APPENDIX

A. Raw data
TABLE 1. Weight of
Sample
Weight,
No.
g
1
3.5961
2
3.5077
3
3.5841
4
3.5020
5
3.5994
6
3.5042
7
8
9
10

Samples

3.5782
3.5887
3.5939
3.5620

D D
.
A
S
T E
A T
1
S
E
T
2

TABLE 2. Grubbs Test

Data Set
Suspect Values
H: 3.5994
1
L: 3.5020
H: 3.5994
2
L: 3.5020
TABLE 3. Reported Values
Data Set
X

Qtab
1.8871

Qexp
1.0343

Conclusion
Retain

2.2900

1.4640

retain

RSD

RR

3.5489

0.048810

13.754

0.097400

27.445

3.5616

0.040731

11.346

0.097400

27.347

CL
3.6001
3.4977
3.5907
3.5325

B. Working equations and sample calculations

1. Divide the samples into Data Sets 1 and 2.
Data set 1 consists of samples 1 to 6, while data set 2 consists of samples 1 to
10.
2. Perform the Grubbs test (at 95% confidence level) for the suspected outlier
of each data set.
In data set 1, taking the absolute values of the differences of the highest and the
lowest values from the mean

|3.59943.5489|=0.0505

|3.50203.5489|=0.0469
The experimental value, g, is then calculated using the questionable
measurement, the highest value (3.5994). (We use the mean computed in #3).

max X X
|
| |3.59943.5489| 0.0505
i=1 n i
g=
=
=
=1.0343
s
0.048810
0.048810
The suspected outlier is then compared with the tabulated critical g value.
TABLE 4. Critical Values for the Grubbs Test (taken from the Analytical Chemistry
N
g95%

3
4
1.154
1.481
3
2
g99%
1.154
1.496
7
2
Laboratory Manual)

5
1.715
0
1.763
7

6
1.887
1
1.972
8

7
2.020
0
2.139
1

8
2.126
6
2.274
4

9
2.215
0
2.386
8

10
2.290
0
2.482
1

Gtab =1.8871
Since the experimental value is less than the tabulated one, the suspected
outlier should be retained.
For data set 2, taking the absolute values of the differences of the highest and
the lowest values from the mean

|3.59943.5616|=0.0378
|3.50203.5616|=0.0596
The experimental value, g, is then calculated using the questionable
measurement, the lowest value (3.5020). (Again, the mean to be used is the one
computed in #3)

max X X
|
| |3.50203.5616| 0.0596
i=1 n i
g=
=
=
=1.4640
s
0.040731
0.040731
The suspected outlier is then compared with the tabulated critical g value.

Gtab =2.2900

Because the experimental value is less than the tabulated one, the suspected
outlier should be retained.
3. Calculate the following statistics for each data set:
a. Mean
Since the suspected outliers are retained in #2 (Grubbs Test), the sample means
remain the same. The formula for the mean is
n

Xi

X = i=1
n

For data set 1, the mean is 3.5489.

n

Xi

X = i=1
n

(3.5961+ 3.5077+3.5841+3.5020+3.5994+3.5042)
=3.5489
6

For data set 2, the mean is 3.5616.

3.5961+3.5077+3.5841+3.5020+3.5994

Xi

X = i=1
n

(+3.5042+ 3.5782+ 3.5887+3.5939+3.5620)

=3.5616
10

b. Standard deviation
Because the conclusion is to retain the suspected outliers, the standard
deviations also remain the same. In getting the standard deviation, the formula

s=

( X i X )
i=1

n1

shall be used.
For data set 1, the standard deviation is 0.04881.

( 3.59613.5489 )2+ ( 3.50773.5489 )2

n
2
2
+ ( 3.58413.5489 ) + (3.50203.5489 )
2

( X i X ) +( 3.59943.5489)2 +(3.50423.5489)2
s= i=1
=
=0.04881
n1
5

While in data set 2, the standard deviation is 0.040731.

( 3.59613.5616 )2+ ( 3.50773.5616 )2

2
2
+ ( 3.58413.5616 ) + ( 3.50203.5616 )
+ ( 3.59943.5616 )2 + ( 3.50423.5616 )2
n
2
2
+ ( 3.57823.5616 ) + (3.58873.5616 )
2

( X i X ) +(3.59393.5616)2+(3.56203.5616)2
i=1
s=
=
=0.040731
n1
9

c. Relative standard deviation (in ppt)

Computing for the relative standard deviation using the formula

RSD=

s
1000 ppt
X

the value for data set 1 is 13.754

RSD=

s
0.048810
1000 ppt=
1000 ppt=13.754
X
3.5489

and 11.436 for data set 2

RSD=

s
0.040731
1000 ppt=
1000 ppt=11.436
X
3.5616

d. Range
The formula for getting the range is

R= X h igh est X lowest

Data set 1 has a range of 0.097400.

R= X h igh est X lowest =3.59943.5020=0.097400

Data set 2, also, has a range of 0.097400.

