Friction stir welding

the FSW tool. It then mechanically intermixes the two

pieces of metal at the place of the joint, then the softened
metal (due to the elevated temperature) can be joined using mechanical pressure (which is applied by the tool),
much like joining clay, or dough. It is primarily used on
aluminium, and most often on extruded aluminum (nonheat treatable alloys), and on structures which need superior weld strength without a post weld heat treatment.
It was invented and experimentally proven at The Welding
Institute UK in December 1991. TWI holds patents on
the process, the rst being the most descriptive.[1]
Close-up view of a friction stir weld tack tool.

1 Principle of operation

The bulkhead and nosecone of the Orion spacecraft are joined

using friction stir welding.

Schematic diagram of the FSW process: (A) Two discrete metal

workpieces butted together, along with the tool (with a probe).

Joint designs

(B) The progress of the tool through the joint, also showing the
weld zone and the region aected by the tool shoulder.

Friction-stir welding (FSW) is a solid-state joining process (the metal is not melted) that uses a third body tool to A constantly rotated non consumable cylindricaljoin two facing surfaces. Heat is generated between the shouldered tool with a proled probe is transversely fed
tool and material which leads to a very soft region near at a constant rate into a butt joint between two clamped
1

3 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

pieces of butted material. The probe is slightly shorter

than the weld depth required, with the tool shoulder
riding atop the work surface.[2]

than those in the TMAZ but may still have a significant eect if the microstructure is thermally unstable. In fact, in age-hardened aluminium alloys this
region commonly exhibits the poorest mechanical
properties.[6]

Frictional heat is generated between the wear-resistant

welding components and the work pieces. This heat,
along with that generated by the mechanical mixing process and the adiabatic heat within the material, cause the
stirred materials to soften without melting. As the pin is 3 Advantages and limitations
moved forward, a special prole on its leading face forces
plasticised material to the rear where clamping force as- The solid-state nature of FSW leads to several advantages
sists in a forged consolidation of the weld.
over fusion welding methods as problems associated with
This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in cooling from the liquid phase are avoided. Issues such as
a plasticised tubular shaft of metal results in severe solid porosity, solute redistribution, solidication cracking and
state deformation involving dynamic recrystallization of liquation cracking do not arise during FSW. In general,
FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of
the base material.[3]
defects and is very tolerant of variations in parameters
and materials.

Microstructural features

The solid-state nature of the FSW process, combined

with its unusual tool and asymmetric nature, results in a
highly characteristic microstructure. The microstructure
can be broken up into the following zones:
The stir zone (also nugget, dynamically recrystallised
zone) is a region of heavily deformed material that
roughly corresponds to the location of the pin during
welding. The grains within the stir zone are roughly
equiaxed and often an order of magnitude smaller
than the grains in the parent material.[4] A unique
feature of the stir zone is the common occurrence of
several concentric rings which has been referred to
as an onion-ring structure.[5] The precise origin of
these rings has not been rmly established, although
variations in particle number density, grain size and
texture have all been suggested.

Nevertheless, FSW is associated with a number of unique

defects. Insucient weld temperatures, due to low rotational speeds or high traverse speeds, for example, mean
that the weld material is unable to accommodate the extensive deformation during welding. This may result in
long, tunnel-like defects running along the weld which
may occur on the surface or subsurface. Low temperatures may also limit the forging action of the tool and so
reduce the continuity of the bond between the material
from each side of the weld. The light contact between
the material has given rise to the name kissing-bond.
This defect is particularly worrying since it is very dicult to detect using nondestructive methods such as X-ray
or ultrasonic testing. If the pin is not long enough or the
tool rises out of the plate then the interface at the bottom of the weld may not be disrupted and forged by the
tool, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect. This is essentially a notch in the material which can be a potential
source of fatigue cracks.

A number of potential advantages of FSW over conven The ow arm zone is on the upper surface of the tional fusion-welding processes have been identied:[7]
weld and consists of material that is dragged by the
shoulder from the retreating side of the weld, around
Good mechanical properties in the as-welded conthe rear of the tool, and deposited on the advancing
dition
side.
Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes
The thermo-mechanically aected zone (TMAZ) ocor the spatter of molten material.
curs on either side of the stir zone. In this region
No consumables A threaded pin made of conventhe strain and temperature are lower and the eect
tional tool steel, e.g., hardened H13, can weld over
of welding on the microstructure is correspondingly
1 km (0.62 mi) of aluminium, and no ller or gas
smaller. Unlike the stir zone the microstructure is
shield is required for aluminium.
recognizably that of the parent material, albeit signicantly deformed and rotated. Although the term
Easily automated on simple milling machines
TMAZ technically refers to the entire deformed relower setup costs and less training.
gion it is often used to describe any region not already covered by the terms stir zone and ow arm.
Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical,
etc.), as there is no weld pool.
The heat-aected zone (HAZ) is common to all
welding processes. As indicated by the name, this
Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickregion is subjected to a thermal cycle but is not deness under/over-matching, thus reducing the need
formed during welding. The temperatures are lower
for expensive machining after welding.

