Hundred Years War

The Hundred Years War was a series of conicts waged

from 1337 to 1453 between the House of Plantagenet,
rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of
Valois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, for control of
the latter kingdom. Each side drew many allies into the
war.

The war owes its historical signicance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been largely replaced by professional troops, and aristocratic dominance
had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and
weapons of armies. Although primarily a dynastic conict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English
nationalism. The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had
dominated. The rst standing armies in Western Europe
since the time of the Western Roman Empire originated
during the war, composed largely of commoners and thus
helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to
the belligerents, English political forces over time came
to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental
landholdings, became a factor leading to the civil wars
known as the Wars of the Roses (14551487). In France,
civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and bandit freecompanies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically. Shorn of its Continental possessions, England was
left with the sense of being an island nation, which profoundly aected its outlook and development for more
than 500 years.[1]

For their French possessions, the English kings since the

Norman Conquest were vassals of the kings of France.
The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to
reduce the possessions of their over-mighty vassals, to the
eect that only Gascony was left to the English. The conscation or threat of conscating this duchy had been part
of French policy to check the growth of English power,
particularly whenever the English were at war with the
Kingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.
Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III was
the grandson of Philip IV of France, and nephew of
Charles IV of France, the last king of the senior line
of the House of Capet. In 1316, a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne.
When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to claim
the French throne for herself, claimed it for her son.
The French rejected the claim, maintaining that Isabella
could not transmit a right which she did not possess.
For about nine years (1328-1337), the English had accepted the Valois succession to the French throne. But
the interference of the French king, Philip VI, in Edward
IIIs war against Scotland, led Edward III to reassert his
claim to the French throne. Several overwhelming English victories in the warespecially at Crecy, Poitiers,
and Agincourtraised the prospects of an ultimate English triumph. However, the greater resources of the
French monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Starting in 1429, decisive French victories at Patay, Formigny,
and Castillon concluded the war in favor of France, with
England permanently losing most of its major possessions
on the continent.

1 Background
See also: The Anarchy

1.1 English kings and continental dukedoms: 10661357

Further information: Peerage of France
The Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England since
the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an end
when the son of Georey of Anjou and Empress Matilda,
Henry (great-grandson of William the Conqueror), became the rst of the Angevin Kings of England in 1154
as King Henry II.[2] The King of England, in what is now
known as the Angevin Empire, directly ruled more territory on the continent than the King of France. However,
as holders of continental duchies, English kings owed
homage to the King of France. From the 11th century onward, the dukes had autonomy, neutralising the issue.[3]

Historians commonly divide the war into three phases

separated by truces: the Edwardian Era War (1337
1360); the Caroline War (13691389); and the
Lancastrian War (14151453). Contemporary conicts
in neighbouring areas, which were directly related to
this conict, included the War of the Breton Succession
(13411364), the Castilian Civil War (13661369), the
War of the Two Peters (13561375) in Aragon, and the
138385 Crisis in Portugal. Later historians invented the
term Hundred Years War as a periodization to encom- John of England inherited the Angevin domains from
pass all of these events, thus constructing the longest mil- King Richard I. However, Philip II of France acted deitary conict in history.
cisively to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both
1

BEGINNING OF THE WAR: 133760

through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead French

king, but the question arose whether she should be able to
transmit a right that she did not herself possess because of
her gender. The French nobility, moreover, balked at the
prospect of being ruled by the English king. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University
of Paris decided that males who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded. Thus
the nearest heir through male ancestry was Charles IVs
rst cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and it was decided
that he should be crowned Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignon
papacy conrmed that under Salic law males should not
be able to inherit through their mothers.[5][6]

2 Beginning of the war: 133760

Main article: Hundred Years War (13371360)

2.1 Gascony under the King of England

Homage of Edward I of England (kneeling) to Philip IV of
France (seated), 1286. As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was also
a vassal to the French King.

legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of most of the Angevin continental possessions. Following Johns reign, the Battle of Bouvines
(1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and nally the War
of Saint-Sardos (1324) resulted in the complete loss of
Normandy and the reduction of Englands holdings on the
continent to a few provinces in Gascony.[4]

1.2

Dynastic turmoil in France: 131428

In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had

been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known as Guyenne
or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne
and Gascony (French: Guyenne-et-Gascogne). The
Angevin kings of England became Dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of France, Eleanor
of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were
held in vassalage to the French crown. By the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous.[7][8] At the beginning of Edward IIIs
reign on 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine that
remained in his hands was the Duchy of Gascony. The
term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by
the Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of
Aquitaine.[8][9]

See also: Absolute cognatic primogeniture and British

claims to the French throne
For the rst 10 years of Edward IIIs reign, Gascony had
been a major point of friction. The English argued that,
The question of female succession was raised after the as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his
death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter, tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of
and his posthumous son lived only a few days. Philip, any French suzerainty. However, this line of argument
Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that could not be maintained by the English, so in 1329 the
"women cannot succeed to the French throne". Through 17-year old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Trahis political sagacity he won over his adversaries, and suc- dition demanded that vassals should approach their liege
ceeded to the French throne as Philip V of France. By the unarmed with heads uncovered, however Edward demonsame law that he procured, his daughters were denied the strated his reluctance by attending the ceremony by wearsuccession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles ing his crown and sword.[10] Despite Edward complying,
albeit reluctantly, the French continued to pressure the
IV, in 1322.[5]
English administration.[11]
Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edwards inuential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an
When Charles IV of France died in 1328 with only daugh- exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip
ters as heirs, the nearest male relative was his nephew VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a
Edward III of England. Edward had inherited his right war to reclaim France and was able to provide extensive

