PROJECT REPORT

on

MANUFACTURE OF WHITE SUGAR FROM SUGAR CANE

Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
by

AUGUSTINE GUNA RAM .B (10704001)

THURKA DEVI .S.R

(10704021)

under the guidance of

Ms.P.MUTHAMILSELVI B.Tech, M.E.,

(Lecturer, School of Chemical Engineering)

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

SRM UNIVERSITY
(under section 3 of UGC Act,1956)
SRM Nagar, Kattankulathur 603 203
Kancheepuram Dist.

MAY 2008

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that this project report MANUFACTURE OF WHITE SUGAR
FROM SUGAR CANE is the bonafide work of AUGUSTINE GUNA RAM .B
(10704001) THURKA DEVI .S.R (10704021) who carried out the project work under
my supervision.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

INTERNAL GUIDE

Date:

EXTERNAL EXAMINER

Date :

INTERNAL EXAMINER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we thank Dr.C.Muthamizhselvan, Associate Director,

S.R.M

University (Engg & Technology) for allowing us to work on this project.

We are extremely thankful to Dr.R.Karthikeyan, B.E., PhD, Professor and
Head, School of Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for permitting us to venture
on this project and providing us with good support and guidance.
We would like to thank Ms. P. MuthamilSelvi, B.Tech, .M.E, Faculty, School of
Chemical Engineering, S.R.M University, for her encouragement and guidance at all
stages of this project.
We would like to thank the management and staff of E.I.D Parry (India) Limited,
Pudukottai, for their valuable assistance.
We extend our sincere thanks to all the staff members of the School of Chemical
Engineering, S.R.M University, for their support and assistance.

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT
Primarily, there are two important sources of sugar: one is Beet, the other is
Cane. Sugar from cane is the most economic and effective extraction of sugar. Extraction
of sugar from cane is 80% effective for a harvest of 1 hectare sugarcane, while that for
beet is only 34.5% effective extraction. The delivery of the cane to the factory depends
upon the time of day, weather, and some other factors. Very closely controlled operations
never have more than a few hours worth of cane in the cane yard. The color of the
washed, clarified, and decolorized liquor going into the crystallization process ranges
from water white to slightly yellow. Great care is taken to avoid conglomerates and fines.
Boiling rate and throughput are important. The boiling schemes used in the refinery are
more extensive and more extensive and variable than those used in the raw house. This is
because the starting material is of much higher purity. Ordinarily, three, four, or five
strikes of refined sugar are obtained. The syrup from the fourth strike may handle in
different ways. It may be used in the recovery house, but is more likely used in making
specialty syrups or brown sugars. It may also be sent back to decolorization or
clarification, and recycled. The refined sugar centrifuges are always batch type because
they leave the crystals intact. The centrifuging is easy and the cycles are short. The
drying of the sugar from the centrifuges is done by rotary dryer using hot air. This dryer
is universally misnamed the granulator because by drying in motion, it keeps the sugar
crystals from sticking together, or keeps them granular. The hot sugar from the granulator
is cooled in an exactly similar rotary drum using cold air.

CONTENTS
S.NO.

CHAPTER

PAGE NO

i.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

ii.

ABSTRACT

1.

INTRODUCTION

2.

LITERATURE SURVEY

3.

PROPERTIES AND USES

4.

PROCESS FLOWCHART

13

5.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

15

6.

MATERIAL BALANCE

22

7.

ENERGY BALANCE

34

8.

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

52

9.

COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS

62

10.

PROCESS CONTROL

71

11.

PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTION

75

12.

POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY

83

13.

CONCLUSION

87

14.

NOMENCLATURE

89

15.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

91

INTRODUCTION

[1]

INTRODUCTION
Sugar industry is one of the most important agro-based industries in India and
is highly responsible for creating significant impact on rural economy in particular
and countrys economy in general. Sugar industry ranks second amongst major agrobased industries in India. As per the Government of Indias recent liberalized policy
announced on 12th December, 1986 for licensing of additional capacity for sugar
industries during 7th five-year plan, there will be only one sugar mill in a circular area
of 40 sq km. Also the new sugar mill is allowed with an installation capacity of 2500
TCD (Tone Sugar Cane crushed per day) as against the earlier capacity norms of 1250
TCD. Similarly, the existing sugar mills with sugar cane capacity of about 3500 TCD
can crush sugar cane to the tune of 3000 TCD with a condition imposed that
additional requirement of sugar cane be acquired through increased productivity and
not by expansion of area for growing sugar cane. [8].Cane sugar is the name given to
sucrose, a disaccharide produced from the sugarcane plant and from the sugar beet.
The refined sugars from the two sources are practically indistinguishable and
command the same price in competitive markets. [8]
In the production scheme for cane sugar, the cane cannot be stored for more
than a few hours after it is cut because microbiological action immediately begins to
degrade the sucrose. This means that the sugar mills must be located in the cane
fields. The raw sugar produced in the mills is item of international commerce. Able to
be stored for years, it is handled as raw material shipped at the lowest rates directly
in the holds of ships or in dump trucks or railroad cars and pushed around by
bulldozers. Because it is not intended to be eaten directly, it is not handled as food.
The raw sugar is shipped to the sugar refineries, which are located in population
centers. There it is refined to a food product, packaged, and shipped a short distance
to the market. In a few places, there is a refinery near or even within a raw-sugar mill.
However, the sugar still goes through raw stage. The principle by-product of cane
sugar production is molasses. About 10 15% of the sugar in the cane ends up in
molasses. Molasses is produced both in the raw-sugar manufacture and also in
refining. The blackstrap or final molasses is about 35 40% sucrose and slightly more
than 50% total sugars.
[2]

LITERATURE SURVEY

[3]

LITERATURE SURVEY
There are a bewildering number of sugars and syrups available in the shops
while other types are available for the industrial users. Some of the basic differences
are discussed below.[10] White sugar is essentially pure sucrose and there is no
difference between that derived from cane and that from beet. Different manufacturers
produce crystals of different sizes however and this leads to some apparent
differences. Smaller crystals dissolve more readily and might therefore appear to be
sweeter because none is left at the bottom of the cup and they seem sweeter on the
tongue if eaten alone. Similarly smaller crystals have more surfaces per spoonful and
appear whiter than larger crystals. There are several speciality white sugars: [10]

Caster sugar is just a very small crystal size white sugar

Icing sugar is ground up white sugar, essentially sugar dust

Sugar cubes are lumps of sugar crystals "glued" together with a sugar syrup

Preserving sugar is a special large crystal

Gur come in many different styles but are essentially one of two types: sticky

browns and free-flowing browns. The sticky browns were originally the sort of
mixture that comes out of a cane sugar crystallizing pan. The extreme of this, still
made in India today, is "juggeri" or "gur" which is essentially such a mixture boiled
until dry. In modern refining practice both of these types are made by mixing a
refined or at least purified sugar with suitable syrup. The color of the sugar and the
syrup determines the color of the final product and the ratio of syrup to sugar plus any
drying applied determines whether the product is sticky or free-flowing. Syrups, of
which there are again an enormous range, range from pure sucrose solutions as sold to
industrial users to heavily treated syrups incorporating flavours and colors. Refiners
or "Golden" syrup is a sugar solution which has been carefully treated to invert some
of the sucrose. Inversion is a chemical process which breaks down the disaccharide
sucrose to its constituent sugars: glucose and fructose. This helps ensure that
crystallization does not occur during storage. Treacle is a similar product made from
molasses rather than a pure sugar solution. The steam is raised in bagasse fired boilers
which usually have a secondary fuel to accommodate imbalances in bagasse supply
[4]

and steam or power demand. The factory designer attempts to balance the site such
that bagasse is neither
left over nor insufficient: any secondary fuel costs money and a large surplus of
bagasse may cost money to dispose. Balancing is done by selecting the right mix of
turbine and electric drives for major equipment and selecting the pressure of the steam
to give the efficiency required. In many cases this does not recognize the full energy
value of the bagasse and is therefore wasteful in an overall sense. Today, more and
more factories are considering power export as another by-product of sugar
production. To do this they are improving the efficiency of their thermodynamic
cycles and converting equipment drives to optimize power output. Physical chemistry
assists with sugar purification during the crystallization process because there is a
natural tendency for the sugar crystals to form as pure sucrose, rejecting the nonsugars. Thus, when the sugar crystals are grown in the mother liquor they tend to be
pure and the mother liquor becomes more impure. Most remaining non-sugar in the
product is contained in the coating of mother liquor left on the crystals. The mother
liquor still contains valuable sugar of course so the crystallization is repeated several
times. However non-sugars inhibit the crystallization. This is particularly true of other
sugars such as glucose and fructose which are the breakdown products of sucrose.
Each subsequent step therefore becomes more difficult until one reaches a point
where it is no longer viable to continue. [8]
In a raw sugar factory it is normal to conduct three boiling. The first or "A"
boiling produces the best sugar which is sent to store. The "B" boiling takes longer
and the retention time in the crystallizer is also longer if a reasonable crystal size is to
be achieved. Some factories re-melt the B sugar to provide part of the A boiling
feedstock, others use the crystals as seed for the A boiling and others mix the B sugar
with the A sugar for sale. The "C" boiling takes proportionally longer than the B
boiling and considerably longer to crystallize. The sugar is usually used as seed for B
boiling and the rest is re-melted. Factories are frequently in much undeveloped places
and have no connection to an external power supply. This requires special techniques
to start the factory and means that any breakdown in the power house impacts on the
entire neighborhood. Wives soon tell their husbands what happened to dinner when
their spouses lost power. In modern sugar plants, white sugar is manufactured from
[5]

sugarcane rather than, beet since; the yield conversion is 10 Tons of sugar per hectare
in case of sugarcane, while it is only 6.25 Tons of sugar production is possible from
one hectare of beet cultivation. Hence, due to this utility and economic basis, sugar is
mainly prepared from cane rather than from beet. [9].