4.2

Tool rotation and traverse speeds

Low environmental impact.

However, some disadvantages of the process have been
identied:
Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.
Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the plates together.
Less exible than manual and arc processes (difculties with thickness variations and non-linear
welds).
Often slower traverse rate than some fusion weld- FSW of two USIBOR 1500 high-strength steel sheets
ing techniques, although this may be oset if fewer
welding passes are required.
Improvements in tool design have been shown to cause
substantial improvements in productivity and quality.
TWI has developed tools specically designed to increase
the penetration depth and thus increasing the plate thick4 Important welding parameters
nesses that can be successfully welded. An example is the
whorl design that uses a tapered pin with re-entrant fea4.1 Tool design
tures or a variable pitch thread to improve the downwards
ow of material. Additional designs include the Triute
and Trivex series. The Triute design has a complex system of three tapering, threaded re-entrant utes that appear to increase material movement around the tool. The
Trivex tools use a simpler, non-cylindrical, pin and have
been found to reduce the forces acting on the tool during
welding.
The majority of tools have a concave shoulder prole
which acts as an escape volume for the material displaced
by the pin, prevents material from extruding out of the
sides of the shoulder and maintains downwards pressure
and hence good forging of the material behind the tool.
The Triute tool uses an alternative system with a series
of concentric grooves machined into the surface which
are intended to produce additional movement of material
in the upper layers of the weld.
Advanced friction stir welding and processing tools by MegaStir
shown upside down

The design of the tool[8] is a critical factor as a good tool

can improve both the quality of the weld and the maximum possible welding speed.
It is desirable that the tool material is suciently strong,
tough, and hard wearing at the welding temperature. Further it should have a good oxidation resistance and a low
thermal conductivity to minimise heat loss and thermal
damage to the machinery further up the drive train. Hotworked tool steel such as AISI H13 has proven perfectly
acceptable for welding aluminium alloys within thickness
ranges of 0.5 50 mm [9] but more advanced tool materials are necessary for more demanding applications such
as highly abrasive metal matrix composites[10] or higher
melting point materials such as steel or titanium.

Widespread commercial applications of friction stir welding process for steels and other hard alloys such as
titanium alloys will require the development of costeective and durable tools.[11] Material selection, design
and cost are important considerations in the search for
commercially useful tools for the welding of hard materials. Work is continuing to better understand the eects
of tool materials composition, structure, properties and
geometry on their performance, durability and cost.[12]

4.2 Tool rotation and traverse speeds

There are two tool speeds to be considered in friction-stir
welding; how fast the tool rotates and how quickly it traverses the interface. These two parameters have considerable importance and must be chosen with care to ensure a successful and ecient welding cycle. The rela-

tionship between the welding speeds and the heat input

during welding is complex but, in general, it can be said
that increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse speed will result in a hotter weld. In order to produce a successful weld it is necessary that the material
surrounding the tool is hot enough to enable the extensive
plastic ow required and minimize the forces acting on
the tool. If the material is too cold then voids or other
aws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme cases
the tool may break.
Excessively high heat input, on the other hand may be
detrimental to the nal properties of the weld. Theoretically, this could even result in defects due to the liquation
of low-melting-point phases (similar to liquation cracking
in fusion welds). These competing demands lead onto the
concept of a processing window": the range of processing parameters viz. tool rotation and traverse speed, that
will produce a good quality weld.[13] Within this window
the resulting weld will have a suciently high heat input
to ensure adequate material plasticity but not so high that
the weld properties are excessively deteriorated.

4.3

Tool tilt and plunge depth

FLOW OF MATERIAL

thickness compared to the base material. Variable load

welders have been developed to automatically compensate for changes in the tool displacement while TWI have
demonstrated a roller system that maintains the tool position above the weld plate.

5 Welding forces
During welding a number of forces will act on the tool:
A downwards force is necessary to maintain the position of the tool at or below the material surface.
Some friction-stir welding machines operate under
load control but in many cases the vertical position
of the tool is preset and so the load will vary during
welding.
The traverse force acts parallel to the tool motion
and is positive in the traverse direction. Since this
force arises as a result of the resistance of the material to the motion of the tool it might be expected
that this force will decrease as the temperature of
the material around the tool is increased.
The lateral force may act perpendicular to the tool
traverse direction and is dened here as positive towards the advancing side of the weld.
Torque is required to rotate the tool, the amount of
which will depend on the down force and friction
coecient (sliding friction) and/or the ow strength
of the material in the surrounding region (stiction).

