Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MANUAL
2013 2014 SPRING
Prepared by Res. Asst. Erinc Topdemir
Student Information
Name
Surname
ID
:
:
:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Lab rules & Tips __________________________________________________________________________________________ ii
Guideline for Lab manual (Notebook) _________________________________________________________________ iv
Safety Information________________________________________________________________________________________ v
Grading ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ vi
Experiment 1 Introduction to Differential Amplifiers _______________________________________________ 1
Experiment 2 Operational Amplifiers & Their Usage ________________________________________________ 6
Experiment 3 Active Filters with Opamp ___________________________________________________________ 11
Experiment 4 - Frequency Response of Common-Emitter Amplifiers _____________________________ 14
Experiment 5 Power Amplifiers (Push-Pull) _______________________________________________________ 18
Experiment 6 Oscillators _____________________________________________________________________________ 21
Experiment 7 Voltage Regulators ___________________________________________________________________ 27
Appendix A Datasheets ______________________________________________________________________________ 32
BC237 BC238 BC239 NPN Silicon Amplifier transistor__________________________________________ 33
2N3904 NPN General Purpose Silicon Amplifier Transistor ________________________________________ 35
LM741 Operational Amplifier _________________________________________________________________________ 37
1N4001 ~ 1N4007 Silicon Diode ______________________________________________________________________ 39
TIP122 NPN Darlington Transistor ___________________________________________________________________ 40
Appendix B - Other Components ______________________________________________________________________ 42
Appendix C - Resistor Codes ___________________________________________________________________________ 43
Appendix D - Capacitor Readings _____________________________________________________________________ 44
Appendix E - Electrical Symbols _______________________________________________________________________ 45
Notes ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ 50
Page i
Page ii
Page iii
Make sure you use the right components. Check every resistor with your Ohmmeter. Be warned that
not every resistor you take from 1kOhm box is surely a 1kOhm.
Never ask the assistants what the next step of the experiment is. Everything you need to know (and
you have to know) is written in your lab manual. Wrong answers to these questions is not the
responsibility of the assistant.
Read the lab manual.
If you are faced with a problem, try first to solve it by yourself. An important part of your education
is to analyze problems and to find solutions to it. To 90% of all problems you can find a solution by
yourself. Be sure you have followed the correct steps in the correct order. Check all connections and
supply voltages. Check all the components in the problematic are and be sure they have the correct
values. Only after then, if you cannot solve the problem, ask your assistant for help.
Do not forget to read the textbook.
: means voltage between points A and B. put positive side of voltmeter to point A, and negative side
to point B.
VC
VR1
IC
Vp or Vpk or Vpeak
VPP
Vamp : amplitude voltage. If there is no offset (DC) voltage inside the signal it is equal to Vp
RE
CS
RL
: resistor of load
RC
VS
Page iv
SAFETY INFORMATION
Safety Information
The danger of injury or death from electrical shock, fire, or explosion is present while conducting
experiments in this laboratory. To work safely, it is important that you understand to minimize the risks and
what to do if there is an accident.
Electrical Shock:
Avoid contact with conductors in energized electrical circuits. Electrocution has been reported at the voltages
as low as 42 volts. Just 100 mA of current passing through the chest is usually fatal. Muscle contractions can
prevent the person from moving away while being electrocuted.
Do not touch someone who is being shocked while still in contact with the electrical conductor or you may
also be electrocuted. Instead, unplug cables or turn switches off (located near the door to the laboratory).
Make sure your hands are dry. The resistance of dry, unbroken skin is relatively high and thus reduces the
risk of shock. Skin that is broken, wet or damp with sweat has a low resistance.
When working with an energized circuit, work with your one hand, keeping your other hand away from all
conductive material. This reduces the likelihood of an accident that results in current passing through your
heart.
Fire:
Transistors and other components can become extremely hot and cause severe burns if touched. If resistors
or other components on your proto-board catch fire, turn off the power supply and notify the instructor. If
electronic instruments catch fire, unplug cables or turn switches off (located near the door to the laboratory).
