Ch.

5- Objective 1

02/27/2014

Objective 1: discuss the ways in which force output of a muscle can be increased
First and foremost, the force output of a muscle is dependent on neural adaptations. In other words, the
recruitment of more motor in particular muscles is how greater force output is achieved.

Objective 2: discuss the basic neural adaptations to anaerobic training.

The increase in neural drive is critical to the athlete striving to maximizing strength and power. Neural
adaptations are complex and occur before structural changes in skeletal muscle.

Central Adaptations
In order to increase motor unit activity (i.e. recruitment), for purposes of maximal levels of muscular force
and power, then there needs to be an activation in/of the motor cortex where increases in motor unit activation
begins. The primary motor cortex only increases when the level of force developed increases and when
new exercises/movements are being learned. Untrained individuals display limited ability to maximally recruit
motor units, especially fast-twitch units.

Adaptations of Motor Units

(When) maximal force (of a muscle is desired then this) requires all available motor units to be
activated. The different types of motor unit firing rates or frequencies affect the force of the muscle. Firing rates
are adaptive in that it can be improved by heavy resistive training.

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ)

Both high- and low-intensity running increased the area of the NMJ. High-intensity training produced
more dispersed, irregularly shaped synapses and a greater total length of nerve terminal branching
compared to low-intensity training. Another study showed increased end-plate perimeter length and area, as
well as greater dispersion of acetylcholine receptors within the end-plate region after seven weeks of
resistance training (40). Thus, anaerobic training appears to produce morphological changes in the NMJ that are
conducive to enhanced neural transmission.

Neuromuscular Reflex Potentiation

Muscle spindle (or stretch reflex) has been enhanced (both in magnitude and rate of force
development) as a response to anaerobic training.

Electromyography (EMG)
A.) Cross-Education results -- wherein training only one limb results in an increase in strength in the
untrained limb. The EMG in the untrained limb is increased, which suggests that a central neural adaptation
accounts for most of the strength gain.
B.) Individuals who are untrained experience a bilateral deficit wherein the force produced when both
limbs are contracting together is LESS than the SUM of the forces they [the limbs] produce when contracting
unilaterally.
C.) Some studies have shown that anaerobic training has produced variable responses in antagonist
muscle cocontraction, wherein there has been evidence to suggest there is a decrease in antagonist
cocontraction following resistance training.

Objective 3: explain the responses of bone, muscle, and connective tissue to

anaerobic training.

Muscle Response due to anaerobic training: results in enhanced muscular

strength, power, and endurance

Increased (muscle) Size

Facilitating Fiber Type Transitions
Enhancing biochemical and ultrastructural components (i.e. muscle architecture, enzyme
activity, and substrate concentrations)

Increased Size
Muscular growth and or enlargement is known as Hypertrophy. The enlargement of muscles gets its
characteristics of being bigger due to the fact that the Cross-Sectional Area (CSA) of the existing muscle(s) has
increased (i.e. increase in circumference of muscle cells.) The increase in CSA is achieved by two factors:
1.) increase in the net accretion (i.e. synthesis, reduction in degradation, and or both) of contractile
proteins (i.e. actin and myosin) within the myofibril; and
2.) increase in the number of myofibrils with a muscle fiber.
When new myofilaments are added to the existing myofibrils outer layers, this results in an increase in
the myofibrils diameter. The synthesis of proteins following acute resistance training remains elevated for a period
of 48 hours. The magnitude of protein synthesis depends upon carbohydrate and protein intake, amino acid
availability, timing of nutrient intake, mechanical stress of the weight training workout, muscle cell hydration levels,
and the anabolic hormonal and subsequent receptor response.

Fiber Type Transitions

Muscle fiber types range across a continuum from the most oxidative (Type I) to the least oxidative (Type
IIx). However, when one undergoes anaerobic training there is a shift in the histology of the muscle types
particularly in the Type II fibers, and then (if duration is sufficient) into Type I muscle fibers. Exercise activities
that recruit more motor units (i.e. activation of high-threshold motor units) with Type IIx muscle fibers initiate a
shift toward IIa fibers (i.e. more oxidative fiber type). Although IIx fibers are strength and power fibers, they
will become progressively more oxidative (and fatigue resistant) thus becoming IIa fibers when they undergo
training. In regards to transitioning from Type I fibers into Type II fibers and or vice versa this is less probable
scenario.