2.4

Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany

intelligence on the French court.[12]

2.2

Franco-Scot alliance

See also: Auld Alliance

The Kings of England had been trying to subjugate the
Scots for some time. In 1295 a treaty was signed between
France and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair.
Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising Scotland that if England invaded then France would
support the Scots. Similarly, the French would nd Scot
support if their own kingdom was attacked. Edward could
not succeed in his plans for Scotland if they could count
on French support.[11]
Philip VI had assembled a large naval eet o Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the
Holy Land. However the plan was abandoned and the
eet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved to
the English Channel o Normandy in 1336, threatening
England.[12] To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed
that the English raise two armies, one to deal with the
Scots at a suitable time, the other to proceed at once to
Gascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sent
to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.[13]

2.3

3
diculties.[16]
Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool
trade, since Flanders principal cities relied heavily on
textile production and England supplied much of the raw
material they needed. Edward III had commanded that
his chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade.[17] At the time
there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone.[18] The
great medieval English monasteries produced large surpluses of wool that were sold to Europe. Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money by
taxing it.[17] Frances sea power led to economic disruptions for England, shrinking the wool trade to Flanders
and the wine trade from Gascony.[19][20]

2.4 Outbreak, the English Channel and

Brittany

End of homage

At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from England but refused.
The arrire-ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimed
throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Then, in
May 1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris.
It was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, eectively
Gascony, should be taken back into the kings hands on
the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as vassal and had sheltered the kings 'mortal enemy'
Robert d'Artois.[14] Edward responded to the conscation
of Aquitaine by challenging Philips right to the French
throne. When Charles IV died, Edward had made a claim
for the succession of the French throne, through the right
of his mother Isabella (Charles IVs sister), daughter of
Philip IV. Any claim was considered invalidated by Edwards homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived his
claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title 'King of
France and the French Royal Arms.[15]
On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received
homage from Guy, half-brother of the Count of Flanders.
The civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edwards purpose was
to strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His
supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal
to the true King of France and were not rebels against
Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England
to try and raise more funds and also deal with political

Battle of Sluys from a manuscript of Froissarts Chronicles,

Bruge, c.1470

Edward, with his eet, sailed from England on 22 June

1340, and arrived the next day o the Zwyn estuary. The
French eet assumed a defensive formation o the port
of Sluys. The English eet apparently tricked the French
into believing they were withdrawing. However, when
the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked
with the wind and sun behind them. The French eet was
almost completely destroyed in what became known as
the Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing French invasions.[16]
At this point, Edwards funds ran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of the Duke
of Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between the
dukes half brother John of Montfort and Charles of Blois,
nephew of Philip VI.[21]
In 1341, conict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the Breton War of Succession, in which Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles
of Blois. Action for the next few years focused around a
back and forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes

BEGINNING OF THE WAR: 133760

changed hands several times, while further campaigns in hold territory. He reached the river Seine to nd most
Gascony met with mixed success for both sides.[21]
of the crossings destroyed. He moved further and further south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found the
crossing at Poissy. This had only been partially destroyed,
2.5 Battle of Crcy and the taking of so the carpenters within his army were able to x it. He
Calais
then continued on his way to Flanders until he reached
the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at
Blanchetaque, leaving Philips army stranded. Edward,
assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more, until, nding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle
and Philips army attacked. The Battle of Crcy was a
complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the
English longbowmen and the French king, who allowed
his army to attack before it was ready.[22] Philip appealed
to his Scottish allies to help with a diversionary attack
on England. King David II of Scotland responded by
invading northern England, but his army was defeated
and he was captured at the Battle of Nevilles Cross, on
17 October 1346. This greatly reduced the threat from
Scotland.[21][23] In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city of Calais on the English
Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English, allowing them to safely
keep troops in northern France.[22] Calais would remain
under English control, even after the end of the Hundred
Battle of Crcy, 1346
Years War, until the successful French siege in 1558.[24]

2.6 Battle of Poitiers and the Treaty of

Brtigny
In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris,
began to ravage Europe.[25] In 1356, after the plague
had passed and England was able to recover nancially,
Edwards son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, later
known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers.[21]
During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly,
captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in
a forest. The French advance was contained, at which
point de Grailly led a anking movement with his horsemen cutting o the French retreat and succeeding in capturing King John II of France (known as John the Good)
and many of his nobles.[26][27] With John held hostage, his
son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V of France)
took over as regent.[28]

Edward III counting the dead on the battleeld of Crcy

In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across

the channel, landing in Normandys Cotentin, at St.
Vaast. The English army captured the completely unguarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French.
Philip gathered a large army to oppose Edward, who
chose to march northward toward the Low Countries,
pillaging as he went, rather than attempting to take and

After the Battle of Poitiers, chaos ruled, as many French

nobles and mercenaries rampaged. A contemporary report said:
... all went ill with the kingdom and the
State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up
everywhere in the land. The Nobles despised
and hated all others and took no thought for
usefulness and prot of lord and men. They
subjected and despoiled the peasants and the
men of the villages. In no wise did they defend