[6]

PROPERTIES AND USES

[7]

Properties of cane sugars:

Sugar consists mainly of sucrose and to a certain extent of glucose and
fructose. Thus properties of sugars are listed below:

(A) Physical properties

Property
Taste

Sweet

Crystal

Mono-clinic

Solubility

Very soluble in cold water and dilute

alcohol. Solubility increases with increase
in temperature. It is insoluble in
chloroform, ether and glycerine.

Specific gravity at 20C

1.05917

Optical activity

Dextro-rotatory

[8]

(B) Chemical properties

Property
Action of heat

Perfectly dry sugar can be heated to

160C
without decomposition. It then melts
forming a non-crystallizing substance. In
the presence of moisture it decomposes at
100C, becoming a caramel and liberating
water. On further heating changes to CO2
and formic acid.

Action of heat on dilute solutions

By prolonged heating at the boiling point

the dissolved sucrose slowly combines
with
water and breaks up into glucose and
fructose.

Sugarcane characteristics:
Sugarcane contains not only sucrose but also numerous other dissolved
substances, as well as cellulose or woody fibre. The percentage of sugar in the cane
varies from 8 to 16% and depends to a great extent on the variety of the cane, its
maturity, condition of the soil, climate and agricultural practices followed. The
constituents of ripe cane vary widely in different countries and regions but fall
generally within the following limits:

[9]

Constituent Percentage range:

Water

69.0 75.0

Sucrose

8.0 16.0

Reducing sugars

0.5 2.0

Organic matter other than sugar

0.5 1.0

Inorganic compounds

0.2 0.6

Nitrogenous bodies

0.5 1.0

Ash

0.3 0.8

Fibre

10.0 16.0
Organic matters other than sugar include proteins, organic acids, pentosan,

coloring matter and wax. Organic acids present in cane are glycolic acid, malic acid,
succinic acid and small quantity of tannic acid, butyric acid and aconitic acid. These
vary from 0.5 to 1.0% of the cane by weight. The organic compounds are made up of
phosphates, chlorides, sulphates, nitrates and silicates of sodium, potassium, calcium,
and magnesium and iron chiefly. These are present from 0.2 to 0.6%.
Coloring matter is so complex that very little is known about them and there is
a great need for research in this direction. Coloring matters consist of chlorophyll,
anthocyanin, saccharatin and tannins. Canes which have been injured or which are
over-ripe contain ordinarily invert sugar as well. When severe frost damages
sugarcane, all buds are killed and the stalk split. Then the juice produced has low
purity, less sucrose, high titrable acidity, and abnormal amounts of gum, which make
processing difficult and at times impossible. Frost is generally not a very common
phenomenon in Indian crops. Insects and pests cause a greater damage.
Cane juice has an acidic reaction. It has a pH of about 5.0. The cane juice is
viscous owing to the presence of colloids. The colloids are particles existing in a
permanent state of fine dispersion and they impart turbidity to the juice. These
colloids do not settle ordinarily unless conditions are altered. The application of heat
or addition of chemicals brings about flocculation or coagulation. They may be
coagulated by the action of electric current and adsorption by sucrose attractions using
[10]

porous or flocculent material. Some colloids are flocculated easily while others do so
with great difficulty.

Uses:

All sugars from whatever source are used almost entirely for food.

The per capita consumption of sugar is an indicator of degree of economic

advancement of a country.

Apparently, human nature is such that one of the first uses of income above
the subsistence level is to satisfy the sweet tooth.

Sugar is the lowest in calorific value of all carbohydrates in an ordinary diet,

as well as the cheapest.

[11]

PROCESS FLOWCHART
[12]

[13]

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

[14]

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The cane is moved from the cane yard or directly from the transport to one of
the cane table. Feed chains on the tables move the cane across the tables to the main
cane carrier, which runs at constant speed carrying the cane into the factory. The
operator manipulates the speed of the various tables to keep the main carrier evenly
filled. In order to remove as much dirt and trash as possible, the cane is washed on the
main carrier with as much water as is available. This includes decirculated wash water
and all of the condenser water. Of the order of 1 2 % of the sugar in the cane is
washed out and lost in the washing, but it is considered advantageous to wash. In
areas where there are rocks in the cane, it is floated through the so- called mud bath to
help separate the rocks. The sugar recovered is normally 10-wt % of the cane, with
some variation from region to region. Sugar cane has the distinction of producing the
heaviest yield of all crops, both in weight of biomass and in weight of useful product
per unit area of land.

EXTRACION OF JUICE:
The juice is extracted from the cane either by milling, in which the cane is
pressed between the heavy rolls, or by diffusion, in which the sugar is leached out
with water. In either case, the cane is prepared by breaking into pieces measuring a
few centimeters. In the usual system, the magnets first remove the tramp iron, and the
cane then passes through two sets of rotating knives. The first set, called cane knives
turns at about 700 rpm, cuts the cane into pieces of 1 2 dm length, splits it up a bit,
and also act as a leveler to distribute the cane more evenly on the carrier. The second
set, called shredder knives turn faster and combine a cutting and a hammer action by
having a closer clearance with the housing. These quite thoroughly cutter and shred
the cane into a fluffy mat of pieces a few centimeters in the largest dimensions. In
preparing cane for diffusion, it is desirable to break every plant cell. Therefore the
cane for diffusion is put through an even finer shredder called a buster or fiberizer. No
juice is extracted in the shredders. In milling, the cane then goes to the crusher rolls,
which are similar to the mills, but have only two rolls, which have large teeth and are
widely spaced. These complete the breaking up of the cane to pieces of the order of 1
3 cm. The large amount of juice is removed here. [2]
[15]

MILLING:
The prepared cane passes through a series of mills called a tandem or milling
train. These mills are composed of massive horizontal cylinders or rolls in groups of
three, one on the top and two on the bottom in the triangle formation. The rolls are 50
100 cm diameter and 1 3 m long and have grooves that are 2 5 cm wide and deep
around them. There may be anywhere from 3 7 of these 3 roll mills in tandem,
hence the name. These mills, together with their associated drive and gearing, are
among the most massive machinery used by industry. The bottom two rolls are fixed,
and the top is free to move up and down. The top roll is hydraulically loaded with a
force equivalent about 500 t. The rolls turn at 2 5 rpm, and the velocity of the cane
through them is 10- 25cm/s. After passing through the mill, the fibrous residue, from
the cane, called bagassae, is carried to the next mill by bagassae carriers and is
directed from the first squeeze in a mill to the second by turn plate. In order to,
achieve a good extraction, a system of imbibition is used, bagassae going to the final
mill is sprayed with water to extract whatever sucrose remains; the resultant juice
from the last mill is then sprayed on the bagasse mat going to the next to last mill, and
so on. The combination of all these juices is collected from the first mill and is mixed
with the juice from the crusher. The result is called the mixed juice and is the material
that goes forward to make the sugar.[2] The mills are powered with individual steam
turbines. The exhaust steam from the turbines is used to evaporate water from the
cane juice. The capacity of the sugarcane mills is 30 300 t of cane per hour.

BAGASSE:
The bagasse from the last mill is about 50-wt% water and will burn directly.
Diffusion bagasse is dripping wet and must be dried in a mill or some sort of bagasse
press. Most bagasse is burned in the boilers that run the factories.

CLARIFICATION:
The juice from either milling or diffusion is about 12 18% solids, 10 15
pol (polarization) (percent sucrose), and 70 85% purity. These figures depend upon
geographical location, age of cane, variety, climate, cultivation, condition of juice
extraction system, and other factors. As dissolved material, it contains in addition to
[16]

sucrose some invert

sugar, salts, silicates, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, and

organic acids; the pH is 5.5 6.5. It carries suspension cane fiber, field soil, silica,
bacteria, yeasts, molds, spores, insect parts, chlorophyll, starch, gums, waxes, and
fats. It looks brown and muddy with a trace of green from the chlorophyll. In the juice
from the mill, the sucrose is inverting (hydrolyzing to glucose and fructose) under the
influence of native invertase enzyme or an acid pH. The first step of processing is to
stop the inversion by raising the pH to 7.5 and heating to nearly 100C to inactivate
the enzyme and stop microbiological action. At the same time, a large fraction of the
suspended material is removed by settling. The cheapest source of hydroxide is lime,
and this has the added advantage that calcium makes many insoluble salts. When the
mud settles poorly, polyelectrolyte flocculants such as polyacrylamides are sometimes
used. The heat and high Ph serve to coagulate proteins, which are largely removed in
clarification.[4]
The equipment used for clarification is of the Dorr clarifier type. It consists
of a vertical cylindrical vessel composed of a number of trays with conical bottoms
stacked one over the other. The limed raw juice enters the center of each tray and
flows toward the circumference. A sweep arm in each tray turns quite slowly and
sweeps the settled mud toward a central mud outlet. The clear juice from the top
circumference overflows into a header. Diffusion juice contains less suspended solids
than mill juice. In many diffusion operations, some or all of the clarification is carried
out in the diffuser by adding lime. It also contains nearly all the protein (0.5 wt% of
the juice solids) and cane wax. The mud is returned to the fields. Although, the
clarification removes most of the mud, the resulting juice is not necessarily clear. The
equipment is often run at beyond its capacity and control slips a little so that the
clarity of the clarified juice is not optimum. Suspended solids that slip past the
clarifiers will be in the sugar. Clarified juice is dark brown. The color is darker than
raw juice because the initial heating causes significant darkening.