In order to prevent tool fracture and to minimize excessive wear and tear on the tool and associated machinery,
the welding cycle is modied so that the forces acting on
the tool are as low as possible, and abrupt changes are
A drawing showing the plunge depth and tilt of the tool. The tool avoided. In order to nd the best combination of weldis moving to the left.
ing parameters, it is likely that a compromise must be
reached, since the conditions that favour low forces (e.g.
The plunge depth is dened as the depth of the lowest high heat input, low travel speeds) may be undesirable
point of the shoulder below the surface of the welded from the point of view of productivity and weld properplate and has been found to be a critical parameter for en- ties.
suring weld quality.[14] Plunging the shoulder below the
plate surface increases the pressure below the tool and
helps ensure adequate forging of the material at the rear
of the tool. Tilting the tool by 24 degrees, such that the 6 Flow of material
rear of the tool is lower than the front, has been found
to assist this forging process. The plunge depth needs Early work on the mode of material ow around the tool
to be correctly set, both to ensure the necessary down- used inserts of a dierent alloy, which had a dierent
ward pressure is achieved and to ensure that the tool fully contrast to the normal material when viewed through a
penetrates the weld. Given the high loads required, the microscope, in an eort to determine where material was
welding machine may deect and so reduce the plunge moved as the tool passed.[15] [16] The data was interpreted
depth compared to the nominal setting, which may re- as representing a form of in-situ extrusion where the tool,
sult in aws in the weld. On the other hand, an excessive backing plate and cold base material form the extrusion
plunge depth may result in the pin rubbing on the back- chamber through which the hot, plasticised material is
ing plate surface or a signicant undermatch of the weld forced. In this model the rotation of the tool draws little

5
or no material around the front of the pin instead the material parts in front of the pin and passes down either side.
After the material has passed the pin the side pressure exerted by the die forces the material back together and
consolidation of the join occurs as the rear of the tool
shoulder passes overhead and the large down force forges
the material.

7 Generation and ow of heat

For any welding process it is, in general, desirable to increase the travel speed and minimise the heat input as this
will increase productivity and possibly reduce the impact
of welding on the mechanical properties of the weld. At
the same time it is necessary to ensure that the temperaMore recently, an alternative theory has been advanced ture around the tool is suciently high to permit adequate
that advocates considerable material movement in certain material ow and prevent aws or tool damage.
locations.[17] This theory holds that some material does When the traverse speed is increased, for a given heat inrotate around the pin, for at least one rotation, and it is this put, there is less time for heat to conduct ahead of the tool
material movement that produces the onion-ring struc- and the thermal gradients are larger. At some point the
ture in the stir zone. The researchers used a combination speed will be so high that the material ahead of the tool
of thin copper strip inserts and a frozen pin technique, will be too cold, and the ow stress too high, to permit adwhere the tool is rapidly stopped in place. They suggested equate material movement, resulting in aws or tool fracthat material motion occurs by two processes:
ture. If the hot zone is too large then there is scope to
increase the traverse speed and hence productivity.
1. Material on the advancing front side of a weld en- The welding cycle can be split into several stages durthe heat ow and thermal prole will be
ters into a zone that rotates and advances with the ing which
[25]
dierent:
pin. This material was very highly deformed and
sloughs o behind the pin to form arc-shaped fea Dwell. The material is preheated by a stationary, rotures when viewed from above (i.e. down the tool
tating tool to achieve a sucient temperature ahead
axis). It was noted that the copper entered the rotaof the tool to allow the traverse. This period may
tional zone around the pin, where it was broken up
also include the plunge of the tool into the workinto fragments. These fragments were only found in
piece.
the arc shaped features of material behind the tool.
2. The lighter material came from the retreating front
side of the pin and was dragged around to the rear
of the tool and lled in the gaps between the arcs of
advancing side material. This material did not rotate
around the pin and the lower level of deformation
resulted in a larger grain size.

The primary advantage of this explanation is that it provides a plausible explanation for the production of the
onion-ring structure.
The marker technique for friction stir welding provides
data on the initial and nal positions of the marker in
the welded material. The ow of material is then reconstructed from these positions. Detailed material ow
eld during friction stir welding can also be calculated
from theoretical considerations based on fundamental
scientic principles. Material ow calculations are routinely used in numerous engineering applications. Calculation of material ow elds in friction stir welding
can be undertaken both using comprehensive numerical
simulations[18][19][20] or simple but insightful analytical
equations.[21] The comprehensive models for the calculation of material ow elds also provide important information such as geometry of the stir zone and the torque
on the tool.[22][23] The numerical simulations have shown
the ability to correctly predict the results from marker
experiments[20] and the stir zone geometry observed in
friction stir welding experiments.[22][24]

