http://en.nanotec.

com/steppermotor_animati
on.html
http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/brushle
ss-motor.htm
dont forget the above link.
Brushless DC electric motor
BLDC) is a synchronous electric motor which is powered by direct-current electricity (DC) and
which has an electronically controlled commutation system, instead of a mechanical
commutation system based on brushes. In such motors, current and torque, voltage and rpm are
linearly related.

A BLDC motor powering a micro remote-controlled airplane. The motor is connected

to a microprocessor-controlled BLDC controller. This 5-gram motor is approximately
11 watts (15 millihorsepower) and produces about two times more thrust than the
weight of the plane. Being an outrunner, the rotor-can containing the magnets spins
around the coil windings on the stator.

Two subtypes exist:

The stepper motor type may have more poles on the stator (fixed permanent
magnet).

The reluctance motor.

In a conventional (brushed) DC motor, the brushes make mechanical contact with a set of
electrical contacts on the rotor (called the commutator), forming an electrical circuit between the
DC electrical source and the armature coil-windings. As the armature rotates on axis, the
stationary brushes come into contact with different sections of the rotating commutator. The
commutator and brush system form a set of electrical switches, each firing in sequence, such that
electrical-power always flows through the armature coil closest to the stationary stator.
In a BLDC motor, the electromagnets do not move; instead, the permanent magnets rotate and
the armature remains static. This gets around the problem of how to transfer current to a moving
armature. In order to do this, the brush-system/commutator assembly is replaced by an electronic
controller. The controller performs the same power distribution found in a brushed DC motor, but
using a solid-state circuit rather than a commutator/brush system.

[edit] Comparison with brushed DC motors

Because of induction of the windings, power requirements, and temperature

management, some glue circuitry is necessary between digital controller and motor.

BLDC motors offer several advantages over brushed DC motors, including higher efficiency and
reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush erosion), elimination of ionizing sparks from
the commutator, more power, and overall reduction of electromagnetic interference (EMI). With
no windings on the rotor, they are not subjected to centrifugal forces, and because the
electromagnets are attached to the casing, they can be cooled by conduction, requiring no airflow
inside the motor for cooling. This in turn means that the motor's internals can be entirely
enclosed and protected from dirt or other foreign matter. The maximum power that can be
applied to a BLDC motor is exceptionally high, limited almost exclusively by heat, which can
damage the magnets. BLDC's main disadvantage is higher cost, which arises from two issues.
First, BLDC motors require complex electronic speed controllers to run. Brushed DC motors can
be regulated by a comparatively simple controller, such as a rheostat (variable resistor). Second,
many practical uses have not been well developed in the commercial sector. For example, in the
RC hobby scene, even commercial brushless motors are often hand-wound while brushed motors
use armature coils which can be inexpensively machine-wound.
BLDC motors are often more efficient at converting electricity into mechanical power than
brushed DC motors. This improvement is largely due to the absence of electrical and friction
losses due to brushes. The enhanced efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of
the motor's performance curve.[citation needed] Under high mechanical loads, BLDC motors and highquality brushed motors are comparable in efficiency.[citation needed]

[edit] Controller implementations

Because the controller must direct the rotor rotation, the controller needs some means of
determining the rotor's orientation/position (relative to the stator coils.) Some designs use Hall
effect sensors or a rotary encoder to directly measure the rotor's position. Others measure the
back EMF in the undriven coils to infer the rotor position, eliminating the need for separate Hall
effect sensors, and therefore are often called sensorless controllers. Like an AC motor, the
voltage on the undriven coils is sinusoidal, but over an entire commutation the output appears
trapezoidal because of the DC output of the controller.
The controller contains 3 bi-directional drivers to drive high-current DC power, which are
controlled by a logic circuit. Simple controllers employ comparators to determine when the
output phase should be advanced, while more advanced controllers employ a microcontroller to
manage acceleration, control speed and fine-tune efficiency. Controllers that sense rotor position
based on back-EMF have extra challenges in initiating motion because no back-EMF is produced
when the rotor is stationary. This is usually accomplished by beginning rotation from an arbitrary
phase, and then skipping to the correct phase if it is found to be wrong. This can cause the motor
to run briefly backwards, adding even more complexity to the startup sequence.
The controller unit is often referred to as an "ESC", meaning Electronic Speed Controller.

[edit] Variations on construction

The poles on the stator of a two-phase BLDC motor. This is part of a computer
cooling fan; the rotor has been removed.