Explosion:
When using electrolytic capacitors, be careful to observe proper polarity and do not exceed the voltage rating.
Electrolytic capacitors can explode and cause injury.
Page v
GRADING
Grading
Note: Do not forget to make pre-lab sections. There are pre-calculation parts in almost all of your
lab experiments. These parts are shown with bold calculation notifications. You may not allow to
attend lab sessions or may lose points if you do not make these calculations.
GRADES
Laboratory session is part of your Electronics II course. It is normally %20 of your course, unless
announced otherwise. Your lab session includes experiments, quizzes (each week), lab project
(individually done) and lab final.
Experiments
6
Quizzes
4
Project
5
Final
5
Total
20
If you successfully done with your experiment then you will get 3,
If you missed some parts are made some wrong calculations or measurements then you will
get 2,
If you attend but not seem at class or do not show some work to make experiment, or you
really do not understand experiment and made almost everything wrong then you will get
only 1.
If you do not attend lab session then you will get 0 for that week. Lab assistant may accept
you to the experiment part if you miss quiz. But you will still get 0 from quiz not experiment.
There will be no excuse or make up experiments. Attendances are just taken for proofing you
are really there. You will not fail from lab because of you do not attend or miss some week(s).
Project
You have to make your lab project individually and present it at the last two weeks of semester with
making appointment with your lab assistant.
At project demonstration
Page vi
You have to show your circuit on breadboard. You may make PCB or use soldered board if
you prefer, but it is optional not necessary.
You must show your circuit diagram.
GRADING
You have to explain how circuit works, how long does it take to build, how you decide to make,
what changes have been occurred since you choose project, where can this circuit can be
used.
You do not need to prepare a PowerPoint presentation or a report. Just prepare yourself to
answer to above questions. Some further questions can be asked by lab assistants.
Your circuit does not need to work well if you really explain why and what happens. In this
condition you will credit up to 4 from your project
Final
You must attend your lab final at your own lab section. Your lab final will be 1 hour exam that include
both calculations and building circuit and measurements. Probably it will be a circuit design
question.
There will be no make-up exam for lab final. If you really have some situation please inform your lab
assistant. We are also human beings as you know
Exemptions
If you had taken Electronics II course in last three semester, you can ask for exemption for lab
session. If also course instructor accept it you will get your old credit. Your course instructor may
want to attend to just lab final or do some project instead.
If you had taken course more than one time in last three semester then the newest grade will be
count as your final grade.
Page vii
Page 1
Common input: = 2 (1 + 2 )
Output voltage: = , where Ad is differential-mode gain and Ac is common-mode
gain.
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio: =
Common-mode gain: =
or (log) = 2010
in (dB)
+2(+1)
Difference-mode gain: = =
, = = 2
RC1
RC2
Vo1
Figure 1.3 Pin
diagram of
transistor
(BC239)
Vo2
Q2
Q1
Vi1
Vi2
RE
Page 2
Page 3
Page 4
ID:
PRE-CALCULATIONS
1. VC1 =
, IC1 =
2. Ad =
3. AC =
4.
a.
Vd =
b.
Vc =
c.
Vo =
5. CMRR =
, VC2 =
Signature:
, IC2 =
and IE =
, IE =
VO1 =
, IE =
VO1 =
, IE =
VO1 =
and VD =
and VC =
mode:
Comments and Conclusions: Describe what you learn from this experiment besides regular class.
Ad =
VO =
= =
Vo
Ro
Ri
Vi
Ro
Ri
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Vo A non-inverting amplifier is provided by the
circuit of fig. 2.2 with output voltage given by
Vi
Figure 2.2
Page 6
= +
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.3
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
More than one input can be connected through separate
resistors as shown in fig. 2.4 with the output voltage then
Ro
V2
V1
R1
R2
Vo
R
Figure 2.4 VO O V O V2
R2
R
Figure 2.5
INTEGRATING AMPLIFIER
Circuit that integrate the input signal
Figure 2.6
Page 7
Figure 2.7
OPAMP AS COMPARATOR
Circuit that use opamp as comparator. Output voltage will either
VCC or VEE in ideal. In practical these values are about VCC 1.5V
and VEE + 1.5V.