EVAPORATION:
Cane juice has sucrose concentration of normally 15%. The solubility of
sucrose in water is about 72%. The concentration of sucrose must reach the solubility
point before crystals can start growing. This involves the removal by evaporation of
93% of the water in the cane juice. Since water has the largest of all latent heats of
[17]

vaporization, this involves a very large amount of energy. The working of multipleeffect evaporator can be seen in fig. In each succeeding effect, the vapors from the
previous effect are condensed to supply heat. This works only because each
succeeding effect is operating at a lower pressure and hence boils at lower
temperature. The result is that 1 kg of steam is used to evaporate 4 kg of water. The
steam used is exhaust steam from the turbines in the mill or turbines driving electrical
generators. The steam has therefore already been used once and here in the second use
it is made to give fourfold duty. The usual evaporator equipment is a vertical body
juice-in-tube unit. Several variations are in use, but the result is the same. The only
auxiliary equipment is the vacuum pump. Today, steam-jet-ejectors are general,
although mechanical pumps were formerly used. Since the cane juice contains
significant amounts of inorganic ions, including
Calcium and sulfate, the heating surfaces are quick to scale and require frequent
cleaning.

CRYSTALLISATION:
The crystallization of the sucrose from the concentrated syrup is traditionally a
batch process. The solubility of sucrose changes rather little with temperature. It is
about 68 brix at room temperature and 74 brix at 60C. For this reason, only a small
amount of sugar can be crystallized out of solution by cooling. Evaporating the water
must instead crystallize the sugar. Sucrose solutions up to a super saturation of 1.3 are
quite stable. Above this super saturation, spontaneous nucleation occurs, and new
crystals form. The sugar boiler therefore evaporates water until the super saturation is
1.25 and then seeds the pan. The seeding consists of introducing just the right number
of small sugar crystals (powdered sugar) so that, when all have grown to the desired
size, the pan will be full.
After seeding, the evaporation and feeding of syrup are balanced so that
theSuper saturation is as high as possible in order to achieve the fastest possible rate
of Crystal growth, without exceeding 1.3. The boiling point of a saturated sugar
solution at 101.3 kPa (1 atm) is 112C. Sugar is heat-sensitive and, at this
temperature, thermal degradation is too great. The boiling is therefore done under the
highest practical vacuum at a boiling point of 65C. The sugar boiler therefore must
manipulate the vacuum along with the steam and feed. A strike is 50 metric tons of
[18]

sugar and it is boiled in 90 min. at the end of this time, the mixture of crystals and
syrup, called massecuite, must still be fluid enough to be stirred and discharged from
the pan. In practice, about half of the sugar in the pan is in crystal form and half
remains in the syrup. In this case, the pan yield is said to be 50%.Some very good
sugar boilers are able to achieve as much as 60% yields on first strike. [10]

VACUUM PANS:
Vacuum pans have a small heating element in comparison to the very large
liquor and vapor space above it. The heating element was formerly steam coils but is
now usually a chest of vertical tubes called calandria. The sugar is inside the tubes.
There is a large center opening (down comer) for circulation. The vacuum pan has a
very large discharge opening: typically 1 m dia. At the end of a strike, the massecuite
contains more crystals than syrup and is therefore very viscous. This large opening is
required to empty the pan in a reasonable time. At the top or dome of the pan, there
are viscous entrainment separators. The pan may also be equipped with a mechanical
stirrer. This is usually an impeller in or below the central down comer, driven by a
shaft coming down all the way from the top. The strike is started with liquor just
above the top of the calandria. The strike level cannot be very near the top because of
vapor space must be allowed for separation of entrainment. In operation, the boiling is
very vigorous with much splashing of liquid. The vacuum is maintained mostly by
condensing the vapors in a barometric condenser. In some cases, a surface condenser
is used. This serves as a source of distilled water and recovers heat. More often,
however, a jet condenser is used in which the cold condensing water is sprayed into
the hot vapour and both condensate and condenser water are mixed. A supplementary
vacuum pump is required to remove noncondensable gases.

CENTRIFUGING:
The massecuites from the vacuum pans enter a holding tank called a mixer
that has a very solely turning paddle to prevent the crystals from settling. The mixer is
a feed for the centrifuges. In a batch-type centrifuge, the mother liquor is separated
from the crystals in batches of about 1 t at a time.

[19]

BOILING SYSTEMS:
In raw-sugar manufacture, the first strike of sugar is called the A strike, and
the mother liquor obtained from this strike from the centrifuges is called A molasses.
The pan yield in sugar boiling is about 50%. Because crystallization is an efficient
purification process, the product sugar is much purer than the cane juice and the
molasses much less pure. As an approximation, crystallization reduces the impurities
by factor of 10 or more in the product sugar. Therefore, almost all of the impurities
remain in the molasses. Enough molasses accumulates from boiling two first strikes to
boil a second strike.
The B sugar from the second strike is only half as pure as that from the first
strike, but the B molasses is twice as impure. This can go on to a third strike. At this
point, 7/8 of the sugar from the cane juice is in the form of crystals and 1/8 in the C
molasses.. The trick is to maneuver to obtain good sugar, but at the same time have
the C or final molasses as impure as possible. The purity of the feed to the final strike
is adjusted to obtain the lowest possible purity of final molasses. Some of the C sugar
is redissolved and started over, some is used as footing for A and B strikes. The C
sugar is of very small crystal size so it is taken into the A or B pans as seed and grown
to an acceptable size. This practice is actually a step backward because it hides
impure C sugar in the center of better A and B sugars. The product raw sugar is a
mixture of A and B sugars.[1]

PACKING, STORING AND SHIPPING:

Sugar is sometimes stored in bulk and then packaged as needed. Others
package the sugar and then warehouse the packages. The present trend is away from
consumersized packages and toward bulk shipments .[1]

[20]

MATERIAL BALANCE

[21]

MATERIAL BALANCE
MILLING:
BASIS: 3000 Tons of sugarcane crushed / day

3000 Tons of Sugarcane is to be crushed per day to obtain 350 Tons of Sugar per
day.
At Milling Section, 35% cane wt% of water is added.
Amount of Sugarcane in = 3000 Tons
Amount of Water in

= 1050 Tons

Amount of Raw Juice out= 3150 Tons

Amount of Bagasse out

= 900 Tons

RAW JUICE HEATER:

BASIS: 3000 Tons of sugarcane crushed / day

At the Raw Juice heater, 1% cane wt% of Water is evaporated.

Hence, 1% of 3000 = 30 Tons of H2O is evaporated. This heater is maintained at a
temperature of 70C.
[22]

Amount of Raw Juice in = 3150 Tons

Amount of Raw juice out= 3120 Tons

JUICE SULPHITATOR:
BASIS: 3000 Tons of sugarcane crushed / day

In Juice Sulphitator, pH of Raw juice is reduced from 9.0 to 7.0.

To obtain this 5 x 10-4 % of CaO and 2 x 10-4% of SO2, respective to weight of cane
are added.
Hence, Amount of CaO added
Amount of SO2 added

= 5 x 10-4% of 3000 = 1.5 Tons

= 2 x 10-4% of 3000 = 0.6 Tons

Amount of Raw Juice In = 3120 Tons

Amount of Mixed Juice Out = 3122.1 Tons

[23]

HEATER:
BASIS: 3000 Tons of sugarcane crushed / day

In Juice Heater, 3% cane wt% of Water is evaporated. The temperature maintained

in Heater is 103 C
Hence, Amount of Water evaporated = 3% of 3000 = 90 Tons of H2O is evaporated.
Amount of Mixed Juice In

= 3122.1 Tons

Amount of Mixed Juice Out

= 3032.1 Tons

CLARIFIER:
BASIS: 3000 Tons of sugarcane crushed / day

Clarifier is a settling tank which separates Press mud from Mixed Juice, giving
Clear Juice. Clarifier is operated at a temperature of 102C. 4% of Cane wt% of Press
Mud settles out.
Hence, Amount of Press Mud Separated = 120 Tons
Amount of Mixed Juice In

= 3032.1 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out

= 2912.1 Tons
[24]

EVAPORATOR I:
BASIS: 2912.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Evaporator

In first effect evaporator, 85% water content in Clear Juice is reduced to 65%
water.
Hence, Amount of Water evaporated = 582.42 Tons
Amount of Clear Juice In

= 2912.1 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out

= 2329.68 Tons

EVAPORATOR II:
BASIS: 2912.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Evaporator

[25]

In second effect evaporator, 65% of water content in Clear Juice is reduced to 55%
water.
Hence, Amount of water evaporated = 291.195 Tons
Amount of Clear Juice In

= 2329.68 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out

= 2038.49 Tons

EVAPORATOR III:
BASIS: 2912.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Evaporator

In third effect evaporator, 55% water content in Clear Juice is reduced to 44%
water.
Hence, Amount of water evaporated = 291.23 Tons
Amount of Clear Juice In

= 2038.49 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out

= 1747.26 Tons

[26]

EVAPORATOR IV:
BASIS: 2912.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Evaporator

In fourth effect evaporator, 45% of water content in Clear Juice is reduced to

40% water.
Hence, Amount of Water evaporated = 145.605 Tons
Amount of Clear Juice In

= 1747.25 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out

= 1601.65 Tons

PAN A:
BASIS: 1601.65 Tons of Clear Juice Entering Pan-Boiler.

In Pan-Boiler (A), 53% of Water content in Clear Juice gets evaporated.