Transient heating. When the tool begins to move

there will be a transient period where the heat production and temperature around the tool will alter in
a complex manner until an essentially steady-state is
reached.
Pseudo steady-state. Although uctuations in heat
generation will occur the thermal eld around the
tool remains eectively constant, at least on the
macroscopic scale.
Post steady-state. Near the end of the weld heat may
reect from the end of the plate leading to additional heating around the tool.
Heat generation during friction-stir welding arises from
two main sources: friction at the surface of the tool and
the deformation of the material around the tool.[26] The
heat generation is often assumed to occur predominantly
under the shoulder, due to its greater surface area, and to
be equal to the power required to overcome the contact
forces between the tool and the workpiece. The contact
condition under the shoulder can be described by sliding friction, using a friction coecient and interfacial
pressure P, or sticking friction, based on the interfacial
shear strength at an appropriate temperature and strain
rate. Mathematical approximations for the total heat generated by the tool shoulder Q have been developed using both sliding and sticking friction models:[25]
(
)
3
3
Qtotal = 23 P Rshoulder
Rpin
(Sliding)

8 APPLICATIONS

(
)
3
3
Rpin
(Sticking)
Qtotal = 23 Rshoulder
where is the angular velocity of the tool, R is the
radius of the tool shoulder and R that of the pin. Several other equations have been proposed to account for
factors such as the pin but the general approach remains
the same.
A major diculty in applying these equations is determining suitable values for the friction coecient or the
interfacial shear stress. The conditions under the tool are
both extreme and very dicult to measure. To date, these
parameters have been used as tting parameters where
the model works back from measured thermal data to obtain a reasonable simulated thermal eld. While this approach is useful for creating process models to predict,
for example, residual stresses it is less useful for providing insights into the process itself.

panels are now produced by Riftec and Bayards. In 1997

two-dimensional friction stir welds in the hydrodynamically ared bow section of the hull of the ocean viewer
vessel The Boss were produced at Research Foundation
Institute with the rst portable FSW machine. The Super
Liner Ogasawara at Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding is the largest friction stir welded ship so far. The Sea
Fighter of Nichols Bros and the Freedom class Littoral
Combat Ships contain prefabricated panels by the FSW
fabricators Advanced Technology and Friction Stir Link,
Inc. respectively.[34] The Houbei class missile boat has
friction stir welded rocket launch containers of China
Friction Stir Centre. HMNZS Rotoiti in New Zealand has
FSW panels made by Donovans in a converted milling
machine.[35][36] Various companies apply FSW to armor
plating for amphibious assault ships [37][38]

8.2 Aerospace

Applications

The FSW process is currently patented by TWI in

most industrialised countries and licensed for over 183
users. Friction stir welding and its variants friction
stir spot welding and friction stir processing are used
for the following industrial applications:[27] shipbuilding
and oshore,[28] aerospace,[29][30] automotive,[31] rolling
stock for railways,[32] general fabrication,[33] robotics,
and computers.

8.1

Shipbuilding and Oshore

Longitudinal and circumferential friction stir welds are used for
the Falcon 9 rocket booster tank at the SpaceX factory

Friction stir welding was used to prefabricate the aluminium panels of the Super Liner Ogasawara at Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding

Two Scandinavian aluminium extrusion companies were

the rst to apply FSW commercially to the manufacture
of sh freezer panels at Sapa in 1996, as well as deck
panels and helicopter landing platforms at Marine Aluminium Aanensen. Marine Aluminium Aanensen subsequently merged with Hydro Aluminium Maritime to become Hydro Marine Aluminium. Some of these freezer

Boeing applies FSW to the Delta II and Delta IV expendable launch vehicles, and the rst of these with a
friction stir welded Interstage module was launched in
1999. The process is also used for the Space Shuttle
external tank, for Ares I and for the Orion Crew Vehicle test article at NASA as well as Falcon 1 and Falcon
9 rockets at SpaceX. The toe nails for ramp of Boeing
C-17 Globemaster III cargo aircraft by Advanced Joining Technologies[39] and the cargo barrier beams for the
Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter[39] were the rst commercially produced aircraft parts. FAA approved wings
and fuselage panels of the Eclipse 500 aircraft were made
at Eclipse Aviation, and this company delivered 259 friction stir welded business jets, before they were forced into
Chapter 7 liquidation. Floor panels for Airbus A400M
military aircraft are now made by Pfalz Flugzeugwerke
and Embraer used FSW for the Legacy 450 and 500 Jets
[40]
Friction stir welding also is employed for fuselage
panels on the Airbus A380.[41] BRTJE-Automation
GmbH uses friction stir welding through the DeltaN
FS system for gantry production machines developed for the aerospace sector as well as other industrial

8.5

Fabrication

applications.[42]

