INSTITUTE OF HEALTH

SCIENCES
PCT 112 LABORATORY REPORT

MOMPATI LETSWELETSE
DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 28-01-2015

Surname: Letsweletse
First names: Mompati
ID number: 3221
Practical no: 1
TITLE: EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL BONDING ON SELECTED PHYSICOCHEMICAL
REACTIONS OF ORGANIC INORGANIC COMPOUDS.

AIM: To demonstrate the effect the chemical bonding on selected

physicochemical reaction of organic and inorganic compounds.
THEORY
A chemical bond is an attraction between atoms that allows the formation
of chemical substances that contain two or more atoms. The bond is caused
by the electrostatic force of attraction between opposite charges, either
between electrons and nuclei, or as the result of a dipole attraction. The
strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds"
such as covalent or ionic bonds and "weak bonds" such as dipole -dipole
interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.
Since opposite charges attract via a simple electromagnetic force, the
negatively
charged electrons that are orbiting the nucleus
and the positively charged protons in the nucleus attract each other. An
electron positioned between two nuclei will be attracted to both of them and
the nuclei will be attracted toward electrons in this position. This attraction
constitutes the chemical bond. Due to the matter wave nature of electrons
and their smaller mass, they must occupy a much larger amount of volume
compared with the nuclei, and this volume occupied by the electrons keeps
the atomic nuclei relatively far apart, as compared with the size of the nuclei
themselves.
In general, strong chemical bonding is associated with the sharing or transfer
of electrons between the participating atoms. The atoms
in molecules, crystals, metals and diatomic gases indeed most of the
physical environment around us are held together by chemical bonds, which
dictate the structure and the bulk properties of matter. As an example using
ionic and covalent bonding, Ionic bonding (transferring of electrons between
atoms to fulfill their electron configuration) has high boiling and melting
points due to strong bonds between them hence very large energy is
required to break free bonds. This strong bond also affects the solubility due
to ionization of molecule that is electrons are not equally shared on the other
hand Covalent boding has weak bonds which are easily broken down hence
low melting and boiling point since no much energy is required to break the
weak bonds.

The strength of a bond in a substance affects the melting point, the boiling
point, the hardness and the flexibility of the substance. It also determines
electrical conductivity. Materials
MATERIALS

50 ml beakers
Test tubes
Spatula
Measuring cylinder
Spatula
Test tube
10ml measuring cylinder
PH meter
Litmus paper blue
Universal indicator paper
Distilled water
Ethanol
Chloroform
0.2M of ethanol, hydrochloric acid and Ethanoic acid

BOILING POINT RELATIVE

MOLECULAR STRUCTURAL
MASS (g/mol)
FOR

)
Water

100

18.015

Methanol

64.7

32.042

Ethanol

78

46.068

chloroform

61,2

119.518

FORMULA

PROCEDURE
TASK 1: BONDING AND BOILING POINTS
The boiling points of water, methanol, ethanol and chloroform were
noted from one source their relative molecular masses were
calculated.

TASK 2: SOLUBILTY OF IODINE IN DIFFERENT LIQUIDS

A small crystal of iodine was put in a test tube.5ml of distilled water was
poured and the mixture was shaken. The above step was repeated with
ethanol and chloroform. Changes in terms of solubility and color change were
noted.
TASK 3: MISCIBILITY OF LIQUIDS
10 ml of water was mixed with 10ml of ethanol in 50ml beaker. The previous
step was repeated with water and chloroform and ethanol and chloroform.
Changes in terms of temperature were noted and the miscibility of
substances was recorded.
TASK 4: ACIDIC PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID
The volume required to prepare 0.2M of ethanol was calculated using the
information provided. The calculated volume was measured using the

measuring cylinder henceforth was diluted in the bottom flask to fill up to the
1000ml mark in preparation of 0.2M ethanol. the p H of prepared 0.2M
ethanol was measured using the universal indicator ,litmus blue paper and
a pH meter .The previous steps were repeated for the solution of HCl and
ethanoic acid. The results were noted and comparison in terms of acidity was
noted among concerned solutions.

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

TASK 1: BONDING AND BOILING POINTS
CALCULATIONS
H: 1.008, O: 16.00, C: 12.01, CL: 35.45

Structural formula for water

Relative molecular mass :( 1.008 2 +16.00=18.016g/mol
Methanol

Structural formula for ethanol

(1.008 4 +16.00+12.01=32.042g/mol

Ethanol

Structural formula for ethanol

(1.008 6 + (12.01 2 + 16.00=46.068g/mol

Chloroform

Structural formula for chloroform.