Schematic for delta and wye winding styles. (This image does not illustrate a BLDC
motor's inductive and generator-like properties)

BLDC motors can be constructed in several different physical configurations: In the

'conventional' (also known as 'inrunner') configuration, the permanent magnets are mounted on
the spinning armature (rotor). Three stator windings surround the rotor. In the 'outrunner'
configuration, the radial-relationship between the coils and magnets is reversed; the stator coils
form the center (core) of the motor, while the permanent magnets spin on an overhanging rotor
which surrounds the core. The flat type, used where there are space or shape limitations, uses
stator and rotor plates, mounted face to face. Outrunners typically have more poles, set up in
triplets to maintain the three groups of windings, and have a higher torque at low RPMs. In all
BLDC motors, the stator-coils are stationary.
There are also two electrical configurations having to do with how the wires from the windings
are connected to each other (not their physical shape or location). The delta configuration
connects the three windings to each other (series circuits) in a triangle-like circuit, and power is
applied at each of the connections. The wye ("Y"-shaped) configuration, sometimes called a star

winding, connects all of the windings to a central point (parallel circuits) and power is applied to
the remaining end of each winding.
A motor with windings in delta configuration gives low torque at low rpm, but can give higher
top rpm. Wye configuration gives high torque at low rpm, but not as high top rpm. [1]
Although efficiency is greatly affected by the motor's construction, the wye winding is normally
more efficient. In delta-connected windings, half voltage is applied across the windings adjacent
to the undriven lead (compared to the winding directly between the driven leads), increasing
resistive losses. In addition, windings can allow high-frequency parasitic electrical currents to
circulate entirely within the motor. A wye-connected winding does not contain a closed loop in
which parasitic currents can flow, preventing such losses.
From a controller standpoint, the two styles of windings are treated exactly the same, although
some less expensive controllers are intended to read voltage from the common center of the wye
winding.

Spindle motor from a 3.5" floppy disk drive.

[edit] Applications
BLDC motors can potentially be deployed in any area currently fulfilled by brushed DC motors.
Cost and control complexity prevents BLDC motors from replacing brushed motors in most
common areas of use. Nevertheless, BLDC motors have come to dominate many applications:
Consumer devices such as computer hard drives, CD/DVD players, and PC cooling fans use
BLDC motors exclusively. Low speed, low power brushless DC motors are used in direct-drive
turntables. High power BLDC motors are found in electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles and some
industrial machinery. These motors are essentially AC synchronous motors with permanent
magnet rotors.
The Segway Scooter and Vectrix Maxi-Scooter also use BLDC technology.
A number of electric bicycles use BLDC motors that are sometimes built right into the wheel hub
itself, with the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the magnets attached to and rotating with the

wheel. The bicycle wheel hub is the motor. This type of electric bicycle also has a standard
bicycle transmission with pedals, gears and chain that can be pedaled along with, or without, the
use of the motor as need arises. [1]
Certain HVAC systems, especially those featuring variable-speed and/or load modulation, use
ECM motors (electronically-commutated BLDC). In addition to the BLDC's higher efficiency,
the motor's built-in microprocessor allows for programmability, better control over airflow, and
serial communication.

[edit] AC and DC power supplies

Direct current motor: DC in both the stator and the rotor

Synchronous motor: AC in one, DC in the other (i.e., rotor or stator)

Induction motor: AC in both stator and rotor

Although BLDC motors are practically identical to permanent magnet AC motors, the controller
implementation is what makes them DC. While AC motors feed sinusoidal current
simultaneously to each of the legs (with an equal phase distribution), DC controllers only
approximate this by feeding full positive and negative current to two of the legs at a time. The
major advantage of this is that both the logic controllers and battery power sources also operate
on DC, such as in computers and electric cars. In addition, the approximated sine wave leaves
one leg undriven at all times, allowing for back-EMF-based sensorless feedback.
Vector drives are DC controllers that take the extra step of converting back to AC for the motor.
The DC-to-AC conversion circuitry is usually expensive and less efficient, but they have the
advantage of being able to run smoothly at very low speeds or completely stop in a position not
directly aligned with a pole. Motors used with a vector drive are typically called AC motors.
A motor can be optimized for AC (i.e. vector control) or it can be optimized for DC (i.e. block
commutation). A motor which is optimized for block commutation will typically generate
trapezoidal EMF. One can easily observe this by connecting the motor wires (at least two of
them) to a scope and then hand-cranking/spinning the shaft.
Another very important issue, at least for some applications like automotive vehicles, is the
constant power speed ratio of a motor. The CPSR has direct impact on needed size of the
inverter. Example: A motor with a high CPSR in a vehicle can deliver the desired power (e.g. 40
kW) from 3,000 rpm to 12,000 rpm, while using a 100 A inverter. A motor with low CPSR would
need a 400 A inverter in order to do the same.

[edit] Kv rating
The Kv rating of a design of brushless motor is the constant relating the motors unloaded RPM to
the peak (not RMS) voltage on the wires connected to the coils (the "back-EMF"). For example,
a 5,700 Kv motor, supplied with 11.1 V, will run at a nominal 63,270 rpm. By Lenz's law, a
running motor will create a back-EMF proportional to the RPM. Most ESCs do not boost the
battery voltage.
Once a motor is spinning so fast that the back-EMF is at the battery voltage (also called DC line
voltage), then the motor has reached its "base speed". It is impossible for the ESCs to "speed up"
that motor, even with no load, beyond the base speed without resorting to "field weakening". For
some applications (e.g. automotive traction and high speed spindle motors) it is normal to exceed
the base speed with a factor of 200 to 600%.
Kv is the voltage constant (capital-K, subscript v), not to be confused with the kilovolt, whose
symbol is kV (lower-case k, capital V).[2][3]