8.3

Automotive

The high-strength low-distortion body of Hitachis A-train British

Rail Class 395 is friction stir welded from longitudinal aluminium extrusions
The centre tunnel of the Ford GT is made from two aluminium extrusions friction stir welded to a bent aluminium sheet and houses
the fuel tank

Light Metal produces Shinkansen oor panels. Innovative FSW oor panels are made by Hammerer Aluminium
Industries in Austria for the Stadler KISS double decker
rail cars, to obtain an internal height of 2 m on both oors
Aluminium engine cradles and suspension struts for and for the new car bodies of the Wuppertal Suspension
stretched Lincoln Town Car were the rst automotive Railway.[51]
parts that were friction stir at Tower Automotive, who
use the process also for the engine tunnel of the Ford GT. Heat sinks for cooling high-power electronics of locomoA spin-o of this company is called Friction Stir Link, tives are made at Sykatek, EBG, Austerlitz Electronics,
[52]
and Rapid Technic, and are the
Inc. and successfully exploits the FSW process, e.g. for EuroComposite, Sapa
[40]
most
common
application
of FSW due to the excellent
the atbed trailer Revolution of Fontaine Trailers.
heat
transfer.
In Japan FSW is applied to suspension struts at Showa
Denko and for joining of aluminium sheets to galvanized
steel brackets for the boot (trunk) lid of the Mazda MX-5.
Friction stir spot welding is successfully used for the bon- 8.5 Fabrication
net (hood) and rear doors of the Mazda RX-8 and the boot
lid of the Toyota Prius. Wheels are friction stir welded at
Faade panels and athode sheets are friction stir welded at
Simmons Wheels, UT Alloy Works and Fundo.[43] Rear
AMAG and Hammerer Aluminium Industries including
seats for the Volvo V70 are friction stir welded at Sapa,
friction stir lap welds of copper to aluminium. Bizerba
HVAC pistons at Halla Climate Control and exhaust gas
meat slicers, kolfter HVAC units and Siemens X-ray
recirculation coolers at Pierburg. Tailor welded blanks[44]
vacuum vessels are friction stir welded at Riftec. Vacare friction stir welded for the Audi R8 at Riftec.[45] The
uum valves and vessels are made by FSW at Japanese
B-column of the Audi R8 Spider is friction stir welded
and Swiss companies. FSW is also used for the encapfrom two extrusions at Hammerer Aluminium Industries
sulation of nuclear waste at SKB in 50-mm-thick copper
in Austria.
canisters.[53][54] Pressure vessels from 1m semispherical
forgings of 38.1mm thick aluminium alloy 2219 at Advanced Joining Technologies and Lawrence Livermore
8.4 Railways
Nat Lab.[55] Friction stir processing is applied to ship propellers at Friction Stir Link, Inc. and to hunting knives by
Since 1997 roof panels were made from aluminium ex- DiamondBlade. Bosch uses it in Worcester for the protrusions at Hydro Marine Aluminium with a bespoke 25m duction of heat exchangers.[56]
long FSW machine, e.g. for DSB class SA-SD trains
of Alstom LHB [46] Curved side and roof panels for the
Victoria line trains of London Underground, side panels
for Bombardiers Electrostar trains[47] at Sapa Group and 8.6 Robotics
side panels for Alstoms British Rail Class 390 Pendolino
trains are made at Sapa Group[48] Japanese commuter and KUKA Robot Group has adapted its KR500-3MT heavyexpress A-trains,[49] and British Rail Class 395 trains are duty robot for friction stir welding via the DeltaN FS tool.
friction stir welded by Hitachi,[50] while Kawasaki applies The system made its rst public appearance at the EuroBfriction stir spot welding to roof panels and Sumitomo LECH show in November 2012.[57]

11

REFERENCES

10 See also
Friction Welding
Friction stir processing

11 References
[1] Thomas, WM; Nicholas, ED; Needham, JC; Murch,
MG;Temple-Smith, P;Dawes, CJ.Friction-stir butt welding, GB Patent No. 9125978.8, International patent application No. PCT/GB92/02203, (1991)
[2] Kallee, S.W. (2006-09-06). Friction Stir Welding at
TWI. The Welding Institute (TWI). Retrieved 2009-0414.
[3] Ding, Je; Bob Carter; Kirby Lawless; Dr. Arthur Nunes;
Carolyn Russell; Michael Suites; Dr. Judy Schneider
(2008-02-14). A Decade of Friction Stir Welding R&D
At NASAs Marshall Space Flight Center And a Glance
into the Future. NASA. Retrieved 2009-04-14.
[4] Murr, LE; Liu, G; McClure, JC (1997). Dynamic recrystallisation in the friction-stir welding of aluminium alloy 1100. Journal of Materials Science Letters 16 (22):
18011803. doi:10.1023/A:1018556332357.
The lids of 50-mm-thick copper canisters for nuclear waste are
attached to the cylinder by friction stir welding at SKB