Hence, Amount of water evaporated = 611.546 Tons
Amount of Clear Juice In

= 1601.65 Tons

Amount of Clear Juice Out

= 990.1 Tons

[27]

A-CENTRIFUGE:
BASIS: 990.1 Tons of Clear Juice Entering

In A-Centrifuge, 90% of Brix content is present in A-Massecuite. Brix is the

amount of solid content present in a solution.
Amount of Clear Juice In

= 990.1 Tons

Amount of A-Massecuite Out = 337.741 Tons ( of which 90% = 305.767 Tons are
solids)
Amount of A-Molasses Out

= 650.363 Tons

PAN-B :
BASIS: 650.363 Tons of Molasses Entering

In Pan-Boiler (B), 65% of water content in A-Molasses is evaporated.

Hence, Amount of water evaporated = 337.558 Tons
Amount of A-Molasses In

= 650.363 Tons

Amount of A-Molasses Out

= 312.805 Tons
[28]

B-CENTRIFUGE:
BASIS: 312.805 Tons of Molasses Entering

In B-Centrifuge, 95% of Brix content is present in B-Massecuite.

Brix is the amount of solid content present in a solution.
Amount of A-Molasses In

= 312.805 Tons

Amount of B-Massecuite Out = 110.352 Tons ( of which 95% = 104.834 Tons are
solids)
Amount of B-Molasses Out

= 232.453 Tons

PAN-C:
BASIS: 232.453 Tons of B-Molasses Entering

In Pan-Boiler (C), 75% of water content in B-Molasses is evaporated.

Hence, Amount of water evaporated = 132.183 Tons
Amount of B-Molasses In

= 232.453 Tons
[29]

Amount of B-Molasses Out

= 100.27 Tons

C-CENTRIFUGE:
BASIS: 100.27 Tons of Molasses Entering

In C-Centrifuge, 97% of Brix content is present in C-Massecuite.

Brix is the amount of solid content present in a solution.
Amount of B-Molasses In

= 100.27 Tons

Amount of C-Massecuite Out = 52.144 Tons (of which 97% = 50.58 Tons are solids)
Amount of C-Molasses Out

= 48.497 Tons

[30]

CENTRIFUGE:
BASIS: 3000 Tons of Sugarcane crushed / day.

Centrifuge is used to separate Molasses and pure Sugar from a mixture of

Massecuites.
In centrifuge, 5% cane wt% of Final Molasses is obtained.
Hence, Amount of Final Molasses obtained = 5% of 3000 = 150 Tons
Amount of A-Massecuite in

= 337.741 Tons

Amount of B-Massecuite in

= 110.352 Tons

Amount of C-Massecuite in

= 52.144 Tons

Amount of Sugar crystals Out

= 351.826 Tons, along with 0.4106 Tons

of water.

[31]

DRIER:
BASIS: 3000 Tons of Sugarcane crushed / day.

Amount of Sugar crystals In = 351.826 Tons, along with 0.4106 Tons of water.
From Drier, 11.7% of Cane Wt% of pure dry white Sugar Crystals are obtained.
0.4106 Tons of water gets evaporated.

[32]

ENERGY BALANCE

[33]

ENERGY BALANCE
JUICE HEATER:
REFERNCE TEMPERATURE: 25C

Specific heat of sucrose [Cp(s)]

= 0.299 Kcal / Kg[3]

Specific heat of water at 30C [Cp(Win)] =0.999 Kcal / Kg [3]

Specific heat of water at 71C [Cp(Wout)] =1.004 Kcal / Kg [3]
Latent heat of vaporization [ ]

= 540.5 Kcal / Kg [3]

Enthalpy of solid in = m x Cp(s) x T

= 501 x 0.299(32-25) x 103
=1048.593x103 Kcal.
Enthalpy of water in = m x Cp(Win) x T
=2649 x 0.999(32-25) x 103
=18524.457x103 Kcal.
Enthalpy of solid out = m x Cp(s) x T
= 501 x 0.299(71-25) x 103
=6890.754x103 Kcal.

[34]

Enthalpy of water out= m x Cp (Wout) x T

= 2619 x 1.004(71-25) x 103
=120955.896x103Kcal.
Enthalpy of vapor out = m x
= 30(540.5)x103.
=16215x103Kcal
Total Enthalpy in

=19573.05 x 103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy out

=145009.71 x 103 Kcal

Hence;
Total heat required

= Enthalpy out Enthalpy in

= 125436.66 x 103 Kcal

JUICE SULPHITATOR:

Enthalpy of solid in

= m x Cp(s) x T
= 501x0.299x(71-25)x103
= 6890.754x103Kcal.

Enthalpy of water in

= m x Cp(W) x T
= 2619x1.004x(71-25)x103
= 120955.896x103Kcal.

[35]

Specific heat of Ca(OH)2=21.4 cal/mol [ From Data table][3]

=21.4/74 Kcal / Kg
=0.289 Kcal / Kg.
Enthalpy of Ca (OH)2 in= m x Cp x T
= 1.5x0.289x(71-25)x103
=19.941x103 Kcal.
Specific heat of SO2

=7.7+0.00537-(0.000000837)2 [3]
=8.072 cal/mol
=8.072/64=0.126 Kcal / Kg.

Enthalpy of SO2 in

= m x Cp x T
= 0.6x0.126(71-25)x103
=3.478x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of solid out = m x Cp(s) x T

= 503.1x0.299(70-25)x103 Kcal
= 6769.21x103 Kcal
Enthalpy of water out= m x Cp(Wout) x T
= 2619x1.004(70-25)x103
= 118326.42x103 Kcal
Total Enthalpy in

= 127870.069x103 Kcal

So, Amount of heat released = 2774.439x103 Kcal

[36]

HEATER:

Enthalpy of solid in

= m x Cp(s) x T [5]
= 503.1 x 0.299 x (70-25) x 103
= 6769.21x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of water in = m x Cp(Win) x T

= 2619 x 1.004 x (70-25) x 103
= 11832.42x103 Kcal
Enthalpy of solid out = m x Cp(s) x T
= 503.1x0.299x(103-25)x103
= 11733.298x103 Kcal .
Enthalpy of water out = m x Cp(Wout) x T
= 2529x1.012x(103-25)x103
= 199629.144x103 Kcal
Enthalpy of vapor out = m x [5]
= 90(540.5) x 103
= 48645x103 Kcal
Total Enthalpy in

= 125095.63x103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy out

= 263222.602x103 Kcal

[37]

Hence;
Total heat required

= Total Enthalpy out- total Enthalpy In

=138126.972 x 103 Kcal

CLARIFIER:

Enthalpy of solid in

= m x Cp(s) x T
= 503.1 x 0.299 x (103-25) x 103
= 11733.298x103 Kcal

Enthalpy of water in = m x Cp(Win) x T

= 2529 x 1.012 x (103-25) x 103
= 199629.144x103 Kcal
Enthalpy of solid out = m x Cp(s) x T
= 436.81x0.299x(102-25)x103
= 10056.677x103 Kcal
Enthalpy of water out = m x Cp(Wout) x T
= 2475.29 x 1.012 x (102-25)x103
[38]

= 192884.498 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of mud juice= m x Cp x T

= 118.2 x 0.126 x (102-25) x 103
= 1146.77x103 Kcal
Enthalpy of lime out = 1.5 x 0.289 x (102-25) x 103
=33.38x103 Kcal
Specific heat of SO2 =77+0.6053(102)-0.00000083(102) 2[3]
=77.532/64 Kcal / Kg
=1.211 Kcal / Kg
Enthalpy of SO2 out = m x Cp x T
= 0.3x1.211x(102-25)x103
= 27.974 x 103 Kcal
Total Enthalpy in

=211362.442 x 103 Kcal

Total Enthalpy out

=204149.306 x 103 Kcal

Total heat released = Total Enthalpy In Total Enthalpy Out

=7213.136 x 103 Kcal

[39]

EVAPORATOR-I:

(85% water to 65% water)

Datum temperature =102C.

Clear juice balance:[5]
Enthalpy in: Hf = m x Cp x t
T=102-102=0
Cp=0.96 Kcal / Kg
m=2912.1x103kg
Hf =0.
Enthalpy out=Hp = m x Cp x t
t=0 Hp=0
Latent heat of input steam (s) at 126c=540.5 Kcal / Kg.[5]
Enthalpy of steam in

= S x s .

Enthalpy of vapor out = m x . ( at 102=536.45 Kcal / Kg)

=582.42x536.45
=312439.209x103 Kcal.

[40]

Hf + Ss =Hp + m.
0+(540.5) S = 312439.21
S=578.056 ton
Amount of steam required =578.056 x 103 kg.

EVAPORATOR-II:
(65%water to 55% water)

Datum temperature: 78c

Hf= m x Cp x t
Cp= 0.96 Kcal / Kg; t=120-78=42
Hf= 2329.68 x 0.96 x 42
= 93932.698x103 Kcal.
Enthalpy of vapor in= V1 x .
=V1x 536.45.

Since datum temperature is 78C, t =0.

Hp=0
[41]

 at 78= 531.11 Kcal / Kg.

Enthalpy of vapor out = m x
= 291.195 x 531.11 x 103
= 154656.577 x 103 Kcal
Hf + m = Hp + vapor out Enthalpy.[5]
(93932.698x103) + (V1 x 536.45) = 0 + 154656.577 x 103
V1 = (154656.577-93932.698) / 536.45
=113.195x103 kg.
Vapor required for II effect = 113.195x103 kg.