(*note the change from IIxIIa as indicated in the blue box in the above illustration.)

Structural and Architectural Changes

Muscle hypertrophy (and enhanced muscle function and the enablement of greater expression of strength)
is accompanied by the following changes as a result of resistance training:
- increased myofibrillar volume
- increased cytoplasmic density
- increased sarcoplasmic reticulum and t-tubule density
- increase in sodium-potassium ATPase activity
Pennate muscle, for example, responds to anaerobic resistance training by increasing their angle of
pennation. Why? Because, larger pennation angles can accommodate greater protein deposition that
allows greater/further increases in cross-sectional areas.

Mitochondria and capillary densities decrease as a result of hypertrophy meaning that, increased
muscle size from anaerobic training, does not translate to a decrease in the number of mitochondria (i.e.
mitochondrial numbers remain constant, and can actually increase). However, the muscle area, as it relates to
mitochondrial density is what decreases. The same is true for number of capillaries. Wherein, counter-intuitively,
the number of capillaries per fiber may actually increase, which assists in the clearance of metabolites from
exercising muscle.
Anaerobic training also increases the skeletal muscle acid-base balance. Muscle and blood pH reduces
as a result of anaerobic exercise. Consistent pH variations overtime is a way of building-up ones tolerance to lactic
acid. The skeletal muscle, as a result of anaerobic training, has a increased buffering capacity. Increasing the
buffering capacity delays fatigue in muscle and allows greater endurance. Interval training (sprints, cycling) is a
primary way to increase the buffering capacity, but it needs to have high enough intensity above the lactate
threshold for it to work.
Heavy resistive training increases energy substrate levels and its availability in muscle. Repeated (i.e.
intermittent) bouts of anaerobic training, which produces high-intensity contractions, reduces ATP and CP
concentrations. Thereby, this action results in increasing the storage capacity of the ATP and CP highenergy compounds in an effect known as the supercompensation effect.

Bone & Connective Tissue Response due to anaerobic training:

- bone remodeling increased size and strength
- protein secretion of collagen increases strength of the bone and other connective tissues.
Bone, tendon, ligaments, cartilage, and fascia all of which are connective tissues which when
under stress, in combination with the synergistic effects of endocrine system, undergo radical transformations due
to forces acting upon them. Transformations meaning that, the CTs experience remodeling and physiological
adaptations.

Bone Remodeling
The bones that make up the axial and appendicular skeleton are conglomerates of living cells/tissues
which regulate and respond to influences (i.e. stresses) that it experiences. Ways in which bones regulate and
respond to influences is by adapting. The adaption of bones is characteristic of the (trans)formation of new CTs
(i.e. remodeling). However, in order for the bone to experience remodeling (e.g. building itself up) then there
needs to sufficient mechanical stress applied to the bone itself. The term minimal essential strain (MES) is the
threshold stimulus that initiates new bone formation. Once MES on the bone(s) has been reached and or
exceeded in a consistent manner, then this stimulates the bone(s) to undergo the process of
remodeling. The stimulation of the MES signals osteoblasts (i.e. bone-forming cells) to migrate to the given area
on the bone where stress is bing experienced to synthesis proteins such as a collagen. However, the bone cells
once they begin remodeling will adapt to the new mechanical stress that they were just subjected to. Therefore, it
follows, that progressive overload (i.e. the gradual build-up of weight-bearing exercises) needs to be utilized in
order for increasing bone size and strength.

The bones experience a stress, and therefore respond accordingly to the magnitude of stress and adapt
itself to the degree of stress. Bone Mineral Density (BMD) is a corresponding affect to hypertrophied
muscles because the bones muscle be able to support the gains in size and strength. However, the
quantitative increases in BMD via anaerobic training is a long term process taking 6 months and or
longer.

Tendon, Ligament, and Fascia Adaptation

Collagen is the primary protein responsible for why all connective tissues tendons, ligaments, fascia, and
cartilage have the characteristics of having durability and strength when it relates to connecting bone to muscle.
In tendons, for example, high-intensity anaerobic training results in connective tissue growth and other
ultrastructural changes that enhance force transmission. The tendon will adapt by increasing in size and strength,
and it does so by: result: increased ability to receive tensional forces.
- increasing collagen fibril diameter
- increased number of covalent cross-link with the hypertrophied fiber
- increase in the number of collagen fibrils
- increase in the packing density of collagen fibrils.