[edit] Model aircraft, cars and helicopters

BLDC motors (generally referred to simply as Brushless (BL) motors) are the most popular
motor choice now in the model aircraft industry. With their superior power to weight ratios, a
large range of sizes, from under 5 grams to large motors rated at thousands of watts, they have
revolutionized the market for electric-powered model flight.
Their introduction has redefined performance in electric model aircraft and helicopters,
displacing most brushed and internal combustion power sources. The large power to weight ratio
of modern batteries and brushless motors allows models to ascend vertically, rather than climb
gradually. The silence and lack of mess compared to small glow fuel internal combustion engines
that were used is another reason for their popularity.
Their popularity has also risen in retrospect to the Radio Controlled Car, Buggy, and Truck
scene, where Sensored-type (motors with an extra Six wires, connected to Hall Effect Sensors
which allow the position of the magnet to be detected). Brushless motors have become legal in
RC Car Racing in accordance to ROAR (the American governing body for RC Car Racing),
since 2006. Several Modern RTR (Ready-To-Run) cars such as the Traxxas Rustler VXL, exceed
rc dynamite and the HPI Sprint 2 Flux come out standard with Stepper-type (or sensorless)
Brushless motors. Several RC Car Brushless motors, such as the LRP Electronic/Associated
Electrics Vector X12 Motor, feature replaceable and upgradeable parts, such as Sintered
Neodymium (Rare Earth Magnets), Ceramic Bearings, and Replaceable Motor Timing inserts.
these motors as a result are quickly rising to be the preferred motor type of Electric On and OffRoad RC Racers and Recreational Drivers alike, for their low maintenance, high running
reliability and power efficiency (most Sensored motors have an efficiency rating of 80% or
greater).

Principle of the brushless DC motor

The brushless DC motor is the combination of a permanent excited synchronous motor and a
frequency inverter. The inverter has to replace the commutator of a conventional DC motor. Fig.
2 and Fig. 3 show how a brushless DC motor can be derived from a mechanically commutated
DC motor with three armature slots. Its armature winding corresponds to a three phase winding
in delta connection. The commutator acts like a three phase frequency converter. Stator
(excitation) and rotor (armature) change places.

Figure 1: Principle of a permanent magnet excited DC motor: construction

Figure 2: Principle of a permanent magnet excited DC motor: wiring

Figure 3: Principle of a permanent magnet excited DC motor - equivalent circuit

The commutation of a brushless DC motor depends on the position of the rotor. The angle
between the magneto-motive forces of stator and rotor is fixed to
(el.), so the motor
produces maximum torque and needs low reactive current - it might be useful to advance
commutation by few degrees to compensate the effects of the stray inductance and minimize
reactive current.

Speed can only be controlled by the the motor voltage. The motor behaves like a DC motor.
Unlike the synchronous motor there are no problems with instability at any speed.
Because of the PWM frequency inverter, variation of the motor voltage can be achieved easily by
changing the duty cycle of the pulse width modulation. Suitable PWM techniques allow
regenerative breaking, which increases dynamic and efficiency of the drive.
The article How Electric Motors Work explains how brushed motors work. In a typical DC
motor, there are permanent magnets on the outside and a spinning armature on the inside. The
permanent magnets are stationary, so they are called the stator. The armature rotates, so it is
called the rotor.

The armature of a typical DC motor

The armature contains an electromagnet. When you run electricity into this electromagnet, it
creates a magnetic field in the armature that attracts and repels the magnets in the stator. So the
armature spins through 180 degrees. To keep it spinning, you have to change the poles of the
electromagnet. The brushes handle this change in polarity. They make contact with two spinning
electrodes attached to the armature and flip the magnetic polarity of the electromagnet as it spins.
This setup works and is simple and cheap to manufacture, but it has a lot of problems:

The brushes eventually wear out.

Because the brushes are making/breaking connections, you get sparking and electrical
noise.

The brushes limit the maximum speed of the motor.

Having the electromagnet in the center of the motor makes it harder to cool.

The use of brushes puts a limit on how many poles the armature can have.

With the advent of cheap computers and power transistors, it became possible to "turn the motor
inside out" and eliminate the brushes. In a brushless DC motor (BLDC), you put the permanent
magnets on the rotor and you move the electromagnets to the stator. Then you use a computer
(connected to high-power transistors) to charge up the electromagnets as the shaft turns. This
system has all sorts of advantages:

Brushless PM Motors: 'Big' on Power, Efficiency

Large permanent magnet (PM) ac motors are becoming more

visible in demanding industrial and defense applications, albeit
limited in numbers by market forces rather than technology.
High power density and efficiency are main attractions.
Frank J. Bartos, P.E. -- Control Engineering, 2/1/2006
AT A GLANCE

Improve motor
power density

Efficient brushless
servo motors

Rare-earth
magnets now less
costly

Meet high-torque
applications

Variable-frequency
drive needed

Better known in relatively small physical sizes and lower power applications, brushless
permanent magnet (PM) motors can be made in virtually any size, with no real technological
constraints. Large brushless PM motors are not particularly new. They're available from select

manufacturers, which now seek to overcome past economic issues that have limited their
numbers.
Large brushless PM motors offer numerous benefits, among them high power density and high
efficiency without rotor losses. Benefits come at a price, as manufacturing and material costs
including that of high-performance magnetsadd up fast. Brushless PM motors also need a
variable-frequency drive for control. Yet, cost-benefit figures favor PM motors over alternative
technologies (see below) for a growing number of tough applications in industry, marine
propulsion, military/defense, and other sectors.
Thorough analysis of a potential application is essential to justify the cost-benefit. Recent
developments may lend a helping hand. Widespread availability of drives, along with significant
downward price trend for drives and magnet materials suggests more of these motors will be in
service in the near future. Greater user awareness about large PM motors would further aid that
development.