5
their country from its enemies; rather did they
trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the
peasants goods...
From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette[29]

4 French
ascendancy
Charles V: 136989

Main article: Hundred Years War (13691389)

See also: Castilian Civil War

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne.
The Dauphins strategy was that of non-engagement with
4.1
the English army in the eld. However Edward wanted
the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for
his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation
city).[30] However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the citys defences before Edward and his army
arrived.[31] Edward besieged the city for ve weeks, but
the defences held and there was no coronation.[30] Edward moved on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. The French made contact with
him and forced him to negotiate.[32] A conference was
held at Brtigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brtigny
(8 May 1360). The treaty was ratied at Calais in October. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edward
renounced Normandy, Touraine, Anjou and Maine and
consented to reducing King Johns ransom by a million
crowns. Edward also abandoned his claim to the crown
of France.[26][28][33]

under

Aquitaine and Castile

First peace: 136069

The French king, John II, had been held captive in England. The Treaty of Brtigny set his ransom at 3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieu
of John. The hostages included two of his sons, several
princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of France.
While these hostages were held, John returned to France
to try and raise funds to pay the ransom. In 1362 Johns Statue of Bertrand du Guesclin in Dinan
son Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English-held Calais, escaped captivity. So, with his stand-in hostage gone, John
felt honour-bound to return to captivity in England.[28][33]
The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near
southern Gascony) since 1354 and in 1363 the Navarrese used John IIs captivity in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power.[34]
Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves particularly as there was a
prospect that he might gain control over the northern and
western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind
Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.[35]
In 1364, John II died in London, while still in honourable captivity.[36] Charles V succeeded him as king
of France.[28][37] On 6 May 1364, one month after the
dauphins accession and three days before his coronation
as Charles V, the Navarrese suered a crushing defeat at
the Battle of Cocherel.[38]

The Franco-Castilian Navy, led by Admirals de Vienne and

Tovar, managed to raid the English coasts for the rst time since
the beginning of the Hundred Years War.

In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part

5 SECOND PEACE: 13891415

of modern Spain). The ruler Peter of Castile's forces were

pitched against those of his half-brother Henry of Trastmara. The English crown supported Peter and the French,
Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin,
a Breton, who rose from relatively humble beginnings
to prominence as one of Frances war leaders. Charles
V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin at their
head, to support Trastmara in his invasion of Castile.[39]

Calais.[46]

It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child

monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II, who
nominally exercised the power of kingship from the date
of his accession in 1377.[45] However, between 1377 and
1380, actual power was in the hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency
led by the kings uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gaunt
Peter appealed to England and Aquitaines Black Prince remained highly inuential.[45]
for help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into ex- Richard faced many challenges during his reign, includile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed ing the Peasants Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381, an
to support Peters claims but concerns over the terms of Anglo-Scottish war in 138485. His attempts to raise
the treaty of Brtigny led him to assist Peter as a represen- taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the protectative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led an tion of Calais against the French made him increasingly
Anglo-Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to unpopular.[45]
power after Trastmaras army was defeated at the Battle
of Najera.[40]
Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black
5 Second peace: 13891415
Prince, they failed to do so. The Prince was suering
from ill health and returned with his army to Aquitaine.
To pay o debts incurred during the Castille campaign, See also: Civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burthe prince instituted a hearth tax. Arnaud-Amanieu VIII, gundians
Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Princes side dur- The war became increasingly unpopular with the English
ing the war. Albret, who already had become discontented by the inux of English administrators into the
enlarged Aquitaine, refused to allow the tax to be collected in his ef. He then joined a group of Gascon lords
who appealed to Charles V for support in their refusal
to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lord
and the Black Prince to hear the case in his parlement in
Paris. The Black Princes answer was that he would go
to Paris with sixty thousand men behind him. War broke
out again and Edward III resumed the title of King of
France.[41] Charles V declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited and before the end of
1369 all Aquitaine was in full revolt.[41][42]
With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry de
Trastmara led a second invasion that ended with Peters
death at the Battle of Montiel in March, 1369. The new
Castilian regime provided naval support to French campaigns against Aquitaine and England.[40]

4.2

English turmoil

With his health continuing to deteriorate, the Black

Prince returned to England in January 1371, where by
now his father Edward III was elderly and also in poor
health. The princes illness was debilitating. He died on
8 June 1376.[43] Edward III only just outlived his son and
died the following year on 21 June 1377;[44] he was succeeded by the Black Princes second son Richard II who
was still a child.[45] The treaty at Brtigny left Edward
III and England with enlarged holdings in France, however a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin pushed the English back and, by the
time of Charles Vs death in 1380, the English only held

Assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orlans

public largely due to the high taxes needed to sustain it.