[5] Krishnan, K. N. On the Formation of Onion Rings in

Friction Stir Welds. Materials Science and Engineering
A 327, no. 2 (April 30, 2002): 246251. doi:10.1016/
S0921-5093(01)01474-5.
[6] Mahoney, M. W., C. G. Rhodes, J. G. Flinto, W. H.
Bingel, and R. A. Spurling. Properties of Friction-stirwelded 7075 T651 Aluminum. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A 29, no. 7 (July 1998): 19551964.
doi:10.1007/s11661-998-0021-5.
[7] Nicholas, ED (1998). Developments in the friction-stir
welding of metals. ICAA-6: 6th International Conference
on Aluminium Alloys. Toyohashi, Japan.
[8] By Rajiv S. Mishra, Murray W. Mahoney: Friction stir
welding and processing, ASM International ISBN 978-087170-848-9.

Friction stir processed knives by MegaStir

8.7

Personal Computers

Apple applied friction stir welding on the 2012 iMac to

eectively join the bottom to the back of the device.[58]

Friction stir welding experts

List of friction stir welding experts

[9] Prado, RA; Murr, LE; Shindo, DJ; Soto, HF (2001).

Tool wear in the friction stir welding of aluminium alloy
6061+20% Al2O3: A preliminary study. Scripta Materialia 45: 7580. doi:10.1016/S1359-6462(01)00994-0.
[10] Nelson, T; Zhang, H; Haynes, T (2000). friction stir
welding of Al MMC 6061-B4C. 2nd International Symposium on FSW (CD ROM). Gothenburg, Sweden.
[11] Bhadeshia HKDH; DebRoy T (2009). Critical assessment: friction stir welding of steels. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining 14 (3): 193196.
doi:10.1179/136217109X421300.
[12] Rai R; De A; Bhadeshia HKDH; DebRoy T (2011).
Review: friction stir welding tools. Science and
Technology of Welding and Joining 16 (4): 325342.
doi:10.1179/1362171811Y.0000000023.

[13] http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/
S1359646207007701
[14] Leonard, AJ (2000). Microstructure and aging behaviour
of FSW in Al alloys 2014A-T651 and 7075-T651. 2nd
International Symposium on FSW (CD ROM). Gothenburg,
Sweden.
[15] Reynolds, AP (2000).
Visualisation of material
ow in autogenous friction stir welds. Science and
technology of welding and joining 5 (2): 120124.
doi:10.1179/136217100101538119.
[16] Seidel, TU; Reynolds, AP (2001). Visualization of the
Material Flow in AA2195 Friction-Stir Welds Using a
Marker Insert Technique. Metallurgical and Material
Transactions 32A (11): 28792884.
[17] Guerra, M; Schmidt, C; McClure, JC; Murr, LE;
Nunes, AC (2003). Flow patterns during friction stir
welding. Materials Characterisation 49 (2): 95101.
doi:10.1016/S1044-5803(02)00362-5.
[18] Nandan R; DebRoy T; Bhadeshia HKDH (2008). Recent advances in friction-stir welding Process, weldment
structure and properties. Progress in Materials Science 53
(6): 9801023. doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2008.05.001.
[19] Nandan R; Roy GG; Lienert TJ; DebRoy T (2007).
Three-dimensional heat and material ow during friction
stir welding of mild steel. Acta Materialia 55 (3): 883
895. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2006.09.009.
[20] Seidel TU; Reynolds AP (2003). Two-dimensional friction stir welding process model based on uid mechanics. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 8
(3): 175183. doi:10.1179/136217103225010952.
[21] Arora A; DebRoy T; Bhadeshia HKDH (2011).
Back-of-the-envelope calculations in friction stir
welding Velocities, peak temperature, torque, and
hardness.
Acta Materialia 59 (5): 20202028.
doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.12.001.
[22] Arora A; Nandan R; Reynolds AP; DebRoy T (2009).
Torque, power requirement and stir zone geometry in friction stir welding through modeling and
experiments.
Scripta Materialia 60 (1): 1316.
doi:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2008.08.015.
[23] Mehta M; Arora A; De A; DebRoy T (2011). Tool
Geometry for Friction Stir WeldingOptimum Shoulder
Diameter. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
42 (9): 2716. doi:10.1007/s11661-011-0672-5.
[24] Nandan R; Roy GG; DebRoy T (2011). Numerical simulation of three-dimensional heat transfer and plastic ow
during friction stir welding. Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions A 37 (4): 12471259. doi:10.1007/s11661006-1076-9.
[25] Frigaard, O; Grong, O; Midling, O T (2001). A process model for friction-stir welding of age hardening aluminium alloys. Metallurgical and Material Transactions
32A (5): 11891200. doi:10.1007/s11661-001-0128-4.

