng Unit : Two or more heated cylinder consists of drying unit.
This unit is required to to drt the wet sized yams rapidly, throughly
and uniformly. A two cylinder dryer is too slow and it is difficult to
maintain by it. But a multi - cylinder dryer is a good one to maintain
in such a s'ay that after drying yam contains 6 9/o water'

(b) Sizing Units

Essential Figure

Hcre

187

.
A= Back bearn unit
B= Cuide roller
C = Tension roller
D = Sizing box
E = Immersion roller
F = Sizing roller
G = Squeezing roller
H = Drying cylindeer
I = Coooling fan
J = Guide roller
K,L = Dividing roller
M = Color bowl
N = Wraith
O = Measuring roller
P = Tension roller
Q = Nipper roller
R = Wrap beam
S = Pressure roller
T = Floating roller
U = Reverse roller
V = Marking roller
W = Steam pipe

(d) Cooling Unit : In this unit there is a cooling fan for and a guide roller.
The cooling fan supplies cool air rvhich extiguish thc yarn temperature
and also remove the moisture.

(d) Dividing Unit Inorder to prevent , adhession btween the yams, it is

necessary to separate each sized end liom tlre others. For this lease rod or
breaker rods are to divide the main warp shet into single end.
(e) Measuring and Marketing Unit : This unit consist of coloring bowl
which contains easiy removable color. This color is used for making on
sized yarn. Also there is a measuring roll which measures the length of
sized warp yam.

(f) Bcaming Unit: Finally the sized yam is wound on the weavers beam.

188

Methods of Sizing Mixing or Cooking ;

(A) Ordinary size mlxing or conventional method
(B) Pressure cooker mixhg or modem method,
Size - Take Up 7o : The amonut of size material added on the
yarn surface is called size take up prcentage.

Size take uoo/o

Wt of sized vam - Wt of unsized varn

: #x
Wt olunsized yam

So,Size take up%o

Wt of sized material

-W6fuiliZa;;iffi;i-

l00o/o

x l00vo

Faults of Sizing :
(a) Size spot
(b) Repealling warp streaks
(c) Shinnery
(d) SandY warP
(e) Ridge beam
(f) Hard sizing
(g) Improper drying

(})

Size droPPing

(i) Size stitching and

()

Uneven sizing

Disadvantages of Sizing :
(a) Capital investment
(b) Labour
(c) Cost ofsize ingredients
(d) Cost of power , \ 'ater or solvent

(e)

lrng

preparatory process
Deyeriation ofyam qualitY

(f)
(g) lrss yam or inch due to increase diameter
(h) Roug.h surface of warp due to uneven sizc solution,
(i)

()

increase co - efficient of friction.

Reduce yam extension oZ
Increase yam stiffiress

(k) Genaration of fault

(l) More robust loom.
(m) More power to drive loom.
(n) Difficulties of sized removed.
(o) Variation in dye talic ttP.

sonre times

(p) Cost ofdesizin*.

't'
(q) Need iniormation ofsize ingredients about size ingrcdients for desizing.
(r) Increased pollution.
(s) Fading ofcolor intensity.
(t) Possibility if some charges in the fiber structure.

Mathematical Problems About Sizing

The actual production of a high speed slasher machine is 32,400 yds per day
of8 hrs.lfcalculated s@ is 90 yds per min, find efficiency.

Soln:

We know,
324000

Actual production in yds pcr hour =

calculated production in yds per hr

li'r'l'h *,
= 5400 yds

Efficiency

Actual Production

l00o/"

Calculated Production
4050

Efficiency

s400

x 100%

:75% ( Ans.)
2.A beam of250 kg contains sized yam of 15% take
up if the sized count 40.87s. Calculate unsized count.

yds

190

Solo:

We know ,
100

Count of sized yam = Count of unsized yarn *

or40.87= Count of unsiz-ed yam

100
166

or, Count of Unsized Yam = 47' 9 (Ans.)

115

100 + %

ofsize

LOOM

t9t

Loom : The devicc which is used to produce woven fabric is called loom. It
is not a m\c.

Classilication of Loom :
(a) Hand loom
(b) Power loom
(a) Hand Loom :
l. Primitive or power loom
2. Pit loom

A.
B.

Loom

Through shutle loom

Fly shutle loom

3. Frameloom :

A. Through shutle loom

B. Fly shutle loom
4. Chttaranjan loom
5. Hattersley loom/ Salvation army loom
(b) Power Looom :
l. Conventional power loom :
A. Simple power loom
B. Automatic power loom
2. Mo'dern loom:
A. Jet loom
B. Rapier loom
C. Multiphase loom

A. Jet Loom :

(i)Air ja loom
(ii) Water jet loom

192

B. Rapier Loom :

(i)Flexibh rapier loom:

# Single rapier
# Double rapier

C. Multiphase

laom:

Plain multi phase loom

Circular multiphase loom

Ba3ic

structutt ofa weaving macbine:

fillinS

crrricr

Cmss section of shuttle loom alotrg th warp direction:

Cloth roll

191

Dirlerent prrb ofa hand weaving machine:

I . Warp and Weft yam

2. Heald Shaft:

l.

Treadle/pedal

4. Sley
5.Shuttle:

Tip

t94

5. Picker
6. Reed.

7. Beanr

8.'femple

r95

9- Lease Rod

10. Drawing hook:

Operations ofdifferent power loom'

Opration involved ofthe airjet loom.

,uidq ch-n.t

ot

ria..rd

Operation involved ofthe projertile weaving mrchine:

Schematic

Sketch

ofa typical air-jet weaving machine:

ofa rapier loom:

l96

197

Classification of Loom Motion:

(a) Primary loom motion
(b) Secondary loom motion
(c) Tertiary loom motion

Primary Motion

iI
Yl
Shedding

I
Tappet

Shaddi

Dobby

Jacquard Shadding

Modem Pick

Single Beating

Multiple Beating

Variable Beating

t98

Secondary Motion

I
Take Up Motion

I
Positive Take [Jp Motion

Wheel

Negative Take Up Motion

6 Wheel

7 Wheel

Shirley

Up Take Up
Motion Motion

I'ake Up
Motion

Up

'Iake

Let OffMotion

Take

Motion

Sulzer Take
Up Motion

Off Motion

Tertiary Motion

Breake

Feeler

Wap

Motion

Motion

Protector Motion

Loose Reed Motion

Temple

Fast Reed

Warp Weft Mixing Box

Stop Stop Motion Motion

Motion

Difrerence between Hand loom and Power loom:-

Iland loom

Serial No.

oprating

Power loom

Oprating system is poter

system is manual

Shedding is rlone by paddle and

picking

Shdding and Picking is

Beating is <ione by hand

done by aulomatical

Las poducion

Hi$

Slow running sped

Hi$runnings@

Check and striped

fabria

are

producol

pmduction

One color fabric is

pmdued

ly

200

Different Terms and llelinition of Febric Manufacfluring :

Drefting : The procoss sof drawing the warp into the heald eye according to
the weave plan or design is called drafting.
Classifi cstion of Draft ing:
l. Straight Draft:

2. Pointed Draft:

.'t. Flat Pointed

[)raft:

4. Broken Draft:

201

5. Special Draft:

6. SkQ

Drall:

7. Mire.d or Compound Draft:

Denting:-'fhe prcress of inserting rvarp yarn through reed is called denting

Drawing-in: It is the entering of yams from a ne\Y \\'arp into the weaving
elementi of a weaving nrachine, namley drop wires, heald eyes and reed,
\vhen starting up a new fabrics style.

l'igure 89

Key Parameters of Winding : Key parameters of rvinding i, gi""n b"loru2l2

l.
2.
3.

Slub catcher setting

Yam tension level

Winding speed

Non Woven Fabric : It can be defined has the textile structure made directly
from the fiber rather than yarn . These fabrics are normally made from
continuous filaments or from the fiber webs or bafts strenghened by bonding
using various techniques. These includes adhesive bonding, mechanical
interlocking by needing or fluid jet entanglement , thermal bonding and
stitch bonding.
The controversal areas are :
(a) Wet laid fabrics, containing woods pulp in which the boundary rvith
paper is not clear.
(b) Stitch bonded fabrics which contain some yam bonding purposes.
(c) Needle fabrics coutaining reinforcing fabric.

According to ASTIVID , " A textile structure produced by bonding or

interlocking of fibers or both accomplished by mechanical, chemical or
solvent means and combination is called non woven fabric.

Fabrics

:A

manufactured assenrbly

of fibers and /or

yarns that has

subslarrtial surface area in relation to its thickness and sufficient cohession to

give the assembly useful rnechanical srength is called fabric ( textile).

Ilpes of Fabric

l. Woven fabric
2. Knitted fabric
3. Non woven fabric
4. Braid

Color and Wegve Efrect : Patterns tlat are created in woven fabrics by
combing color with weaves.

Cottage

Industry : Domestic

system

of manufacture wherr textilcs

were

spun , knifted and woven in the home.

Cramming : Where more threads are packed into some areas of a fabric dran
otl.rers-

Cup

Seamilg : A type of sewing

drat

joins edges by means of a chain

stitch.

Denting : In weaving , the way warp thrcads are amanged in the reed.
Dents l In weaving , the spaces in the reed through which the yams are

203

threaded in groups of two , three or more , depending on the number ofends

pr centimeter required , the tlpe ofyam being used and the weave'

Draa

lWs

: ln knitting , tkeads that are introduced that , on removal

allow separation of pieces of fabric with welt edges.

Frbric Specifications : Full instructions as to how to make 6 fabric'
Fancy Yarns : Yams developed with deliberately introduced periodic effects'
Felt l Fabric made by matting animal fibers together'
Heald : Wires on wooden fiames or shafts , with eyes in the middle through
which warp yams are threaded.

Household Textiles : Textiles products used within the home, except

fumishimg . Included are sheets , pillowcases , towels , blankets , and table
cloths.

Irstitutional Frbrics :Household textiles used in the contract market'

Jacquards : Mechanical devices that control the patteming of large design
areas.

Picking Order : The smallest number of picks in color and/or count that
repeats up and down the fabric.
pict s , fne weft threads that rlrn across the cloth , working under and over
the warp ends frorn selvedge to selvedge.
Piece: A length ofwoven or knitted fabric.
Poplin : A fine plain weave cloth ivith fine rveft rl'a1's ribs, usually made in
cotton.

Reed : \Yhat the warp yams are threaded through to keep the thread spaced
correctly during weaving. The reed also ofien beats up the picks as the cloth
is woven.
Repeat : The smallest size ofa pattem that sholvs the full pattem'
Repeat Artists: Designers who take designs and put these into a size and
repeat appropriate to the intended end use.
Rib Fairics: Very elastic knitted stnrcture with good recovery knitted on

'

machines with to sets ofneedles.

Rib Gaiting : The needle arangement on rib machines where the needles are
arranged iniuch a way as to allow them to intermeshed when raised'

Satin and Sateen : Weaves that result and in fabrics of 8 smooth and lustures
appearance.
S"tt, In u *ou"n fabric , the number of warp threads or 'ends" used per inch'i

centimeter and the relationship of these to the number of weft threads or

' picks" per inch/centimeter.
fri.t . i tn kritting , the slots rthich space the needles is called tricks'

Voile: Lightweight, open ,plain

weave fabric'

: Fabrics that consist of t$,o sets of threads , ,fr" ,"u.p 1%

weft, which are interlaced at right angles to each other.
Tensioning Device : During winding for controlling yam tension , the yarn is
passed into the device which is called tensioning device.
DoIIing : Dofling is the removal of the newly wound packages and usually
the replacement of these by empty packages which will receive yam during
Woveo Fabrics

the

lhe tra-nsfer pmcess.

Piecing : Piecing is the finding and connecting the ends on the packages.
The connecting between the ends can be made by knotting , adhesion or
welding.

Shuttle : A yam package carrier that is passed through the shed to insert weft
during weaving. It carries sufficient weft for several picks.
Tlpes of Shuttle :
l. Ordinary shuttle
2. Automatic shuttle
Shuttle Box : A compartment at each end of the loom sley for remaining the
shuttle required position before and after picking.
Creel : A suucture for holding supply packages in textile processing is
called creel.

Tlpes of Creel

Crel

Single Ends

Crel

Duplicaed Creel

MaguineCreel

TmckCrel

Travelling Packages Creel

205

Bobbin : A cylinder or slightly tapered former with or without a flange or

flanges for holding slubbings , rovings or yams.

Crrep : Textile metals follows Hooks law up to a crtain point. After ftat
point it does follow Hooks law. So, when a load is applied on a textile
materials then instantaneous strain occured in the fiber and after release the
stress the fiber strain will be lower with the passing of. time i.e. slow
deformation will be occured. This behaviour of textile fiber is called creep. It
is two O?es. Such as :

(a) Primary creep

(b) Secondary creep

Drafting and Drafting Plan : The process of drawing the wary intyo the
heald eye according to the weave plan or design is called drafting and the
plan by which drafting is indicated is called drafting plan. It indicates the no.
ofheald shafts required to make a design.
Dent and Denting Plan : The unit of a reed comprissing a reed wire and the
space between adjacent wires is called dent. The process of inserting warp
yam through reed is called denting. The planning ofthis denting according to
order is called denting plan.
Lifting Ptan : An indication ofthe order in which heald shafts are liffted on
each pick in one weave repeat is called lifiling plan.
Weave : The pattern of irrterlacing of uarp and weft in a rvoven fabric is
called weave.

Weave PIan

An representation the interlace ment of warp and u'eft yarn is

called weave plan.

: A rectargular frame , which is used to hold wire

olflat metal strips in position is called heald frame.

Heald Frame
healds made

healds or

Heald Shaft : A heald frame comple with healds is called heald shaft.
Ribbon: A narrorv fabric usually woven and generally $'ith a continuous
filament warp in variety of styles for decorative and functionals uses.

Warp : Lengrh wise threads in a fabric as rvoven is called u'arp.

Weft : Width rvise threads in a fabric as woven is called weft.
Weavitrg : Ther action of producing fabric by the interlacing of warp and
weft threads is called weaving.
Shedding : The process ofseparating the rvarp thread into t*'o layerc to form
a tunnels known ( through which shuttlc carrying weft passes ) is called
shedding.

Picking : Thc mcthod of passing the weft threads which traverse accross the
fabric through shed is called picking. The inserted weft is called a pick.
Ileating l It is the process ofpushing the pick into already woven fabric at a
point known as fell ofthe clolh. By pressure of *'raith to join feed side ofthe
cloth is called heating.

Sbed

: Dividation of

threads into trvo pans

26
for irserlion of wcft threads is

called shed.
Shed

Close Shed

Open Shed

I
t
Bottom Cloze Shed

T
Center Close Shed

Semi Open Shed

Open Shed

Reversing Motion : The opposite motion of loom motion is called reversing

motion.
Loom Brake : Brake is to stop the loom applying pressure or force. The
objects of loom brake is to stop the loom instantly incase ofany fault.
Classification of Loom Brake :

l.

Brake band and brake pully

2. Brake shoe and brake pully

3. Built in breaking system in motion
: A type of cam to which a rotary motion is given for the purpose of
producing reciprocating motion in rods and levers by sliding contact . When
the rod is to receive a series of lifu , with intervals of rest and thus forms is
called tappet.
Dwell Period : Dweel is the statinary period when the heald frames do not
change their position and the shade remains open to allow the passage of the
shuttle fiom one shuttle box to the another.
Dobby : The dobby is a shedding device placed on the top of a loom in
order to produce figure pattems by using a larger no. of healds than the
capacity of a tappet. Dobby is a mechanism attatched with a loom for

Trppet

controlling the movements of heald shafu.

Classificstion ofthe Dobby :
1. According to the figuriug capacity :
12" l3s, l4s, l5', 16" ........................,36'

'

207

2. According to lift :

(a)
(b)

3.
4.

Single acting or single lift

Single acting or double lift

According to position of dobby with loom

(a) Horizontal loom
(b) Veryical loom
According to driving of heald shaft :

(a)

Positive
(b) Negative
5. According to shed tYPe:
(a) Bottom close shed
(b) Semi - open shed

(c) Open

6,

shed

According to no. ofjack lever

(a) Single

(b) Double
7. Bmadly :

(a) Ordinary dobby

(b)

Special dobby

8. Sounce ofcontrol:
(a) Mechanical dobbY
(b) Electrical dobbY

Jacquard : The jacquaed is a shedding device placed on the top of the loom
to piodu." large figure pattents by using a very large number of warp of
threads separately by means of hamess cords , hooks and needles / But
without any heald shaft.

Classilication of Jacquared Loom :

l. According lo liguring cap-acity i
^
300s,..,........1800].
2. According to type of shed :

loos, ioos.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)

Bottom close shed jacquared

Cenler close shed jacquared
Semi open shed jacquared
Open shed jacquared

208

3. According to lift and no. ofcrlinder:

(a) Single lifi single c1 linder j acquared
(b) Double Iift single cylinder jacquared

(c) Double Iift double

cy linder jacquared

4, According to broadly :

(a) Ordinary
(b) Spccial

5,

According to pitch ofjacquared

(a)

(b)
(a)
6.

Fire pirch jacquared

Mediurn pitch jacquared
Coarsc pitch jacquared

According to position ofcylinder

(a) I{orizontal jacquared

(b) Verrical jacquared.
7. According to the source ofdriving power:
(a) I.land jacquared
(b) Porvcrjacquared
9. Methods of harness mounting :
(a) London system :
i. Single tie up
ii. Repeathrg tie up

iii.

Ptrinted

iv.

Mixed rie up
vi. Special tie up

(b)Norwitch System
10. According to contml mechanism:

i. Mechanical
ii. Electrical
iii. Mechatronics

1.

According to selecting device

i. Jard jacquared

ii.
Left

OfI

Paper rolljacuared

Motion

The process of unwinding and delivering rhe required

beam to the weaving zone at the
requared rate and maintain uniform tension on warp yam and fabric produced
amount

of warp sheet from the warp

during rveaving is called let

oii

rnotion.