These taxes were seen as one of the reasons for the Peasants revolt. [47] Richards increasing disinterest in the war
together with his preferential treatment of a select few
close friends and advisors angered an alliance of lords that
included one of his uncles. This group, known as Lords

7
Appellant, managed to successfully press charges of treason against ve of Richards advisors and friends in the
Merciless Parliament. The Lords Appellant were able to
gain control of the council in 1388 and tried, unsuccessfully, to reignite the war. Although the will was there,
the funds to pay the troops was lacking, so in the autumn
of 1388 the Council agreed to resume negotiations with
the French crown, beginning on 18 June 1389 with the
signing of a three-year truce at Leulinghen.[47] [48]

V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit

them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he received ambassadors from Burgundy.[57]
Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make clear
his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the
hand of Charles VIs youngest daughter Catherine of Valois. The French rejected his demands, leading Henry to
prepare for war.[57]

In 1389, Richards uncle and supporter, John of Gaunt,

returned from Spain and Richard was able to rebuild his 6 Resumption of the war under
power gradually until 1397, when he reasserted his auHenry V: 141529
thority and destroyed the principal three among the Lords
Appellant. In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard
II disinherited Gaunts son, the exiled Henry of Boling- Main article: Hundred Years War (14151453)
broke. Bolingbroke returned to England with his supporters and deposed Richard and had himself crowned Henry
IV.[48][49][45]

6.1 Burgundy alliance and the taking of

In Scotland, the English regime change prompted borParis

der raids that were countered by an invasion in 1402 and
the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon
6.1.1 Battle of Agincourt (1415)
Hill.[50] A dispute over the spoils between Henry and
Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in a
long and bloody struggle between the two for control of
northern England, resolved only with the almost complete
destruction of the Percy family by 1408.[51][52]
In Wales, Owain Glyndr was declared Prince of Wales
on 16 September 1400. He was the leader of the most
serious and widespread rebellion against English authority
in Wales since the conquest of 12823. The rebellion was
nally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semiindependence for a number of years.[53]

In the meantime Charles VI of France was descending

into madness and an open conict for power began between his cousin John the Fearless and his brother, Louis
of Orlans. After Louiss assassination, the Armagnac
family took political power in opposition to John. By
1410, both sides were bidding for the help of English
forces in a civil war.[49] In 1418 Paris was taken by the Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt.
Burgundians, who massacred the Count of Armagnac and
Main article: Battle of Agincourt
about 2,500 of his followers.[54]
In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a
Throughout this period, England confronted repeated
force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Hareur. The
raids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy.
city resisted for longer than expected, but nally surrenThere is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalised
dered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected
piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He
delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Rather
used such privateering campaigns to pressure enemies
than march on Paris directly, he elected to make a raidwithout risking open war.[55] The French responded in
ing expedition across France toward English-occupied
kind and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided
Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crcy, he found
many English coastal towns.[56]
himself outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had to
The domestic and dynastic diculties faced by England ght a much larger French army at the Battle of Aginand France in this period quieted the war for a decade.[56] court, north of the Somme. Despite the problems and
Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by having a smaller force, his victory was near-total; the
his eldest son Henry V. Charles VI of Frances mental ill- French defeat was catastrophic, costing many of the Arleaders. About 40% of the French nobility was
ness allowed his power to be exercised by royal princes magnac
[58]
Henry was apparently concerned that the large
killed.
whose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry
number of prisoners taken were a security risk (there were

RESUMPTION OF THE WAR UNDER HENRY V: 141529

men into the main body of the Franco-Scottish army, who
quickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing mele, the
Scot, John Carmichael of Douglasdale, broke his lance
unhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on the ground,
the duke was slain by Alexander Buchanan.[57][59] The
body of the Duke of Clarence was recovered from the
eld by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, who
conducted the English retreat.[60]

6.2 English success

Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gtinais before returning to Paris.
From there he decided to attack the Dauphin-held town
of Meaux. It turned out to be more dicult to overcome
than rst thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421,
and the town held for seven months before nally falling
on 11 May 1422.[57]
At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and
together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis.
While there it became apparent that he was ill (possibly
dysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire he diClan Carmichael crest with broken spear commemorating the un- verted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, where
seating of the Duke of Clarence.
he died on 31 August 1422.[57] The elderly and insane
Charles VI of France died two months later, on 21 October 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine-month-old
more French prisoners than the entire English army) and
son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.[61]
[57]
he ordered their deaths.
On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bedford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI was
6.1.2 Treaty of Troyes (1420)
only an infant). The war in France continued under Bedfords generalship and several battles were won. The EnHenry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in glish won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil,
1417, and Rouen on 19 January 1419, turning Normandy (17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baug, Clarence had
English for the rst time in two centuries. A formal al- rushed into battle without the support of his archers. At
liance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, which had Verneuil the archers fought to devastating eect against
taken Paris after the assassination of Duke John the Fear- the Franco-Scottish army. The eect of the battle was
less in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with King Charles VI. to virtually destroy the Dauphins eld army and to elimThey signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry - inate the Scots as a signicant military force for the rest
nally married Charles daughter Catherine of Valois and of the war.[61][62]
Henrys heirs would inherit the throne of France. The
Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry
formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement 6.3 Joan of Arc and French revival
was ratied by the Estates-General.[57]
Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of French
spirit and the tide began to turn against the English.[61]
6.1.3 Death of Clarence (1421)
In 1428, the English laid siege to Orlans. Their force
On 22 March 1421 Henry Vs progress in his French was insucient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan concampaign experienced an unexpected reverse. Henry vinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she
had left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Duke had received visions from God telling her to drive out the
of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. English. She raised the morale of the troops and they atClarence engaged a Franco-Scottish force of 5000 men, tacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift the
French took several English
led by John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the Battle of siege. Inspired by Joan, the
[63]
strongholds
on
the
Loire.
Baug. Clarence, against the advice of his lieutenants,
before his army had been fully assembled, attacked with The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by
a force of no more than 1500 men-at-arms. He then, dur- a French army. Near the village of Patay, French caving the course of the battle, led a charge of a few hundred alry broke through a unit of English longbowmen that

7.2

French resurgence

The rst Western image of a battle with cannon: the Siege of

Orlans in 1429.