Drives, magnets spur progress

A notable designer and developer of large brushless PM motors, DRS Technologies Inc. has
begun to apply some of its power systems experience in the defense industry to industrial,
marine, and transportation applications. Developments in magnets and variable-frequency drives
(VFDs)required to start and operate PM motorshave made it practical to build these motors
in large sizes. Associated drives at DRS are medium-voltage (1.5-6.6 kV) units, with pulse-width
modulation (PWM) and vector or sensorless vector control.
Edgar S. Thaxton, chief engineer and director of system engineering at the company's DRS
Power Technologies unit, notes dramatic improvement in VFD reliability over the last decade,
along with power ratings that can reach 60 MW or more. Increased ratings have come, in part,
from newer power-switching devices, such as insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and
integrated gate-commutated thyristors (IGCTs). 'PM motors shine in applications where VFDs
are required or where variable-frequency control offers a performance benefit outweighing the
VFD cost,' he says.
As for magnet materials, their corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, and temperature limits
also have improved significantly, yielding PM machines capable of handling rugged industrial as
well as military applications. Rare-earth permanent magnet cost-per-pound has decreased by a
factor of five over the last 10 years, while corresponding magnet strength-per-pound rose by a
factor of three, explains Thaxton. This represents a cost-benefit improvement of 15:1 and is
significant to ongoing 'commercial affordability.'
Powertec Industrial Motors Inc. is another company with a history of manufacturing highperformance brushless PM motors (and drives), currently up to 400 hp for standard products.

Expertise centers in military/defense, severe industrial, and explosive-atmosphere applications.

At one time, the company produced brushless dc motors up through 600 hp (CE, Dec. 1992, p.
79). These machines, measuring about 25-in. on the OD, used ferrite permanent magnets and
were offered in air-cooled and liquid-cooled versions. They're custom products not routinely
manufactured today. A new design for up to 1,000 hp is planned for 2006.
Powertec agrees about the relationship between motors and drives. In the past, large high-power
IGBT drives to run brushless motors were not readily available at practical prices. 'This has
changed substantially in the last five years or so with such drives being more readily available
and at more affordable costs,' says Powertec general manager, Ed Lee. The company uses lowvoltage drives (up to 600 V) for motor control.
However, Powertec attributes scarcity of large PM motors to factors more market-driven than
technology based. 'While large PM motors are available, they are more expensive than
conventional motors, and unless efficiency, smaller size (high power density), and higher
dynamic performance are important issues in the application, the buyer will not spend the extra
money,' states Lee. As a result, still very few manufacturers of these motors exist.
Neodymium-iron-boron (Nd-Fe-B) and samarium-cobalt are two rare-earth magnet materials
available today for industrial motors. They're similar in magnetic density, but samarium has
better high-temperature characteristics (albeit at higher cost), Lee notes. While Nd-Fe-B magnet
pricing has declined substantially in the last five to seven years, it remains more costly than
equivalent materials used in ac induction rotor construction. 'Magnet cost and low manufacturing
volume affect the cost premium for brushless PM motors and therefore the probability of
choosing them for a given application,' concludes Lee.

High-torque duty
In the view of Siemens AG, Automation & Drives Div., large PM motors are mainly used for
high-torque applications; these motors are of the direct-drive (no gear box) design. This relates to
customers' increasing focus on reducing maintenance costs for their assets due to pressures on
overall production costs, explains Robert Lehning, product manager for large ac motors at
Siemens A&D Large Drives Div. 'Eliminating gear boxes by using direct-drive technology is one
step in that direction,' says Lehning. 'Gear boxes need higher maintenance and monitoring
attention than motors and have a lower overall availability.'

DRS Technologies considers

features of its higher pole count
brushless PM motor design
superior to that of the alternative
synchronous motor. This includes
weight and size reduction.

He further points to the low-speed design of Siemens' high-torque motors. 'In our opinion, large
PM motors with rated speeds between 800 and about 5,000 rpm have no real advantage
compared to conventional induction machines,' continues Lehning. PM technology also can be
'interesting' for high-speed motorsfor example, at 10,000 rpm and morewhere efficiency is
higher than that of ac induction machines. 'However, applications in that area are usually very
specialized,' he adds.
Siemens' Lehning likewise mentions the falling cost of high-performance magnets that make PM
motor technology more attractive. However, the overall technology is still costlier compared to
induction motors. 'Therefore, PM motors will not replace conventional induction motors for
standard applications in the foreseeable future,' he says. Lehning also notes improvements in
design tools and 'know-how' for development of PM motors behind the new visibility of this
product line.