Tvoes of Pickins :
Picking

Conventional

picking

Modem picking

Hand

Conventional Picking

Over Picking

Under Picking

{Tappet and Cone

Parallel and Shoe

Bowl and Shoe

Link Pick

Side Shaft

Side Liver

Modem Picking

Fluid Picking

Water Jet

Picking

Inertia Picking

Air

,",1

210

Solid Picking

Messial

Single

r rcxrDle

Double

l(lgnr

Pick: A single

Right

weft thread in a woyen fabric is called pick.

Ends : A single warp thread in a rvoven fabric is called pick.

Sley : The oscialatting part of a u.eaving mc , positioned betu,een the healds
and the fell ofthe cloth which carries the reed is called sley. It is also known
in the U.K. as lay, lathe, batter, going part, fly - beam.
Sley Ecentricity Ratio
called ecentricity ratio.

The ratio ofcrank circle and length ofcrank arm is

Radius ofthe crank

circle

(r)

Sley Ecentricity Ratio =

Length ofthe crank arm (l)

Take Up Motion The process of withdrawing fabric from weaving zone at

a constant rate and then winding the woven cloth on the cloth roller rvith the
continuous progress ofweaving is called take up motion.

Loom: Loom has come from the Anglo Soxon word,, Glome.. *.hich means
loom. The m\c which is used to produce cloth by arranging two or more
series ofyams in right angle

2ll

KNITTTNG TECHNOLOGY
Knitting technologt:
width of a flat fabric or around the
the
Course : A row of loops across
circumference ofa ciercular fabric is called course.
Some Terms and defination about

Course Density : A row of loops across the width of a flat fabric or around
the circumference ofa circular fabric is called course.
Wale : A column of loops along the length of

fabric is called wale.

Wale

Wale Density : The number of visible loops per unit length measured along

wale.

Stitclr Density : The product of wale density and course density is called
stitch density.
Stich Density = Course density

"

\Vale density

Necdle : Needle is a hooked metal part which ia used for the formation of
Ioops. It is the principle knitting elements ofthe knitting machine.
The knitting needles are two typs. Such as:

l. Independent needle
2. United needle

Needle Carrier : 1-he place

labric is called needle carrier

in u,hich indicates the lhickness ol a

212

knined

G and M : It is a nuntber u,hich indicates the thickness ofa kni$ed fabric.

The Working \\'idth : The distance between the firsr and last needles in
flat ncedle bed is called u.orking rvidth.

Actual Width : The distance bet$een first and last needles in a flat needle
bladc during knitting action is called actual width.
Working Diameter: The diameter of a knitting machine is measured at the
bottom of hvo opposites needles grooves in a cylinder or at the top of two
opposite needles in circular bar is called working diameter It is usually
expressed in inch.
Needle Gauge : The needle gauge of needle machine is a measure the no . of
needlc per unit ofthe needle bed or needle bar

Needle Pitch : 'l-he distance between

t\,t

o neighbouring needles in the same

of i neighbouring needle

needle bed from the center of a needle to the center

is called needle pitch.
Needle pitch = l/ Needle Gauge

Sinker : The sinker is the second knitting elements. It is a thin metal plate
with an individual or collective action operating approximately ar right irom
the hook side bet*een adjacent needles.

Jack: The jack is a secondary weft elements which may be used to provide
flexibility oflatice needle selection and movement.

Cam

.:

.Cams

are the third primary knitting elements *.hich cover the rotary
a suitable reciprocating acticn for the needles and other

m/c drive into

elements-

"'

TlpesofCam,
l.Engineering cam
2. Knitting cams

i Knit cam
ii Tuck cam
iii.Miss cam
Needle Loop : Needle loop is the simplest unit of knitted structure ' It mnsist
ofa head ( top arc ) and two side limbs or legs.

ffi
[,1T')
\'l
E''

I
I

Needle looP

Sinker Loop : Sinker loop is the piece ofyarn which joins one weft needle
loop to ther nexl.

M
Sinker loop

Open loop: A knifted loop of which a thread enters and leaves at the opposite
sides without crossing over itself.

Opcn loop

Closed loop:

A knined loop of

which

a thrcad enters una t"u".. ,t

lt is rnade by special needle.

opposite sides uithout crossing orer itself.

tl

m
l\vrr

tto)t

l'lJl
Closed loop

Knitted loop: A kink of yarn hat is intermeshed at its base i.e

intermeshed nvo kink ofyam is called loop.

when

Open loop

Kink ofyarn: A lengh ofyam that has been bent into

its transformation into a weft knitted loop.

Kink ofvam

a shape appropriate for

215

The knitted stitch is the basic unit of intermeshing and

usually consist of three or more intermeshed needler loops. It is a kind of

Knitted Stitch :

yarn that is intermeshed at its top and at its base.

Knitted sticth
Top arc: The upper curved portion ofthe knitted loop is called top arc'

Top arc

Bottom hrlf-arc: The lower curved portion that constitutes in a weft knitted
loop,

halfofthe connection to the adjacent loop in the

sarne course'

Botrom half arc

Legs or side limbs: The lateral parts of the knitted loop that connect the top
arc to dre bottom half-arcs.

Legs

216

Tlre Face Loop or Stitch : The face side ofthe sritch sho\\s the ne\y loop
conrirrg touards the r iel.er as it passes over and covers the head ofthe olJ
loop. Graphical notation offace loop ,, X', or chain notation ..r...

Face loop

Reverse

or back Loop or Stitch : This is the opposite side of the stitch to

a*ay frorn the vierver as

the face loop side and shows the new loop meshing
it passes under the head ofthe old loop.

Open loop

Sin-gle Faced Stucturc: Single faced structers are produced in warp and
weft knitting by the single series ofneedle loop.

Double Faced Structure : Double faced shucters are produced in warp and
weft knitting when two set of independently conholled needle are empioyed
with the hooks ofone set knitting or facing in the opposite to other set.

Stitch Letrgth : The length ofyam, knitted into one stilch ill a weft knitted
fabric is called loop length or stitch length.
Loop Lengfh = I needle loop + I sinJ<er limbs
= I needle loop + lZ side limbs

Open

needle

+ I bottom arc

Arc : A knitted loop in which the same thread entires is leaves

at the

217

opposite side without crossing over itself is called open arc'

t
Stitch length

Laddering : Ifthe yams breakes, needle loops suuccessively unmesh down

is termed
a wale anJsinkerloop unmesh up a wale , this struche breaks down
as laddering.

Sinker Timming : The most foward position of the sinker during the
needle is
knitting cycle is fnown as the push point and its relationship to ther
known as the sinker timming.

Rit Structre : The stuctre s'hich requires two sets of needles operating in
between each other so that wales of the face stitching and lvales
stitchs arc kllitted on each side ofthe fabric is called rib stuctrc'

of

reverse

Hcald Loop : A heald toop is an old loop that the needle has refained'

Face loop

Held Stitcb : fleald stitches are formed by a heald loop and one or more tuck
loops and one or more miss loop and more knit loop'
Tuck Stitch : A tuck stitch is composed ofa heald loops and knitted loops'

Purl Structre : The structure which

has certain wales containinig both face

and reverse method loops are known as Ptlrl structure'

218

Common Abbrer iations of \l,caving Technolory :

Carriage: Yarn carn ing dcvice on a product range.

Circular Knitting : Fabrics knitted on nrachines that have thc needles

in slots around the circurnference of a cl.linder. The fabric is

arranged

manufactured as a tube-

Course: Horizontai rou.s ofstitches in knitted fabric.

Crochet : A uay of making fabric by looping and interlu.ining thread wirh
hooked needle.

Cmssings:

-Sections
than by design.

where u.arp and weft patterns combine more by chancc

Cylinder: The ncedles that are ananged vertically round a circular knitting
machines, equivalent to the flat rnachine's front bed.

Dial.: The

needles arranged horizontally inside the cylinder

knitting machine, equivalent to the flat nrachine,s back bed.

of a circular

Cut and Servu Knitrvear: Garments are made from pieces cut fiom panels,
or lengths offabric, usually u,irh integral ribs.

Flat Knitting: Knining produced on

machines that have the needles

arranged in a straight line on a needle bed, with knitting taking place from
side to side

Fully- Fashioned Knitn,ear : Knihvear made from garrnents pieces shaped (

fashioned ) on the knitting machine ro the correct sizi and shape required.
Garment Blank : Panel of fabric knitted for cut and sewn knitwear

production.

Gmsgrain : A fine plain weave fabric with weft ways ribs wirh the warp
,

usually made from continuous filament yam.

Hosiery: Can mean all types ofknitted fabrics and goods made flom knitted
fabrics or stockings , tights and socks.
Jersey : A generic tenn for knitted piece goods: continuous knitted fabric.

219

Knit

Fabric Structurc : Fabrics are produced by interlacing loops ofyarn'

Knitting Industries' Federetion

( KIF ) :

The national employers

organization for the UK knitting industries'

Kritwear : Knitted

garments , usually with integral ribs'

Lace : An open - work fabric made by looping , plaiting or twisting threads

by means ofa needle or a set ofbobbins.

Lryoub

plane'
: The arrangements of motifs in the frame work ofthe design

Lifting Plan : The instruction for the lifting and lowering of the shafu'
process used to attach knitted himmings to body pieces
by chain stitching individual stitches to the body'

Linking : A sewing

Machine Gauge : The numbers of needle on a knitting machine per unit of

length ( usually this unit of length is an inch )'
Macrame: Atype of knotted constnrctioli'
Non

Wovens

Fabrics made from r,rebs of fibers held together and then

bonded by some method.

raw
Overlocking : A sewing process which cuts and forms stitches round a
edge , preventing the fabric from unravelling'

Purl Fabric: Knitted fabric with face and reverse loops in the

same wale'

Wales: Vertical columns of knitted fabrics'

Warp : The length ways threads in a woven fabric'

Weft : The width ways threads in a woven fabric'

Warp Knitting : A method of knitted fabric construction rvhereby a set of

*u.p y"* era timultaneously formed into loops , connectcd by a sideways
movernefit that is such as to cause the loops to interlink'

Weft Knitting : A method of knitted fabric constructiort whereby loops

are

2?0

fonned , one at a timc , in a weft

u,a1,s

direction

as the

fabric is formed.

G.S.IU. = Cram Per Squarc Meter.

WPL = t*hles Per Inch.

C.PI .= Course Per Inch.
C.PM .= Cours Per Meter
WP.Cm .= Wales P[er Centimeter.
C.PCm = Course Per Cenlineter.
R.P.M. = Revolution per Minute.
T.S .= Top Shaft .
C.S .= Crank Shaft.
B.S. = Bottorn Shaft .
I.R.= Interlacing Ratio

BKMEA

Association.

Bangladcsh Knitting Manufacturers and Exponers

221

Textile Fabrics
Textile Irabrics :
'Iextile fabrics

can be produccd directh fionr u,ebs of fibers by bonding,

fusing or interlockine to nrake non - rvoven labrics and felts , but their
physical propertics tend to restrict their potential end - usage: 1-he
mechanical manipulation of y.anr into fabric is the most versatile method of
manufacturing textile fabrics lbr a wide range ofend-uses.

'[here are three principal melhods

of nrcchanicalll, manipulating yarn
into textile fabrics: intenreaving, intcrtwining and interlooping. All three
methods have er,olved from hand-manipulated techniques through their
application on primitir e frames into sophisticated manutbcturing operations
on automated machinen.

l.

Interl'eaving: It is the interseclion of tl,o sels of straight threads, rvarp

and rveft, u,hich cross and interweave at right angles to each other,
Weaving is by far the oldest and most common nrethod of producing
continuous lengths r:f straight-cdged fabric.

f -'1

Interweaving.

222

Intertwining rnd twistitrg: tt includes a number of techniques, of

techniques, such as braiding and knotting, where threads are caused to
intertw-ine with each other at right algles of some other angle' These
techniques tend to produce special constructions whose uses are limited to

2.

very specific purposes'

Interwiningh and twisting

3. Interlooping: It consists of forming yam(s) into loops' each of rvhich is

typically only relcased after a succeeding loop has been fonned and
with it so that a secure gnrund loop structure is achieved lhe
ini"n
"rt"d
(ln the
loops are also held together by the yarn passing from one to the next'
simplified illustration this effect is nol illushated.)

lnterlooping

223

Knitting:
The process in which fabrics are produced by set ofconnected loops from
series ofyam in rveft or uarp direction is called knitting. It is tu.o t;,pe like:

l. rvarp kn ining and

2. weft knining

weft knitting:
In a xeft knitled structure.

a horizontal rarv

of loop can bc rnade by using one

tread and the thread runs in horizontal direction.

essential figure :

11

t.:

Warp knitting :

Weft Knitting

In a warp knitted structure, each loop in the horizontal direction is made fiom
a different thread and the no ofthreads used to produce such a fabric is least
equal to the number ofloops in vertical direction.

Warp Knitting

714

Dilferent between weft and warp knitting

\Yrro klitting

weft knitting:
L lhe loops are produced to the width of

l. the loops ac produced to

fabric.

fabric.

2. It is elastic to th

2. It is elastic to

\ridth.

I*s

length

of

length.

3.lts is elasticitY is hisher.

3.lts elasticity is lss.

4.

tk

ttr

4, Higher shrinkage.

shrinkage.

5. More courses are needed for each pattem

5. Course is equal to the pattem.

raw.
6- Yams are suppled

6. Yams are supplied fmm

fmm cone.

?. At least one yam is needed for each needle.

TCreating fabric by thh method

is suitable to

kam.

7. Anv no ofneedle is needed for one yam.

8. Hand wash is suitable.

dry wash.
9.

Allkinds ofdesign is complex.

I0. It is suitable for producing thin fabric.

9. Any desipn done easily

10.

It specially suitable for producing coane

fabric.

The Potential of knittitrg Technology:

Structure of knitting provides opportunilies for:
i) Using a minimum number of Yarns.
ii) Dasy florl ofyam from one loop to another under tension.
iii) Varying the size of looPs.

iv)
v)
vi)

vii)
viii)

loop destortion when under tension.

loop transfer.
knitting single face, douible face, open-work and surface intersst
structures.
Increasing or descasing the nunrber of loops in width or depth'
Knitting to shape either fabric pieces or separate articles.

ix) knitting from a selection ofyams.

x) Engineering extensiblibty of stabibily.
xi) Infroduing (by inlay) yams nsrritable for knitting.

Bcard

225

Needle

l.atch Needle
Needle Compound

Enginering cam

(Circular)

Basic Elemcnts

Knil cam

ofknitting

knirtins

cam t.*

(An8ulcr carn )
loop formin8

-lf-+

Tuit

carn

| , Mis

cam

sinker

Il.ldinS Do$. Sinker

linitting 0ver Sinker

The needle:

'l'he hooked metal needle is

the principal knitting element of the lnitting

machine.

The basic knitting action

ofa

needle:

Figure Illustrates the basic action ofa needle. Except for the manner is
which the hook is closed (in this case by pressing the beard), the knitting
action is similar for all needles. The arrows indicate lhe relative movement of
the loops along the needles. (Whether the needle moves through the loops or
the loops are moved over the needle by some other elements depends upon
the machine design.)

ffhrFrr

226

l.

The needle is in the (so catled) rcst position, with the previously
formed loop (a) held on its stem and covered by the hook'
2. The loop is cleared from the needle hook to a lower position on the
needle stem.
3. The new yarn (b) is fed to dre needle hook 8t a higher position on the
needle stem than the position ofthe previous (old) Ioop.
4. The yam is formed onto a new looP
5. The hook is closed, enclosing the new loop and excluding and landing
the old loop onto the outside ofthe closed hook.
6. The new loop slides offthe closed hook ofthe needle and is cast offor

knocked over.
7. The old loop now hangs from the feet
the knitting cycle slarts again.

ofthe fully formed new loop and

The beerded needle:

The bearded or spring needle was the first typ ofneedle to be produced. It is
the cheapest and simplest type to manufacture as it is made from a single
piece of metal, in machine gauges as fine as 60 needles per inch, with the
needles being pliered to ensure accurate needle spacing'
The bearded needle is essentially a frame needle. the needles being fixed to
move colletively with the straight needle bar or being attached to circular
frame and revolving u'ith it.

The main parts or features of the bearded needle

Main parts ofthe bcardcd needle

Thcrc are live nrain parts of the bcartled necdle

l. Thc

"'

*hich the needle loop is fomted.

head, \here the stem is turned into a hook to draw the new loop
through the old loop.
3. The beard, uhich is the curved dorvnrvards continuation of the hook that
is used to separate the trapped new loop inside from the old loop as it
slides offthe needle beard.
4. 'fhe e1'e, or groo\e, cut is tlre ster)l lo Ieceive the pointed tip ofthe beard
s hen it is pressed, thus enclosing the new loop.
5. The shank, lhich nray be bent for individual location in the machine or
cxhaust with others in a metal lead.
2.

.l-he

stenr, around

Advantage or Characteristic of bearded nccdle:

l. It is ca;led spring needle.

2. Chcapest and slnlplest t_vpe.
3. tJsed in very fine -{auge machine.
4. It needs a closing elentents i.e. pressure.
5. Suitable for loop transfer.
Used in :
1. Circular single knining machine.
2. \!hrp knit tricot machine.
3. Flat bar full fashioning machine.

The latch needle:

The needle which have a right hook and a latch easily around the axis is
called latch needle. I-atch needle is patented in 1806 A.D. but practically it is
used in 1809. Because of being self acting or loop controlled of the latch
needle, the individual molement and controls of the needle stitch selection to
be achieved.

Thc features of the latch needle:

The latch needle has nine main features
l. The hook, which draws and retains the new loop.
2. 'l'he slot or saw cut, which receives the latch blade (not illustrated).
3. The cheeks or slot walls, which are either punched or riveted toi
fulcrum the latch blade (not illustrated).
4. The rivet, which may be plain or threaded. This has been dispensed
with on most plate mctal needles, by pinching in the slot walls to
retain the latch blade.
5. The latch blade, Which locates the latch in the needle.'

128

The latch spoon, which is an extension of the blade, and bridges the
gap between the hook 8nd the stem covering the hook when closed, as

shown in broken lines.