[26] Qi, X, Chao, Y J (1999). Heat transfer and ThermoMechanical analysis of FSW joining of 6061-T6 plates.
1st International Symposium on FSW (CD ROM). Thousand Oaks, USA: TWI.
[27] D. Lohwasser and Z. Chen: Friction stir welding From
basics to applications Woodhead Publishing 2010, Chapter 5, Pages 118163, ISBN 978-1-84569-450-0.
[28] Fred Delany, Stephan W Kallee, Mike J Russell: Friction stir welding of aluminium ships, Paper presented at
2007 International Forum on Welding Technologies in the
Shipping Industry (IFWT). Held in conjunction with the
Beijing Essen Welding and Cutting Fair in Shanghai, 16
19 June 2007.
[29] Video: ''FSW at British Aerospace''. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
[30] Video: FSW of aerospace fuselages. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
[31] S. W. Kallee, J. M. Kell, W. M. Thomas und C. S.
Wiesner:Development and implementation of innovative joining processes in the automotive industry, Paper
presented at DVS Annual Welding Conference Groe
Schweitechnische Tagung, Essen, Germany, 1214
September 2005.
[32] S. W. Kallee and J. Davenport: Trends in the design and
fabrication of rolling stock, Paper published in European
Railway Review, Volume 13, Issue 1, 2007.
[33] Mike Page: Friction stir welding broadens applications
base, Report of a EuroStir meeting, 3 Sept 2003.
[34] Bill Arbegast, Tony Reynolds, Rajiv S. Mishra, Tracy
Nelson, Dwight Burford: Littoral Combat System with
Improved Welding Technologies, Center for Friction
STIR Processing (CFSP).
[35] Richard Worrall:
March/April 2008.

Welded Bliss, e.nz magazine

[36] Stephan Kallee: NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir

Welding to produce aluminium components and panels,
Paper published in New Zealand Engineering News, August 2006.
[37] Friction Stir Welding Demonstrated for Combat Vehicle
Construction ... for 2519 aluminum armor for the U.S.
Marine Corps Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle,
Welding Journal 03 2003.
[38] G Campbell and T Stotler: Friction Stir Welding of Armor
Grade Aluminum Plate , Welding Journal, Dec 1999.
[39] Walter Polt A little friction at Boeing, Boeing Frontiers
Online, September 2004, Vol. 3, Issue 5
[40] Embraer Performs First Metal Cut for Legacy 500 Jet,
BART International.
[41] How Airbus uses friction stir welding. Reliable Plant.
Retrieved 7 August 2013.
[42] JEC Composites Show - Day 3: EADS licenses
its patented DeltaN friction-stir welding technology to
BRTJE-Automation. EADS. Retrieved 30 July 2013.

10

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

[43] Fundos FSW Wheels provide improved performance and

reduced running costs.

Friction-stir welding of aluminum alloy to steel; academic article from the 2004 Welding Journal

[44] Video:;FSW used in automotive tailor welded blanks'.

Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.

Friction stir welding research at Vanderbilt University Welding Automation Laboratory

[45] FSW applications at Riftec, Company web site.

Back of the envelope calculations in friction stir

welding

[46] S.W. Kallee, J. Davenport and E.D. Nicholas: Railway

Manufacturers Implement Friction Stir Welding, Welding Journal, October 2002.
[47] Video: ''Friction stir welding of Bombardier trains',
archived from the original on 27 September 2011.
Twi.co.uk.
[48] Sapas Capabilities, Long length FSW Max. length 26
m Max. width 3,5 m Double sided welding, Sapa
company brochure.
[49] History, Principles and Advantages of FSW on Hitachi
Transportation Systems Website. Hitachi-rail.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
[50] Hitachi Class 395 Railway Strategies Live 2010. 23 June
2010, pp. 1213. (PDF) . Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
[51] F. Ellermann, S. Pommer, G. Barth: Einsatz des
Rhrreibschweiens bei der Fertigung der Wagenksten
fr die Schwebebahn Wuppertal. DVS Congress: Groe
Schweitechnische Tagung, 15./16. September, Hotel
Pullman Berlin Schweizerhof, Berlin.
[52] FSW: Increased strength, Improved leakproofness, Improved repeatability. Reduced heat distortion, Sapa company brochure.
[53] Video: ''Electron Beam Welding and Friction Stir Welding of Copper Canisters'. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 201201-03.
[54] Nielsen, Isak (2012). Modeling and Control of Friction
Stir Welding in 5 cm (2 in) thick Copper Canisters (M.Sc.
thesis). Linkping University.
[55] E Dalder, J W Pasternak, J Engel, R S Forrest, E Kokko,
K McTernan and D Waldron Friction stir welding of thick
walled alumnium pressure vessels, Welding Journal, April
2008, pp. 4044.
[56] YouTube Video.
[57] Partnership success with EADS DeltaN FS frictionstir welding technology for industrial robots. EADS. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
[58] Apple unveils totally redesigned 27 and 21.5 imac.
TechCrunch.