EVAPORATOR-III
[55% Water-45%Water]

Datum Temperature: 66C

Enthalpy of feed Hf = m x Cp x t
= 2038.486 x 0.96 x (78-66) x 103
= 23483.358 x 103 Kcal.
Enthalpy of vapor in =V2 x 531.11
[42]

=V2 x 531.11 [s at 78 =531.11 Kcal / Kg]

Enthalpy of product Hp=0

Since;

t =66-66=0

Enthalpy of vapor out =m x

=291.23 x 529.18 x 103
=154113.091x103 Kcal.
Hf + vapor in= Hp+ m .[5]
V2 x 531.11=0 + [154113.091x103-23483.358x103]
V2 = 130629.733 / 536.601x103 = 243.439 ton
Vapor required for III effect = 243.439x103 kg

EVAPORATOR-IV:
[45% Water-40% Water]

Enthalpy of feed Hf = m x Cp x t
= 1747.263 x 0.96 x (66-55) x 103
= 18451.097 x 103 Kcal
[43]

Enthalpy of vapor in = V3 x 534.211

= V3 x 534.21 [s at 66 =534.211Kcal / Kg]

Enthalpy of product Hp=0

Since; t=0
Enthalpy of vapor out =m
=145.605x528.25.
=76915.841x10^3Kcal
Hf + V3 = Hp+ m [5]
Now; V3 = 0 + (76915.841-18451.097) x103
V3 = 58464.744 / 534.211 = 109.441x103 kg
Vapor required for IV effect = 109.441x103 kg

PAN -BOILER A:

Reference Temperature: 25 C
Enthalpy of juice in = m x C p x t
= 1601.65 x 0.96(55-25) x 103
[44]

= 46127.52 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor in = S x
= S x 0.4574

Enthalpy of juice out = Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible heat of

water & sucrose
= (304.312 x 526) + (248.982 + 436.81)
0.96 x (60-25)
=183109.671 x 103 Kcal
Enthalpy of vapor out = m x
= 611.546 x 540.5 x103
= 330540.613 x 103 Kcal
46127.52 x 103 + 554.222 x S = 523440.524 x 103
S= 861.233x103 kg.

PAN BOILER-B:

Reference Temperature: 25 C
[45]

Enthalpy of molasses in = m x C p x t
= 650.563 x 0.96 x ( 60-25) x 103
= 21852.157 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor in = S x
= 540.5 x S
Enthalpy of molassesout= Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible
heat of water & sucrose
= [78.623 x 530] + [234.179x0.96x
(65-25) x 103]
= 50662.664 x 103 Kcal
Enthalpy of vapor out= m x
= 337.558 x 540.5 x 103
= 182450.09 x 103 Kcal
i.e;(21852.157x103) + 556.951 S = (239290.074 x 103)
Hence;

S =390.717 x 103 kg.

PAN- BOILER C:

Reference Temperature: 25C

[46]

Enthalpy of molasses in = m x C p x t
= 232.453 x 103 x 0.96 x (65-25)
= 8926.195 x 103 Kcal

Enthalpy of vapor in

= S x 540.5
=540.5 S

Enthalpy of molasses out= Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible

heat of water & sucrose
= [36.536 x 539] + [6.793 x 0.96 x
(70-25) x 103]
= 22448.762 x 103 Kcal
Enthalpy of vapor out

= 132.183 x 540.5 x 103

= 71444.912 x 103 Kcal

(8926.195 x 103) + 558.80S = (96614.991x103)

S = [(96614.991-8926.195) x 103]/558.8
hence;

S= 156.923 x 103 kg.

CRYSTALLISER-A:

[47]

Reference Temperature: 25C

Enthalpy of Massecuite in = m x Cp x t
= 309.741 x 0.96 x (60-25) x 103
= 10407.298 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out

=Sx
= S (540.5)

Enthalpy of massecuite out = Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible

heat of water & sucrose
= (261.978 x 530) + [47.7647 x 0.96 x
(50-25) x 103]
= 139994.693 x 103 Kcal
(10407.298 x 103) = 540.5S +139994.696 x 103
S = -233.754 x 103 kg

Hence; Amount of heat released = 233.754 x 103 Kcal

CRYSTALLISER-B:

[48]

Reference Temperature: 25C

Enthalpy of massecuite in = m x Cp x t
= 80.352 x 0.96 x (65-25) x 103
= 3085.516 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out

=Sx
= S (540.5)

Enthalpy of massecuite out = Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible

Heat of water & sucrose
= (71.841 x 539) + [8.511 x 0.96 x
(55-25) x 103]
= 38967.4158x103 Kcal
(3085.516 x 103) = 540.5S + 38967.4158 x103 Kcal
S= - 66.386 x 103 kg
Hence; Amount of heat released = 66.386 x 103 Kg

CRYSTALLISER-C:

Enthalpy of massecuite in = m x Cp x t
= 52.144 x 0.96 x (70-25) x 103
[49]

= 2256.621 x 103 Kcal.

Enthalpy of vapor out

= S x ()
= S (540.5)

Enthalpy of massecuite out = Enthalpy of crystallization + sensible

heat of water & sucrose
= (19.966 x 542) + (2.182 x 0.96 x 35 x 103)
= 10894.887 x 103 Kcal
(2256.621 x 103) = 540.5S + 10894.887 x 103 Kcal
S = -15.989x103 kg
Hence, Amount of heat released = 15.989 x 103 Kg

[50]

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS

[51]

DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS
EVAPORATOR:
Data : [8]
Evaporator drums operating at 1.45 bars.
Amount of water to be evaporated = 582.426 tons/day.
Heating surface required A= Q / (UxT).
Overall U=1653.75w/m2k.
Q=140564.783x10^3kcal.
t =102-55=47C.
Area of Evaporator Drum, A= [Q/(Uxt)]/4
=140564.783x103/(1653.75x47)
=1808.45/4
=452.1125 m2.

Steam is available to Ist effect pressure=1.96bar. [7]

Density of liquid
Density of water vapor

=1400kg/m3.
= PM/RT

=1.45x10^5x18/[8314x(102+273)]
=0.837kg/m3.
Design pressure =0.05x1.936
=0.0968+1
p=2.0328 bar.
[52]

Material:
Evaporator low carbon steel.
Tubes- brass.
Permissible stress for low carbon steel (f)

=980 kg/cm2 [5]

Modulus of elasticity for low carbon steel (Es) =19x105 kg/cm2

Modulus of elasticity for brass- 9.5x105kg/cm2
Conical head at bottom cone angle -120
Conical head at top cone angle -120.
CALENDRIA SHEET THICKNESS:
Ts = pDo/2fj+p.
where; f=980 kg/cm2; Do=3m; j=0.85
Ts= (2.0328x3000)/[(2x980x0.85)+2.0328]
=3.656mm.
The actual thickness must be much more so as to allow for corrosion and give rigidity
to the shell.
it may be taken as its =12mm.[6]
TUBE SHEET THICKNESS:
K= [EsxTsx (Do-Ts)]/ [EtxNtx (do-tt)]
Number of Tubes, NT=A/a

Where;

A- Heat Transfer Area

a- Area of Tube
Do-Shell Diameter=3000 m
[53]

Now: a= dox l
Where; A=452.1125m2; Length of tube (l) =3.576 m
do-Outer diameter of tube=60.325x10-3 m
a =x60.325x10-3x3.576
=0.6932m2.
NT=A/a=652.2
Now K =19x105x12(3000-12) / [9.5x105x652.2x (60.325-5.5) x10-3]
K =0.3646 m
SHELL SIDE PRESSURE:
F= [(2+K)/(2+3xK)] 0.5
F= [(2+0.3646) / (2+3x0.3646)] 0.5
=1.0396 Bar
EFFECTIVE TUBE SHEET THICKNESS
Tts=fDo [(0.25x2.0328) / 980] 0.5
=1.039x3000x [(0.25x2.0328) / 980] 0.5
=71.021mm.
With corrosion allowable the thickness may be taken as 75mm.
EVAPORATOR DRUM DIAMETER:
Rd= (V/A) / 0.0172x ({l-v}]
Assuming drums with wire mesh as separator device, Rd may be taken as 1.3.
V=582.42x103 / (24x3600) kg/s
=density of vapor =0.837 kg/m3
[54]

 A=5.642 / [1.3x0.0172x (1400-0.837) / 0.837]

Drum area =6.171 m2

Drum diameter; d= (4x6.171) x
=2.803 m.
NO.OF.TUBES:
No.of.tubes =heat transfer area / ( x outer diameter of tube x length).
=425.1125 / (x60.325x10-3x3.576)
=627.
DESIGN SUMMARY:

PARAMETERS

VALUES

CALENDRIA SHEET THICKNESS

12 mm

TUBE SHEET THICKESS

0.3646 m

SHELL SIDE PRESSURE

1.0396 Bars

EFFECTIVE

TUBE

SHEET 75 mm

THICKNESS
EVAPORATOR DRUM DIAMETER

2.803 m

NUMBER OF TUBES

627

[55]

CRYSTALLIZER:
Q = U x A x Tlmtd.
Uo-Overall heat transfer coefficient in k.
1/Uo=1/ho+1/hi+do/di+Rd.[6]
Outer diameter of tube (do)=1.25=31.75mm
Inner diameter of tube (di) =0.95=24.13mm
Mass velocity of water

=815.016kg/s. Nt=3784; Np=4

Average temperature of water = 60c.

Specific heat at 60 C, Cp=4.2258 kJ/kg k.
[56]

Viscosity =0.77x10-3 N3/m2.

Thermal conductivity k=0.6526 W/mK.
Density =994.032 kg/m3.
Now, Npr= cp / k [7]
= (4.2258x1000x.77x10^-3)/0.6256
=5.20
Mass velocity of water = mw =815.016 kg/s
Flow area At= {( di2)/4} x {Nt/Np}
= {(x(0.02413^2))/4}x{3784/4}
=0.43261 m2/pass.
Water velocity =V=mw/ (xAt) [6]
=815.016 / (994.032x0.4326)
=1.895 m/s.