6. The stem, which carries tlre loop in the clearing or rest position.
7. The butt, which enables the needle to be reciprocated when contacted
by cam profiles on either side of it, forming a track. f!"ouble ended
purl gpe needles have a hook at each end; while one hook knits, the
inactive hook is conholled as a butt by a cam reciprocated element

called a slider.

8.The tail, which is an extension below the butt, giving additional

support to the needle ahd keeping the nedle in its trick.

q
it

.ltll

u
))

Main features ofthe latch needle.

The advantages of tbe latch needle

The latch needle has the major advantage of being selfacting or loop
controlled, so tlrat individual movement and control of the needle enables
stitch selection to be achieved. It is ideally suited for use with computer
controlled electronic selection devices. For that reason, it is the most widely
used needle in weft knitting and is sometimes termcd the 'automatic' needle
(provided there are loops on the needle).

229

Latch

l. TIe ne*Jlr

hare a ngid

Beraded

hool and larch

easill'tuming around the aris.

l. I'he llexible hook loop holder uhich

capable ofenclosing

tk

nes

lr

is

loop in order to

dran it thoru$|1'the pnliousll formed

2. Moy uidell usd in
3.lt'lore
4.

Iiris

need

kninine,

2. Circular singlc

needle is

selfcontroliable duao no

3.

hitting machine,

Les erpensire.

4. Not

Selfcontollah. needs extra Fessure.

ofertn prcswe.

5. Not simple
6.

left

erpnsire thar hardcd needle.

trp.

5. Simple

Ihe $em canies the loop in dre rest and

npe

6. fuound stem uhcrc the ncu loop is formed.

clearing position.

The compound needle:

The compound needle consists

i) The

oftwo

separately controled parls:

stenr

ii) The sliding latch.

The compound needle is patent at first in 1856.

Features:

l.

Its trvo parts rise and fall as a single unit. But at the top ofthe rise, the
hook moves faster to open the hook and at the start of the fall the hook
descends faster to close the hook.
2. The compound needle stem can be made ofa U-shaped steel wire or of
a steel tube.

3. Two types of compound needle in warp knitting machine. The tubular

pipe needle

& open stem pusher gipe needle.

4. The tubular pipe needle, the tongue sliding inside the tube of the open
hook.

5. In open stem pusher type needle or slide needle, the closing wire slides
externally along a groove on the edge ofthe flat book member.
6. In open stem pusher needle, each of the two pars can be separately
replaced.
7. Cheaper & Simple to manufacture.
8. Produce tighter stitch.
9. Fach part requires sparated control.
10. Yam feeding is complicated.
I

l.

Smooth and simple action as no inertial problem.

230

Hook

Advantages :
l. It has a short, smooth and simple action.
2.

Led

lt can stitche chain stitches.

Ilsls:
l. \Varp knitting

nrachine.
2. S ingle jersey knitting machine.
3. Fiat knitting nrachine.
,1. Weft knitting nrashine.

Cam:

Cam is the second primar; knitting elements which cover the rotary
mechine drive into a suitable reciprocating action for the needles and other
elements. 'I'he canrs are carefully profiled to produc precisely timed
movement and dwell periods. The drive transmitted and adapted via canr
followers, leavers, pivots and rocking shafts.
Typcs of Cam:

l.

Engineering cams: Engineering cams are circular

in

hape. They are

attached to a rotary drive shaft situated parallel to and below the needle bar.
In *'arp knitting machines, four types ofcam drive have been employed.
a) Single acting cam.
b) Cam and counter cam.
c) [Jox cams
d) Counter cams

)1!

u)
Heart Shaft

Unequal Shaft

2. Knitting

cam
a) Knit cam
b) Tuck cam

c) Miss cam

Sinker: The sinker is the third knitting elements. It is a thin metal plate'rr,irh
an individual or a collective action operating aproximately at right fiom the
hook side between adjacent needles.

Sinker

Weft knitting machines:

Main features of knitting machine:

A Knitting machine is thus an apparatus for applying mechanical movement,
either hand or power derived, to primary knitb-ing elements, in order to
convert yam into knitted loop structures. the machine incorporates and co-

ordinates the action of a number of machanisms and devices, ealcT

performing specific functions that contribute towards the efticiency of the
knitting action.

Over all view o, Modem Circular knitting machine

the main features of a knitting machine are listed below:

Frame: The frame, normally free standing and either circular or rectilinear
according to needle bed shape, provides the support for the ma-iouiS of the
machirres mechanisms.
Power supply: 'l-he machine control and drive system co ordinates the power
for the drive ofthe devices and mechanisms.
Yarn supply or feeding: The yarn supply consists of the yarn package or
beanr accommodation, tensioning devices, yarn feed control and yam feed
carriers or guides.

Knittirg action : The knitting system includes the knitting elements, their
housing drive and control, as well as associated pattem selection and garment
length control devices (if equipped).
Fabric Take away: The fabric take away mechanism includes fabric
tensioning, wind up and accommodation devices.

Quality control: Tlre quality control system includes stop motions, fault
detectrors automatic oilers and lint revoval systems.

Classification ofweft knitting machines:

\\tlfknitting rrachines arc divided into the several ua1,s as lbllou,s:
A. According to the frame design and needle bed anangement or
construction:

233

i; C ircular k'rrining machine

ii) Flat knitting machine.
B. According to the number ofneedle bed or number ofncedle set used
i) Single jersey knining machine
ii) Double jerscy knitting machine
C) According to the end product ofthe weft knitting rnachine :

i) F-abric mach ine

ii) Garment length machine
D) According to the basic structure ofthe rveft knitting :
I) Plain or single jersey circular knitting machine
ii) Rib circular or flat knitting machine
iii) Interlock circular knitting machine
iv) links-links or Purl flat or circular knitting machine
E) According to the t1'pes ofneedle used :
l. Knitting machine equipped with latch needle
a. Circular knitting machine
i) One needle bed
Plain, single-jersey jacquard, pile and sliver knit machine
b) Two needle beds (Dial-Cylinder machine)
Rib, interlock, Double-jersey jacquard machine
3. Double cylinder
Purl knining machine
b. Flat bed knitting machine
+ One needle bed

**

Domestic type
Two needle beds
Vee bed, Flat purl

knitting machine
ii. Knitting machine equipped with spring bearded needle
a.Circular knitting machine
One needle bed
Sinker wheel, loop wheel frame
b. Sraight bar frame
One needle bed and two needle beds
Cotton's patent or Fully fashioned machine.

Features of a Cirrcular knitting machine:

The common features of a circular knitting machine as follows:
I

2Y

Circular knitting machine normally has rotating (Clockwise)

Cylindrical needle bed(S).

2. On circular knitting machines latch and compound needles are used.

One seldom finds bearded needles or other needle qpes. Normally
one or two sets of latch needles are used.
3. For single jersey machine holding down sinkers are used, one
between every needle space.

4. Normally stationary angula cam systems are used for needle and
sinker.

5. Latch needte cylinder and sinker ring (For single jersey machine/
dial (for double- jeney rib and interlock machine remove throughy
the stationary knitting cam system.
6. For single jersey machine , sinker trick ring which is simply and
directly attached to the outside top of the needle cylinder thus
causing the sinker to revolve in unison with the needles.
7. Needle retaining spring is also used
8. Stationary yam feeders are situated at regular intervals around the
circunrforence of the rotating cylinder.
9. Yarn is supplied from cones, placed either on an integral overhead
bobbin stan or on a freestanding creel through tensioners, stop
motions and yam guide eyes down to the yam feeder guides. A
Diagram of cylinder and dial arrangement for a circular knitting
machinc, b- Needles are placed inside the tricks in close-up, and c
Diagram of the relative positions ofdial and cylinder needles.
10. Machine gauge is normally used 5 to 40 Needles per inch and
machine diameter up to 30 inches. Up to 60 inch diameter machines
are now available.
Strait bar frame m/cs : Special type of m/cs having a vertical bar of bearded
needles whose movement is conlrolled by circular engineering cams attached
to a revolving cam-shaft in the base of the m/c. the lenglh of the nr/c is
divided into a number of knitting heads.
Flat m/cs:

'Ihe typical flat nr/c has t$o stationary beds arranged in an inverted V
formation. The m/cs mnge from hand - propelled and manipulated models to
automated, electrically-controlled, porver-driven m/c.

2ls

Carment length m/cs: Flal and circular m,/cs, knitting gannent length
sequences *'hich hai e a timing or counling device to initiate and additional

garment lenglh progamming (m/c control) ntechanism. '[his coordinates the

knining action to produce garment stnlctural repeat sequence in a walc rvise
direction. The garment u'idth may or may not vary within the gannent length.

Fabric m/cs: Large diameter, circular, Iach needle m/cs knit fabric, at high
speed, that is manually cut away from the m/c after a convenlional length has

been knitted. Most fabric is knitted on circular m/cs either single cylinder or
cylinder and dial.

Warp Knitting Machine

Main Featurs of the Tricot Warp knitting machine:
Tricoi warp knitting machines hav the follorving important features:

Tricot warp knifting machine:

236

l. In the past, Tricot machines

mainly employed bearded needles with a

presser bar.

2. Tricot machines have a gauge expresded in needles per inch and chain
link membering l,1,2,3,4, etc., Generally with three links per coures.
3. Their sinkers, which arejoined to each other at the front and back, never
move clear of the nee.dles as they combine the functions of holdingdown, knocking over and supporting the fabric loops.
4. The fabric is drawn away towards the batching roller almost at right
angles 1o the needle bar.
5. The warp beams away towards the batchirrg
to the needle bar.

roller almost at right angles

6. The warp beams are accommodated in an inclined and towards the back
ofthe machine with the top beam supplying the liont guide bar and the
bottom beam supplying the back guide bar.
7. The warp sheets pass over the top of the guide bar rocker shaft to their
tension rails situated at the ftont of the machine.
8. Mechanical attention to the knitting elements is carrid out at the front of
the machine as the beams prevent access to the back.
9. As all the warp sheets are drawn over the rocker shaft to the fionl of the
machine it is easier to thread up the guide bars commencing with the
back bar, otherwise the front u'arp will obscure this operation.
10. The guide bars are therefore numbered from the back towards the front
ofthe machine because ofthis threading sequence.
The conventional tricot beant arrangements generally restricts the
maximum numher of beams and guide bars to four but this is not of
major importance as the majority of tricot machines employ only tu'o
guide bars.
12. The small angle of fabric take away and the type of knitting action

ll.

provides gentle and low tension of the structure being kniued which is
ideal for the high speed production of simple fine gauge (28-40 npi)
close knitted plain and pattemed structures, especially two guide bar
structures with both bars overlaapping and underlapping.

717

Knitting elements of the Tricot warp knitting machine;

1'he knitting elements are located on four different bars and produce the
rows ofstitches in a pre-determ ined, precisely coordinated and simultaneous

series

of

movements. Every knitting element has

its own corresponding

movement.

Name of the Bars:

l. Sinker bar
2. Compound needle bar
3. Tongue or sliding latch bar
4. Guide har

Knitting Elements:
la. Enclosing knock-over sinkers
2a. Compound needle
3a. Tongue or sliding latch
4a. Guide

Main Featurrs of the llaschel tffarp Knitting M !4hine:

Raschel warp knitting machines have tlre following inportant features:

238
I.

Raschel machines used latch needles together with a latch wirc or

blade.
2. Raschel machines have a gauge expressed in needles per two inches (5
cm) so that for exarnpie, i,35 gauge Raschel will have lE ;ieedles per

inch.

3. Their chain Iinks are usually numbered in even numbers 0'

2,4,6'

etc., generally with two links per course.

4. Raschel sinks only perform the function of holding down the loops
while the needles rise.
5. Raschel sinkers are not joined together by a lead across their ends
nearest to the needle bar so they car move away towards the back of
the machine for the rest of the knitting cycle.
6. The needle trick plate verge acts as a fabric support ledge and knock
over surface.
7. The fabric is drawn downwards from the needles almost parallel to the
needle bar at an angle of 120 of 160 degrees by a series oftake down
rollers.

8. 'lhe warp beams are arranged above the needle bar centered over the
rocker shaft so that w3rp sheets pass down to the guide bars on either
side of it.
9. The beams are placed abcve the machine so it is accessiblc to the

knitting elements.
fiom the front ofthe machine.
With the Raschel arrangernent there is accommodation for at least
four 32 inch diametrr bearns or large numbers of small diameter

10. The guide bars are nunrbered

ll.

pattem beams.

of *re Raschel machine, its simple knitting action

and its strong and efiicient take down tension makes it particularly
suitable for the production of coarse gauge openwork structures
employing pillar stitch and inlay lapping variations and partly
threaded guide bars which are difiicult to knit and hold down rvith the

12. The accessibility

tricot arrangement of sinkers

13. Additional warp threads may be supplied at the slvedges to ensure
that these needles knit fabric, otherwise a progressive press off of
loops may occur.

239

Knitting Elements ofthe Raschel rvarp knitting machine:

The Cmchet machine:

In hand crocheting, a hook is used to draw a i-,e,v loop throught the old loop
rvith the chains of loops being.ioined together ai inten'als. The features of 1l1e
crochet machine as follows.
l. A single hosizontal needle bar whose simple rcciprocating action can bc

individually-tricked latch, carbine or embroidery needles.

2. 'fhe patent or carbine bearde,J needle is used for fine structures and has a
sideways crimped beard placed in a permanently presed position.
3. Embroidery or lace needles are carbine needles with pointed heads that
can penehate pre-woven structures to produce embroidery effects.
4. A wider range of yams can be used, and compound needles last up to six
times longer than bearded needles.
5. Latch needles oprate at uneconomic speeds and have a short life due to
latch breakage.
6. No sinkers instead a fxed hold-back bar is fitted in front ofthe knock over
used to operate

verge to prevent the fabric moving ot with the needles.

7. Closed lap pillar stitches and inlay threads conholled and supplied as
separate warp and weft respevtively.
8. The weft yam, often placed above and towards tie back of the machine,
supplying the canier tubes, which are clipped to the spring-loaded inlay bars.
9. Special attachments are available for producing fancy effects such as cut or

uncut fiingv
desings.

"Jges,

pile, braiding (equivalent to falL platc; aiirl snail shell

240

Crochet Wa:1: Knitting Machine

The knitliag rlenrents in a crochet machine:

241

Wet Prosessing Technolory

The Flowchart of Wet Processine of Cotton Goods
Grev cloth
StitchinC
Shearing

id

SewinC

&d

SeroPPing

e*nine
I

Sintreing

n.l,ing

s"Jin*
st.*"hlno

,o*nn

t"

Washing

,.J""
't"

i
Dyeing

Mercerizinc

After'freatment

:;i:ffi,
ei,tJine

Inspection
Packlns

I-

Baling

I
Bleached Fabric

i-

It

Grer cloth: lh!'urrJ..ed and unfinished cloth

242

is called gre\ cl()th.

Sritching and Sering: It isthe process tojoin up several grer clolh on to

rr arpcrs bcant lo Jlroduce a continuous fabric stand lirr quick *et pr()cesiing
aclion. S$ring is o process to attach two or morc parts of fabric by needle
and threads.

Shcalirg and Scropping: The process to cut out extra \\arp or u.eft
from the surface ofa l'abric is called shearing or seropping

end

Brushing: It is a process to remove dirt and dust. small fibers and other
additional substanccs by brush before singeing.
Singring:l-he process by which the projecting or floating tlbers srand out on
the l'abric surfhc. ar'!, bumt off is called singeing.

Desizing: The process to renrove the sizing material from the fabric is called
dcsizing.

Scouring: fhe process to remove the fats, oil and rvaxy substance and added

othcr impurities by certain percent of alkali and which increases lhe

absorbency po*er erfthe textile goods is called scouring

Illeaching:The pr:ocrss by shich the natural color of a fiber can bc renroved

and make the textile materials pure white and bright is called bleaching

Souring : The treatnlent by which the fabric after processing rvith alkali or
scouring is stated rvith hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid for
ren:oving alkali or neutralization ofalkali is called souring.
Washing : To wash the textile materials.

Drving : After washing the textile material

is then dried.

Mercerizing : Mercerizing is the process in which the cotton materials are

passed with 20 - 22% NaOH or 55 - 60 o/o Tw ( Toudel ) concentrated of

NaOll

for 2 - 3 minutes at room temperature.

Dyeing : The process by ahi.h : textile material is changed physically or

chemically so that it looks mono uniform colored is called dyeing.

lr
l;

243

Printing : Printing is one kind ofdyeing. When different tlrpes of color used
to make a particular design on the textile goods is called printing' Normally
printing is pcrformed on the textile goods in dry condition.
Fixing : To fix up the dyestuff into the textile materials is called fixing'
for proper and perfect dyeing
action. As for example, Incase of direct dye , after treatrnent is performed for
increasing liglt fastness and wash fastness of dyed materials Dye particle is
done insoluble into the fiber after treatment

After Tratment : The

Bleached Cloth
bleachcd cloth.

process which is used

The cloth which is got after bleaching action is called

Finishing is a process to give the proper quality of textile

materials at the end ofthe wet processing depending ofthe customers'

Finishing

Inspection

Activity Singeitrg:

of a
to
requirement
u'ith
specified
those
comparing
and
service
product or
inspection.
is
called
determine conformably
Suci as measuring , examing, testing, gauging, or more, characteristics

Packing : To pack the textile materials treated by polyethylene bag '

Baling : To bail the textile material.

Wet Pmcessing Unit

)44

i'low Chart of \Yet Processinq for Svnthetic F-abric

Grev'l Cloth

Stitchins
I

Washing

Dyeing

Heat S'ctting

I
Calendaring

l
i

Folding

Packing

Washing

Dry'ing

Stentenng

Printing

Curing or Poly'merizing

Washing

Calendaring

245

Grty clothr

The undyed and unfinished cloth is called grey cloth.

is the process to join up several grq'cloth on to warpers beam

to produce a continuous fabric stand for quick wet processing action.

Stitchingr It

Washing : The process to wash the textile material is called washing.