Yaskawa Electric concurs that no technical barriers exist to building larger brushless PM motors
in the 100s of kW range. The issues are mainly economic. Discussions with customers and
quotation on such larger units are happening more frequently, but the product is not typical or 'off
the shelf.' Yaskawa has been supplying the economics and reliability of internal permanent
magnet (IPM) motor technology for higher power needs for several yearsas well as using IPM
servo motors in its own production machines. (See October 2005 CE, pp. 52-55, for a recent
article on IPM servo motors.)
Economic pressure for shorter time-to-market is growing for all product manufacturers. To help
its customers realize benefits of digital servo systems in higher power processes and machines,
Yaskawa has been extending IPM motor technology to its production facilities in ever higher
power ratings, says the company.
Italian company Oemer Motori Elettrici Spa is another manufacturer whose offerings include
large brushless PM motors. Among them are torque motors that range up to 300 kW for gearless,
direct-drive applications to 500 rpm; liquid-cooled, three-phase servo motors providing ratings to
318 kW at 5,000 rpm; and high-performance units that reach to over 1 MW output at up to 2,600
rpm nominal speed for dynamic industrial applications. Oemer's product line was on exhibit at
the SPS/IPC/Drives show in Germany in November 2005.

Benefits galore
PM machines boast 1-2% higher efficiency than ac induction or synchronous motor alternatives
at full loadand 10-15% more efficiency at partial load, according to DRS Technologies.
Efficiency derives from full-rotor excitation without current and without associated losses at all
speeds. Thaxton cites an example of a low-speed marine propulsion motor achieving an amazing
99.3% efficiency!
Motor cooling is simplified since the rotor generates little or no heat. Only the stator needs
cooling and, because it's an 'outer structure,' water cooling becomes more attractive. Simpler
cooling design also leads to flexible motor geometry. 'PM machines support a much wider range
of aspect ratios than conventional motors. Short, large-diameter and long, narrow machines are
feasible, as are both radial (conventional) and axial (pancake) air-gap designs,' he says.
Compact brushless PM motors reduce size and weight to about to 1/3 of conventional
machines, plus offer the simplicity of one stator winding, which translates to reliability. In
contrast, induction motors have a rotor and a stator winding, while wound-field synchronous
(WFS) motors are even more complex structurally. They include a main stator, main rotor,
exciter rotor, exciter stator windings and, generally, a rotating rectifier, explains Thaxton.
DRS Technologies has demonstrated prototype PM motors that achieve higher power for a given
speed than conventional machines, allowing more flexible load matching and eliminating gears

(in a direct-drive motor design). 'PM motors are at cost parity with conventional machines. As
long as the application requires a VFD, little reason exists to choose a conventional machine,'
continues Thaxton.
At Powertec, benefits of large brushless motors are seen as higher efficiency, higher power
density (smaller size per power output), and higher dynamic performancewith efficiency
difference in the range of 3% for brushless PM over ac induction motors. Lee points out that the
differential may not be quite that high if full effort is made to minimize losses in an induction
motor (such as in specific energy-efficient designs).
'Such low slip induction motors will not be practical to run across the line without a drive,
however, because of very high starting current and lower starting torque,' adds Lee. '[On the
other hand], PM brushless motors cannot be run across the line at all since they must be shaftposition commutated.'
At Siemens, main benefits for applying large brushless PM motors are seen as lower operating
costs, higher total system availability, and lower space requirements. Eliminating the gearbox
helps in various areas: lower maintenance costs and higher drive system efficiency due to less
power loss, as well as lower system complexity.

Control issues, higher pole count

Few control issues exist with large PM motors. PWM-type drives now offer a level of control
suited to demanding industrial applications, along with reduced power system harmonics and
improved power factor.
Much of brushless PM motors' superior power density comes from a higher pole number than in
conventional motors, according to Thaxton at DRS. 'In general, PM motors can have three-times
more poles than a WFS motor of the same diameter.' It enables lighter, smaller, and more flexible
motor geometry.
However, a higher pole number means a VFD capable of delivering higher electrical frequencies.
For a particular speed and PM motor, input requirement of 415 Hz is not unusual. 'In high-speed,
high-rating applications, this can be a design driver for the VFD's power topology, as well as the
control bandwidth,' he adds.
Other than the need to position-commutate a brushless PM motor, Powertec notes no extra
control issues for these motors beyond what exits for induction machines of similar power. About
half of today's available drives accommodate either motor type via software algorithms
commutation control for brushless and slip-based control for induction motors, according to Lee.

'This is reduced to a simple menu choice.' He mentions a brushless motor's ability to act as a PM
generator, producing an output without excitation. 'In applications where motor speeds above
'base speed' may occur due to high overhauled speeds, generated voltage can reach levels well
above the bus design voltage range,' states Lee. This affects only a few, unusual applications but
must be accommodated in the installation.
Siemens concurs that control issues are not significantly different from that of induction motors.
Brushless PM motors operate under VFD control, with only the software algorithm being slightly
modified.