12

External links

Friction stir welding at TWI

Friction-stir welding research at University of Cambridge

Theory of materials processing/welding research

group at Penn State University
Friction Stir Welding Machines: Applications &
Key Features

11

13
13.1

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Friction stir welding Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction%20stir%20welding?oldid=646313963 Contributors: Michael Hardy,

CesarB, Ahoerstemeier, Nv8200p, Wolfkeeper, Fudoreaper, BenFrantzDale, Ferkelparade, Edcolins, Chowbok, ConradPino, TreyHarris,
Woolstar, Chris j wood, Brianhe, Rich Farmbrough, Sladen, MeltBanana, Antaeus Feldspar, Elipongo, Slinky Puppet, Hooperbloob, Grutness, Fritz Saalfeld, Spangineer, Simone, Danthemankhan, Bobrayner, Sympleko, DavidCane, Aalegado, StuOfInterest, Hydrargyrum,
Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Saberwyn, Lockesdonkey, Cstaa, ArielGold, SmackBot, Bluebot, OrphanBot, John, PRRfan, Wizard191,
Iepeulas, CmdrObot, CWY2190, Sanspeur, Christian75, Dtgriscom, Bedlamhotel, Modernist, Dougher, Mwarren us, Jasonbrotherton,
JaGa, Rhowes, R'n'B, Cgregory42, VolkovBot, Rharding13, Sdsds, Dismayhem, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Nailedtooth, Auntof6,
Sun Creator, SchreiberBike, Pleides, Johnuniq, XLinkBot, Addbot, Lancshero, DOI bot, Monkeyshateme, VSteiger, Lightbot, Yobot,
Starbois, ShreadedWheat, Adam Zbransk, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Zad68, Shadowjams, V12, Originalwana, Volpix0, Citation bot
1, Bryancpark, MastiBot, Surena, RjwilmsiBot, Koteshwor, EmausBot, WarEqualsPeace, Infowest, ZroBot, NearEMPTiness, EdoBot,
FeatherPluma, ClueBot NG, Mmarre, Savantas83, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bakerbrett, Amit fsw, Soni, Catherinecondie, Jimten, Rsanderson1100, Debouch, Advocatejake, Monkbot, Watermelon24 and Anonymous: 102

13.2

Images

File:Advanced_friction_stir_welding_and_processing_tools_by_MegaStir.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/3/33/Advanced_friction_stir_welding_and_processing_tools_by_MegaStir.JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: NearEMPTiness
File:Anand-FSW-Figure1-A.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Anand-FSW-Figure1-A.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anand-FSW-Figure1-B.jpg Original artist: Anandwiki
File:Anand-FSW-Figure1-B.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Anand-FSW-Figure1-B.jpg License:
CC BY 3.0 Contributors: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anand-FSW-Figure1-B.jpg Original artist: Anandwiki
File:Bulkhead_&_Nosecone_Of_Orion_Spacecraft_Joined_By_Friction_Stir_Welding.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Bulkhead_%26_Nosecone_Of_Orion_Spacecraft_Joined_By_Friction_Stir_Welding.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Image of the Day Original artist: NASA
File:Class395Javelin.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Class395Javelin.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rob500
File:Ford_GT_interior.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Ford_GT_interior.jpg License: CC BY-SA
2.0 Contributors: ickr Original artist: stephenhanan
File:Friction_Stir_Weld.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Friction_Stir_Weld.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Image of the Day Original artist: NASA
File:Friction_stir_processed_knives_by_MegaStir.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Friction_stir_
processed_knives_by_MegaStir.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: NearEMPTiness
File:Fsw_periaate_poikkileikkaus_pit_paine.png Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Fsw_periaate_
poikkileikkaus_pit_paine.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Shapes_and_joints.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Shapes_and_joints.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ntefsw.com/shapes_and_joints.htm Original artist: Nova-Tech Engineering
File:SpaceX_factory_Falcon_9_booster_tank.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/SpaceX_factory_
Falcon_9_booster_tank.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Falcon 9 Booster Original artist: Steve Jurvetson from Menlo Park,
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User_talk:Haruno_Akiha' title='User talk:Haruno Akiha'>talk</a>)
File:Top_of_a_canister_for_waste_nuclear_fuel.JPG Source:
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canister_for_waste_nuclear_fuel.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pieter Kuiper
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