Dyeing : The process by which a textile material is changed physically or

chemically so ttrat it looks mono uniform colored is called dyeing.
Heat Setting : 'Ihe process ofconferring stability of form upon fibers , yarns
, or garments usually by means of successive heating and cooling in dry or
moist condition is called heat setting.
Calendering : Calendaring is a temporary mechanical finishing process. It
gives a smooth surface ofthe cloth.
Folding : Folding is defined as the procss to fold one or more materials into
the desired configuration for sewing.
Packing: To pack the textile materials treated by polyethylene bag

Drying: After washing the textile material is dried.

Stentering : The process by which we can keep proper width of fabric in
lenglh and widthwise and increases the smoothness , lustureness , evenness
of fabric is called stentering.
Printing is one kind ofdyeing. Wlren different types ofcolor used
panicular
design on the textile goods is called printing. Normally
a
make
to
performed
on the textile goods in dry condition.
is
printing

Printing:

Polymerizing \ Curing : A process following application ofa finish to textile

fabrics in which appropriate conditions are used to effect a chemical reaction
is called curing. In other words, the process used to link small chemical
molecules in to

polymer is called polymerization.

)46

Grey ('loth
I

Stitchinc

I-

Singeing
I

J
Dcsizing

t.
^Scounng
I

t
I

tsleacliing
I

t"

Washins
J
Mercerizing

t
Washing/$ouring
I

Drying

247

Jet Dyeine

Drying
I

Jigger /Pad Roll Dyeing

I
Drying

Stentering

I
Sunforizing /Calendaring

I
F-oldinp /Rollins

I"
Packing

Baling

Printing

Curins

I
Washing

Dn ins

I"

Stlnterine
+
Sunfori z-ing /Cal endaring

I
Folding /Rolling

Packing

Baling

218

SINGEING

Singeing: The process by rvhich rhe projecting or floating fibers stand out
on tle fabric surface are buntt off. is called singeing.
Objerts of Singeing :
(i ) To remove hairy fibers projecting on the surfacc of

cloth and given a smoothen face.

(ii) Optical

levelness

a printing design.

Types

of

ofthe dyeing and clean out lines of

(iii) To increase lusture in the finished fabric.

(iv) 1b prepare the fabric for next process.
Singeing

( i ) Plate singeing m/c

( ii) Roller singeing m/c
( iii ) Gas Flarne singeing m/c
Gas Flame Singeing m/c : This is the most commonly used process lor
woven fabric. In gas sigeing rnc both side ofthe fabric can be singed in same
tinre. Normally two bumer are used for both side singeid. In ihis rn/c the
fabrics are passed through some guide roller over the gas bumer in open
width as shown in the figure. The length of the burnir can be adjuired
according to the width of the fabric . The fabric passes over the bumer at the
speed of200 - 400 yard minute. When the fabric passes over the bumer, it
bums the projecting fiber from the surface of the fabric.
Brush is used for brushing rhe both sides of the fabric. After singeing the
fabric is immersed in the rvater or desizing tank to prepare next process. The
m/c may be horizontal or vertical.
Essential Figure :

Squeezing Roller

[]
GuiCe

Roller
11
Gas Burner
Uesizing Tank

249

Advantrges of Gas Singeitrg :

(i) Uniform temperatur ensure to proper singeing.
(ii) Both side ofthe fabric can b singeid .
(iii) As the process is continuous there is no hamper in production.
(iv) AII sparks can be easily removed.

(v)

Standsrd process.

(vi) Ideal singeing.

(vii) The fabric in inter Db

stitches of warp and weft are singeid.

- advantsges of Gas Singeing :

(i) Dirty bumer can produce spot on the fabric.
(ii) The process is not suitable for synthetic fabric.
(iii) Due to in consistent of fabric speed , it may be burnt.

Dilfercnce Amone Plah. Roller and Gas Sinseins Machine

Gu

Platc Singeing Machine

Roller Sinseing Machine

L One side ofthe fabric is

l. One side ofthe fabric is

l.

sinseid.

singeid.

singeid.

2.

Uniform temprature can

not be maintained.
3.

Exlra lusturc is produced

due to

ftiction behveen

fabric and surfact.

4.

Not suitable for dyeing

and orintins

5. Brush is not used for

prooer singing.

2. Unifonn

temprature can

not be maintained
3. Ertra lLrsture
due to friction

is

Sinseins Machine

TrYo side ofthe fabric is

2. Unifonn temperature can

be maintained

produced

betueen

3. No ertra hsture is
produccd..

fabric and surface.

4. Not suitable for
and

printinl

dleing

5. Brush is not used

Droper singing.

4. Very suiable for dyeing

and printins.

for

5. Brush is used for proper

singing.

', 250

DESIZING
Desizing:- The process [o rcmo\e the sizc material applied in ueaving
section and increase the absorbencv porver ofthe fabric is called desizing.

Otrjects of desizirg:-

(i)

To remore the slarch material from the fabric .

To increase the absorbency power ofthe fabric.
(iii) To increase rhe affinity ofrhe fabric to the dr1,

(ii)
chernicals.

(iv) To make the fabric suitable for the next proccss.

(v) To increase the luster ofthe fabric increase of dl,eing
and printing.

Ilpes Desizing;-

\lethods ofDesizins

HydmllticMethod

Rot

Stepping

0xidative Method

Alkali Steeping Acid Steeping Enzymatic

Steeping

Bromide

Daizing

Chlorite

Desizing

Ammonium Per

Sulphate Desizing

251

SCOURING
fats, oil, waxy substances and added other
process
to
remove
:
The
Scouring
alkali treatrnent and which increases the
percentage
of
by
certain
impurities
is called scouring.
materials,
abiorbency power ofthe teKtile
Objects ofScouring

)
(iD
(iiD
(i

To remove the oily , waxy , and other additional impurities'

To increase the absorbency ofthe textile goods.
To clean the fabric by alkali, soap or detergent.

iil-To make the fabric suitable for achieving good effect in dyeing

and

printing process.

(ii) To renrove the natural color .

(iii) To remove the non cellulosic substances incase ofcotton'
Types of Souring Pmcess :

(i) Batch Process.

(ii) Semi continuous Procss.

(iii) t)isconrinuous P(xess
(iv) Modern Process'
F'actors Upon

!!bith

Souring Pmcess Depeuds :

(i) Thc tYPe of cotton

(ii)

Thc color ofcotton.

(iii)'l

he cleaning ness of cotton.

(iv) The twist and count ofthe Yam.

lVlachines Used For Scouring :

(i) Kier

(a) Vertical Kier

Open Kier
2. Closed Kier
I.

(b) Horizontal Kier

- Box
(iii) Vapour Lock Unit

ii)

Scouring in Kier of Cotton Fabric : Batch wise scouring is carried out in

Kiers. TIre Kiering operation depends on the circulation of hot alkaline
o/o in respect ofcloth is as follows :
Iiquors. A suitable composition of liquor
Standard ReciPe :
Causric Soda ( NaOll ) : 2 - 5% (According to the w1 ofthe textile material)

252

Soda Ash ( Na,CO, ) : 2

Wcfting Agent

M:L= I :20

- 3% (According to the *t of the te\tile material )

l%(Accordingto the ut of the textile material)

Temperature : 125

Time : 6 hrs.
Pressure : 20

l30o C

30 lbs\ inch2

Removal of Oil , Fat , Wax and Olher Impurities Fmm Textile Materials
The total method
are as

of

follows:

scouring is completed by following three steps. 1-hey

(i) Saponificarion
1ii.1

F.mulsificar ion

(iii) Derergency

(i) Saponification : The process ofproducing soap,

is called saponification. Saponification reaction is given belon,

CH:-OOC-CnHrs
cH:

- ooC- c

nH

:s

CH, _ OH

IlH.Or

ffioin-*

qH

- oH

lc

rrH rs-

CHz - OH

Fat

Glycerine

3Cr7Hx-COOH

Acid

cooH

CH:-OOC-CrHrs

Stearic

Stearic

Acid

0l'

NaOII

Caustic

+3C

Soda

[Hrs-COONa

Sodium Sterate ( Soap

+
)

3H:O
Warer

253

BLEACHING
Bleeching : The process by which the natural coLrr ofa fiber can b removed
and make the textile materials pure white and bright is called bleaching.
Objects of Bleaching :

(i) To remove the neutral color.

(ii) To make the fabric permanent white and bright.
(iii) To increase the absorbency power ofthe cloth'
(iv) To make the fabric suitable for next subsequent process.
(v) To ensure levet dyeing property.
Classilication

of

Bleeching

(a) According to the Bleaching System

(0 Hand Bleaching
(ii) Machine Bleaching
(iii) Continuous Bleaching System
(iv) Pad Roll Batch Wise Agent

(b) According to Bleaching Agcnt :

(i)
(ii)

(c)

Bleaching by OxidizingAgents
Bleaching by Reducing Agents
According to Chemicsl Used :
(D Hypochlorite Bleaching ( HOCI )
(ii) Hydrogen Peroxide(H2o2 ) Bleaching
(iii) Sodiurn Chlorite (NaU) Bleaching Potasium Nitrate (KNOr)

0xidizing Bleaching Agent

(i)
ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)

Oxygen ( O2 )
Ozone ( 03)
Potasium Nitrate ( KNO3 )
Potasium Phosphate ( K2PO1 )
Potsium Permanganent ( KMNO. )

(vii)

Sodium Per Oxide ( NqO2 )

Sodium Dichromate ( Na ,Cr2Oj )
Sodium Hypochlorite (NaoCI )
Calcium H)'pochlorite I Ca(OCl)r]
Bleaching Powder I Ca(OClPl]
llydrogen Peroxidc (HrO2)

(viii)

(ix)
(x)
(xi)

(xii)

Potasium Chlorate ( KCIO, )

(xiii) [Iallogen ( X2 )
(xiv) H1'phochlorus Acid ( IlCl02)

(xv)

Manganize Dioxide ( MnO, )

(xi i) Pcr Acitic Acid

(xr ii) l-ed Dioxide ( I,bO,)
(rr,iii) Niric Acid ( lln!O,, )
(rix) Sulphuric Acid ( lI2SO, )
(xx) Potasium tJypochiorite ( KCIO )
(xxi) Potasium Sulphate ( KrSO, )

(xxii)Aqua

Resia ( Con.

Reducing Bleaching Agent

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(\'i)
(vii)

(r'iii)

(ix)
(r)
(ri)
(xii)

(xiii)
(xiv)

) etc.

I'lydrogen ( H1 )
[{1,drogen Sulphide ( H2S )

Carbon(C)

Carbon Mono Oxide ( CO )

Sodium Sulphate ( NalSOa )
Sodium Bi - Sulphate ( NaI{SO4 )

SodiumSulphiteFonnaldihyde
Zinc Dust ( Zn )

Zinc Oxide ( ZnO )

Sulphure Dioxide ( SO2 )
Staneous Chloride ( SnC12 )
Ferrous Sulphate ( FeSO4)
Titaneous Chlorite ( TnCl2 )
Hydrogen Iodide ( HI ) erc.

Hydmgen Peroxide Bleaehing

(i)
(ii)

llNOr+ Con.3tlcl

Bleaching in Kier ( Discontinuous )

Bleaching in J - Box ( Continuous )
Bleaching Process : 11 is a very easy process. The Kier is made ofcast

Kier
iron coating inside the Kier by sodium silicate or stainless steel , so that
chmicals used can not react with cast iron. It is a batch process. The recipe
is given below

Caustic Soda : 0.3 - 0.8 % ( According to the wt of the textile materials )

Wetting Agent : 0.5 - l% ( According to the nt of the textile materials )
Soda Ash: 0.6 - I % (According ro the wt of the textile materials )
Hydrogen Peroxide ( 50 % ): 2.5 - 4 % ( According to the wt of the textile
materials )

Sodium Silicate: 2 - 3 % ( According to the \vt ofthe textile materials )

Magnesium Sulphate : l0 lbs 100 gallon
Pll Value : 10.7 - 10.9

255

Safety Vatue
Gauge
Liquor^/vater spray

Manhole

Steam Valve
Release Valve

Bleaching Process in High Pressure Boiler :The bleaching solution

prepared in separately . The Kier is loaded by I \ 3 rvith the solution. The
required anrount of the cloth placed in tlre Kier. The temperature in the Kier
raiied gradually by applying steam up to 700 C until the air in the Kier
-fhen
the Kier close and raise the temPerature up to
completely removed.
to complete the bleaching process. Then the
I
3
hrs
ll0dC remaining washing is done with normal water.
Chemical Used in Textiles \ Textile Auxiliaries : The process ofconversion
of natural and man made textile fibers according to end uses and attractive
qualities as per need of customer who involving the uses ofa large number of
organic and inorganic chemicals known as textile chemicals. These are given
below :
(i) Wetting Agent : The chemical which is used for quickly moisten or
watering the textile materials is called wetting agent.
(ii) Detergent : Detergents are nothing but a chemical which is used for
clearing the textile materials or to remove fats, oil and wax.
(iii) Emulsilier : The chemical which is used to mix up the oil and water
is called emulsifier.

(iv) Sizing Components : The components which are used for sizing

is

called sizing componens.

(v) Desizing Agents : The chemicals rvhich are used to remove the size
materials of a fabric in rvet processing is called desizing.
Example : Enzyme.

256

(r'i) D!e Relarding \ Leleling.{gents : The chcrlicals *hich arc used

tirr drcin{ -iust to !ri\e lcr,el shade or evcn d_reing is called
ler eling agent.

(vii) Dye Carricr: l'he dre carrier is not

a chemical that sill hclp to

translcr the d1'e particle touards the outer surface or curiositv of

the fiber

(viii) D1e Filring Agent : D1e fixing agent is not nothing but a chernical
that hclps to lix up the dr e particie into inner position of the fiber
rvith the bondage.

(ix) Rubbing

Fastness Agents : Rubbing fastness agcnt is a chernical

that uill help to improte nrbbing resistance po$er. this tvpes of
agents are used. It is nothiflg but color permancncv agents. It is
three h,pcs. Such as:
(a) \Vashing fastness

(b) Light lasrness

(c) Rubbing fastness
(a) Washing Fastness ; When u e use $ater, detergenls or soap it bears ils
prcvious color shade rvithout feeding color after dyeing the fabric is
called washing or $et fastness.
(b) Light Fastness : \Ve presen e the sunlight or light if the color shade is
not changed. The light fastness is betler.
(c) Rubbing Fastness Improver : If dyed material when faced more
abrasions, the color of the marerials is not fed is called rubbing fastness.
Example : T.R.O

(x) Printing Thickner: Thickener is a thick mass which imparts

stickness and plasticitv to the print paste , so that it may be
applied on the fabric surlace without bleeding or spreading and
be capable of maintaining the design out lines. lt is the main part
of the printing. Example : Potato paste , rice , carboxy methyl
celluloses.

(xi) Hygmscopic Agents : The materials which absorbs water from the
moisture is called hrgroscopic agent. It is one kind ofelectrolylic
which suck up the \\'ater and being soluble. Example : NaCl
The chemicals u,hich helps to
increase oxygen or electronegative part release the hydrogen is
knorvn as oxidizing and reducing agents respectively. Example :

(xii) Oxidizing and Reducing Agents :

Hydrogen, Ozone etc.

(xiii) Defoaming Agents : The chemicals which helps to prevnt the

foam formation , is called defoaming agents. Example :
,

riv)

Defoamer , Anti - foam etc.

Softening Agents : The chemicals which are used to be soflen the

251

textile materials

(xv)

is called softening agents. Example : Catrol oil

parafin.
Stifling Agents : The chemicals which helps to increase the soft
materials into the harder one is called stilfing agents. Example :

Resin.
(r.vi) Water Repetlent \ Pmofing Agents : The chemicals which has the
ability for fully resistant to penetration by water. Example :
Rubber
(xvii) Firc Pmoling Agents : The chemicals which has more resistance
to bum out is called fire proofing agents.
(xviii) Anti - mildew Agents : The agents which are used to protect the
fiber like cellulosic fiber is called anti - mildew agents. Example
: ZnCl,
(xix) Moth Proofing Agents ; The chemicals which help to resist lhe

moth is called moth proofing agents. Exarnple : Naphthalene

type chemicals.

(xx) Weighting Agents : Some chemicals which gives the somc rveight
to the fabric is known as weighting agents. Example : Chalk ,
CaCOletc.

Dye

DYEING
The dye is a complex compound which is applied in the

te

xtile

materials represent color and contains chromophore and auxochrome gtoups

in its chemical structure.

Chromore : Chromopore is a color bearing unit when it is

absorbed in any textile materials represents color. Example

oo

.N=N-

):.(
Ethylene

Azo

. -N=O

-NO:,

Nitroso Nitro

/ \
\ /
o
Quinoid

258

Auxochrome: Auxochronte is responsible for soluble the b1e materials in

\\ater or an) other sollent. l-hc auxochronre by it sclfdoes not produce color
but intensi! the color.
Auxochrome may bc either acidic or basic Iike :
-olt. -NII,. -COOri, - SOrH. -OSOTH,
Color : The parricular visual sensation caused by the light emitted b),
transmitted through or reflecled frorn the objects is called color.
D-veing : The process by which a textile material is to bc changed phl,sically,
or chcrnically , so that it looks mono uniform colored , is callcd dyeing.

Objecls of Dyeing :
(a) 'fhe textile goods are d1,cd uniformly * ith single color.
(b)'Io increase the altmctiveness ofthe textile goods.
(c) To make the fabric suitable for various usage.
-lb
(d)
make the textile goods suitable for decorative purposes.

Theory of Dyeing : The procedure by s.hich a dye shrff cntem into the
textile goods is called the theory of dyeing. It is essential to hare cenain
degree of lhstness proeerties uhen a dye particles is applied on a textile
goods. The shole process ofdyeing is completed by four steps. as follou,s :
(i) D1'e molecules comes to the fabric surface from the dye bath.
( ii) Fiber absorbs the dye molecule from the outer surface of the fiber to
the intemal surface ofthe cellulose.
(iii) iv{igrates the dye molecules every where ofthe fiber molecules .
(iv) Anchoring or fixing the dye molecules to the fiber molecules by
hydrogen or covalent bond.