Application examples
DRS Technologies recently has tested under full power a 36.5 MW, 127 rpm ship-propulsion
motor for the U.S. Navy that produces more than 2,000,000 lb-ft of torque. Also, Canopy
Technologies LLCa 50/50 joint venture between DRS and Elliott Company Inc. (a leading
manufacturer of high-speed rotating equipment)concluded testing on an 11.4 MW (6,225 rpm)
industrial motor (lead photo). These are said to be two of the most powerful PM motors in the
world. Large marine propulsion applications are especially attractive for highly efficient PM
motors given the rising cost of fuel. DRS also manufactures high-performance PM motors,
reportedly achieving over 1 hp/lb in ratings in the 500-1,000 hp range.
Among many applications, Powertec cites the U.S. Navy's new Advanced Gun System for the
Stealth Destroyer program, using numerous large high-dynamic performance brushless PM
motors. The elevation motor produces more than 800 lb-ft torque at peak speed of 2,000 rpm
(over 300 hp peak), embodied in just a 12.5-inch diameter unit. The Navy mandates application
of brushless motors whenever possible for new or replacement purposes, due to smaller size and
lighter weight, according to Powertec.
Another application involves azimuth and elevation control plus redundancy requirements for a
giant 4-million-lb antenna for the Missile Defense Antenna system. High-dynamic performance
and high-power motors were required, delivered by eight 225-hp brushless motors controlling
azimuth and four 50-hp motors controlling elevation for a total of 2,000 hp connected.
Powertec's 400 hp NEMA 3213T frame (16-in. OD) air-cooled motor, shown earlier, illustrates
the compactness of these machines. Blower and conduit box look out for proportion to the actual
motor. Terminal box seems huge due to NEMA volume requirement to terminate large wires.
The state of brushless PM motor technology represents a conundrum. Some years ago Control
Engineering noted that increasingly larger models would be manufactured as demand rises,
asking, 'If they build them, will the users come?' Powertec's Ed Lee puts it another way: 'When
more customers want them and will buy them, then more will be offered and in larger sizes.'

Online Extra
A perspective on ac motor types, terminology
There are three principal ac motor (or machine) topologies, of which the brushless permanent
magnet (PM) motor is one type. The following comes from a presentation entitled PM Motor
Overview by Edgar S. Thaxton, chief engineer and director of system engineering for the Power
Technologies unit of DRS Technologies Inc.
Machine types in a nutshell
InductionRotor magnetic field is induced by current in the stator.

Some of the stator current goes to induce the field and produces no torque (lower power
factor);

Rotor spins slightly slower than stator field rotation (slip effect); and

Rotor current leads to rotor losses.

SynchronousRotor field is developed by circulating dc current in the rotor windings (acts as

electromagnets).

Rotor spins at an integer multiple of stator frequency (synchronous);

Field control offers power-factor control; and

Rotor current leads to rotor losses.

Brushless PMRotor field is developed by rotor permanent magnets (PM).

Rotor spins at an integer multiple of stator frequency (synchronous);

Variable-frequency drive (VFD) offers power-factor control; and

No significant rotor losses occur.

PM machines are a special case of synchronous machines, with permanent magnets rather than
electromagnets producing the rotor field, says Thaxton.

http://www.drs.com
Brushless dc
In particular, the term brushless or brushless dc is loosely defined and often similarly applied
in the industrial user community. In case youve ever wondered about this, Ed Lee, general
manager at Powertec Industrial Motors Inc., lists no fewer than six interchangeable terms to
describe this motor type. These are:

DC motor without brushes or commutator;

AC motor with permanent magnet rotor;

Synchronous AC motor with position feedback;

AC brushless servo;

Brushless or brushless servo; and

Brushless dc.

Theyre all the same thing, explains Lee.

http://www.powertecmotors.com
In fact, an appropriate definition of brushless dc motor needs to include the associated electronic
control or drive. The following is suggested as a good start along the way, as stated in Jan. 1999
Control Engineering, Back to Basics, Top 20 must-know terms in control & automation, (p.
100).
Brushless motorA synchronous three-phase motor that uses electronic commutation for current
switching among the phases. Depending on the current waveform and torque characteristics, it is
commonly called brushless dc when a trapezoidal current/torque format is used and brushless ac
(or just simply brushless) when a sinusoidal current/torque format is applied to the motor
windings.

Public domain image

The poles on the stator of a two-phase BLDC motor used to

power a computer cooling fan. The rotor has been removed.

Because a computer controls the motor instead of mechanical brushes, it's more precise.
The computer can also factor the speed of the motor into the equation. This makes
brushless motors more efficient.

There is no sparking and much less electrical noise.

There are no brushes to wear out.

With the electromagnets on the stator, they are very easy to cool.

You can have a lot of electromagnets on the stator for more precise control.

The only disadvantage of a brushless motor is its higher initial cost, but you can often recover
that cost through the greater efficiency over the life of the motor.
Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors

The advent of inexpensive high power switching semiconductors has enabled radical new
solutions to the commutation problem and much simpler mechanical designs. Permanent magnet
and switched reluctance motors depend on electronic drive systems which produce rotating
magnetic fields to pull the rotors around.