After Joan of Arcs death the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the English.[66] Most of Henrys royal
advisers were against making peace. Among the factions,
the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the
Duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereas
Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations
stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator,
the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days
after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke of
Joan of Arc (c.14501500)
Burgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of
Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This was
[61]
The
had been sent to block the road, then swept through the a major blow to English sovereignty in France.
retreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men, Duke of Bedford died 14 September 1435 and was re[66]
and the commander John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury placed by a lesser man.
was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the
Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation as Charles
7.2 French resurgence
VII (16 July 1429).[63][64]
After the coronation, Charles VIIs army fared less well.
An attempted French siege of Paris was defeated on 8
September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew back to the
Loire Valley.[65]

7
7.1

French victory: 142953

Henrys coronations and the desertion
of Burgundy

Henry VI was crowned king of England at Westminster

Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at NotreDame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.[61]
Joan was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of
Compiegne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundians transferred her to the English, who organised a trial headed
by Pierre Cauchon, a pro-English clergyman. Joan was
burned at the stake on 30 May 1431.[63] (She was rehabilitated 25 years later by Pope Callixtus III).

The Battle of Formigny (1450)

Burgundys allegiance remained ckle, but the English focus on expanding their domains into the Low Countries
left them little energy to intervene in France.[67] The long
truces that marked the war gave Charles time to centralise

10

the French state and reorganise his army and government,

replacing his feudal levies with a more modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good
use. A castle that once could only be captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon
bombardment. The French artillery developed a reputation as the best in the world.[66]
By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen and in 1450 the
Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of
Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III,
Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to
relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it.
The English army had been attacked from the ank and
rear by Richemonts force just as they were on the verge
of beating Clermonts army.[68]

7.3

Fall of Gascony

SIGNIFICANCE

English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and his

son.[69]

7.4 End of the war

Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years War,[69] England and France remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they faced
unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years
War, English landowners complained vociferously about
the nancial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a major cause of
the War of the Roses, that started in 1455.[66][70]
The Hundred Years War almost resumed in 1474, when
the duke Charles of Burgundy, counting on English support, took up arms against Louis XI of France. Louis
managed to isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IV
of England o with a large cash sum and an annual pension, in an agreement signed at the Treaty of Picquigny
(1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years
War with Edward renouncing his claim to the throne of
France. However, future Kings of England continued to
keep the lilies of France (Fleur-de-lis) on their coat of
arms and even bore the title, until 1803, when they were
dropped in deference to the exiled Count of Provence,
titular King Louis XVIII of France, who was living in
England after the French Revolution.[71]
Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed at
the Battle of Nancy in 1477,[72] leaving a daughter, Mary,
who lost the provinces of Artois, Flanders, Picardy and
Burgundy to Louis XIs armies.[72]

8 Signicance
The Hundred Years War was a time of rapid military
evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to
Charles the Victorious.
the wars costs, partly through advancement in technolAfter Charles VIIs successful Normandy campaign in ogy and partly through lessons that warfare taught.
1450, he concentrated his eorts on Gascony, the last Before the Hundred Years War, heavy cavalry was conprovince held by the English. Bordeaux, Gasconys cap- sidered the most powerful unit in an army, but by the
ital, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30 wars end, this belief had shifted. The heavy horse was inJune 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of creasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later,
the Gascon people this was reversed when John Talbot another long-distance weapon: rearms). Edward III was
and his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. How- famous for dismounting his men-at-arms and having them
ever, the English were defeated at the Battle of Castil- and his archers stand in closely integrated battle lines; the
lon on 17 July 1453. Talbot had been persuaded to en- horses only being used for transport or pursuit.[73] The
gage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. Dur- English began using lightly armoured mounted troops,
ing the battle the French appeared to retreat towards their known as hobelars. Hobelars tactics had been developed
camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by against the Scots, in the Anglo-Scottish wars of the 14th
Charles VIIs ordnance ocer Jean Bureau and this was century. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured horses, eninstrumental in the French success as when the French abling them to move through dicult or boggy terrain
cannon opened re, from their positions in the camp, the where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather than ght

11
Bergen op

D. of CLEVES

B. of MNSTER

France in 1477

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Burgundian territories (orange/yellow) and limits of France (red)

after the Burgundian War.

The spread of the Black Death (with modern borders).