Classilication of Dyes : Dyes on d1,estuff are classified on different bases

Such as

(t) Physical form

(ll) Application

(lll)

form
Chemical form

Physical form

259

Phvsicel form :

Paste form

Grain form

Solution form

Lump form

Fine form

Powder fonn

Micro or ultra fine

powder form

(l)

Application form

Application form

Ingrain Dye

Ready Made Dye

I

I
Water Insoluble Dy'e

Water Soluble Dye

Direct

Dye

Acid Dye

Vat Dyes Sulphure Dyes

.a^zoic

Dye

Basic

Dye

Reactive Dye

Disperse Dye Mordant Dyes

Oxidation Dye

Mineral Dye

)61

Chemical form
Nitroso

-N=O

Nitro

- NOz

Azo

- N=N-

Stilbcne

Irc-o
il

Diphynyle Nlethane

c]...

HC_1--,
---

<__).,.c=NH
Xrnthene

G?{'
R

A;ridine

q>)
H

Qoinoline

nn
-\ --*
,!

\.'S..
Thiazole

'c-

,'-*/
lndamine
Azine
Oxazine

GIC
G}C

262

Anolicetion of Ilves Accordins to Fiber Chemcteristics .

Name of Dilferent Dye and There Arolication :
Name of Dyes

Acid Dye
Direct Dye
Vat Dye
Disperse Dye
tsasic Dye

Reactive Dye
Sulphur Dye
Mordant Dye
Pigment
lvl ineral
Azoic Dye

Aniline Black
Rapid and Rapids,rn Dye

0nium

Application
Man made fiber ( Nylon ),
Natural Fiber ( Silk , Wool )
Man made fiber ( Viscose ),
Natual Fiber ( Cotton )
Man Made Fiber ( Viscose ),
Natural Fiber (Cotton , Silk , Wool )
Nylon , Polyester, Acrylic ,
Tri- acetate , Di- acetate
Jute , Acrylic.
Cotton, Wool , Silk,
Viscose , Nylon.
Cotton , Viscose
Cotton , Wool , Silk.
Cotton . Man Made Fiber
Cotton, Wool , Silk.
Cotton , Viscose
Cotton
Cotton
Cotton , Jute

lntroduction to Some Dyes :

Acid Dyes : An anionic dye characterized by subsrantively for
protein, polyamide or others fibers containing basic groups. Acid dyes
are often applied from an acidic or neutral dye bath.
Properties of Acid Dye :
(i) Water soluble
(ii) Always applied on acidic medium with organic or inorganic
acid.
(iii) Acid dyes have a direct affinity towards protein fiber and
polyamide liber.
(iv) Maximum ccllulose fiber can not absorb acid dye.
(v) Some acid dyes have good light fastncss.

263

(vi) Many bright shade arc found.

(r ii) Most ol rhe acid dycs are sodium

salt of sulphonic acid and

carbox) lic acids and anion group is the active color
component.
Trade Name of Acid

Trade

Name

Company Name

Anthralan.

Hoechst

Lanaparl

I.urazol

lloechst
BASF
BASF
BASF

Acid

Baver

Ac

Ba1'er

Acid
Erganil

ilan
Supracen

Supramine

Supranol

Bay er

Ba; er
Bay er

(loornassie ICI

U.K.

[-issamine

ICI
Napthalene ICI
ICI
Solvay
L.B.Holiday and Company
Cyanine
Elbenyl
B.LIoliday and Cornpany
Illite
l-.B.Holiday and Company
Ciba-Geigy
Acid
Benzyl Ciba-Geigy
Koton Ciba-Geigy

Neonyl Acid Ciba-Geigy

Erio Fast
Ciba-Geigy

Eriosin Ciba-Geigy
Eriono
Ciba-Geigy
Supramine Ciba-Ceigy
Napthanol Ciba-Geigy
Polyamide Ciba-Geigy

Acid
Aquamine
Sulfonine
Sandofast
NaptholSandoz

Sandoz
Sarrdoz

Sandoz
Sandoz

CountrJ-, Dyes
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany
Germany

ti.K.
U.K.
U.K
U.K
U.K
U.K
Switzerland
Switzerland
Swizerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
SrviEerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Swiuerland
Switzerland
Swizriand
Switzerland
Switzerland

Xylene
Nylosan

26!

Switzerland
Switzerland

Sandoz
Sandoz

Aziende Colori Nationali

A-cid
NaptLol Aziende Colori Nationali Affini
Novaniina Aziende Colori Nationali

Afiini

Italy

Afiini

Itaiy
Italy

Vat Dye : A rvater insoluble dye , usually containing keto groups , x'hich is
normally applied to the fiber from an alkaline aqueous solution of the
reduced enol ( leuco ) form, which is subsequently oxidized in the fiber to
thc insoluble form.
Properties of Vat

(i)

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

(v)

(vi)

Dyeing process is difficult.

Costly.

(vii) \Vashing

'l'rrde

\es

Vat dye is water insoluble and can not be applied directly on textile
materials.
Mainly used for cellulose fiber dyeing but in protein fiber dyeir,g Pll
should be controlled.
Rubbing fastness is not good.
Various shade is found.

Name

tndrathene

Anthra
lndathren
llelindon

Indrathene
Suprasthen

fastness

ofvat dye is very good with ratin8 4 - 5.

Trade Name of Solubulised Vat Dycs

CompanY Name
Badische Aniline and Soda Fabriek A.G
Badische Aniline and Soda Fabriek A.G

Country
Germanl

FarbenfabrikenBal'erA.G.

Germany
Germanv

FarbenfabrikeBayerA.G.

Germanl'

CassellaFarbwerke

Gemrany

AssociatedDyestufflndustries
Reoline M.K. Soorenji and Co.
Novatic Atic lndustties Ltd.
Navinin Indian Dyestuff lndustries l,td
Navilon Indian Dyestuff lndustries Ltd.
N,letavat Universal Dyestuff Industries Ltd.
lndrathene NationalChernicallndustries
Benzznthrene Chemiequip ( Private ) Ltd.
Rainbow Texdl'es Corporation
Artex Vat
Caledon ICI
Paradone L.B.lJoliday and ('o. Ltd-

India
lndia
India
India
India
India
dia
dia
dia
U.K.
U.K.

265

Sandrothene SandozLtd.

Cibanone

Su itzerlanti

Ciba- Geigy A.G.

Ciha- Geigy A.G

Ciba

Solanthrenc CornpagnieFrancaisedesMatieres
Carbanthrene Allied Chenrical Corporation National Aniline

Calconoid

American

Cy

anamid Co. D).es Dept.

Amanthrene Koppers Co.lnc. Chemicals and Dyestuff Divn.

Mikanthrene \{itsui Chernical Industry Co. Ltd.

Switzerland
Switzcrland
France
LI.S.A

U.S.A
U.S.A
Japan

Romanlhrene Azicnde Colori NationaliAffini

Basic Dye : A cationic dy e characteristics by its substantivity for slandard
acrylic , nrodacry Iic and basic dyeable polyester fibers.
Propcrties of Basic Dye :
(i) Basic dye is tater insoluble but soluble in alcohol and melhylated
spirit.

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

(v)
(vi)

(vii)
(viii)

Brilliant shade is found.

Basic dye reacts with strong alkali and produce coloriess dye base.
Basic d1'e is reduced with reducing agent and produce colorless
d1'e base. But uhen reoxidised by acetic acid, again colored
compound easily.
No affinity to cotton fiber.
Direct affinity to jute fiber and easily to dye.
Acrylic fiber is reached with basic dye.
\Vashing fastness is moderate to poor.
Trade Name of Basic Dyes

frade Name

Methelene Blue

Methyle Violet
Bisnrark Brown
Mazenta

Auramine
N'lulachite
Superion

Dearlin
Dearlin Fast
AStrozon
A stra

Maxilon
Sevron
Calcozine

Acrylic

266

Direct Dye : An anionic dye having substaintivify for cellulosic fibers ,

normally applied from an aqueous dye bath containing an electrollte
Pmpertics of Dirtct DYe :
(i) It is soluble in water.
(ii) Direct dye has sodium salt ofSulphuric acid or carboxylic acid
gloup.
. (iii) It has strong affinity to cellulose fiber.
(iv) Pmtein fiber can be dyed by this dye.

(v)

ComparativelYcheaP.
(vi) Easily difhrse able into fibr.
(vii) Wash fastnss is not so good (2 - 3 )
(viii) The dye is simple and practical point ofview.
(ix) The tintorial power ofthis dye is very good.

Trade Name of Direct Dyes

Trade Name
Benzo
Benzoform

Ilenzo Cuprol
Ilenzamine
ColLrmbia

Columbia Fast
Sirius
Sirius Supra
Ir. Bayer
Tcxazol

Atul Direct
lndazol
Goldarnine Fast

CompanyName
F. Bayer
F. Bayer
!-. Bayer
F. Bayer
F. Bayer
F. Bayer
Ir. Bayer
F. Bayer
F. Bayer
Arlabs (Texdyes Corp.)
Atul
ICI
Golden Dyes Corp.

ICI
Chlorozol

ICI

Benzanil

Yorkshire Chemicals

Paramine

L.B.Holiday and Co.

Chloroantine
Chlorantine Fast

Ciba -Ceiry
Ciba -Ceigy
Ciba -Ceigi
Ciba -Ceigy
Ciba -Geigy
Ciba {ieigy

Cuprantine

Cuprophenyl Direct
Diphenyl
Solophenyl

Azoform
Clhloroamine

Sandoz AG
Sandoz AG

Ltd.
Ltd.

Country
Germany
GermanY
CermanY
GermanY

Germany
GermanY
GermanY

GennanY
GermanY

India
India
INdiA

lndia Durazol
U.K
U.K
U.K
U.K
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland

Cuprofir
Diazanr ine Irast
P1

razol

Th iazo

Solar

Diazol
uprodiazo I
Pontamine Fast

267

Sandoz A(i
Sandoz AG
Sandoz AG
Sandoz AG
Sandoz AG

Su itzerland
Sl itzerland
Switze rland

Srvitzcrland

Francccolor
Francecolor

Srr,itzerland
France
France

Do Pont

U.S.A

Reactive D1'e : Reactive dles are anionic soluble dyes. These dyes are
applicd by means of chenical reaction, the mechanism of rvhich is difficult.
They react u ith the fiber to forrn covalent bond.
They posses in their dye molecule, a reactive group which reacts with the
hydroxyl groups of the cellLrlose to fonn a stable chemical linkage. Thc
d)'estullthus becomes a pan ofthe liber substances.
Properties of Reactive Dy'estuff :
(i) 'l'hese dyestuffalrvays produce

(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi)
(xii)

a covalent bond towards the fiber.

These are easily soluble in rvater

lt can be applied on cellulosic and proteineous fiber.
It gives a wide range ofshade.
These dyes are alu,ays used in alkaline medium.
Its all kinds offastness properties are acceptable.
[t is very cheaper and available.
It can be used very sirnply .
Electrolyic maritals are used to take up the dye - stuffs

Very popular
Dyeing method is easy.
Dyeing carried out in alkaline medium.

TradeName
Levafix
Primazin
Navictive
Remazol
Amaryl, -X
Metacron
Chemictive
C"iiazol
Procion Supra
Procilan

Trade Name of Reactive Dyes

Company Name
Country
F. Bayer

BASF

I.D.l. I-td
F. Hoechst

Amar Dye-Chern
Mehla Dye-Chem Ind.

W. Germany
W. Germany
W. Ccrmany
W. Germany

Chemicequip
Golden Dyestuff

India
India
India
India

I.C.l.
I.C.l.

U.K,
U.K.

28
Procinyl
Pmcion M.HCibacron Pront
C ibacron
Drimarence

Mikacion
Uhopid

I.C.t,
I.C.I.
Ciba -Ceigy

Ciba- Geiry

U.K.
U.K.
Switzerland
Switzerland

Sandoz

Srvitzerland

Mitsubishi

Japan

China

Disperse Dye : Disperse dye is one kind of organic coloring substances

which is fiee from ionizing group, less soluble in water and which is used for
dyeing of hydrophobic textile materials.
Properties of Disperse Dyes :
(i) Generally these dyes are insoluble in water, but they are soluble in hot
water to some extent.

(ii) These dyes have no ionic groups.

(iii) These are used for dyeing of hydrophobic fiber like polyesteq nylon,
cellulose acetate, tri

acetate, acrylic etc.

(iv) It has no affinity to cellLrlosic and rayon fiber.

(v) It gives variety shadc ofcolor
(vi) Its washing , mbbing and light fastness are good.
(vii) These are damaged by gas i.e Nitrtas oxide.
(viii) lt is connected with fiber by hydrogen bond and Vanders walls
force.

(ix) Dye particles ofthis dyes are smaller than the other dyes
(x) These are applied at liigh temperature i.e.125 - 1400 C.
(xi) These are applied in neutral or acetic medium.
(xii) These are soluble in organic solvent like benzene, toluene, zyline
etc'

(xiii) Solubility of this dye bath increases with temperature.

(xiv) With the help of a dispersing agent they can be dispersed in the dye
bath.

269

Trade Namc of Disperse Dlcs

Trade

Name

Company Name

Ceiliton

I]ASF AG

Palanil
Resolin
Samaron

BASF AG

Country
Germany
Germanv
Germany
Germany

F.Bayer AG

Dispersol
Durazol
SRA

Scriline
Cl anine

F. Hoechst AG

ICI
ICI
British Celanese Ltd
Yorkshire Chemicals Ltd.

Supracet
'l'erasil
Sclacyl
r''ovalon
Cibacet
Foron

L.B.l{oliday and Company

L.B.Holiday and Company
Ciba-Geigy
Ciba-Geigy
Ciba-Geigy
Ciiba-Ce igy
Sandoz
Sandoz

Anisil

1\{icrositile

Seti
Teresitile

AziendeColoriNationaliAffini
Aziende Colori Narionali

U.K.
U.K.
U.K.
U.K.
U.K
U.K.
Switzerland

Switzcrland
S* itzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland
Switzerland

Italy

Alllni Italy

AziendeColoriNationaliAffini Italy
U.S.A
U.S.A
Arnacel
American Anilirre Products Inc. U.S.A
Eastman Easunan Kodak
U.S.A
Eastone
Eastman Kodak
U.S.A
Navicet
Indian D)'estuff lndustries Ltd. India
Navilene
Indian Dycstuff Industries Ltd. India
Chemiacetate Chemiequip ( Private ) Ltd.
India
Chemiline Chemiequip ( Private ) Lrd.
India
Acetoquinone Francecolor
France

Celanthene Du Pont Co.

Acetamine Du Pont Co-

Nyloquinone

Vonteryl

Sulphure Dye

F'rancecolor

France

Vondalingenplaat

Holland

Sulphure dye are synthetic organic substantive dyes

produced by thionation or sulphurisalion of organic intermediates containing

nitro or amino groups and are customarily applied to cotton and other
cellulosic fiber substances from reduced bath containing sodium sulphide.

Pmperties of Sulphuric Dye :

(i)
(ii)

Sulphure dyes are cheap and its uses are easy.

Its wet fastness is good, light fastness not so good.

270

(iii) They are like vat dyes , highly colored'

(iv) Sulphure dyes are water insoluble and have to be converted into
water soluble , substantive forms ( leuco forms ) before
application to textile materials
(v) The leuco sulphore dyes, absorbed by dre fiber substance , have to be
converted into the original water insoluble dyes. When the dyed
fibers are ta*en to atnrospheric, it will be oxidized and reconverts
insoluble sulphure color.

(vi) Its tintorial power is so less.

(vii) l5 % shade is needed for medium shade.
(viii) Cetlulose fibers can be easily dyed sulphure dyes.
(ix) Chloring fastness ofsonte sulphure dyes are very weak.
(x) S - dye makes colloidal solution like direct dye.
(xi) S - dye are decomposed in acid and produoes hydrogen sulphide'
(xii) Sulphure dyes are generally faster to washing and light and are
brighter in shade when applied to rayon than to cotton.

,(xiii) They are important in producing a wide range of shades on a

variety olcolton nnd rat'on fabrics.
(xiv) They are dyed mainiy r.,'r cheap cotton fabrics.
(xv) As a class, sulphure clyes are fairly cheap among synthetic dyes.
Trade Narne of Sulphur Dyes

Trade Namr-'
Thional
Sulphosol
Pyrogene
Calcogene

Companl'Name

r.c.r.

James Robinsone

Ciba

Cop.l-ld.

Ceigy

American Cop. Ltd.

Country
u.K.
U.K.
Switzerland
Japan

Azoic Dyr : the dyes which have insoluble azo group is called azoic d1e.
This types of dyes do not get in ready made form. This dyes are produced by
reacting two comPonents.
These are i
l
(i) I)iazo component or
(ii) ' Coupling method
Disprsing Agents:
The dispersing agenls is an organic compound which performs
many function in dying. It assists the process dye particle size reduction and
helps to solubilize dye particle i.e. dispersing agents increase solubiliq* of
disperse dye in water. Licol OI, Sarcol NS etc are the example of dispersing
agents.

Propertie{t of Dispersing

)11

Agcnts:

(i) These are available in the liorn of l.ellow.ish brorrn pouder ligtit being
colorctl powder dark brou,n, rnobile liquid.

tl

(ii) The pouder brand is a non hl.groscopic powder rhat is readily soiuble
in \ ,ater with any degree ofhardness

(iii) It is resistant to alkalis, acids and salts.

(iv) It has dispersing and protective colloid properties.

(v) It is not a surface active agents and hence has no wetting,

foaming

and delcrgent properties.

(vi) Being anionic in nature, it is compatible with anionic and noniorric

products.

(vii) When mixed rvith cationic produced in neutral and acidic media. it
may lorm precipitates.

(viii) A l0% solution ofthe porder has a PH of 6,3 to

ofup lo 40%. strength can be prepared .

7.5 and a solurion

(ix)

The poiider has good storage stability.

(x)

The porvder may be dissolved by pouring I0 to 20 times the amount

ofhot water over the product and warming, if necessary.

(xi) It may also be dissolved by strewing it into water while stirring.