NRe = (dixxV) /
= (0.0213x994.032x1.895) / (0.77x10-3)
=59030.461>10000.
Therefore:
By Dittus Bolter Law;
NNu=0.023x (NRe) 0.8x (NPr)] 0.3
=0.023x (59030.461) 0.8x (5.2) 0.3=247.394
Now, hi = NNu x K / di
[57]

hi = (247.394x0.6256) / (0.02413)
=6413.9945 W/m2K
ho =1.51(K3x2xg/2)1/3x(NRe)1/3
=1.50x18423.18x0.201
=5590.32w/m2.k
Rd=8.81x10-5
Here; 1/Uo=1/ho+1/hi+do/di+Rd
1/Uo=(1/5590.32)+(16413.9945)x(31.75/24.13)x(8.81x10-5)
=5.286x10-4 m2 K/W.
Uo=1891.7896 W/m2K
Inlet Temperature of Water = 30C
Outlet Temperature of Water= 45C
Required area, A =Q / (Uoxt lmtd).
Effective Q =349793.58 kg/hr.

Tlmtd = (30-60)-(70-60) / ln (30/10)

Tlmtd= 18.205
A=Q / (Uox Tlmtd) [6]
=349793.58 / (1891.7896x18.205)
=10.157 m2.
r- Radius of Crystallizer and is taken as 0.5 m
Length of the Crystallizer (l) =A / ( x r) =10.157/ ( x 0.5) = 6.466 m
[58]

DESIGN SUMMARY:
PARAMETERS

VALUE

AREA OF CRYSTALLISER

10.157 m2

LENGTH OF THE CRYSTALLISER

6.466 m

[59]

CRYSTALLISER:

[60]

COST ESTIMATION AND

ECONOMICS

[61]

COST ESTIMATION AND ECONOMICS

The cost for 4000 TPD crushing capacity plant with Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index (CE) =130 (Basis = 1957 -59; CE = 100) is as follows:
Cost for 4000 TPD crushing capacity = Rs. 10.25 x 107/-

TO FIND PRESENT COSTS:

A cost index is merely an index value for a given point in time showing the
cost at that time relative to a certain base time. If the cost at some time in past is
known, the equivalent cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the
original cost by the ratio of the present index value to the index value applicable when
the original cost was obtained. Obtained from the Internet that Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index is given as:
Cost index in 2002 = 402
Original cost value is obtained when cost index was 130.
Thus,
Present cost of Plant = (original cost) x {(present cost index)/(past cost index)}
= (10,25,00,000 /-) x (402/130) = Rs. 31.70 x107 /Fixed Capital Investment (FCI) = Rs. 31.70 x 107 /Generally fixed capital investment cost is 85% of total capital investment.
Therefore Total Capital Investment = (FCI)/0.85 = 37.29 x 107 Rs.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT

COSTS:
(I) DIRECT COSTS:
(A) Material and labor involved in actual installation of complete facility (70-85%
of fixed-capital investment)
a) Equipment + installation + instrumentation + piping + electrical + insulation +
painting (50-60% of Fixed-capital investment)
[62]

a. PURCHASED EQUIPMENT COST (PEC):

RANGE = 15-40% of Fixed-capital investment
Let Purchased Equipment Cost = 30% of Fixed-capital investment
PEC = 30% of Rs. 31.70 x107 /= Rs. 9.51 x 107 /b. INSTALLATION, INCLUDING INSULATION & PAINTING:
RANGE = 25-55% of purchased equipment cost.
Let Installation Cost = 35% of Purchased equipment cost
= 35% of Rs. 9.51 107 /= Rs. 3.33x107 /c. INSRUMENTATION & CONTROLS, INSTALLED:
RANGE = 6-30% of Purchased equipment cost.
Let Instrumentation Cost = 10% of Purchased equipment cost
= 10% of Rs. 9.5 x107 /= Rs. 0.951 x 107 /d. PIPING INSTALLED:
RANGE = 10-80% of Purchased equipment cost
Let Piping Cost = 40% of Purchased equipment cost
= 40% of Rs. 9.51 x 107 /= Rs. 3.804 x 107 /e. ELECTRICALS INSTALLED:
RANGE = 10-40% of Purchased equipment cost
Let Electrical cost = 25% of Purchased equipment cost
= 25% of Rs. 9.51 x 107 /= Rs. 2.3775 x 107 /Therefore Total cost for (A) = Rs. 19.9725 x 107 /-

(B) BUILDINGS, PROCESS & AUXILARY:

RANGE = 10-70% of Purchased equipment cost
Let Buildings, process and auxiliary cost = 30% of PEC
= 30% of Rs. 9.51 x107 /= Rs. 2.853 x107 /[63]

(C) SERVICE FACILITIES & YARD IMPROVEMENTS:

RANGE = 40-100% of Purchased equipment cost
Let Facilities and yard improvement cost = 50% of PEC
= 50% of Rs. 9.51 x107 /= Rs. 4.755 x107 /(D) LAND:
RANGE = 4-8% of Purchased equipment cost
Let the cost of land = 6% of PEC
= 6% of Rs. 9.51 x107 /= Rs. 0.5706 x107 /Therefore Total Direct Cost = Rs.28.1511 x107 /-

(II) INDIRECT COSTS:

Expenses, which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual
Installation of complete facility (15-30% of Fixed-capital investment)

(A) ENGINERING & SUPERVISION:

RANGE = 5-30% of Direct costs
Let the cost of engineering and supervision = 10% of Direct costs
= 10% of Rs. 28.151 x107 /= Rs. 2.815x107 /-

(B) CONSTRUCTION EXPENSES & CONTRACTORS FEE:

RANGE = 6-30% of Direct costs
Let construction expense & contractors fee = 15% of Direct costs
= 15% of Rs. 28.1511x107 /= Rs. 4.22 x107 /(C) CONTINGENCY:
RANGE = 5-15% of Fixed-capital investment
Let the contingency cost = 8% of Fixed-capital investment
= 8% of Rs. 31.70 x107 /[64]

= Rs. 2.536 x107 /Thus, Total Indirect Costs = Rs. 9.574x107 /-

(III) FIXED CAPITAL INVESTMENT:

Fixed capital investment = Direct costs + Indirect costs
= Rs 37.7251x107 /-

WORKING CAPITAL:
RANGE = (10-20% of Total-capital investment)
Let the Working Capital = 15% of Total-capital investment
= 15% of 37.29 x 107 /= 0.15 x 37.29 x107 /= Rs. 5.5935 x 107 /-

TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT (TCI):

Total capital investment = Fixed capital investment + Working capital
= Rs.43.3186 x107 /-

(IV) ESTIMATION OF TOTAL PRODUCTION COST:

MANUFACTURING COST = Direct production cost + Fixed charges +
Plant overhead cost.
FIXED CHARGES: (10-20% total product cost)
i. DEPRECIATION: (depends on life period, salvage value and method of
calculation-about 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2-3% for Building
Value for Buildings)
Consider depreciation = 10% of FCI for machinery and equipment and 2.5% for
Building Value for Buildings)
i.e. Depreciation = (0.10x37.7251x107) + (0.025x 2.853x107)
= Rs. 3.8443x107 /ii. LOCAL TAXES: (1-4% of fixed capital investment)
[65]

Consider the local taxes = 2% of fixed capital investment

i.e. Local Taxes = 0.02 x 37.7251x107 = Rs. 0.7545x107 /iii. INSURANCES: (0.4-1% of fixed capital investment)
Consider the Insurance = 0.6% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Insurance = Rs. 0.226 x107 /iv. RENT: (8-12% of value of rented land and buildings)
Consider rent = 10% of value of rented land and buildings
= Rs. 0.2853x107 /Thus, Total Fixed Charges = Rs. 5.1105x107 /DIRECT PRODUCTION COST: (about 60% of total product cost)
Now we have Fixed charges = 10-20% of total product charges (given)
Consider the Fixed charges = 15% of total product cost
Total product cost = Total fixed charges/0.15
Total product cost = 5.1105 x107/0.15
Total product cost (TPC) = Rs. 34.07 x107 /i. RAW MATERIALS: (10-50% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of raw materials = 25% of total product cost
Raw material cost = 25% of 34.07 x107 = Rs. 8.5175 x107 /ii. OPERATING LABOUR (OL): (10-20% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of operating labour = 12% of total product cost
Operating labour cost = 12% of 34.07x107 = 0.12x34.07 x107
= Rs. 4.0884x107 /iii. DIRECT SUPERVISORY & CLERICAL LABOUR :(10-25% of OL)
Consider the cost for Direct supervisory and clerical labour = 12% of OL
Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = 12% of 4.0884 x107 /= 0.12 x 4.0884 x107 /Direct supervisory and clerical labour cost = Rs. 0.4906 x107 /[66]

iv. UTILITIES: (10-20% of total product cost)

Consider the cost of Utilities = 12% of total product cost
Utilities cost = 12% of 34.07 x107

= 0.12x34.07x107 /= Rs. 4.0884x107 /-

v. MAINTAINANCE & REPAIR (M & R): (2-10% of fixed capital investment)

Consider the maintenance and repair cost = 5% of fixed capital investment
i.e. Maintenance and repair cost = 0.05x37.725x107 = Rs. 1.8863 x07 /vi. OPERATING SUPPLIES: (10-20% of M & R or 0.5-1% of FCI)
Consider the cost of Operating supplies = 15% of M & R
Operating supplies cost = 15% of 1.8863x107 = 0.15x1.8863 x107 /= Rs. 0.2829x107 /vii. LABORATORY CHARGES: (10-20% of OL)
Consider the Laboratory charges = 14% of OL
Laboratory charges = 14% of 4.0884x107
= 0.5724x107 /viii. PATENT & ROYALTIES: (0-6% of total product cost)
Consider the cost of Patent and royalties = 2% of total product cost
Patent and Royalties = 2% of 34.07x107