while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engage

shape Englands early modern political culture. Although
the enemy.[74][75][76]
anti-war and pro-peace spokesmen generally failed to inBy the end of the Hundred Years War, these various
uence outcomes at the time, they had a long-term imfactors caused the decline of the expensively outtted,
pact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm for conict
highly trained heavy cavalry and the eventual end of the
deemed not in the national interest, yielding only losses
armoured knight as a military force and of the nobility as
in return for high economic burdens. In comparing this
a political one.[76]
English cost-benet analysis with French attitudes, given
The war stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastated that both countries suered from weak leaders and undisFrance as a land, but it also awakened French nationalism. ciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the French understood
The Hundred Years War accelerated the process of trans- that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occuforming France from a feudal monarchy to a centralised pying their homeland. Furthermore French kings found
state.[77] In 1445 the rst regular standing army since Ro- alternative ways to nance the war sales taxes, debasman times was organised in France partly as a solution to ing the coinage and were less dependent than the Enmarauding free companies. The mercenary companies glish on tax levies passed by national legislatures. Enwere given a choice of either joining the Royal army as glish anti-war critics thus had more to work with than the
compagnies d'ordonnance on a permanent basis, or be- French.[78]
ing hunted down and destroyed if they refused. France
Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numgained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, which
bers throughout Europe during this period. France lost
was sent out to gradually eliminate the remaining mercehalf its population during the Hundred Years War.[58]
naries who insisted on operating on their own. The new
Normandy lost three-quarters of its population, and Paris
standing army had a more disciplined and professional
two-thirds.[79] The population of England was reduced by
approach to warfare than its predecessors.[76]
20 to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.[80]
The conict developed such that it was not just between
the Kings of England and France but also between their
respective peoples. There were constant rumours in England that the French meant to invade and destroy the English language. National feeling that emerged from such
rumours unied both France and England further. The
Hundred Years War basically conrmed the fall of the
French language in England, which had served as the lan- 9 Timeline
guage of the ruling classes and commerce there from the
time of the Norman conquest until 1362.[77]
Lowe (1997) argued that opposition to the war helped to

12

12 NOTES

[3] Bartlett 2000, p. 17

[4] Gormley 2007 Ohio State University
[5] Brissaud 1915, pp. 329330
[6] Previte-Orton 1978, p. 872
[7] Harris 1994, p. 8
[8] Prestwich 1988, p. 298
[9] Prestwich 2005, pp. 292293
[10] Wilson 2011, p. 194
[11] Prestwich 2005, p. 394
[12] Prestwich 2005, p. 306
[13] Sumption 1991, p. 180
[14] Sumption 1991, p. 184
[15] Prestwich 2003, pp. 149150

9.1

Battles

Further information: List of Hundred Years War battles

[16] Prestwich 2005, pp. 307312

[17] Friar 2004, pp. 480481
[18] R.E.Glassock. England circa 1334 in Darby 1976 New
Edition, p. 160

10

Important gures

[19] Sumption 1991, pp. 188189

[20] Sumption 1991, pp. 233234

11

See also

Timeline of the Hundred Years War

French military history
British military history
Anglo-French relations
Medieval demography
Second Hundred Years War- this is the name given
by some historians to the near-continuous series of
conicts between Britain and France from 1688
1815, beginning with the Glorious Revolution and
ending with the Battle of Waterloo.
List of battles involving France in the Middle Ages

[21] Rogers 2010, pp. 8889

[22] Prestwich 2005, pp. 318319
[23] Rogers 2010, pp. 5545
[24] Grummitt 2008, p. 1
[25] The Black Death, transl. & ed. Rosemay Horrox, (Manchester University Press, 1994), 9.
[26] Le Patourel 1984, pp. 2021
[27] Wilson 2011, p. 218
[28] Guignebert 1930, Volume 1. pp.304307
[29] de Venette 1953, p. 66
[30] Prestwich 2005, p. 326
[31] Le Patourel 1984, p. 189
[32] Le Patourel 1984, p. 32

12

Notes

[33] s:1911 Encyclopdia Britannica/Brtigny.

[34] Wagner 2006, pp. 102103

[1] As noted in, e.g., Gregory D. Cleva, Henry Kissinger and

the American Approach to Foreign Policy, Bucknell University Press, 1989; p. 87 (the English Channel gave
the nation a sense of geographical remoteness, while its
navy fostered a sense of physical unassailability that
lasted until the early 20th century).
[2] Bartlett 2000, p. 22

[35] Ormrod. Edward III. p. 384

[36] Backman 2003, pp. 179180 Nobles captured in battle were held in Honorable Captivity, which recognised
their status as prisoners of war and permitted ransom.
[37] Britannica. Treaty of Brtigny. Retrieved 21 September
2012

13

[38] Wagner 2006, pp. 86

[39] Curry 2002, pp. 6970
[40] Wagner 2006, p. 78
[41] Wagner 2006, p. 122
[42] Wagner 2006, pp. 34
[43] Barber, Richard (2008). Edward , prince of Wales and
of Aquitaine (133076) in Oxford Dictionary of National
Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn.
Subscription Required. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
[44] Omrod, W. M (2008). Edward III (13121377) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required. Retrieved 3 October 2012.
[45] Tuck, Richard (2008). Richard II (13671400 in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required. Retrieved 3 October 2012.

[60] G. L. Harriss, Thomas , duke of Clarence (13871421),

Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn, Sept 2010 accessed 14
May 2013 Subscription required.
[61] Griths 2004
[62] Wagner 2006, pp. 307308
[63] Davis 2003, pp. 7680
[64] Sir John Fastolf. Norwich: Norfolk Record Oce. Retrieved 20 December 2012.
[65] Jaques, Tony. 2007. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood
Press. p. 777. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
[66] Lee 1998, pp. 145147
[67] Sumption 1991, p. 562
[68] Nicole 2012, pp. 2635
[69] Wagner 2006, p. 79

[46] Francoise Autrand. Charles V King of France in Vauchz.

Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages. Volume 1. pp. 283
284

[70] Webster 1998, pp. 3940: Every version of the complaints put forward by the rebels in 1450 harps on the
losses in France.