The idea is comparing voltages at the input. If voltage at positive
input is higher than voltage at negative input than output will be
near to VCC. it will we near VEE otherwise.
Figure 2.8
Page 8
Page 9
ID:
Signature:
PRE-CALCULATIONS
1. Av (calculated) =
2. Av (calculated) =
3. VO (calculated) =
4.
a. VO (calculated) =
b. VO (calculated) =
5. VO (calculated) =
6. VO (calculated) =
7.
Vi+
ViVo
AV (measured) =
AV (measured) =
Compare and Conclusion: Describe what you learn from this experiment beyond regular class
Page 10
Page 11
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
PRE-CALCULATIONS
1. For the circuit of fig.3.1 calculate the low-cutoff frequency and voltage gain AV using eq.3.1
RG = 1M, RF = 2.2 k, R1 = 330 , C1 = 10 nF.
2. For the circuit of fig.3.2 calculate the low-cutoff frequency and voltage gain AV using eq.3.2
for RG = 1M, RF = 4.7 k, R1 = 680 , C1 = 100 nF
3. What kind of configuration is needed to build a band-bass filter? Do you need a low-pass at
first then connect its output to high-pass filter as an input? Or vice versa?
PROCEDURE
For all parts, VCC = 15 V and VEE = -15V.
PART 1. Low-pass filter: Construct the circuit of fig.3.1 with RG = 1M, RF = 2.2 k, R1 = 330 , C1 = 10 nF.
a) Apply an input of 1V, peak. Vary the signal frequency from 50 Hz to 50 kHz while measuring
and recording the output voltage in Table 3.1.
b) Plot the output gain-frequency response curve to a blank linear-log graph at the end of
notebook.
PART 2. High-pass filter: Construct the circuit of fig.3.2 with RG = 1M, RF = 4.7 k, R1 = 680 , C1 = 100 nF
a) Apply an input of 1V, peak. Vary the signal frequency from 1 kHz to 1MHz while measuring
and recording the output voltage in Table 3.2.
b) Plot the output gain-frequency response curve to the same graph that you used in part 1
PART 3. Band-pass filter: Construct the circuit by connecting output of the high-pass filter to input of lowpass filter.
a) Apply an input of 1V, peak. Vary the signal frequency from 100 Hz to 300 kHz while
measuring and recording the output voltage in Table 3.3
b) Plot the output gain-frequency response curve to the same graph that you used in part 1
Page 12
ID:
Signature:
PRE-CALCULATIONS
1. fL (calculated)=
2. fh (calculated)=
3. explain:
AV = VO/VI (calculated)=
AV = VO/VI (calculated)=
AV-3dB =
AV-3dB =
f (Hz)
50
VO (V)
AV (dB)
100
500
fL =
1k
2k
5k
AV =
10k
15k
20k
50k
AV-3dB =
2. High-pass filter
Table 3.2
f (kHz) 1k
2k
VO (V)
AV (dB)
fH =
3. Band-pass filter
5k
10k
20k
30k
AV =
50k
100k
200k
500k
1M
AV-3dB =
Table 3.3
f (Hz)
100 500
VO (V)
AV (dB)
fH =
1k
2k
fL =
5k
10k
20k
AV =
50k
2M
AV-3dB =
4. Explain what happens if you connect output of low pass to input of high pass with given
values.
Page 13
x1
x1
x1
x1
The analysis of the frequency response of an amplifier can be considered in three frequency
ranges: the low- mid- and high-frequency regions. In the low-frequency region the capacitors used
for DC isolation (AC coupling) and bypass operation affect the lower cutoff (lower 3-dB) frequency.