Ligaments, also a CT, in addition to collagen also contain elastin (i.e. elastic fibers). This protein, allows
the CTs that make-up ligaments to have a bit of a stretchable component to their design, and therefore serves the
purpose of being the CT which links bone to bone.
Just like bone, the ligaments, tendons and fascia, after experiencing a threshold from mechanical forces
generated by anaerobic activities, are stimulated to undergo changes.

Cartilage Adaptation
Cartilages main functions:
- provide smooth joint articulating surface
- shock absorber for forces directed through the joint
- aid in the attachment of CT to skeleton
Cartilage does NOT have its own blood supply and therefore lacks the ability to get adequate
nutrients, thereby making it [cartilage] reliant on diffusion via synovial fluid to get nutrients. How? When
there is an increase/change in the forces and or movement at the joint, then this stimulates the joint capsule to
synthesize and release nutrients via the synovial fluid. Similarly, if joints are not moved, then they are NOT
able to diffuse nutrients to their articulating ends and thus are starved/lack proper nutrients via diffusion.

Objective 4: explain the acute responses and chronic adaptations of the endocrine and
cardiovascular systems to anaerobic training.

Endocrine System - Acute Response & Chronic Adaptation

Acute Anabolic Response
- Post anaerobic-resistance exercise in men exhibited elevated testosterone, GH and its molecular
variants, and cortisol for 15 30 minutes after stoppage of activity.
- The magnitude of testosterone, GH, and cortisol increase after resistance exercise is greatest when large
muscle mass exercises are performed, AND provided that the intensity and volume is moderate to high, with shortduration rest intervals.
- IGF-I is delayed and dependent upon acute GH response.
- insulin secretion rates parallel blood glucose and amino acid changes.

Insulin is most affected by supplementation before, during and after exercise and NOT by anaerobic
exercise stimulus.
- (Note: Catecholamines (Adrenal Hormones) increase in concentration in response to anaerobic
resistance training).

Chronic Changes in Acute Hormonal Response

- acute hormonal response may improve as the individual is gradually able to exert more effort in
successive training sessions (i.e. GH response).

Chronic Changes in Resting Hormonal Concentrations

- chronic changes in resting hormonal concentration levels are minimally affected.
- receptors, when they are exposed chronically high levels of hormones, will tend to down-regulate.

Cardiovascular (and Respiratory) System Acute Response & Chronic

Adaptation
Acute Response
- An acute bout of anaerobic exercise increases the cardiovascular responses: (the following are
increased):

Heart rate

Stroke vol.

Cardiac output

Oxygen uptake

(systolic) Blood pressure and flow to active muscles

Chronic Adaptation (at rest)

- slight variation of resting heart rate has been found in anaerobic trained individuals (i.e. beats/min
dropped slightly). Same is true for Resting Blood Pressure.
- heavy resistance training does not have much affect on enhancing resting cardiac function

Objective 5: discuss the potential for enhancement of muscle strength,

muscular endurance, power, flexibility, and motor performance during anaerobic
training.

Objective 6: recognize the causes, signs, symptoms, and effects of

overtraining and detraining.

Overtraining
+ Causes
There are 2 types of Overtraining:
1.) Sympathetic Overtraining Syndrome
- increased sympathetic activity at rest
2. Parasympathetic Overtraining Syndrome
- increased parasympathetic activity at rest and with exercise

+ Symptoms and Effects

- mistakes made in the acute training program variables leads to an observable plateau
below the athletes potential
- rate of progression is too high (i.e. volume and or intensity is increased to rapidly) in a
period of time leads to structural damage and subsequently overtraining if persisted
- lack of rest
- too much too soon, and repeated overuse

+ Signs hormonal & psychological

- Markers of volume-related overtraining response:

increased cortisol

decreased luteinizing hormone AND

decreased total and free testosterone concentrations

- Intensity-related overtraining, as a response to high-intensity, does NOT alter resting
concentrations of hormones; no changes in circulating testosterone, free testosterone, cortisol, or
GH

Detraining
+ Causes
(meaning: cessation of anaerobic training or substantial reduction in frequency, volume, and
or intensity, which results in decrements in performance and loss of some physiological adaptations
associated with resistance training.)

The magnitude of strength loss is proportional to the length of time of the detraining
period, and the training status of the athlete/client.

+ Symptoms and Effects & Signs

muscle atrophy