[47] Baker 2000, p. 6

[71] Neillands 1990, pp. 290291

[48] Neillands 1990, pp. 182184

[72] Charles Derek Ross, Edward IV, (University of California

Press, 1974), 249250.

[49] Curry 2002, pp. 7782

[50] Mortimer 2008, pp. 253254
[51] Mortimer 2008, pp. 263264
[52] Bean, J.M.W (2008). Percy, Henry, rst earl of
Northumberland (13411408) in Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required. Retrieved 8 October
2012.
[53] Smith, Llinos (2008). Glyn Dr , Owain (c.1359
c.1416) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
[54] Sizer, Michael (2007). The Calamity of Violence: Reading the Paris Massacres of 1418. Retrieved 29 December
2013.
[55] Ian Friel. The English and War at Sea. c.1200-c1500 in
Hattendorf. War at Sea. pp. 7677
[56] Nolan. The Age of Wars of Religion. p. 424
[57] Allmand, C.T (2008). Henry V (13861422) in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004; online edn. Subscription Required. Retrieved 8 October 2012.
[58] Turchin 2003, pp. 179180Historical dynamics: why
states rise and fall
[59] Wagner 2006, pp. 4445

[73] Powicke 1962, p. 189

[74] Colm McNamee. Hobelars in Rogers 2010, pp. 267268
[75] Jones 2008, pp. 117
[76] Preston, Wise & Werner 1991, pp. 8489
[77] Holmes, Urban & Schutz 1948, p. 61
[78] Lowe 1997, pp. 147195
[79] Ladurie 1987, p. 32The French peasantry, 14501660
[80] Neillands 1990, pp. 110111

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Prestwich, Michael (1988). English Monarchs: Edward I. Berkeley and LA: University of California.
ISBN 0-520-06266-3.
Prestwich, Michael (2003). The Three Edwards:
War and State in England 12721377. London:
Routledge. ISBN 0-203-60713-9.

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Prestwich, Michael (2005). J.M.Roberts, ed. Plantagenet England. Oxford: OUP. ISBN 978-0-19922687-0.
Previte-Orton, C.W (1978). The shorter Cambridge
Medieval History 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-20963-3.
Rogers, Cliord J, ed. (2010). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology.
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978-0-19-533403-6.
Sumption, Jonathan (1991). The Hundred Years
War I: Trial by Battle. Philadelphia: University of
Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1655-5.
Turchin, Peter (2003). Historical dynamics: why
states rise and fall. Princeton: Princeton University.
ISBN 0-691-11669-5.
Vauchz, Andre, ed. (2000). Encyclopedia of the
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ISBN 1-57958-282-6.
de Venette, Jean (1953). Newall, Richard A, ed.
The Chronicle of Jean de Venette. Translated by Jean
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Wagner, John A (2006). Encyclopedia of the Hundred Years War. Westport CT: Greenwood Press.
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Webster, Bruce (1998). The Wars of the Roses.
London: UCL Press. ISBN 1-85728-493-3.
Wilson, Derek (2011). The Plantagenets. The Kings
that made Britain. London: Quercus. ISBN 978-085738-004-3.

14

External links

The Hundred Years War and the History of Navarre

Timeline of the Hundred Years War
The Hundred Years War (13361565) by Dr. Lynn
H. Nelson, University of Kansas Emeritus
The Hundred Years War information and game
The Company Of Chivalry: Re-enactment Society
at the time of the 100 Years War
Jean Froissart, On The Hundred Years War (1337
1453)" from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook
Online database of Soldiers serving in the Hundred
Years War

16

15

15
15.1

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Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Hundred Years War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred%20Years{}%20War?oldid=647501076 Contributors: AxelBoldt,