(xii) It finds use in the dying of vat, disperse, solubilized vat

and

azoic(napthol) colours.

(xiii) It finds extensive

use in the vat acid process

ofdyeing vat dycs.

(xiv) In presence ofan acid stable dispersing agent the vat acid (leuco vat
dye) is formed as an extremely fine dispersion.

(xvi) Wlen

added to the developing baths (0.5 to 2 gm ltre) in azoic

dyeing, the dispersing agent increase the clearity of these baths and
yields dyeing of improved rubbing fastness.

Trade Nsme of Some Dispersinq Asent

Nrme ofP'oduct

Name of Ceorrrov

Dispersant WS
Dispersing Agent NNO Liquid
Polydisperse WS
Uniperse Liquid

Indokem Ltd.
Ahura Chemicals Products h/t Ltd.
3 - Silicon and Chemicals hrt Ltd.
Hico Products Ltd.
Kemicolour Industries
Ultra Colour Comcration
Crescent Dyes and Chemicals Ltd.
Shri AMbuia Chemicals Cor.
C.D. Corporation
BASF lndia Ltd
Dyes and Disoersinq Aqents h4. Ltd
Hindustan Chemicals Corporation
New India Trading Ccrporation
Parekg Dyechem lndustries h/t. Ltd

Luckokem AK
Dipersing Agent NS

Dispenol

F Conc.

Dispervat 60
Ultra Disperant NNO
Setamol WS

Dadamol V
Hicconol SL Powder
Nitamol NV - 50
Pidimol TD
Sarcol NS

Lyocol OI
Edlon
Hispogal

212

Distillers India Ltd.

Sandoz(lndia)t,td.
Sandoz

lloescht

Carrier: Canier is an organic

compound rvhich helps r() take up dve at

Iower temperature and pressure over the textile materiai. Normally disp.sr-5,
dyeing is done in three ways on hydrophobic fibers ( synthctic fibers ) . At
the lowest temperature and pressure dyeing method is done with carrier
dyeing. This substances are divided into four chemicals groups . Such as:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Phenolic groups
Prirnary amines

t{ydrocarbonsand
Starch

Function of Carrier :
(i) An ideal carrier should be radily available al an economical price
and dye film on the surface ofthe fiber.
(ii) Sufficiently effective in creasing dye take up.
(iii) Free from unpleasant odour and increase solubility ofdye in bath.
(iv) Non toxic and increases swelling ofthe fiber.

(u)
(vi)

Easily removable after dyeing.

Non volatile in steam and lubricants thermall), agitated fiber

(vii)

nrolecules.
Should not cause shrikage ofthe materials.

Eramplc : Naphthalene. Di

phcnr l.

Trades n-sme of Carricr

Name of Producl
Tumescal BDN

Tlmescal OP 45%
Teraux C

Name ofCompany
ICI ( lndia ) Pvt. Ltd.
Auxichem
Modenr Chemicals Works

Terryfix BD

Associated Chemicals

Carriesol
Carrl lon GDX
Sarcol DBN 105

Chemox Industrial Corporation

Chemor Industrial Corporation

Dilatin DBI

Sandoz ( lndia n) Ltd

Sandoz(lndia)l,td.

Dilatin'fCI

Sandoz(lndia)t.td.

Dilatin OPI

Hico Product's
Hico Products
Krmicolor Industries

'f urco ADY

TurcoADYPolytrag

Arkotin

1024
1025

II

DBI

Carrier TJS \ OPPV

Dyecarry DB
Hiccon Terrylene Carrier

Kem Kerrier D Conc.

Pol;yfix

J.N.Kath Chemicals
Dyesttuff Pw. Ltd.

Ahura Chemicals Products Plt. Lrd.

Hindustan Organic Products.
H industan Chemical Corporation
Ahura Chemicals Products Pvt. Ltd

Terry Canier ABD

United Sizers
Super Tex ( hrdia I Corporation
Sunbeam Monochem h,t. Ltd.

Ternol

Mazla Industrial Chemicals Plt. Lrd.

Superlene CR

'Ierysol 303
Ultra Car 42
Vicelene Carrier BD

Britex I ndustries
C.D.Corporation
Victor Trading Corporation

27)

2t4

The dyes which have insoluble azo group is called azoic dye.
do not get in ready made form. This dyes are produced by
ofdyes
This types
reacting two components. These are :
Azoic Dye

(D
(iD

Diazo component or
CouPling method

Pmperties ofAmic Dye :

This color is mostly used for lighter shade dyeing.
This dyestuffalways contain azo groups in its chemical structure.
High fastness properties of this dyestuff adm irable'
Brightness ofshade also admirable.
Directly insoluble in water.
Dyestuffalways used in cellulosic materials.
Dyeing operation is completed by two bath arrangement. Such

(D
(iD
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

as;

(D
0l)

Impregnating bath and

Developing bath
Insoluble azo group present in it.
Wash fastness is very good.
Brightness of az.oic dye is good.

(viii)
(ix)
(x)
(xi) Additionofsalt increasesubstantivil,v.
(xii) Napthnol dispersed in alcohol T.R.O.

PIGMf,NT
Pigment: A substance in particulate from that is substanially insoluble in a
medium but which can be mechanically dispersed in this medium to modiry
its color and light - scattering properties.
Advantages of Pigmenl :
Light fastness is very high.
f)isadvantages:
Harsh labric, rubbing.

2,)

Trade n*ame of Pisment Dves

Brand Nanre
N'licrofix dves
Printcfix

ComDany Nanre
Ciba - Geiev
Sandoz

d1'es

Counl rv Name
Srvitzcrland
Srvitzcrland

f inilita

Ciba

lelizarine dles
Acraminc dt es

BASF
Bayer

W. G".runy
W.Germanv

Inrpcrsion dyes

lloechst

Cermany

Srvitzerland

Geigy

Difference between Dve and Piement

Pigment

S.N

Dre

0l

Water solubilir)* 70

A)

Most ofall dyes are organic

compounds and some

03

By d)es can not be

o/o

100 7o rvater insoluble

Most of pigments are

inorganic compound

are metallic compound

d1'cd

of all

t-r'pes

of fabric

By dles can be rlyed

of all tlpes

of

fabric

04

D) e has fastness properties

Pigment has good

fastness properties

0s
06

Dye diffusion in the fabric

uy\'e

Costly , as they

Cheap as they found

DreDared

07

chemically

No binding agent is
req

ired

diffusion on the fabric

bv mineral origin
Binding agent is requierd.

176

DYEING MACHINE
Tlpes of Dyeing Machine : Acoording to textile materials '
(a) Fiber dyeing m/c
(b) Yarn dyeing m/c
(c) Fabric dyeing m/c
(a) Fiber Dyeing Machine :
(i) Conical pan loose stock dyeing machine
(ii) Annual cage for loose stock dyeing machine
(iii) Hussong lmse cotton dyeing machine
(iv) Jagen barg dyeing machine
(v) Simplex dyeing rnachin"
(vi) Dreze dyeing machine
(vii) Ober maier dyeing machine
(viii) Long close loose cotton dyeing machine
(b) Yarn Dyeing Machine : (A) Hank form :
(i) Hussong hank dyeing machine
(ii) Pulsatur hank dyeing machinc
(iii) G.S.H. hank dyeing machine
(iv) Clauder weldon hank dyeing rnachine
(B) Package form :
(i) Cop dyeing machine

dyeing machine
(iii)\Varp tlyeing machine
Cop Dyeing Macbine :
l. Mather and platt cop dyeing machine
(ii,1 Chcese

i)

2. Long close cop dyeing machine

3.Beaumont cop dyeing machine

(ii) Cheese Dyeing Machine :

l.Ober maier cheese dyeing machine
2.Franklin cheese dyeing machine
3.Krantz gop cheese dyeing machine

(iii) Warp Dyeing Machine :

l. Zittau beam dyeing machine

(c)

2. Ball warp dyeing machine

3. Chain warp dyeing machine
Fabric Dyeing Machine :

(i) Jet dyeing machine

ii) Jigger dyeing machine
(i) Pad \ padding mangle dyeing nrachine
(ii) Beam dyeing machine
(

iii) \\/inch dr eing rnach ine

(iv) Iligh tcrnperature rrinch dleing m/c
(v) I\'loltcr metal stand fast d1'eing m/c
(vi) Solvcnt d1'eing m/c
(i) Jet D) eing Nlachine:
(

l.

(ii)

Special temperature $'inches

2. Jet dyeing nrc rvith additional rvinches

3. Partially foldedjet d1'eing m/c
4. Fully folded jct dyeing m/c
Jigger D1'eing Machine :
I . Mathe r arrd platt jigger d1'eing m/c
2. Closed j igger dyeing m/c
3. Clclotric h igh perpormarrce j igger

(iii) Padding Manglc Dycing l\Iachine

L 'llo borvl padding mangle
2. fhree borvi padding mangle

3. Fiber bou I padding mangle

4. I'loubold bou'l padding mangle
5. Zittau hoivl padding mangle.
According to Dyeing Proccss :
(i) Open d1'cing process
(ii) Enclosed dr eing process
According to materials and liquor movement :
(i) Materials move but liquor does not circulate i.e jigger
(ii) t,iquor circulate but materials does noi move i.e. all package
dyeing rnachines.

(iii) Both materials and liquor circulate

According to the materials to be dyed :
(i) Loose stock form dyeing machines
(ii) Hank dyeing machines
(iii) Package form dyeing machines
(iv) Fabric form d1'eing machines
Features of Dyeing Machine

jet dyeing machines.

(i) It should provide sufficient

(ii)

i.e.

movemenl for the liquor to penehate uniformly

into every parls oftextile goods.

The machine must b constructed ofsuch metal which will stay prolonged
boiling , acid , alkali solution and other chemicals.
The heating arrangement must be maintained a comparatively unilorm
ieiii1;,ature through out the every r"heie ofdye liquor.

(iii)
(iv)

There should be some means of adding the dye stuff solution in such a
way that it becomes oil mixed before it comes to in contact with the goods.

278

(v) All moving parts and electric motors should be protected against the
corrosive action by steam and atmospheric condition.
/.,ii The machines bears a largest possible outlet and water inlet system .

of a considerable proportion of dyeing circle. It takes up

with
and emtYing'
feeling
(vii) Some automatic temperature and pressure control device are
asserned with the machine.
because

PRINTING
Printing : Printing is one kirtd ofdyeing. When different types ofcolor used
to make- a particular design on the textile goods is called printing' Normally
printing is perlormed on the textile goods in dry condition.
Flon Chart of Printine
GreY cloth

Br"slring a1d Shearing

Singeing
r>..i11ng
I
Y'

scouflng
+
Bleaching

Mercerizing

I
I
Washing

Stentering

orline

I
I
Printing
I
l'ini shing

Winding / Beaming

Srentering : l-he process by rvhich rre can keep thc proper rviclth fub.i"2 i9,
"f
:!'n,Lrh and }\'itlthu ise and increases lhe smoothlcss . tuslcnless . evenness
of
lahric is called stentering.

\l inding/Bearning : The process of transferring of 1,arns from ring bobbin.

hank etc into a suitable package is called uinding. It ntay be electrical or
rnechanical.'lb u,ind the dried fabric on bcant is called bearning.

Printing lllcthods: Priting effect is performed by using some instruments

lile screen roller , block etc. The procedure of creating printing effect
according to the design by using differenl b,pes of instrunrent is called
method of printing. The methods used for printing is given below:
(i ) tllock printing rnerhod
(ii) Flat press prinring nrethod
(iii ) Stencile printing method / Spray printing niethod
I i'. ) Scre.n printing mcthod
(r,) Roller printing method
(r'i) Transfer printing method
(i ii) Flock printing method
(r iii ) Engraved roller printing mthod
( i.r) Ratik printing nlethod
(:. ) Photographic printing method.

: Sometimes rve used various fypcs of tecinique in

different printing nlethods to perform the printing effect easily. This effect of
printing is called style of prinling. Style of printing mostly depends on the
behavior of the dy,e and chemicals and the material to be printed. Style of
printing can be divided inro following groups :
St1le of Printing

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)

(viii)

(ir)
(x)

Direct Style ofPrinting

Dyed Style ofPrinting

Azoic Style ofPrinting

Metal Style of Printing

Block Style ofPrinting

Crepe or Crepon Style ofPrinting
Printing of Lining
Discharge Style ofPrinting :
(a) White Discharge Style of Printing

(b) Color Discharge Style ofPrinting

s' rf rfPriting

I'^-i(t

Raised Style

ofpriting

280

Ingrdients of Priting : It is required to produce printing pest before printing.

A good printing pest is mainly responsible for good printing effect. So it is
very impcrtant to make a printing pest ;arefully. There are different
ingredients used in printing pest for different purposes. Generally following
ingredients are used in printing pest :
(a) Dye stuffs or Pigment

(b) Wetting agent

(c) Thickener
(d) Solvents Dispersing agents
(e) l)efoaming agents
(f) Oxidizing and reducing agent
(g) Catalyst and oxYgen carrier
(h) Acid and alka!i
(i) Carrier and swelling agent

Printing Unir

28'l

Dilferent between dyeing and printing :

s.N.

The

0l

Printing

Dyeing

pmcs

*{rich

terile

nuterial is chargod f,rysicallY or

chernically so that it lods nrrn
tniform colaed is calld dyeirC

02

In dyeirg pocess , ttr goods dyed

in crr mlu unifcrnrlY all over tlB

Whn ditrqnt ty?es of colq ued to

nnke a Frticular design at *e textile

goo& is called
In priftirg

dntng

pcess , cola

is applied

accadire to the design only.

falxic
03

ninting

Dyeing is perfamed in tret

is perfonned in

&Y cudition

condition

04

Fiber , frn and fahic are used for

Crly fahic

fu printing;

is rncd

dveins

ttrre

For prirtins there is a

is no desigrt

mniculr drsign

05

Fnr dveine

06

Only ure color is gerrrally used in

Orrc or morc colors are tned in

dveins Drcceis.

DrcCeSS.

A particul ternperatue is
nnintained iri &eirq proct

There is rrr Jxrrticular terryEfttue

Thickener is not used in d1'eirg

Thickcrrr rnts be trsed in grintirg

07

08

contNllini..qv_slcr) t in

Piftirg

prifltinB.

_-

Dmce3s.

low

0g

l]le demitv ofdYe sohlion

l0

Gmraliy after dyeing , stearnilg

is

and curing are not requirul.

The

&nsir- of

dye solution is high.

drting , stamirg rd crring is

mtsl fcr fixing ttrc dye nnla:ules to tlr

After

emds.

ll

Q'ed fabric is respecrively soft in

feeling

cct

t2

Respectively low

l3

lhre

l4

Nluch arnount ofuater is requiral

l5

is no localised applicaticxl

ratio is

Printed fabric is rcsperrively hash in

feelirq
Respecrirely high

cct

Thcre is laalisetl applicatio*

Lss

annurt of w'dler is l.Eed

Liquor raio is less.

.THICKENER
Thickeoer or Gummy Subslances : l'hickcner is used in textile prirtirrg
*'hich is a main part of high molecular rveight compound giving r iscose
paste in $aler '[his inrparts stickiness and plasticity to the printing paste so
that it can be applied to a fabric surface s'ithout color spreading. At about 50
o/o
to abor e amount is used to prepare a prinling paste.
Function ofThickener:
(i) It is soluble in \\ater.
(ii) It is comparatively cheaper and atailable in the market.

(iii)
(ir')
(u)
(vi)

11

has great atlraction towards dl,estuffs i.e. it acts as a dye carrier.

It also has viscosity properties for binding characteristics.

It u'ill not react \\ith any d1'estuffs or chemicals.
It bears physical and chenrical stability.
(vii) lt can be easily removed or s ithdrau'n afier prinling.
It prevents bleeding eflects and to retain the surface of print design.

283

Classilicatlon oiThlckener Wlth Examole :

Thickener
I

r.r"tu*r

Modified

Plant Exudates Roots and

e.g: Gum Arabic, Seeds
starch.
e.g:Maize Gum Tragacomth. e.g: Beam
Gum
Wheel

Cereacts

Natral

svntlietic

Weeds, e.g:

Alginate

Cellulose

Derivatives
e.g: Carboxyl
Methyl
Cellulose

Acrylic, e.g: Poly acrylic,

Amide

Vinyl
e.g: PVC, PVA

28-1

r-INISHING
Finishing Process : Tlre treatment applied to the textile goods afler d;eing
and printing proccss is nonnally called finishing process.

Objects of Finishing

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iu)
(v)
(ui)
(vii)

increase the attracti\eness offabric.

increase the service abiliry.
increase the beauty and glilter ness ofthe fabric.
increase the fineness and to ensure smoothness.
To ensure soflness ofthe fabric.

To
To
To
To

To free frorn hairiness ofthe fabric.

To increase attractivencss to tlle fabrics paying cuskrrners.

Classification of Finishins

Finishing

Mechanical

Temporary Finishing
e.g : Calendaring ,
Embossing

Permanent l-inishing

e.g: Raising,

Sunforiziong

Temporary Finishing

Permanent Finishing
e.g: Mercerizing, Resin

e.g: Starching , Washing

Chemical Pemranent Finishing

m
r+

Anticreating

Water

Proofing

Fire Proofing

a5
Finishing Agents : Starch, gum, glow, dextrin, china clay, epsum salt,
rypsums salt, glycerol, soap, soluble oil, etc were the finishing agent in
previous time. Now long chain fatty acid compound, synthetic resin,
cellulose derivatives, quandary ammonium compound etc are using as
fnishing agents.
Dillerrnt Terms and Detinitions of Wet Processing Technologr :
Wet Prccessing : The process used are desizing, scouring, bleaching, dyeing,
printing and finishing which are combinely called wet processing. Total wet
processing can be divided into three groups. Such as :

(i)
(iD
(iiD

Pre

treatsnent Process

Dyeing and printing procss

Finishing process

Hardness of Water : The property of thc water for which it does not form
foam easily without a lot of soap is callcd hardness of *'ater. It is two t)?es.
Such as

(D
(ii)

Temporary hardness
Permanenthardness

PPM : The number of grains of calcium carbonate r*'hich is present in one

millions grains of water is calleC PPM.
Degree of Hardness : The number of grains of calcium carbonates rvhich is
present in 70,000 grains of water is called degree ofhardness of waler.
PPM = Dcgree/0.07

Water Softering : To remove the impurities of hard water by some desirable

process is called water softening.