Synchronous Operation

Brushless DC motors are not strictly DC motors. They use a pulsed DC fed to the stator
field windings to create a rotating magnetic field and they operate at synchronous speed.
Although they don't use mechanical commutators they do however need electronic
commutation to provide the rotating field which adds somewhat to their complexity.

Rotating Field
In the diagram below, pole pair A is first fed with a DC pulse which
magnetises pole A1 as a south pole and A2 as a north pole holding the
magnet in its initial position. The other poles are not energised. Then the
current to pole pair A is switched off and pole pair B is fed with a DC pulse
causing pole B1 to be magnetised as a south pole and B2 to be a north pole.
The magnet will then rotate clockwise to align itself with pole pair B. By
pulsing the stator pole pairs in sequence the magnet will continue to rotate
clockwise to keep itself aligned with the energised pole pair. In practice the
poles are fed with a polyphase stepped waveform to create the smooth
rotating field.

The speed of rotation is controlled by the pulse frequency and the torque by the pulse
current.

Mechanical Construction

No current is supplied to, nor induced, in the rotors which are constructed from
permanent magnets or iron and which are dragged around by the rotating field. With no
currents in the rotors these machines have no rotor I2R losses.
Without the mechanical commutator and rotor windings, the motors have low rotor
inertia allowing much higher speeds to be achieved and with the elimination of this high
current mechanical switch, the source of sparking and RFI is also eliminated.
The stator windings are, easy to manufacture and install, bobbin windings.
Since all the heat generating circuits are in the stator, heat dissipation is easier to control
and higher currents and motor powers can also be achieved.

Permanent Magnet Motors

The rotor is constructed from permanent magnets which are dragged around by the rotating field.
Its speed and torque characteristics are very similar to a shunt wound "brushed" (field energised)
DC motor with constant excitation. As with brushed motors the rotating magnets passing the
stator poles create a back EMF in the stator windings. When the motor is fed with a three phase
stepped waveform with positive and negative going pulses of 120 degrees duration, the back
EMF or flux wave will be trapezoidal in shape.
Depending on motor size, the magnets can be arranged as a full-ring magnet, as spokes, or
embedded in the rotor core.
One drawback of permanent magnet machines is that the magnets are susceptible to high
temperature complications and loss of magnetisation above the Curie temperature.
Permanent magnet motors are inherently more efficient than wound rotor machines since they
don't have conduction losses associated with rotor currents.

Synchronous Operation

The motor speed is directly proportional to the pulse frequency of the inverter. If the
supply frequency is fixed and the motor operates in open loop mode then it will run at a
fixed synchronous speed. Changing the supply frequency will change the motor speed
accordingly.

Variable Speed Operation

The brushless DC motor can be made to emulate the characteristics of its brushed cousin
in which the speed is controlled by changing the applied voltage, rather than by changing
the supply frequency. The supply frequency still changes but it does so as the result of the
changing motor speed not the cause.
In this system the inverter pulses are triggered in a closed loop system by a signal which
represents the instantaneous angular position of the rotor. The frequency of the power
supply is thus controlled by the motor speed. A Hall Effect device is usually employed to
sense the rotor position.
Using this configuration, increasing the voltage of the pulsed DC supply from the inverter
will increase the current through the stator windings thus increasing the force on the rotor
poles causing the motor to speed up just as in a brushed DC motor. Although the motor
runs at variable speed, it is still a synchronous application since the feedback loop
triggers the inverter pulses in synchronism with the motor rotation thus forcing the supply
frequency to follow the motor speed. This also means that the motor will be self starting.

Characteristics

High efficiency and power density.

No field windings and hence no conduction losses.
Compact designs. The magnets are generally smaller than the windings needed to provide
the equivalent field.
Speeds up to 100,000 RPM possible.
Torque is proportional to speed as in a brushed DC motor.
Trapezoidal wave form.
No commutator, hence low maintenance and long life.

Applications

Traction applications from low power wheel chairs and golf buggies to high power
automotive use.
Reluctance Motors

The reluctance motor uses the simplest of all electric machine rotors and is one of the oldest
motor technologies known, dating from Robert Davidson's 1838 invention, but only recently

being adopted. It does not use permanent or electromagnets in the rotor which is simply
constructed from magnetic material such as soft iron.

In recent years several variations of the reluctance motor have been developed. Variable and
switched reluctance motors operate on essentially the same principles but are optimised for
different applications. They are both synchronous motors, similar to the permanent magnet
brushless DC motor except that the rotor is constructed from iron rather than from permanent
magnets. The so called "Synchronous Reluctance Motor" has a different construction and
functions slightly differently.
o

Variable Reluctance Motor (VRM)

The variable reluctance motor is an evolution of the stepping motor and is

generally designed for use in low power, open loop position and speed control
systems where efficiency is not of prime importance.
o

Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)

The switched reluctance motor was designed for use in high power, high
efficiency, variable speed drives able to deliver a wide range of torque. For this
they need closed loop position control.
o

Synchronous Reluctance Motor

The Synchronous Reluctance Motor is similar to a synchronous AC machine and

is described in the section on AC motors. The rotor has salient poles but the stator
has smooth, distributed poles whereas both the switched and variable machines
have salient poles for both the rotor and the stator.