In the mid-frequency range only resistive elements affect the gain, the gain remaining constant. In
the high-frequency region of operation, stray wiring capacitance will determine the circuits upper
cutoff frequency.
Lower Cutoff (lower 3-dB) Frequency: each capacitor used will result in a cutoff frequency. The
lower cutoff frequency at the network is then the largest of these lower cutoff frequencies. For the
network of Fig. 4.1 the lower frequencies are as follows.
CS: the cutoff frequency due to the input (source) coupling capacitor is
( + )
Where: Ri = R1 // R2 // re
Eq.4.1
CC: the cutoff frequency due to the output (collector) coupling capacitor is
Eq.4.2
( + )
Where: Re = RE // re
Eq.4.3
Upper Cutoff (upper 3-dB) Frequency: In the high-frequency range the amplifier gain is affected
by the transistors parasitic capacitance as follows:
At input connection of circuit:
Page 14
Eq.4.4
Where
RTH1 = R1 // R2 // re,
and
= + + ( )
Cw,i = input wiring capacitance
Eq.4.5
where
RTH2 = RC // RL
and
= + + ( )
CW ,O = output wiring capacitance
Keep in mind that the 3-dB cutoff frequencies are defined by 70.7% of mid-band gain, or 0.707
AV,mid. That is, once the mid-band gain is measured, the upper and lower cutoff frequencies are
measured at the points at which the gain drops to 0.707, the mid-band gain at either upper or
lower frequency.
=
Page 15
//
Eq.4.6
Page 16
ID:
Signature:
3.
f H i (Calculated) =
f H O (Calculated) =
4. AV ,mid =
RESULTS FROM PROCEDURE
1. Vsig (measured) =
VO (measured) =
2. Output voltages and gains in dB
f (Hz)
50
100
200
400
600
800
AV ,mid =
1k
2k
3k
5k
10 k
700 k
900k
1M
2M
5M
VO (V)
AV (dB)
f (Hz)
20k
50 k
100 k
300k
500k
600 k
VO (V)
AV (dB)
4. f 3dB (lower cut-off) =
Compare and Conclusion: Describe what you learn from this experiment beyond regular
class
Page 17
1N4001 x2
TIP122 x1
TIP127 x1
2 ()
2 () 2 () 2 ( )
=
=
2
8
()
%
()
Page 18
Page 19
ID:
Signature:
VB2 =
VB2 =
Conclusion: Describe what you learn from this experiment beyond regular class
Page 20
EXPERIMENT 6 OSCILLATORS
Experiment 6 Oscillators
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED
1 k
x2
1.2 k
100 k
x3
LED
Potentiometer (50k) x 1
Potentiometer
10 nF
x3
100 nF
x1
x1
(1M) x 1
x1
Figure 6.1 Pin Diagram for LM741
1
26
Wien-Bridge Oscillator: A bridge network can be used to provide the 1800 phase shift as shown
in below figure. The circuits resulting frequency can be calculated from
=
1
21 1 2 2
Relaxation oscillators: This is a very common opamp oscillator circuit. You will measure a saw
tooth-like waveform at (point A) node between capacitor and the resistor (or at node inverting input
of the opamp), and a square wave at (point B) output. You can also adjust the duty cycle of the square
wave output if you connect a serial potentiometer to the feedback resistor. The resulting oscillation
frequency is simply calculated by
1
2
Barkhausen criterion: It states that if A is the gain of the amplifying element in the circuit and (j)
is the transfer function of the feedback path, so A is the loop gain around the feedback loop of the
circuit, the circuit will sustain steady-state oscillations only at frequencies for which:
=
and
Barkhausen's criterion is a necessary condition for oscillation but not a sufficient condition.
As you know, must be 29 when the oscillation starts.