(35.5 3 +1.008+12.01=119.518 g /mol

According to the results in the above table it clearly showing that water has
the highest boiling point and the smallest relative molecular mass followed
by Ethanol and methanol respectively with chloroform being the last with
lowest boiling point and a large relative molecular mass.
TASK 2: SOLUBILTY OF IODINE IN DIFFERENT LIQUIDS
The obtained results shows that iodine is not soluble in water and on the
other hand is partially soluble chloroform. They also indicate that iodine is
completely soluble in ethanol with a perceptible color change.
TASK 3: MISCIBILITY OF LIQUIDS
According to experimental results from task 3 it was observed that the
mixture of ethanol and chloroform, ethanol and water were miscible with a
slight temperature change compared to the mixture of water and chloroform
which showed two substances (water and chloroform) being immiscible and
showed no temperature change
TASK 4: ACIDIC PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID
Obtained result shows that the PH of ethanol is 7 and 7.680 using universal
indicator and PH meter respectively, the blue litmus paper remained blue
when it was dipped into Ethanol. With HCL the PH was noted to be 1 and
0.976 using universal indicator and PH meter respectively it was found that
HCL turned the blue litmus paper to red, on the other hand it was recorded
that Ethanoic acid has the PH of 3 and 3.060 using universal indicator and PH
meter respectively, it was also observed that Ethanoic acid turned the blue
litmus paper red.

DISCUSSION
TASK 1: BONDING AND BOILING POINTS
WATER:
The molecular formula for water is H 2O it indicates that water is composed
of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom In water, each hydrogen
nucleus is covalently bound to the central oxygen atom by a pair of electrons
that are shared between them. In H2O, only two of the six outer-shell
electrons of oxygen are used for this purpose, leaving four electrons which
are organized into two non-bonding pairs. The four electron pairs surrounding
the oxygen tend to arrange themselves as far from each other as possible in
order to minimize repulsions between these clouds of negative charge. This
would ordinarily result in a tetrahedral geometry in which the angle between
electron pairs (and therefore the H-O-H bond angle) is 109.5. However,
because the two non-bonding pairs remain closer to the oxygen atom, these
exert a stronger repulsion against the two covalent bonding pairs, effectively
pushing the two hydrogen atoms closer together. The result is a distorted
tetrahedral arrangement in which the HOH angle is 104.5.henceforth
the presence of hydrogen interaction means much energy is required to
break the bond hence a high boiling point of about 100.
METHANOL
Methanol is an alcohol which possesses only one carbon bonded to hydroxyl
group and 3 hydrogens. It has high boiling point due to Hydrogen bonding
.Hydrogen bonding occurs between molecules where the hydrogen atom is
attached to one of the very electronegative elements - fluorine, oxygen or
nitrogen in this case is oxygen .Hydrogen bonding isn't the only
intermolecular force in Ethanol. There are also van der Waals dispersion
forces and dipole-dipole interactions. Therefore much energy is required to
break apart this bonds .Because of the one hydrogen bond, the boiling point
becomes lower than that of water.
ETHANOL
Ethanol is a 2-carbon alcohol. Its molecular formula is CH3CH2OH. An
alternative notation is CH3CH2OH, which indicates that the carbon of a

methyl group (CH3) is attached to the carbon of a methylene group (CH2),

which is attached to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group (OH).
Like in other alcohols, Ethanol also consists of a hydroxyl bond which
accounts for its high boiling point in this case the boiling point of ethanol is
higher than that of methanol because as the number of carbon atoms in the
chains increases so does the bonds hence the boiling point also increases. It
takes more energy to overcome the dispersion forces, and so the boiling
points rise.
CHOROFORM
Chloroform is considered to be nonpolar molecule even though it has some
polar bonds. Having carbon surrounded by 3 chlorine atoms and one
hydrongen.No hydroxyl group bond has less energy to break the bonds.