= 0.6814x107 /-

Thus, Direct Production Cost = Rs. 20.6079x107 /-

GENERAL EXPENSES = Administrative costs + distribution and selling costs

+ research and development costs
ADMINISTRATIVE COSTS :(2-6% of total product cost)
Consider the Administrative costs = 5% of total product cost
Administrative costs = 0.05x34.07 x107
Administrative costs = Rs. 1.7035x107 /DISTRIBUTION & SELLING COSTS: (2-20% of total product cost); includes
costs for sales offices, salesmen, shipping, and advertising.
[67]

Consider the Distribution and selling costs = 15% of total product cost
Distribution and selling costs = 15% of 34.07x107 /= 0.15x34.07x107
= Rs. 5.1105x107 /RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT COSTS: (about 5% of total product cost)
Consider the Research and development costs = 5% of total product cost
Research and Development costs = 5% of 34.07x107 /= 0.05x34.07x107
= Rs. 1.7035x107 /FINANCING (INTEREST): (0-10% of total capital investment)
Consider interest = 5% of total capital investment
i.e. interest = 5% of 43.3186x107 = 0.05x43.3186x107
= Rs. 2.1660x107 /Thus, General Expenses = Rs. 10.6835x107 /TOTAL PRODUCTION COST = Manufacture cost + General Expenses
= (29.1254x107) + (10.6835x107)
Therefore Total product cost = Rs. 39.8089x107 /-

GROSS EARNINGS / INCOME:

Wholesale Selling Price of cane sugar per T = Rs. 8000 /As we know sugar factory operates only 120 - 200 days in a year and the
production of cane sugar per hour is 26.4818 T per hour (from material balance). The
working hours per day are 20.
Assuming factory operates only 150 days in a year.
Total Income = Selling price per T x Quantity of product manufactured (T/year)
= 8000 x (26.4818 x20) T/day x150 days/year
Total Income = Rs. 63.56 x107 /Gross income = Total Income Total Product Cost
= (63.56 x107) (39.8089 x107)
Gross Income = Rs. 23.75x107 /[68]

Let the Tax rate be 40%.

Taxes = 40% of Gross income
= 40% of 23.75x107 = 0.40 x 23.75 x 107
Taxes = Rs. 9.50 x 107 /Net Profit = Gross income - Taxes = Gross income x (1- Tax rate)
Net profit = (23.75x107) x (1 0.40) = Rs. 14.25x107 /-

RATE OF RETURN:
Rate of return = (Net profit x100)/ Total Capital Investment
Rate of Return = (14.25 x107 x 100)/ (43.3186 x107)
Rate of Return = 32.89%
Payout period = (FCI) / (Net profit + Depreciation)
= (37.7251 107) / (14.25 107 + 3.8443 107)
Payout period = 2 years

[69]

PROCESS CONTROL

[70]

PROCESS CONTROL
Cane Preparation plays an important role in achieving higher crushing rate
with improved pol extraction in minimum power consumption. During cane
preparation, the cane structure is to be districted into small pieces. There are different
devices used in different combinations to achieve fine cane preparation such as:[5]

Cane-kicker Leveller Cutter

Kicker leveller Cutter-Shredder

Kicker leveller Cutter-fibrizer.

It is observed that with second and third combination, the cane preparation is

better. By good cane preparation, the following advantages are derived:

1. High bulk density of the prepared cane.
2. High percentage of open cells containing more sugar in cells.
3. High preparation Index
4. Long fiber length
The cane preparation is judged by Preparatory Index.
PREPARATORY INDEX

It is defined as the degree of achievement of

preparation. The formula for calculating the preparatory index is as follows:

% P.I = [(% pol extracted by leaching) / (% pol extracted by disintegration)] x 100
If the value of P.I is desired to be between 80 to 85% for better cane
preparation is good. The temperature to be maintained in each equipment in a sugar
plant is controlled by a Temperature valve controller which is fixed in the equipment
itself. Any deviations from standard temperature in the equipment or in the flow tube
are sensed by a sensory valve and are indicated in the control room. Suitable changes
in the valves are made to bring the temperature to stability. Similarly, the pressure
inside evaporators and vacuum pans are controlled by suitable pressure valves. The
even operation of a process is dependent upon the control of the process variables.
When the flow sheet is laid out for the processs,the temperature, pressure and fluid
flow quantities are theoretically fixed in accordance with the heat, pressure and
material balance. the translation of flow sheet into an operable plan requires that
[71]

special provision be made to assure the relative constancy of the various quantities
and qualities. Automatic control is employed to measure suppress and correct and
modify changes of four principal types of process variation.
1. Temperature control
2. Pressure control
3. Flow control
4. Level control
It is the object of all controllers to regulate process variables, and to do so they must
be capable of first measuring the variables. Some instruments are equipped to indicate
the variable in a continuously readable from and others recorders, are equipped with
pen and ink on a traveling chart calibrated for time. In modern process industries,
digital control systems (DCS) are used for effective control of process variables.
Flow metering
The measurement of flow rate is done for the purpose of determining the
properties of the materials introduced, the amount of material evolve by the process.
Secondly flow measurement is made for the purpose of cost accounting usually for
steam and water services. Instruments like venturimeter , orificemeter ,rotameter are
used to measure the flow rate.
VARIABLE

MODE OF CONTROL

Temperature

P, PI, PID

Pressure

P, PI, PID

Flow

P, PI, PID

[72]

CONTROL ROOM:
Well engineered display is important in individual indicating and recording
instruments becomes crucial in control room design when data on large and often
critical process operations must be used by a human operator. Indicator and recorders
must be
coordinated with controls, switchs, alarms and auxiliary equipments so as to present a
clear easily grasped display of the process condition. There are four essential parts of
every control station. They are
1. Process variable indicator
2. A set point mechanism
3. An adjustment device, called manual, that directly manipulates signal to control
valves.
4. An output signal indicator.
Control room is where the sensors of all equipments are connected to each
other using suitable soft wares.

Usually, HONEYWELL software is used for

controlling the equipments in a sugar plant. Using sensors, the valves in each
equipment are controlled. Thus, the parameters in each equipment are controlled. [5]

[73]

PLANT LOCATION AND SITE

SELECTON
[74]

PLANT LOCATION AND SITE SELECTON

The geographical location of the final plant can have strong influence on the
success of the industrial venture. Considerable care must be exercised in selecting the
plant site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily the plant must be
located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but
other factors such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation
as well as the surrounding community are also important. The location of the plant
can also have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project. [10]
The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the
advantages and disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately, on the
advantages and disadvantages of the available real estate. The various principal
factors that must be considered while selecting a suitable plant site are briefly
discussed in this section. The factors to be considered are:
1. Raw material availability
2. Location (with respect to the marketing area)
3. Availability of suitable land
4. Transport facilities
5. Availability of labors
6. Availability of utilities (Water, Electricity)
7. Environmental impact and effluent disposal
8. Local community considerations
9. Climate
10. Political strategic considerations
11. Taxations and legal restrictions

[75]

Raw Materials Availability:

The source of raw materials is one of the most important factors influencing
the selection of a plant site. This is particularly true for the cane sugar plant because a
large volume of sugar cane is consumed in the process, which will result in the
reduction of the transportation and storage charges. Attention should be given to the
purchased price of the raw materials, distance from the source of supply, freight and
transportation expenses, availability and reliability of supply, purity of raw materials
and storage requirements.

Location:
The location of markets or intermediate distribution centers affects the cost of
product distribution and time required for shipping. Proximity to the major markets is
an important consideration in the selection of the plant site, because the buyer usually
finds advantageous to purchase from near-by sources.

Availability of Suitable Land:

The characteristics of the land at the proposed plant site should be examined
carefully. The topography of the tract of land structure must be considered, since
either or both may have a pronounced effect on the construction costs. The cost of the
land is important, as well as local building costs and living conditions. Future changes
may make it desirable or necessary to expand the plant facilities. The land should be
ideally flat, well drained and have load-bearing characteristics. A full site evaluation
should be made to determine the need for piling or other special foundations

Transport:
The transport of materials and products to and from plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site should be selected so that it is
close to at least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a seaport. Road
transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for local distribution from a
central warehouse. Rail transport will be cheaper for the long-distance transport. If
possible the plant site should have access to all three types of transportation. There is
usually need for convenient rail and air transportation facilities between the plant and
[76]

the main company head quarters, and the effective transportation facilities for the
plant personnel are necessary.

Availability of Labors:
Labors will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site, but there should
be an adequate pool of unskilled labors available locally; and labors suitable for
training to operate the plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability and suitability of the labors for recruitment and training.

Availability of Utilities:
The word utilities is generally used for the ancillary services needed in the
operation of any production process. These services will normally be supplied from
acentral facility and includes Water, Fuel and Electricity which are briefly described
as follows:
Water: - The water is required for large industrial as well as general purposes, starting
with water for cooling, washing and steam generation. The plant therefore must be
located where a dependable water supply is available namely lakes, rivers, wells, seas.
If the water supply shows seasonal fluctuations, its desirable to construct a reservoir
or to drill several standby wells. The temperature, mineral content, slit and sand
content, bacteriological content, and cost for supply and purification treatment must
also be considered when choosing a water supply. De-mineralized water, from which
all the minerals have been removed, is used where pure water is needed for the
process use, in boiler feed. Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used
to provide the cooling water required on site.
Electricity: - Power and steam requirements are high in most industrial plants and fuel
is ordinarily required to supply these utilities. Power, fuel and steam are required for
running the various equipments like generators, motors, turbines, plant lightings and
general use and thus be considered, as one major factor is choice of plant site.