Page 21
EXPERIMENT 6 OSCILLATORS
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Rf 50 k pot
VEE -15V
LM741
4
5
Ri
2
6
1.2k
7
1
U1
VCC +15V
C1
C2
10 nF
R1
1k
C3
10 nF
R2
1k
10 nF
Rf
4.7 k pot
VEE -15V
1k
2
3
<Title>
7
1
Size
Tit le
LM741
4
5
Ri
Rev
Dat e:
Sheet
1k
U1
<Rev Code>
R1
of
1
VCC +15V
C2
10 nF
R2
1k
Page 22
EXPERIMENT 6 OSCILLATORS
Circuit 6.2: Ri = 1.2k, R1 = R2 = 1K, C1 = C2 = C3 = 10 nF and Rf = 50 k (at least)
potentiometer. VCC = 15V and VEE = -15V
Circuit 6.3: R1 = R2 = R4 = 100K, R3 = 1 M, R5 = 1k , C1 = 100 nF and D1 = LED. VCC = 9V and
VEE = Ground
Circuit 6.4: R1 = R2 = 10K, Rf = 100k , C1 = 10 nF. VCC = 15V and VEE = -15V
Circuit 6.6: R1 = R2 = Ri = 1K, Rf = 4.7k potentiometer, C1 = C2 = 10 nF. VCC = 15V and VEE = 15V
PRE-CALCULATIONS
1. According to circuit fig. 6.2 calculate the oscillation frequency f1.
2. According to circuit fig. 6.3 calculate the oscillation frequency f2.
3. According to circuit fig. 6.4 calculate the oscillation frequency f3.
4. According to circuit fig. 6.6 calculate the oscillation frequency f4.
5. What will the value of potentiometer be to start oscillate and to give undistorted output for
circuit 6.2?
6. What will the value of potentiometer be to start oscillate and to give undistorted output for
circuit 6.6?
7. Why we need to connect extra 2 resistors to use same circuit with only one supply voltage?
8. Can you redraw circuits shown in figure 6.2 and figure 6.6 with single supply?
9. Can you redraw circuit shown in figure 6.3 with double supply?
PROCEDURE
IMPORTANT FOR ALL PARTS: Sometimes you can observe 50 Hz sinusoidal signal at your
oscilloscope. THIS IS NOT YOUR ANSWER. This signal is observed due to electrostatic noise in the
environment and if you still observe this signal while your oscilloscope probe is grounded then main
power cables are not well grounded. Anyway, as I said this 50 Hz signal IS NOT YOUR SOLUTION.
If your oscillation does not start or you did not find anything beside 50 Hz:
a. re-check every connection
b. Rebuild your circuit.
c. You may (not necessary) change your opamp.
d. You can change potentiometer with a higher value one
e. If you still not found any oscillated signal after above steps you may skip this step
and you can come back after other procedures.
Page 23
EXPERIMENT 6 OSCILLATORS
PROCEDURE
1. Set-up circuit shown in fig. 6.2 and adjust potentiometer until it starts oscillation. Measure
oscillation frequency with oscilloscope. Compare it with your pre-calculated result. Also
check phase shifting (difference) between your (inverting) input and output.
2. After oscillation starts, measure value of feedback resistance (potentiometer) and calculate
voltage gain Av = Rf/Ri. Is this answer satisfy with Barkhausen criterion?
3. Set-up circuit shown in fig. 6.3 and adjust potentiometer until it starts oscillation. Measure
oscillation frequency with oscilloscope. Compare it with your pre-calculated result. Also
check phase shifting (difference) between your (inverting) input and output.
4. Set-up circuit shown in fig. 6.4 and adjust potentiometer until it starts oscillation. Measure
oscillation frequency with oscilloscope. Compare it with your pre-calculated result. Also
check phase shifting (difference) between your (inverting) input and output.
5. Set-up circuit shown in fig. 6.6 and adjust potentiometer until it starts oscillation. Measure
oscillation frequency with oscilloscope. Compare it with your pre-calculated result. Also
check phase shifting (difference) between your (inverting) input and output.
6. After oscillation starts, measure value of feedback resistance (potentiometer) and calculate
voltage gain Av = Rf/Ri. Is this answer satisfy with Barkhausen criterion?