Soap: Soap is a metallic salt of sutured ( CnH2n+ICOOH ) or unsatured (

Cng2n-1COOH ) higher fatty acid. There may be Pb , Mg, Ca or other
metallic salt.

Detergent : The compound which get orient at the interface between water
and air and reduce interfacial tension/surface are called detergent. lt is mainly
two fi-pes. Such as

(i)
(ii)

(a)

(b)
(c)

Non ionic

Ionic:
Aninonic
Cationic
Amphoteric

286

Acid Soap: Soap and free fatty acid molecules can bcconre associated to
form acid soap.
xRCOOH + yRCOONa

---------)

( RCOOH ) ( RCOONa )

Acid Soap
f,nzyme : Enzyme is one kind of bio - catalyst . lt is based on protein. It is
soluble in water but insoluble in acid and alkali.
Desizing En4'me

t
I

Animal
e.g: Pancreatic

Novofermosol.
Dcgomnra

Malt Extract
e.g:Diastage,

Diastafor,

Bacterial
e.g: Rapidase
Biolase

Maltostage

Chroma : l'he vividness or dullness ofcolor describing is choroma.

Fastness : lt is the resistance of a textile materials lo specifies chemical
agencies.

Shade : The meaning of shade is concentration .Usually, dre depth of the

tone ofcolor is called shade. It is thre types. Such as: (i) l-ight shade
(ii) Medium shade
(

iii)

Deep shade

Pigment : A substance in particulate from that is substanially insoluble in a

meiium but which can be mechanically dispersed in this medium to modifo
its color and light - scattering properties.

287

Stripping : If the textile goods become uneven dyeing and unsuitable for
using, then the color has to be distored. The process to destroying or
removing dye or finish from fibers or fabrics is called s'tepping.

Topping : The application of further colorant not necessarily ofthe same hue
or class to a dyed substance in order to adjust the lstter to the desired final
color is called topping.

After Treatment : The process which is used for proper and perfect dyeing
action. Incase of direct dye , after treatment is pertormed for increasing light
fastness and wash fsstness of dyed materials Dye particle is done insoluble
into the fiber after treatment.

Vatting i The action which helps to insoluble vat dyes to be used by soluble
is called vatting.
Thickener or Gummy Substancd : Thickener is used in textile printing
which is a main part of high molecular weight compound giving viscose
paste in water. This imparts stickiness and plasticity to the printing paste so
that it can be applied to a fabric surface without color spreading. At about 50
o/o
to above amount is used to prepare a printing paste.
Viscosity : Viscosity is the ratio ofshear stress to the rate ofshearing.
Shear Stress
=
Viscos
ffr;;r;i;'rv

Shear Stress : l'he ratio of the force to the area of shearing is called shear
stuess.

Shcar Stress =

Force

I;;JE;re-d

Shear Rste : l'he ratio ofthe velocity to the clearance is called shear rate.
Velocitv
Shear Rate =

-ej;;I;;;-

Ageing consisting of exposing printing goods to more or less

prolonged action of steam at atmospheric pressure to assist in the diffusion
and fixation ofthe dYes.
Ageing

Steaming :This consist of submining printed fabrics to the action of

stearn

for varying period at various pressure.

Hue: The attribute ofcolor whereby it is recognized

as being predominantly

288

red.grcen.blue, lellorv.riolel .brorrnetc. ln sirnple rvords a colorofcolor

is hue.

Components Upon Which Dyeing Proccss Depends

(i)
ii)
(

(iii)

Substrate
e and
Enr ironment
D-r

Factors Upon Which Dyeing Ervironment Depends

(i) Solvent
ii) PH
iii) D)eing Assistant
(i\ ) Temperature
(
(

: The assistance u'hich are added in dyeing bath for

aftinity is increased is called d1'eing assistancc'.'fhese are :
Electrol)te

Dyeing Assistance
rvhich dleing

(i)
(ii)
(

iii)

Ler eling Agent

Carriers

(iv)

Solr ents
Factors to be Considered for Dye and Dyeing Process Selection

(i)
(ii)

(iii)
(iv)

Hue
Shade

Brightness
Cost

Dyeing Allinity : fie aftinity of dye to the fiber is called dyeing affinity.

The attraction between a substrate and a dye or other

substance under the precise conditions of lvhereby the latler is selectively
Substantiyity

extracted from the application medium by the substrate.

Substrate : A material to which dyes and chemicals may be applied.

Chromophore : Thc part of thc molecular structurc of an organic dye or
pigment responsible for color is called chromophore.

Dichroism : The variation in the absorption of radiation by a colored fiber (

by dyeing ) u'ith the direction of polarization of the light is called dichroisnr
which may result in the differences in the depth of the shade or even in the
actual color.

Additive Color: A mixtured of colored light. The three primary colors of red
, green and blue, when mixed together in equal proportions, produce white
light. Mixing the three additive primaries in differing amounts can create any

289

color in the rainbow. Color telivisions use the principle of additive color
mxrng.
All - Over - Designs : Design with balanced motifs that recure regularlv
within the repeat unit. The motifs cover the fabric with little ground showing.
Apparcl Textiles : The clothing or apparel market includes most gannents
that are worn.

Applications Print : Prints where the design is printed on a white or ecru

fabric. The ground color ofthe fabric forms an inherent part of dre design.
Balanced Colorways : When the colors change but total relationships of the
colors within the designs stay the same, giving the same overall visual
effect.

Bayaders : Printed horizontal stripe pattems.

Blotch Prints

Prinls where both the background and motif colors

are

printed onto the fabric using a direct prinling process-

Body Blanks

Knitted panels with integral ritrs . rvhich are then cut and

sewn into qarments,

Borders : Design rvhere the pattem is focused along one selvedge or other
edge, Some printed designs have borders along both selvedge.

Brand : A trade name identiling

a manulaclurer

or product.

Burn - Out - Prints : Prints with an engraved effect made by dissolving out
one componcnt fibr from a base fabric made with trvo distinct fiber types.

Centring: When a fabric design is organised in

such a way that

balanced about the midddle line ofa fabric in a vertical direction.

it

is

Color Forecasting : The selections of ranges ofcolors that are deemed to be

thosc that will be wanted for a particular product/market at a particular time
in the future.

Color Palette : A range ofselected colors lhat will usually consist ofgroups
ofcolors , chosen with regard to trends and predicated directions.

290

Colort Recipe : l-ist ofcomponent cheoricals and pigntcnts or dlestuffuith

relative quantities required to produce desired color
Color Separation : In screen printing , a separate screen is required for each
color uithin in a ciesign. Color scparation is the process rtherebf individual
films are made for each color. Colors may be separflted by hand or by
computer to produce filnrs u ith opaque areas u here the color is to print , and
clear or translucent areas where the color is not to print.

Colorrr'ay : Altemative coloring of a design , on paper or in/on fabric.

Concept Selling : This where products are sold a lifestyle basis.

Constructed Textilcs: lncludes woven textiles. knitted textiles.lace and

carpets.

Consultant Designers : Designers employed br a company usually on a part

- tjrne basis , Io advise on design matters.
Consumer Textiles : Textiles not failing into the categories of apparel ,
fumishing , household and industrial , tents and back packs may be referred
to as consumer teztiles, awnings , umbrellas and luggage are also often
classed in this categories.
Converters : Org,anizations that buy grey cloth and convert this by having it
dyed or printed and then finished.
Co

- ordinating

Copper

Designs : Designs developed to be used together.

Plate Printing : A method of intaglio printing that

uses engraved

copper plate.

Corporale Identity : Company inrage.

Cmcking : The transfer ofcolor by rubbing.

Croquis : Croquis is french words meaning sketch. It is balanced design for
print.
Signs Intelligence

Design Registration

Organisation pubhshmg trend and color forecasts.

:

A means ofdesign protection.

291

Engineercd Desigos : Those where the design is worked to fit the shape of
the intended prroduct. Examples of engineered designs include towels , rugs,
duvets and heads carves.

Ethnic Design : Traditional ry'pe designs ofnon western origin.

Fashion Adoption : The take

up ofnew styles.

Fashion Colon : Colors within a color range perceived

or , " of that moment."

as being fashionable

Flocking : The application of short fibers to a base fabric by the direct

printing of adhesive onto the fabric in the desired areas and then sticking the
fibrs to these aress.

Forccasting : Predicting fashion trends.

Iormal Balance:

Publishers and other organizations offering fashion

prediction advice.

Self

employed designers rvho mav independentlv

through an agent or through a studio.

Frcelance Designers :

Furnishings: Product group including cu(ains, upholstery fabrics, carpets

ans wall coverings.

Geo-tertile : A textile used in soil

baesd applications such as road building

, dams and erosion control.

Grey - Cloth : Undyed and unfinished fabric straight from the loom is called

grey

cloth.

Industrial Textiles : Textile product group that includes car tyres , medical
textiles , geo - textiles , filters , conveyor belts , car safety belts and
parachute cords.

Merthandise : Goods for sale.

Merchandising : Having the right goods of the right quality at the right tinre
price
, in the righl place, in the right quantity, at Ore right

Mill

: Narne for factory producing textiles and textile products.

Oler

D1'eing

292

\\'hen d1'eing takes place on top of a previous coloring

process.

Pattcrn Direction : The $'ay a pattem lies on a fabric.

Pigments

: Insoluble colors which

are fixed by a binder that bonds them to

tlre fabric.

Print Pmducers : Designers putting together rangcs ofprinted textiles.

Resist : A substance that \,''ill not take up color.

Roller Printing : A method of printing labric that uses engraved copper

rollers.

Royalities

Pa)'n')ents made to a designer as a percenlage

of

revenue from

sales.

Screen Printing : A method of printing whereby the color is applied by what

is csserrtially a slcncilling proccss.

Stentering: A controlled straightening and stretching process.

Stylist : lte designers who put together

a range

ofproduct.

Tie Dye : A method of patterning fabric by tying areas of fabric and then
dyeing.

Voile : Light weight, open , plain rveave fabric.

193

Common Abbrviation of Wet Pmcessing Technologr :

PPM = Pertes Per Million.
CSD = Chartered Society of Desigren{

U.K)

DMI = Design Management Institute.(U.K)

DRS = Design Researrh Society. (U.K)

M : L = Wt. of the textile mtls : wt, of the liquid ( water )

T,R.O = T[rkey Red Oil
C.M.S, = Carboxyl Methyl Sterth

C.M.C

Carboxyl Methyl Cellulose

ICA = International Color Authority,

ICSID = International Council of Societies oflndustrial Design.
H.E.C. = Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose
PVA = Poly Vinyl Amide

DMT = Di Methyl Terepthalate

PET:

Poly Ethylene Terepthalate

CAV = Critical Application Value.

295

Flow Chart of Garmenb Manufacturins:

Desisn or Sketch

"t

BasicBlock
I

Workint Pattem

,r,norl*,n,
I

Approvet Sample

Costing

p.oau.tl punr*
I

+
Grading

Sorting and Bundling

I
Marker Making

Sewins

t
Fabric Spreading

I"

Ironing or Finishing

Final Inspection

Packing

Cartoning

Send to Buyei or Dispatch.

296

Discuss:

Brieflv

Design or Sketch: It is nothine but one kind ofengincering art including all
measurement of particular st1'le.

Basic Block:

It

is an individual componenr of garmenls without any design

or sg le.

Working Pattern: To make pattern for a panicuiar

sry-le rvith net dirnension.

Sample Making: To make the sarnple according to demand of buler is

called sanrple making.

Approved Sample: The sanrple r',hich is approved by buyer, is called

apProved sample.

Costing : To detemrine cost considering fabric required, rnaking charge,

trimming, profit is called costing.

Production Pattrn: To make pattern for a particular style with net

dimension along with allowance.

Grading: The process to grade up the approved sample according to

dimension i.e. S, L, M , XL and XXL are called gradirrg.
Marker Making : To make the marker rvhere marker is a thin paper rvhich
crntains all n@essary pattern pieces for all sizes for a particular style of
garments in such a way that fabric wastages would be least.

Fabric Spreading : Fabric spreading is a process which plies of fabric

is

spreaded in order to get required leng1h and rvidth as grer marker dimension.

Cutting : Cutting means to cut fabric according to marker dimensions.

Sorting and Bundling : To sort out he fabric according to size, is called
sorting and for each size making individLral bundle is called bundling.
Sewing

Sewing is the process to

join up the different

parts

of the fabric

with the help of sewing needle or thread in manually , or sewing machine.

Imning or Finishing : It

is a process to get a complete garments trested .r,ith

steam ironing.
Final Inspection I To inspect finally the fabric.

297

Packing: lt is the process to pack thc gmts treated by polyethylene hag.

Carloning : It is the process to keep the pack in hand paper bag tbr export,
so as to minimize damage.
Send to

Buyer: When all process

are done, then the gmts are sent to buyer

SAMPLE

Flow Chart of Sample Making

Gamrents Design or Sketch ( Manually or Computerized )

i
I

Rasic Block ( Manually or Computerized )

t
I

Working Pattern ( By Machine )

t
I

Sample Garments ( Manually )

I

Problem of Production or Production Related Matter

Production Pattern ( By Hand or Computer )

Briefly Discuss :
Design or Sketch: It is nothing but one kind ofengineering art including all
measurement of panicular style.
Basic Block:
or style.

It is an individual component of garments without

Working Pattern: To make pattem for

a particular style

any design

with net dinrension.

Sample Garments : The grnts which is needed for bulk production, is called
sample garments.

Pmblems

of

Production or Production Related Metter

298
Production

related problems should be eliminated in this step.

Design or Skelch: It is nothing but one kind of engineering art including all
measurement of particular style.
Basic Block:

It is an individual

component

of

garments without any design

or style.

Working Pattern: To make pattem for

Sample Germents

a particular style with net dimension.

The gmts which are used as sample are called sample

garments.

of

Production or Production Related Matter

problems should be eliminated in this step.

Problems

: Production related

Approved Sample: The sample which is approved by buyer is called

approved sample.
Send to Buyer r When all process are done, then the gmts are snt to buyer.

Production Pattern

To make pattern for a particular style with net

dimension along with allowance.

Fsctoru Upon Which Pattern Meking Depends :

( I ) Skill ness
( ll ) 1'echnological knowledge
( III ) Analysis ofdesign and
( IV ) Experience of gmts making

299

PA'TTERN
Pattern : Patlern is a hard paper \\hich is made following each individual
conrponent for a sq le of Bamtcnls.
Pattern Making : The patlem $ hich is trsed in gms industry are as follorr s :
( I ) Block panem or basic block
( II ) Working pattern or gmts pattem
( I ) Block Pattern or Basic Block : Block pattem or basic block is an
individual components of garmcnts rvithout any design or style . lt can be
made in hvo rvays . Such as

(a)Flatmethod
( b ) Modeling
( a ) Flat Method t In this method, the pattem of different parts of Sarnlcnts

specially body and sleeve are made by technical drawing. Aclually this
rnethod cornes frorn rnodeling mclhod and by this method fasl pattcrn
nraking is possible.

( b ) Modeling : It is primary and first nrelhod and is widely still used in

garments industry. In this method , block is made with standard body
measurement of durnmy is called toile. lbile is *'orn on the body of dunrmy
to check fittings. Then toile is *orn out lrom the body of dummy and
individual parts of toile are drarvn on hard paper or board paper. In this
method, more time is required but most elTicient.

Garments Prttern : Garments pattem is made on the basis of block

pattem or basic block. tndividual block pat.tem are drawn on hard paper or
board paper Allowancc i.e. sewing allorvance , trimming allowance , center
front line, bottom hole, dart, pleat is considered in this pattem.

(II)

MARKER

Marker: Marker is a thin paper uhich contains all necessary pattem pieces
for all sizes for a particular style of gannents in such a way that fabric
uould be least.
Consraints of Marker Making : The work of the marker planner is
subjected to a number ofconstraints. These are related with :
(a) The Naure oflhe Desired Result in the Finished Garments. These are :
(I) Pattem alignment in relation to the gain ofthe fabric

wastage

(ll)
(lll)

Symmetry or asymmetry and

The design characteristics ofthe firri:her! garments
(b) The requirements ofquality in cusing
(c) The requirements ofproduction planning

300
Mettods of Mrrker Mrking : There are two types ofmarker making. Such as :

(i)Manualmethod
( ii ) Computer method
( i ) Manuel Method : Manual methods are two types. Such as :
( a ) Marker planning with full size in a full size Pattem and
( b ) Marker with minimized pattem

( a ) Merker Planning With Full Size in a Full Size Psttern

In this

method all patterns are in full dimension according to standard measurement.

Hard paper are placed on paper or fabric and then all pattems are rounded to
reduce the marker length. The top oftable on which marker making are fixed
or fitting and the fitting table top are placed in various angle. Arrangement of
vacuum system under table top which are suitable for table table cloth.

( b ) Marker With Mirimired Pattern : Full size pattems are minimized

l/5 part by a pantograph and minimized patterns made by pantograph are
plastic sheet or hard and coarser. Marker is planned by minimized pattem.
After marker making, marker is taken snap by camera, The marker
efficiency is measured by marker area and pattern area. Marker photograph
and minimized pattem are stored.
Advantages

(i)
(ii)

of

Dis advantages

Manual Melhod

lt suitable for small production.

lnvestmcnl cost is low.

of

Manual Method :

(i)
ii)

More time is required-

(a)
(b)

Aulomatic marker making

Inter active marker nraking

High labor cost.

( ii ) Computerised Method : This is the best nrethod and it gives the higher
marker efficiency. It is also two types. Such as :
(

: In this method , computer makes marker

given
According
to
commands,
computer can make marker. In this
itselfl
method the most emcient marker can be got but it takes more time as the
computer makes marker with the help of permutalion and combination.
(b) Inter Active Marker Making : It is a common process of marker
making. The operators plans marker by interacting directly with the system
through a computer screen. All the pattern pieces are displayed in a nriniature
of thc screen. In this mcthod, data per and tablet used for transfcrring of
(r) Autometic Marker Making

patterns.