[77]

PLANT LAYOUT :
After the flow process diagrams are completed and before detailed piping,
structural and electrical design can begin, the layout of process units in a plant and the
equipment within these process unit must be planned. This layout can play an
important part in determining construction and manufacturing costs, and thus must be
planned carefully with attention being given to future problems that may arise.
Thus the economic construction and efficient operation of a process unit will
depend on how well the plant and equipment specified on the process flow sheet is
laid out. The principal factors that are considered are listed below:[5]
1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs
2. Process requirements
3. Convenience of operation
4. Convenience of maintenance
5. Health and Safety considerations
6. Future plant expansion
7. Modular construction
8. Waste disposal requirements

Costs:
Adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of connecting pipe between
equipment, and least amount of structural steel work can minimize the coat of
construction. However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation
and
maintenance.

Process Requirements:
An example of the need to take into account process consideration is the need
to elevate the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a
pump.

[78]

Convenience of Operation:
Equipment that needs to have frequent attention should be located convenient
to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at
convenient positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be
provided to allow easy access to equipment.

Convenience of Maintenance:
Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily
withdrawn for cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent
replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the out side of buildings.
Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large
pumps, should be places under cover.

Health and Safety Considerations:

Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and
confine the effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be
provided from each level in process buildings.

Future Plant Expansion:

Equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any
future expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs,
and service pipes over-sized to allow for future requirements.[4]

Modular Construction:
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturers site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping
and instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or
sea.
The Advantages of modular construction are:
1. Improved quality control
2. Reduced construction cost
3. Less need for skilled labors on site
[79]

The Disadvantages of modular construction are:

1. Higher design costs & more structural steel work
2. More flanged constructions & possible problems with assembly, on site

[80]

[81]

POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY

[82]

POLLUTION CONTROL AND SAFETY

Sugar industry is basically seasonal in nature and operates only for 120 to 200
days in a year (early November to April). A significantly large volume of waste is
generated during the manufacture of sugar and contains a high amount of pollutional
load particularly in terms of suspended solids, organic matter, and press mud, bagasse
and air pollutants. Therefore an attempt has been made to present an overview of
waste management in sugar industry in India. [9]

WASTE GENERATION:
WASTEWATER:
Mill house: Mill house wastewater is derived from continuous gland cooling and
intermittent floor washing and contains high amounts of oils and grease and sugar
from spills and leaks.
Boiler Blow-down: Boiler blow-down is fairly clean water except that it contains high
dissolved solids and phosphates.
Rotary filter: Filter cloth is periodically washed and constituents a source of
wastewater.
Occasional Spills and Leaks: Leaks from pumps and pipes in the evaporators and
Centrifuge house, along with periodical floor washings, constitute another source of
wastewater. Although the flow is intermittent and volume discharged is not large, it
represents the most polluting fraction of sugar mill wastewater.
Condensate Washings: Evaporators, juice heaters, pans, etc are cleaned once in 20
days for removal of deposited scales. Caustic soda, sodium bicarbonate and
hydrochloric acid are used for scale removal. Normally the caustic soda washings are
stored and reused for cleaning operations. However, in India, most of the sugar mills
discharge these chemicals into the drains. After the equipment is boiled with caustic
soda and rinsed with fresh water, it is cleaned with dilute hydrochloric acid using an
inhibitor. The wastewater is discharged into the drains, as the recovery of the
chemicals may not prove to be economical. It is suggested to have a holding tank and
[83]

mix this wastewater gradually to the final effluent to avoid shock loading on the
treatment plant.
Sulphur and Lime Houses: The washings of sulphur and lime house would contain a
considerable amount of inorganic solids, which include carbonates and sulphates. The
effluents from these two units when combined would give neutral pH value of waste.
This wastewater does not contribute to organic pollution but can be characterized as
inorganic wastewater.[4]

WASTEWATER PARAMETERS:
BOD: - This is the measure of the oxygen consuming capabilities of organic matter.
During decomposition, organic effluents exert a BOD that can deplete oxygen supply.
BOD is generally measured and expressed in parts per million or milligrams per litre.
The effluents from a raw sugar factory can vary between hundred to several thousands
mg/l.
Dissolved Oxygen: - This is water quality constituent. It is measured and expressed as
parts per million or mg/l.
Total Suspended Solids (TSS): - Suspended solids when they settle form sludge on
the stream, lakebed and they are most damaging to the life in water.

SOLID WASTES:
Bagasse: It is estimated that bagasse contributes to 33.3% residue of the total cane
Crushed. It has a calorific value of about 1920 kcal/kg and is mainly used as fuel in
boilers for steam generation.
Press Mud: It contains all non-sucrose impurities along with CaCO3 precipitate and
sulphate. Press mud from double sulphitation process contains valuable nutrients like
nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, etc, and therefore used as fertilizer. The press mud
from double carbonation process is used for land filling and is not used as manure.

AIR POLLUTANTS:
The bagasse, on burning, produces particulates, viz., unburnt fibres, carbon
particles and gaseous pollutants like oxides of nitrogen, water vapour and other
organic compounds. Of the particulate waste, the heavier particles slowly settle down
in the surrounding area. Such dust fall leads to the problems of cleaning, reduction in
[84]

property value, effect on vegetation, etc. The main gaseous pollutants are CO, which
is altogether not measured by any unit, and CO2 is reported to be in the range of 12
14%.

SAFETY:
Sugar in boiler feed water causes water to foam, which will lead accidents. If
not present in large quantity. It is decomposed by heat into products that are
detrimental to the tubes and shells of boilers causing pitting and overheating. If sugar
is present in small amounts their traces will be eventually accumulated on the boiler
tubes as a harmful and dangerous carbonaceous deposit. The break down of sugar also
forms harmful organic acids. To prevent this lime is added to feed water to maintain
pH = 8.0. A pronounced odour develops in the steam if boiler water contains sugar.
Under such conditions the contaminated feed water is turned to sewer and the boilers
are blown off. To prevent these hazards tests are conducted to determine amount of
sugar traces in water. The most commonly used tests are Naphthol test and
Aresenomolybdate test. [10]

[85]

CONCLUSION

[86]

CONCLUSION
The consumption of sugar in all forms, beet, cane, and corn, in Western
Europe and North America is approximately the same, 60 kg per person each year,
and holding steady. The world average is about 20 kg per person each year and
increasing. Effluent and waste from sugar mills creates major problems for local
environments. However, pesticides and herbicides are applied during cultivation. This
may also contaminate the ground and water supplies. Added to these problems is the
firing of sugar cane prior to harvesting which pumps millions of tons of carbon
dioxide and other chemicals into the atmosphere each year. Natural habitats in
sensitive areas are often cleared in order to grow sugar cane to meet increasing
demand. Since, sugar industry is an agro-based industry, many natural methods are
followed to control soil contamination and the cane yield is completely utilized. Even
the bagasse and press mud from sugar industry is used as fuel for boilers and cattle
feed respectively. Let it be remembered, therefore, that sugar is absolutely necessary,
and if not eaten as such, it must be made from other carbohydrates which exists in
food; but since sugar is the lowest in calorific value of all carbohydrates in an
ordinary diet, as well as the cheapest, it should be used liberally, but wisely.

[87]

NOMENCLATURE

[88]

NOMENCLATURE

Hf = Heat associated with feed in Kcal / Kg

Hp= Heat associated with product in Kcal / Kg
S = Amount of steam supplied in Kg
s = Latent heat of steam in Kcal/Kg
= Latent heat of vapor stream in Kcal/Kg
M = Mass of component in Kg
Cp= Specific Heat of Component in Kcal/Kg
T= Difference in Temperature in K
A = Heat Transfer area in m2
Do=Diameter of Shell in m
do=Diameter of Tube in m
K=Tube Sheet Thickness in m
a= Area of Tube in m2
Q =Amount of heat lost in crystallizer in Kcal/day
Uo=Overall heat transfer co-efficient in K
do=Diameter of outer tube in mm
di=Diameter of inner tube in mm
ho=Heat Transfer co-efficient of outer tube in W/m2K
hi=Heat Transfer co-efficient of inner tube in W/m2K
At

= Area of Tube in m2/pass

Tlmtd= Log mean temperature Difference

V

= Water velocity in m/s

= Radius of crystallizer in m

= Length of crystallizer in m

[89]

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[90]

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Hand Book of Cane Sugar Engineering, by Hugot.E, Elsevier Science

Publications Co.,

3rd review sub-edition, 1986. Page: 23-105

2.

Cane Sugar Book by Meade & Chen, 10th Edition, 1992. Page: 185-220

3.

Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook by R. H. Perry and Don W. Green

Mc Graw Hill International 7th Edition, Chapter-2, Page: 55-150

4.

Hand Book of Cane Sugar Technology by Ram Biharai Lal Mathur, Elsevier
Publications,4th Edition ,Page: 45-61

5.

Coulson and Richardsons Chemical Engineering Series by R. K. Sinnott

Butter Worth-Heinemann, 3rd Edition, Volume 6. Page: 256-280

6.

Plant Design And Economics For Chemical Engineers by Max S. Peters

And Klaus Timmerhaus, Mc-Graw Hill Book Company, 3rd Edition. Page:
333-450

7.

Process Equipment Design by Joshi M .V Mc-Milan India Ltd, 2nd Edition.

1992 Page: 351-420

8.

Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology by Kirk & Othmer Volume-23, 4th

edition, 1993. Page: 23-150

9.

Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology by Ullmann Volume-a, 23, 5th

edition. Published by John Willey and Son Inc., 1993.

10.

Encyclopedia of chemical technology by John J.Mcketta Volume, 23, 5th

edition, 1993. Page: 340-375

[91]