Page 24
EXPERIMENT 6 OSCILLATORS
Name Surname:
ID:
Signature:
Page 25
EXPERIMENT 6 OSCILLATORS
Name Surname:
ID:
Signature:
3. Oscillation frequency f2 =
Phase shift =
Compare:
4. Oscillation frequency f3 =
Phase shift =
Compare:
5. Oscillation frequency f4 =
Phase shift =
Compare:
6. Value of the feedback resistor (potentiometer):
Voltage gain Av =
is it satisfy? Why?
Page 26
x2
LM741
x1
6.8V Zener
x1
220
x1
() ()
=
100%
Page 27
Figure 7.3 a) Block Diagram for Filtered Rectifier circuit and b) output voltage graph on DC Load
Page 28
= ( +
Page 29
PROCEDURE
1. Build full-wave rectification circuit of 4 Diodes Bridge.
2. Adjust its input voltage from function generator until it gives 20V output.
3. Connect this output to the circuit shown in figure 7.4 for R1 = RL = 1k and C1 = 22 uF, C2 = 10 pF.
Measure the voltages at points A and B with oscilloscope.
4. Replace C1 and C2 with each other. Now measure voltages at points A and B again.
5. Connect the output of your full-wave rectifier to Vi at circuit shown in figure 7.5 for R = 220 , RL =
1k, and Vz = 9.6 V Zener. Measure Vo. Compare your result that you find in pre-calculation.
6. Connect the output of your full-wave rectifier to Vi at circuit shown in figure 7.6 for R1 = 3.3 k, R2 =
RL= 2.2 k, R3 = 4.7 k, R4 = 10 k, and Vz = 9.6 V Zener. You can use any NPN transistor (BC 237 or
2N3904). Measure Vo. Compare your result that you find in pre-calculation.
Page 30
ID:
Signature:
2.
3.
C1
b.
C2
c.
R1
d.
RL
4.
Vinput =
5.
Voutput =
6.
Voutput =
7.
Voutput =
Vinput =
3.
VA =
4.
5.
Voutput =
and compare
6.
Voutput =
and compare
Page 31
APPENDIX A DATASHEETS
Appendix A Datasheets
You can find more technical and electrical information about the components used in experiments
in following pages. At this pages you can find some selected behaviors of the components under
different situations (voltages, currents, temperatures). You can also find some sample circuit
diagrams for the given components.
Remember, these are common datasheets. Some conflicts and/or changes may occur. If something
is wrong with your experiment you can always check the new version from internet.
And some components that used in the experiments may not be included here. This is because a
different type of the same component can be used. The pin diagrams are often same. Otherwise
your lab instructor will inform you.
Page 32
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LEDS
POTENTIOMETERS
Page 42
EXAMPLES
Green-Blue-Black-Black-Brown
560 ohms 1%
Red-Red-Orange-Gold
22,000 ohms 5%
Yellow-Violet-Brown-Gold
Blue-Gray-Black-Gold
Page 43
470 ohms 5%
68 ohms 5%
Page 44
Chassis Ground
Resistor Symbols
Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)
Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)
Variable Resistor /
Rheostat (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 2 terminals.
Variable Resistor / Rheostat (IEC)
Page 45
Preset resistor
Thermistor
Capacitor Symbols
Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as short
circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor
Polarized Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
Polarized Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Adjustable capacitance
Page 46
Voltage Source
Current Source
AC voltage source
Generator
Battery Cell
Battery
Meter Symbols
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ohmmeter
Measures resistance
Page 47
Allows current flow in one direction, but also can flow in the
reverse direction when above breakdown voltage
Schottky Diode
Tunnel Diode
Photodiode
Transistor Symbols
Page 48
Darlington Transistor
JFET-N Transistor
JFET-P Transistor
PMOS Transistor
Misc. Symbols
Page 49
Motor
Electric motor
Transformer
NOTES
Notes
Page 50