301

Computcriscd Marker Making Technique :

(a) Monitor ----+ Size + Sketch
Conrputer Monitor Enter

-} Sizc
(b) Computer Monitor
Srnall
Show
-'
-)
(c) Grnde rule to computer rn()nitor
(d) By applying grade rule , ue all find all size of pattem pieces i.e. S,
M

.L

and

XL.

(e) Marker width.

(f) Number ofpieces per marker.
(g) Size ratio per marker.

Copmputerized Marker Making Information System

(a) Computer Aided Design ( C.A.D.)
Computer Aided Manulacturing ( C.A.M. )

(a) Cad Design and Devclopment

Design

Pattern

Making Grading

Marker

Production lay Planning

CAM Manufacturing
+

Stirres Cutting

Se*

ing

Prr.;ssing

Finishing and Dispatch

Flow Chart of System:

Monitor
I

+
Cotnputer
I

Digitizirig Board

t
I

Printer ( For Small Miniature Marker Making

I

Plotter (

For Full

Size Marker Making )

302

Adventages of Computerized Marker Making :

Suitable for large scale production
Markcr efficiency is higher than manual.
Least wastage fabric.

(i)
(ii)
(iiD
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)

[,ow production.
Print out of the marker could be got in need.
Grading ofthe pattern could be done sutomatically.
Few time consumption.
Can be prepared marker quickly.

Disrdvantages of Computerized Msrker Making :

(D
(ii)

Initial investment cost is high and

Skilled operator is required.

Marker Elliciency l The ratio ofthe area of pattern in the marker plan to the
total area ofthe marker plan expressed in percentage is called marker
efficiencl'.
Marker Efficienoy

The area ofthe pattem in the plan

Total area ofthe marker Plan

100v"

Faclors Related to Marker Elliciency \ The Factors Upon Which Marker

Eflicicncy DePends :
(i) Marker planner
(ii) Size of garments
(iii) Marker length
(iv) Pattem engineering
(v) Fabric characteristics
(vi) Marker making method
(vii) Marker width
(viii) Style of garments
Different Selection of Garments :
(i) Sample section
( ii) Cutting section
( iii) Sewing section
(iv) Finishing section
(i) Sample Section : The main function of this section to make approved
samPle.

(ii) Cutting Section : To cut the fabric according to the marker dimension
the main function irr this section.

is

303

(iii) Scwing Section : To make

a conrplete garmenls b;- using all the

cutting conlponents for a parlicular

st_r

of the

le of ganrrents is thc function

of this zlne.

(iv) Finishing Section : The rnain lirnction of this section is to a make a

conrplete and finished garn)ents by feating with ironing and then
send to bu1'er.

DilTercnt Terms and Definition of (iarments Technology':

Cutting : Cutting means to cut labric according to nrarker dinrension.

Otljects of Cutting To separate fabric parts from the sprcad of the lay
according to dimension of marker for the purposc of -earments nraking
according to the pattern pieces.

Seuing : Serving is the process to join up the different parts of the fabric
\\'ith the help of seu'ing needle and threads in manually or by seuing
machine.

Trimming : Tie attachment of various decorative effects without fabric but

including thread, boftom. interlining, zipper. main label , care label , size
label etc called trimming. It is used to omament the fabric.
Quota : A certain amount of garments goods u,hich are allowed to

be

exportcd by manufacturing country to the imported country is called quota.

Non- Quota : The categories or items which are for exporting without any
condition or limitation, these are called non-quota.
Category : The number r.r'hich indicates what type of fabric used for making
the garments and it also indicates what type garments to be made is called
category.

Dummy : The model which is exactly similar to the shape of the body of
man and uhich is used to check the fitting of garments is called dummy.

Welding : Welding is the process in gannents manufacturing which involve

the sealing together of thermoplastic mtls but the heat is not applied
externally.

Prc*sing : The process to remove the unwanted crease and crinkles from3tH
fabric to give it smoofiness , Iustureness , and the apparance is called
pressing. There are for types ofpressing like as follorvs :
No Pressing
(i)
(ii) Minimum pressing
(iii) Under pressing and

(iv)

Permanentpressing

Allowance : The addition as extra to the exact measurement ofthe body with
which a garments is made out is callc.d allowance.
Basic Block :

It

is an individual component of garments with out any design

or style.

Bar Tack : Re-stitching over a very short length and increase the area of a
high load bearing strength is called bar tack. For example : Belt loops and
comers of pocket are comers of pocket are bar tack.

Blind Stitch : The special type of stitch which is not visible at the surface at
the face side but the sewing tread is visihle ofback side is called blind stitch.
Counter Sample : Tlte sample which is followed by approved sample is
called counter sample. For smooth production it is necessary.
Sample Garments : The garments which are made by manufacture
according to the given design of buyer and which are sent to the buyer for
approved to know whether it is according to the dimension or not called
sample garments.

Disposable Garments : The garrnents which are not used further after using
ones i.e the garments which are used thrown after using are called
disposable garments.
Seam : Thejoining between two or more pieces of material is called seam.
I-,/C: The full meaning of L/C is Lrtter of Credit. It is a commitment by
opening a bank on behalfofthe importer ofthe exporter that the bills drawn
by them on the importer countries covering the shipment of specified items
and quality of goods within stated period will be in charge of documents
under certain terms and condition.

I-lC:
(i) Master UC
(iii) Back to back L/C

Types of

305

l-lc

: When a l-,,C is opc'ned to inlf\)rt the goods liom e\porter to

the bul er is called nraster I-lC.

(i) ltaster

(ii) Back to back IJC : \\'hcn a L/C is a

opened against nlaster L/C to

import or collecl rau nralerials to produce and supply the Sarmenls
is called back to back L/C.

C and F : If the price of goods is mentioned in invoice including transport

cost is called C and

C,l.F:

F.

II the price ofgoods is nlentioned in invoice rrirh including transporls

cost and insurance cost.

l-he docurnents mentioning the price is called invoice. After

scndiug thc gamrcnts goods to the itnporler country it is to the buyer for
tnvoice

collecting price.

Grain Line : Pattem pieces norrnally carry a line is called grain line.
In other \\ords , a straighl line rnarked on a pattcm pieces to ensure warp or
rvale direction to ensure the pattem pieces is correctly positioned and cut to
achieve the appearance in the finished garments is called grain line.
Ligne : A standard nreasure equal to 0.635 mrn by which buttons and ribbons
measured is called ligne.

Ligne No : The nteasuring unit ofthe bottom which indicates the dianleter of
the button is called ligne no, If diameter increase then ligne no is increased.

llmm=l6ligne.
Applique : A cut out design or shap attached to the face of a fabric for
onramentalion ofgarments is called appliqu6.
Grading: It is the process to make pattern of different sizes from master
pattem.

Grain : The ternt which is used in making up to refer to the direction ofthe
rvarp threads is woven or rvarp knitted and the direction of Wales in knitted
fabric is called grain.

OffGrain : lf any weft yarn of fabi ic do not states in 90 degree angle $ith
selvedge,is called off grain . In other words , if grain line of pattern piece is
not placed orcut parallel to grain line of fabric is called ofgrain.

306

Ilang Appeal : The garments which are hanged on hangers or kept on hanger
during selling, how much beautiful to see in that condition is called hanger
appeal.

Hanger : 'Ihe substance by which a garments are hanged is called hanger.

Scye : The measurement ofarm hole is called scye.

: The documents which are to be submitted by a C

and F agents to the customs authority for realizing impo*ed goods from the
ports is called impod documentation. These are :
(i) Bill of entry
Import Documentrtion

(ii) Copy ofbill oflading ( BL )

(iii) Copy of invoice
(iv) Packing list
(v) Certificate of origin (CO )
(vi) UDfuP ( Utilization Declaration / Utilization Permission )
(vii) Copy of master L/C
(viii) lrtter of credit authorization (LCA)
(ix) Performa invoice
(x) Copy ofinsurance cover note
(xi) PSI (Pre- shipment lnspection )
(xii) Any other documents.

Expofi I)ocuments : The documents *hich are to be submitted by a C

and F to the customs authority for exporting goods are called export
documents. These are given below
(i) Shipping bill of entry

(ii) Export LIC

(iii) Packing list
(iv) lnsurance
(v) UD ( Utilization Declaration )
(vi) VBF- QA from to supply by the C and F agents.
(vii) Export permission lrom EXP.

Arm Scye : The arm

hole ofgannents is called arm scye.

Basting : The process ofnon permanent serving for placing perfect placejust
before final sewing is called basting.
It can be done by manually or by m/c.
Point : The rnost visible place olthe chest is called bast point.

307

Btxlice ;'lhe specific parl of \\'omen garments shich are cxpanded frorn
ncck to \\aist is callcd tpdice.
Back Sritch :

lt

is one kind of hand stitch \\'hich can bc done b1, nrachine.

C.F Linc : l-he front of a shirt line from tlre collar to dorvnrvards in rvhich
buttons are attached is called C.F line.
Cheese : A cvlindrical package ofyarn on
appreciable helix angle is called cheese.

utich

a single thrcad is laid at an

Collar : The l1at. upright or tumed over section of a garments which fits
around the neck is called collar. There are three q,pes of collar. Such as

(i) Onc picce collar

( ii) Trro piece collar
( iii) Nlulti piece collar

Cuff:

The lo\\er part ofthe sleeve ofa garmcnts and also the corresponding
part oftrouser and gloves is called cuff. There are four types of cuft's. Such as
:

(i) Square cuff

ii) Round cufl
( iii) Pointed cuffand
(iv) t'-otched cuff
(

Base ( Core spun

thrtad ) : It

is a one kind of special type of sewing thread

remained and in outer side staple fibre is
remained. These yarns are nonnally produced to give strenglh and elasticity
to the fabric.

in rvhich center tllament is

Dart : The

process to give respected shape by rentoving the wedge from the

gaments surface by stitching or cutting and stitching is called dart.

for tightness ofgoods.

lt

is used

The ability of a fabric to hang graceful folds is called drape.

Example : The sincisoidal type folds ofa certain or skirt.

Drape

Pleat : The folds usually run in the lengthwise direction ofa gannents giving
a decorative effects and allowance for expansion of the garments in the cross
section is called pleat.

308

It is used for looseness of garments. Dan and pleat are all used of fashion
desigrr in the back Part ofa shirt.
Flap : The part which is used to cover the popened face the pocket is called
flap.
Fore Part : The front parts of the garments which are used for covering the
upper part of the body is called fore part.

Fullness : An extension to thc length on one of two section of a garments

joined by a seam, used to create volume or shape in the garments is called
fullness. In simple words, for getting respected shape, some extra fabric are
used in the fore parts of the garments. This shape which is got by using some
extra fabrics is called fullness. Example: Sleeve head.

Grinning : The defect in a compound structure ( e.g. a double cloth ) in

which one fabric can be

seen through the other is called grinning.

Interlooping : When loop of one thread passes through the loop of same or
another lhread is callcd interlooping.
Interlacing : During stirching when one loop of the one thread

passes over

another loop of another thread is called interlacing.

lnterlining : Interlining is one kind of accessories which is used between

two layers of fabric in garments to support, reinforce and control areas of
garments and to remain actual shape. It is two types. Such as:
(i) Non Fusible/Sewn Interlinilg
( ii) Fusible Interlining

Inlay : The extra fabrics which

are kept

with pattem after all removing seam

for making greater ofany parts ofthe gannents in need is called inlay.

Inset : The pieces of fabrics which are in fining or which is used to increase
the beauty of cloth is called inset.

Jigger

: It

is one kind of button which are used in thc inner side of the

garments.

Lining : 'Ilre cloths rvhich are used to cover the part or all of the inside of
apparel , the back ofl curtains or the inside or back of the other product is
called lin ing.

Making Up

-l

30q

he prr--ess of lransfomring fabric to garrrrents is callcd

nraking up.

Model : 'I-he designers original sample garments is called nrodcl.

Seam : The Iine

ofjoining thbric

is called seam.

Classilication of Seam :
class I ( Super Irnposed Seam )
1ii) Seam class II ( Lapped Searn )
(iii) Seam class - III ( Bound Scam )
(iv) Searn class - IV ( FIat Seanr )
(v) Seam class - V ( Dccorative Seam )
(vi) Seam class - VI ( Edge Neatening Searn )
(vii) Seam class - VII
(viii) Seam class- VIII
(i) Seam

Seam Plucker : Unwanted rvaviness of the material along the seam line is
called seam plucker. This nray be apparent immediately alter sewing trr it
may develop latcr in use.

Puckering : 'fhe wrinkled appearance of a fabric in which non- unifonn

relation or shrinkage has occurred is called puckering.
Wale Densitv : The numbers ofvisible of loops per length measured along a
course is called u'ale density.

Course Density

The numbers of visible loops per unit length measured

along a wale is called course density.

Seam Types : Arrangements

tvr.

of

fabric ends at the seam line is called seam

Sam Stretrgth : 1'he strenglh ofseam is called seam strength. lt depends on

(i) Strength ofthread used

(ii) Unbalanced stitch
(iii) Stitch density
(iv) Seam type
(v) Size ofstitch
Stitch : Loop cr loops ofone cr more threads bounds with each other, either
by interlacing, interlooping, intralooping or combinatiorr of those when
sewing fabric, each unit ofsuch configuration is called stitch.

Stitch Density : The product of wale density and course aensity is

call*

stitch densitY.

Blind Stitching : Special kind of stitch that does not surface at he face side
but the swing thread is visible of backside . This stitch does not pnetrates
.

and perforate fullY.

Ilpes ofFeed Mechanism :

(i) Drop feed mechanism
(ii) Differential bottom feed

(iii) Adjustable

top feed system

(iv) Needle feed mechanism

(v) Unison feed mechanism
(vi) Puller feed mechanism

Motif : The decorative figures of a pattem is called motif.

These may be cut

out and applied to a gament for ornamentation.

Lining : Lining are generally a functional part of a garment, an accessories.

Lining materials can be used for small parts pockets and for complete
garments, either fully bagged out. It can be used coat, jacket and rain coat,
body and sleeve tbr ladies items. Such as : Blouse, fiock etc. It is attached by
se"ing, coating is not used.

Works Aids : The extra m/c parts which may be anached to speed rrp the
production and improve quality in the sewing rn/c are called worli aid.
Quelity : The nature , kind or character of any material is calied quality.

Quality Contml : Quality control is the checking verification and regulation

ofthe degree ofexcellence ofan athibute or property of material.
Pressing : The process to remove unwantcd cease and crinkles from the
fabric to give it smoothness , lustureness and fine appearance is called
pressing. It is known as ironing in garments industries.

'lhis
Fastening : A Swiss invention made this product.
items consists of two nylon tapes, one having a surface ofloops and the other

Ilook and Loop

surface of hooks. When pressed together, two tapes adhere and can not open
by side way tum but easily open by upwards tum.

Welding : Welding is a process in garments manufacturing which involve the

sealing together of therrnoplastic materials but the heat is not applied
extcrnally.

311

Common Abbrcriations of (iarments Technology :

B.G.:\l.E.A.: Ilanqladcsh Garrnents Manufactrrrcrs and Exporters
Association.

B.T.\I.C.= Bangladesh ltxtile Mills Corporation

B.G.W.U.C= Ilangladesh Carnsnts \Vorker Unit Council
W.T.O.=\\brld Trade Organiz-rtion
L.D.C.= I-east Developed Country
C.B.L.= Centcr Back I-ine
C.F.l,.= Ccnter Front Linc
F.O.I}.= I:ree ()n lloard
C.O.l].= Gor,cnrmeut Of Bangladesh
C and F= Cost and Freight
C.l.t'= Cost,. Insurance and Frcight
E.P.B.= E xpol1er Promotion Bureau

(.M.1.= ( o.t olMakirrgrritlt

lrirntning.

(l.M.O.= Cost of Nlaking Order

N.S.A.: No Seanr Allouance.
B.L.= Bill of t-ading.
C.O.= Certificate of Origin.

II-D.= titilization Declaration.

U.P.= Utilization Permission.
L.C.A= Lencr ol' Credit Autlrorizrtion.
P.S.I.= Pre- shipment Inspection.
M and \Y = Men and \Vomen.
W and G: \Vomen and Girls.
XI; Extra Large. ( Size )
L: Large.( Size )
M= Medium ( Size )
S= Small ( Size )
C.A.D= Computer Aided Design.
C.A.M.= CornputerAided Manufacturing.
P.T.S.= Primary 'Ie xtile Sectors.
G.D.P.= Gro\\.th Domestic Product.
G.S.P.= Generalized System of Preference.
G.A.T.T.= Generalizcd Agreement on Tariffs and Taxes.
M,F.A.= Multi F iber Arrangement.

E.P.B.= Export Promotion BUREAU.

F.Y,= Financial Year.
B.Y.= Bas Year.
P,T,I= Private Textile Industry.
VAT= Value Added Tar.

312

TUF= Technolory UPgradation Fund,

f,,.T.P.= Eftluent Treatment Plan.
UNIDO= United Nation tntemational Development Oryanization.
f\C= Polyester + Cotton.
.I\C= Tetron + Cotton.
B.Q.S.P,= Bangladesh Quartet Support Programme.
MOT= Ministry of Textile.
MOC= Ministry of Commerce.
B[@ Befter Fisheries QualitY'
BWTG= Better Worker in Textile Garments.
EU= European Union'
EPI= Ends Per Inch.
PPI= Picks Per Inch.
UNEC= United Nations Economic and Development Commission'
TU= Trade Union.
UNDP= United Nations Development Programme'
ILG lntemational l.abor Organization.
IFTfI= Intemational Federation of Trade Union.
IMF= Intemational MonetarY Fund.
GR= Great Britain.

(iM= General

Manager.

AG M= Assistant General Manager.

P,O.= Production Manager.

CEG

Chief Executive Officer.

B.E.= Bachelor of Engineering.
B,I'.M.A. = Bangladesh Textile Mills Association'