Week 4

Elements of Research Design

Negotiating Access and Research Ethics

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Research Design

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Purpose of the Study

Exploration
Description
Hypothesis Testing

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Purpose of the Study

Exploratory study:
is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at
hand, or no information is available on how similar problems
or research issues have been solved in the past.

Example:
A service provider wants to know why his customers are
switching to other service providers?

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Purpose of the Study

Descriptive study:
is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the
characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation.

Example:
A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individuals who have loan
payments outstanding for 6 months and more. It would include details of
their average age, earnings, nature of occupation, full-time/part-time
employment status, and the like. This might help him to elicit further
information or decide right away on the types of individuals who should be
made ineligible for loans in the future.

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Purpose of the Study

Hypothesis testing:
Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the
nature of certain relationships, or establish the differences
among groups or the independence of two or more factors in
a situation.

Example:
A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the
company will increase if he doubles the advertising dollars.

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Type of Investigation
Causal Study
it is necessary to establish a definitive cause-and-effect
relationship.
Example: Does smoking cause cancer?

Correlational study
identification of the important factors associated with the
problem.
Example: Are smoking, drinking and chewing tobacco
associated with cancer?
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Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation tells us two variables are related
Types of relationship reflected in correlation
X causes Y or Y causes X (causal relationship)
X and Y are caused by a third variable Z (spurious
relationship)

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Correlation vs. Causation Example

The correlation between workers education levels and
wages is strongly positive
Does this mean education causes higher wages?
We dont know for sure !

Recall: Correlation tells us two variables are related

BUT does not tell us why

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Correlation vs. Causation

Possibility 1
Education improves skills and skilled workers
get better paying jobs
Education causes wages to

Possibility 2
Individuals are born with quality A which is relevant for
success in education and on the job
Quality (NOT education) causes wages to

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Correlation vs. Causation (contd)

Correlations can be very suggestive, but cannot on their
own establish causality
Correlations can be due to either causation or common
response
In economics, the concept of correlation can be used in
conjunction with common sense or a convincing
economic theory to establish causality

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Correlation vs. Causation

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5zyruPbgxyM&featur
e=player_detailpage

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Extent of researcher interference

This depends on whether the study is Causal or
Correlational
Minimal interference (correlational study)
Moderate interference (causal study)
Excessive interference (causal study)

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Study Setting
Contrived: artificial setting causal studies
i.e. Field experiments / Lab experiments

Non-contrived: the natural environment where work

proceeds normally correlational studies
i.e. Field studies

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Population to be Studied
Unit of analysis:

Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Cultures

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Time Horizon
Cross-sectional studies
Snapshot of constructs at a single point in time
Use of representative sample

Multiple cross-sectional studies

Constructs measured at multiple points in time
Use of different sample

Longitudinal studies
Constructs measured at multiple points in time
Use of same sample = a true panel

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Exercise
A foreman thinks that the low efficiency of the machine tool operators
is directly linked to the high level of fumes emitted in the workshop.
He would like to prove this to his supervisor through a research study.
1) Would this be a causal or a correlation study? Why?
2) Is this an exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis-testing (analytical
or predictive) study? Why?
3) What kind of a study would this be: field study, lab experiment,
field experiment? Why?
4) What would be the unit of analysis? Why?
5) Would this be a cross-sectional or a longitudinal study? Why?
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Gaining access to data (1)

Physical access key issues

Organisations may not wish to allocate resources

Requests for access may not be of sufficient interest
Failure to reach those who can give permission
Concerns about sensitivity and confidentiality
Perceptions about the researchers credibility

Doubts about the researchers competence

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Gaining access to data (2)

Points to consider
Access as an iterative process
Obtaining consent from managers and participants
Obtaining cognitive access
The nature and extent of the required access
Obtaining sufficient scope to answer the research question
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Gaining access to data (3)

Virtual access - four types of online community
Bulletin boards for particular products or services

Independent web pages

Themed email lists
Multiuser chat rooms

Adapted from Kozinets (2002)

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Gaining access to data (4)

Checklist Box 6.8
Complete the Checklist in Box 6.8
to help you gain access

Saunders et al. (2009, p. 183)

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Strategies to gain access (1)

Areas for consideration
Ensuring familiarity and understanding
Allowing sufficient time

Using existing contacts and developing new ones

Giving a clear account of purpose
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Strategies to gain access (2)

Areas for consideration
Overcoming organisational concerns

Identifying possible organisational benefits

Appropriate forms of communication
Incremental access
Establishing researcher credibility
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Research Ethics (1)

Definition
The appropriateness of your behaviour in
relation to the rights of those who become the
subject of or are affected by your work

Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

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Research Ethics (2)

Ethical issues at different stages of research

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

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Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different stages of research (part 1)
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Research Ethics (3)

Ethical issues at different stages of research

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

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Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different stages of research (part 2)
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Research Ethics (4)