R= X h igh est X lowest =3.59943.5020=0.097400

e. Relative range (in ppt)

The formula for computing the relative range in ppt is

RR=

R
1000 ppt
X

Data set 1s relative range is 27.445.

RR=

R
0.097400
1000 ppt=
1000 ppt=27.445
X
3.5489

Data set 2s relative range is 27.347.

RR=

R
0.097400
1000 ppt=
1000 ppt=27.347
X
3.5616

f. Confidence limits (95% confidence level)

For the confidence limit, the formula to be used is

ts
Confidence limit= X
n

where t is dependent on the confidence level and degrees of freedom.

TABLE 5. Values of t for various levels of probability (taken from the Analytical
Chemistry Laboratory Manual)
n-1
T90%
T95%
T99%
In data

1
6.31
12.7
63.7
set 1,

2
3
4
2.92 2.35 2.13
4.30 3.18 2.78
9.92 5.84 4.60
the upper confidence

Confidence limit= X

5
2.02
2.57
4.03
limit is

6
7
1.94 1.90
2.45 2.36
3.71 3.50
3.6001,

8
1.86
2.31
3.36

( 2.57 ) (0.048810)
ts
=3.5489+
=3.6001
n
6

while the lower confidence limit is 3.4977.

ts =3.5489 ( 2.57 ) (0.048810) =3.4977

Confidence limit= X
n
6
In data set 2, the upper confidence limit is 3.5907,

ts =3.5616+ (2.26 ) (0.040731) =3.5907

Confidence limit= X
10
n
while the lower confidence limit is 3.5325.

ts =3.5616 ( 2.26 ) (0.040731) =3.5325

Confidence limit= X
10
n

9
1.83
2.26
3.25

10
1.81
2.23
3.17

APPLICATION OF STATISTICAL CONCEPTS IN

THE DETERMINATION OF WEIGHT VARIATION
IN SAMPLES
M. FRANCISCO
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY, COLLEGE OF
SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES, DILIMAN, QUEZON CITY 1101, PHILIPPINES

DATE SUBMITTED: 3 FEBRUARY 2015
DATE PERFORMED: 29 JANUARY 2015

GUIDES FOR DISCUSSION

1. Give the significance
Grubbs Test.

of

the

In a data set of samples,

presence of outliers is possible. An
outlier is an observation that
deviates from the other observations
in the set of samples. This adjusts
the mean to be closer to the outlier,
since the mean is sensitive if there
are
outliers.
It
is,
therefore,
important
to
identify
potential
outliers in the sample. An outlier can
show error in the data. If it is proven
that it is faulty, the outlier should be
removed or corrected if possible.
However, if it is not erroneous, the
value should be retained. The
Grubbs test is one of the formal
outlier tests used when testing for a
single outlier in a sample with
normal distribution. The highest and
the lowest values are taken and
tested. The largest absolute value
difference from the mean is then
taken. The suspected outlier is then
compared with the tabulated Grubbs
value. If the obtained value is less
than or equal to the tabulated one,
the value is retained. If not, it is
rejected and, therefore, omitted.
Once done, it is safe to say that the
sample is representative of the
population.
2. Give the significance of the mean
and standard deviation.
The mean is the most common
and well-known form of average. It
measures the center of a set of data,
and it can be used with both discrete
and continuous data. Essentially, it is
a model of the data set and shows
the most common value. One
property of the mean is that it takes
into account every value included in
the data set. It is the easiest to

calculate; thus, it is most frequently

used. However, the data that this
measure presents is still not enough
to describe the set of data.
The standard deviation shows the
spread of the data around the mean.
It also shows whether the data is
extreme or not, and it normalizes the
data, giving us an idea of how far
apart our data is from the average
(mean). It is used to summarize
continuous
data
and
is
only
appropriate when the data set is not
skewed or present with outliers.
Both help determine
findings are valid.

if

the

3. Give the significance

confidence interval.

of

the

Confidence
intervals
are
a
measure of how good an estimate of
the population is, since it is
important to know how closely the
mean of the sample is representative
of the mean for the population,
which can be known from the
confidence
interval.
It
shows
limitations of the estimates. Also, it
produces a lower and upper limit for
the mean. The interval shows an
indication
of
how
great
the
uncertainty is in the estimate of the
true mean. The estimate is more
precise if the interval is narrower.
In
taking
the
sample
(representative of the population), it
is important and necessary to know
how close the measure of the sample
is to that of the mean.
4. How do the statistics calculated
from data set 1 differ from those
obtained from data set 2?
The statistics calculated from
data set 1 differ from those in data

set 2 by only a few decimals apart,

except for the relative standard
deviation. They do not differ greatly.
Also, since the highest and the
lowest value for both sets are the
same, the range is similar.
REFERENCES

Alfassi, Z. Statistical Treatment of

Analytical Data. 2005. London:
Blackwell. 70-71.
Thode, H. Testing for Normality.
2002. CRC Press. 123-127.
Walpole, R. Introduction to Statistics.
1982. New York: Macmillan. 23-26.