TASK TWO: SOLUBILITY OF LIQUIDS

IODINE AND WATER
Non-polar Iodine is not very soluble in water according to obtained results.
This is due to intermolecular bond between an induced dipole (I2) and a polar
bond in water which is not very strong compared to the hydrogen bonds
in water. The water molecules remain hydrogen bonded to each other, and
not allowing an iodine molecule come between them.
IODINE AND ETHANOL
I2 is a nonpolar molecule, and will more easily dissolve in a nonpolar solvent.
Despite its immiscibility with water, the ethanol molecule has characteristics
in common with other nonpolar solvents. This allows iodine molecules to be

more easily dissolved in ethanol, other alcohols and solvents like benzene or
acetone hence the reason for the obtained results which saw iodine being
soluble in Ethanol with a color change

IODINE AND CHLOROFORM

Chloroform/tetrachloride is one the compounds which are nonpolar
containing also polar bonds. The bonds between the carbon and each
chlorine are polar. But there is no negative end to the molecule and no
positive end rather ,the outer part is negative and the inner part
positive(partially)so the molecule is nonpolar ,In general symmetrical
molecules are non polar even though they may contain polar bonds. The
polar bonds present in the chloroform molecule made iodine to be partially
soluble in chloroform.
TASK 3: MISCIBILTY OF LIQUIDS
ETHANOL AND WATER
Ethanol an alcohol is an organic compound its polar groups attached to a
nonpolar framework of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Ethanol contains the
polar OH group. The O-H bond is able to form hydrogen bonds. Ethanol
molecules can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules as well as with
each other .As a result the solute-solute, solvent solvent forces are not
greatly different in a mixture of ethanol and water. No major change occurs
in the environment of the molecules as they mixed. Therefore the increased
entropy when the components mix plays a significant role in solution
formation and ethanol is completely miscible with water. The warmth felt on
the beaker was due to breaking of bonds showing that it was an exothermic
reaction.

WATER AND CHLOROFORM

Chloroform is considered to be an organic (nonpolar) solvent. It has low
solubility in water (they aren't miscible) Water will try to surround the nonpolar molecule and try to attract them apart

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From each other, but all this does it forms a strong hydrogen bond, or,
intermolecular force among the water molecule. The non-polar compound
cannot join the bonds of the water molecule because of its weak attraction
and the absence of dipoles. They do not have negative and positive ends.
The non-polar molecules become neutral among the water, and the waters
attractive bonds with each other then push the non-polar compound away
and separate from them.Hencerforth this accounts for obtained results
having water not miscible with chloroform.
ETHANOL AND CHLOROFORM
Chloroform is considered to be an organic (nonpolar) solvent. It has has weak
polarity, and thus it will dissolve some moderately polar molecules,
henceforth ethanol is miscible because of the polar bonds present in
chloroform.
TASK 4: ACIDIC PROPERTIES OF ETHANOIC ACID
Hydrochloric acid and Ethanoic acid according to the PH meter and universal
indicator paper are shown to be acidic or to have acidic properties. This is
because their PH ranges their ranges from 0.976 to 3.060on the meter and
they turned the blue litmus paper pink. These is due to the hydrogen
ions(H+) , they are more concentrated than the OH-.Ethanol showed basic
properties, the blue litmus paper remained blue and the PH and the universal
indicator paper readings ranged from 7.94 to 8.This is due to high.
ANSWEARS TO QUESTIONS
1) Would you classify Ethanoic acid as a weak or strong acid? Justify
your answer
As a weak acid because it has a pH of 3 which is the range of weak acids. A
weak acid is one which doesn't ionize fully when it is dissolved in water.
Therefore it undergoes partial ionization when it is dissolved in water.
Ethanoic acid is a typical weak acid. It reacts with water to produce
hydroxonium ions and ethanoate ions, but the back reaction is more
successful than the forward one. The ions react very easily to reform the acid
and the water.
CH3COOH + H2O CH3OO- + H3O+

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2) Explain the difference in acidic strength between ethanol and

Ethanoic acid.
The strength of any acid comes from how easily a "proton" is lost to water.
Dissociation is a "competition" between the acid molecule and water. Strong
acids are "easily defeated". The water molecule has a greater affinity for H+
than does the strong acid anion.
But in a weak acid, the hydrogen is more strongly bound to the "anion". In
the -COOH structure the electron density is shifted toward the doubly bonded
oxygen and away from the hydrogen making it more easily lost to adjacent
water molecules.
In ethanol, there is no electron withdrawing atom and the bond between O
and H is much stronger, making the H less easily removed by adjacent water
molecules. In fact, the O-H is so strong; the ethanol barely behaves like an
acid at all.
3) How would you prepare 2.0l of 0.1M of HCL?

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