Switched and Variable Reluctance Motors

Because of their similarities, the principles of switched and variable reluctance motors
are described together here. They are both synchronous motors similar to the brushless
permanent magnet motors noted above except that the rotors are made from laminated
"soft" magnetic materials, shaped to form salient poles.

Operating Principle

When a piece of magnetic material is free to move in a magnetic field, it will will
align itself with the magnetic field to minimise the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit. To put it another way the piece will orient itself towards the magnetic pole
creating the field. (This also has the effect of maximising the inductance of the
field coil). The torque on the rotor created in this way is called the reluctance
torque.

When the spaces or notches between the rotor poles are opposite the stator poles
the magnetic circuit of the motor has a high magnetic reluctance, but when the
rotor poles are aligned with the stator poles the magnetic circuit has a low
magnetic reluctance. When a stator pole pair is energised the nearest rotor pole
pair will be pulled into alignment with the energised stator poles to minimize the
reluctance path through the machine. As with brushless permanent magnet
motors, rotary motion is made possible by energising the stator poles sequentially
causing the rotor to step to the next energised pole.
A polyphase inverter energises appropriate pole pairs based on shaft position. The
excitation of the stator poles must be timed precisely to correspond with the rotor
position so that it occurs just as the rotor pole is approaching. The reluctance
motor thus requires position feedback to control the motor phase commutation.
This feedback control can be provided by using position sensors such as encoders
or Hall effect sensors to feedback the rotor angle to trigger the commutator at the
appropriate point .
Sensorless position control is also possible at the expense of more complex
electronics and software.

Motor torque and efficiency are optimised by synchronising the controller

switching phase with the rotor position so that the torque angle is held at its
maximum of 90 degrees.
Complex control electronics have been simplified by the availability of low cost
DSPs

Practical motor designs are doubly salient, (both stator and rotor have salient
poles) with multiple stator and rotor poles. The rotor however usually has fewer
poles than the stator to enable self starting and bidirectional control.

Because the rotor is not a permanent magnet but is constructed from iron, no back
EMF is generated, allowing the motor to reach much higher speeds than with
similar permanent magnet motors.
The motor does not require sinusoidal exciting waveforms for efficient operation,
so it can maintain higher torque and efficiency over broader speed ranges than is
possible with other advanced variable-speed systems.

Because of the double saliency, the design suffers from torque ripple, structural
resonances and acoustic noise and various methods such as multiple poles and
pole shaping are needed to smooth out these variations.

The switched reluctance machine can also be driven as a generator.

Characteristics

No I2R loss in the rotor.

Inert rotor. No permanent magnet.
Compact size and low weight.
Low cost.
Efficiencies greater than 90% possible.
Inexpensive and easy to manufacture.
Lowest construction complexity of any motor. Many stamped metal elements.
High reliability (no brush wear). Rugged construction.
High efficiency.
High start-up torque and high speed operation possible.

Applications

Available with ratings up to thousands of Amps and hundreds of kiloVolts.

The automotive industry now makes extensive use of variable reluctance motors
for applications such as traction drives, power steering systems, pumps and
windscreen wipers.
3 or 4 phase motors used for scooters and fans.
High speed pumps and compressors.
Household appliances.
See also Integrated Starter Generator.

Stepping Motors

The stepper motor which includes some of the features of the modern switched reluctance
motor was invented and patented in the 1920s in Aberdeen by C.L. Walker

A stepping motor is a special case of a variable reluctance motor or a permanent magnet

brushless DC motor. Instead of being fed with a constant, repetitive stream of pulses the
motor can be stepped one pulse at a time enabling the motor to make very precise angular
rotations.The motor is reversible, positive going pulses causing a rotation in one direction
while negative going pulses drive the motor in the opposite direction.
If the motor is coupled with a leadscrew it can be used to make precise linear
displacements.

The pulses may be generated by a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO), but the design is
particularly suited to digital and microprocessor controllers.
All of these factors make the stepping motor ideal for industrial robotics, machine tools
and process controllers.

The stepping angle due to each pulse is given by:

Step angle =

360
(rotor teeth) X (stator phases)

Position control is possible simply by counting the pulses and complex closed loop
feedback systems are not necessary for the basic operation. More precise control (smaller
angles) can be achieved by stacking and offsetting several rotors and stators along a
single rotor shaft.

For very long movements it may be desirable to control the speed during the operation,
accelerating up to a maximum slew speed then decelerating as the target is approached.
For such applications a closed loop speed control may be added.

Stepper motors are categorized as permanent-magnet (PM), variable reluctance (VR) or

hybrid (a combination of PM and VR).
o

Characteristics

Precise position control.

Simple open loop position control.
Amenable to simple computer control.
o

Applications

Used in computer plotters and printers.

Industrial controls.
Numerically controlled machine tools.
Robotic equipment.