Research conduct is affected by
Code of ethics

Research ethics committees

General ethical issues
Netiquette
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Research Ethics (5)

Issues during design and gaining access
Obtaining consent - implied and informed
Using participant information sheets

Consent for observation and online observation

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Research Ethics (6)

The nature of participant consent

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

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Figure 6.2 The nature of participant consent
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Research Ethics (7)

Issues during data collection
General issues applying to techniques

Awareness of participants rights

Keeping to the project aims
Safety of the researcher
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Research Ethics (8)

Issues during data collection
Maintaining objectivity, confidentiality and anonymity
Appropriate interview behaviour

Use of observation techniques

Undertaking a covert study
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Data processing and storage

Personal data must be
Processed fairly and lawfully

Obtained for specified purposes

Adequate and relevant
Accurate, updated and kept securely
Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)
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Data analysis and reporting

Related issues
Sensitive personal data
Confidentiality and anonymity

Protection of research participants

Ethical use of data analysis and conclusions

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Dealing with ethical issues

Checklist Box 6.18
Complete the Checklist in Box 6.18
to help you anticipate and deal with
ethical issues

Saunders et al. (2009, p. 201)

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Ethical Issues in Business Research

Business ethics
The application of morals to behavior related to the exchange
environment.
Moral standards
Principles that reflect beliefs about what is ethical and what is
unethical.
Ethical dilemma
A situation in which one chooses from alternative courses of
actions, each with different ethical implications.
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Ethical Issues in Business Research

(contd)
Relativism
A term that reflects the degree to which one rejects moral
standards in favor of the acceptability of some action.
This way of thinking rejects absolute principles in favor of
situation-based evaluations.
Idealism
A term that reflects the degree to which one bases ones
morality on moral standards.
example: the Golden Rule

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General Rights and Obligations of

Concerned Parties
Everyone involved in research can face an ethical dilemma:
The people actually performing the researchthe doers.
The research client, sponsor, or the management team
requesting the researchthe users.
The research participantsthe actual research respondents or
subjects.
Each party has certain rights and obligations toward the other
parties.

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EXHIBIT 5.7

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Interaction of Rights and Obligations

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Rights and Obligations: Research

Participant
Rights:
To be informed
To privacy
Protected from harm

Obligations:
To be truthful

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Informed Consent
The individual understands
what the researcher wants
him/her to do and consents to
the research study.

Confidentiality
The information involved in the
research will not be shared
with others.

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Deception in Research Designs And the

Right To Be Informed
Experimental Designs
Placebo
A false experimental effect used to create the perception of a true effect.

Debriefing
Research subjects are fully informed and provided with a chance to ask
any questions they may have about the experiment.

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Protection from Harm

Questions to ask to help avoid harming a research participant:
Has the research subject provided consent to participate in
an experiment?

Is the research subject subjected to substantial physical or

psychological trauma?
Can the research subject be easily returned to his or her
initial state?
Human subjects review committee
Reviews proposed research designs to ensure that no harm
can come to any research participant.
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Rights and Obligations of the

Researcher
The researcher should:
Understand that the purpose of research is research (no
sales pitch to research participants)
Maintain objectivity
Not misrepresent research

Be honest in reporting errors

Protect the confidentiality of both subjects and clients

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Research That Isnt Research

Pseudo-research
Conducted not to gather information for decisions but to bolster a point of
view and satisfy other needs.
Push poll
Telemarketing under guise of research.
A type of pseudo-research whose intention is to change opinions (usually
on voting) rather than measure them, often by asking leading questions.
For example "When did you first become aware that Candidate A is the
son of a criminal?"
Service monitoring
Contacting customers about their experience with a product, there is no
selling attempt.
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EXHIBIT 5.9

How Results Can Be Misrepresented in a Report or Presentation

A) Researcher points to a large

difference in quality ratings. Men
report much higher quality service
than do women. In contrast, women
report only slightly less satisfaction
than do men.

B) The researcher points to a trivial

difference in quality perceptions
between men and women. There is
no difference in the satisfaction
ratings of men and women.

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Rights and Obligations of the Client

Sponsor (User)
Issues in the client-researcher relationship
Ethical behavior between buyer and seller
An open relationship with research suppliers
An open relationship with interested parties
Advocacy researchresearch undertaken to support a specific claim in a
legal action or represent some advocacy group.

Privacy rights of research participants

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Privacy on the Internet

Controversial issue
Many researchers argue that they dont need to know
who the user is, but they do want to know certain things
(e.g., demographics, product usage) associated with an
anonymous profile.
Researchers should not disclose private information
without permission from consumers who provided that
information.
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Summary
Access and ethics are critical aspects of research
Access may be physical, cognitive or continuing
Feasibility is an important determinant
Potential ethical issues should be recognised

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Summary
Ethical concerns can occur throughout the research
Both qualitative and quantitative research have associated
ethical issues
Use of the Internet and email for data generation raises specific
ethical issues
Data protection legislation requires researchers to comply with
legal requirements
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