Mav, The Anome, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Deb, Roadrunner, Ben-Zin, Ktsquare, Dieter Simon, KF, Olivier, Rickyrab,
Stevertigo, Zocky, Kku, Liftarn, SGBailey, Menchi, Dramatic, Davejenk1ns, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Arwel Parry, Muriel Gottrop,
, Djnjwd, Ghewgill, Adam Bishop, Dysprosia, Tpbradbury, Nevdka, Grover, Shizhao, Ironman419, Dcsohl, Wetman, Johnleemk, Camerong, Veghead, Jeq, Robbot, TomPhil, KeithH, PBS, Simonf, Donreed, Naddy, Modulatum, Sam Spade, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Bkell, Wally, Hadal, Kent Wang, Cutler, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, Cobra libre, Treanna, Nadavspi, Lethe, RealGrouchy,
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Hayabusa future, CJWilly, Constantine, Bobo192, Smalljim, Ygfperson, Man vyi, Sam Korn, Ogress, Conny, Wereldburger758, Alansohn, Gary, Enirac Sum, Eixo, Duman, Ryanmcdaniel, CyberSkull, Fornadan, Bz2, Mailer diablo, Spangineer, Ledrug, Lejend, Jheald,
RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Axeman89, Dryman, Tiger Khan, Oleg Alexandrov, Brookie, Jackhynes, Stemonitis, OwenX, Woohookitty,
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Palica, SzymonS, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, Wraybm1, DavidCane, BD2412, Solace098, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan,
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Bucksburg, Mon Vier, Hotel Caliphate, Goodnightmush, Majorclanger, IronGargoyle, PseudoSudo, Cwiki, A. Parrot, Nbatra, BillFlis,
Gerrynobody, Hvn0413, Hikoto, Lampman, Optimale, Publicus, AxG, Maksim L., Waggers, Martian.knight, In defense, UserNameless,
Neddyseagoon, Markjdb, RMHED, CJ DUB, Tonster, Hu12, Mike Doughney, DabMachine, Iridescent, NEMT, Clarityend, Shoeofdeath,
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Tim1988, Editor Mike, Equendil, Cydebot, Nqa, Peripitus, Ejconard, Jackyd101, Nick Wilson, Cristian Cappiello, He01, Xxanthippe,
Ttiotsw, Adolphus79, Tawkerbot4, Demomoke, DumbBOT, Yellowriver, Garik, Inkington, Martin23230, Lewisskinner, UberScienceNerd,
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Konman72, Majorly, PARA19, MatthieuN, Jayron32, Brendandh, Iarnell, Dylan Lake, LibLord, Trumpkin, Lfstevens, James Fargher,
Bjenks, Myanw, Ghmyrtle, Leuqarte, Darrenhusted, GWhitewood, DuncanHill, Ljhliesl, MER-C, Speculoos, Arch dude, Tca achintya,
Sigurd Dragon Slayer, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Bearly541, LittleOldMe, Tavn8r, Magioladitis, Pharillon, Thasaidon, Bongwarrior, VoABot
II, Bakken, CattleGirl, SineWave, AegisEditing, Cyktsui, Clich Online, Imeisel, Allstarecho, DerHexer, Edward321, Poopsmells, Johnbrownsbody, Archipoeta, Cocytus, MartinBot, Eternal Pink, Brickie, Rettetast, Charles Edward, Agnello99, Wylve, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, TraderJack, Halo715, Aikenator, Lilac Soul, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Jamespeterka, Sasajid, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Nev1,
Kimse, Ralphnovy, Yonidebot, Kudpung, Em1212, Acalamari, Xbspiro, It Is Me Here, BrokenSphere, Bot-Schafter, Katalaveno, Johnbod, Mr Rookles, McSly, Gmchambless1, Bailo26, Mjb1981, Scott318, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, Moosetophat, TomasBat, NewEnglandYankee, NoodlePowa, Ndunruh, Ohms law, Kansas Bear, 2help, Cometstyles, Ledenierhomme, DH85868993, Smiter, Trip Johnson,
Abhoravacuum, Andy Marchbanks, Bully25, TheNewPhobia, CardinalDan, Spellcast, ChaosNil, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, CWii, Ryn78,
Je G., Correctory, Jennavecia, AlnoktaBOT, TheOtherJesse, Gpeilon, FergusM1970, Tdbndtb, Landisdesign, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, DeeKenn, Bob00001111, A4bot, Miranda, Anonymous Dissident, Sean D Martin, JayC, Someguy1221, Autobogg, Stop plz, Arcticea, Mark Miller, Andrei nacu, Melsaran, DennyColt, Bass shing physicist, Martin451, BotKung, JCDixon, Terrymacro, Zipola, Wenli,
Andy Dingley, Cantiorix, Strangerer, Burntsauce, TrickOfTheLight, Insanity Incarnate, Matth8 18, Skarz, Monty845, Jimmi Hugh, Logan,
Sfmammamia, EmxBot, Trey, Chessgrand, Itfcnut, Roberto123, EJF, Lylefor, StAnselm, Arpad13, Mikemoral, Ipankonin, Hertz1888,
Nangboy20, DavisGL, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Triwbe, Yintan, SuzanneIAM, Sockettome, Marikong, Francish7, Keilana, Bentogoa, Oda
Mari, Oxymoron83, Tefalstar, Antonio Lopez, Faradayplank, Smilesfozwood, AngelOfSadness, Rob101abc, Adam37, Gariak, Lightmouse, Techman224, Ealdgyth, Wlegro, Int21h, Hamishseb79, Paul Clapham, Samlax16, Svick, Duae Quartunciae, Alefbe, Anchor
Link Bot, Mygerardromance, Iaroslavvs, Misiu mp, Escape Orbit, Kanonkas, Dancingwombatsrule, ClueBot, Phoenix-wiki, PipepBot,
Cencini, Snigbrook, Fyyer, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rsternfels, Shark96z, XPTO, Optimus82, Senzangakhona, Whs295, Daneefpedreira, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Nearly Human, 32 Osama B1n Laden 10, Mdlawmba, Estevoaei, Blanchardb,
P. S. Burton, Dylan620, Great shining light of nerdy truth, Piledhigheranddeeper, Edknol, Auntof6, Boneyard90, Excirial, Sheled Umlal, Jusdafax, Arundel39, Ketchum789456, Hunterjake2000, Arcot, Abrech, Leonard^Bloom, Bukk4k3, Khaolian, Sublime5891, Guitartennis, Audaciter, Ottawa4ever, Thehelpfulone, Aitias, Versus22, Berean Hunter, SoxBot III, SF007, Toxicbreakfast, SuddenFrost,
Hotcrocodile, Asste, Ursutraide, Jovianeye, Rror, BuzzardBait, NellieBly, CapnZapp, Badgernet, Alexius08, Vianello, Davidsthebest,

15.2

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Thatguyint, Kram Ecir, Xp54321, Proofreader77, Anderscj, Jojhutton, Hda3ku, PC-Cat, Jncraton, Metsavend, Yelizandpaul, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Le frontage, Glane23, * and Obelisk, Mecjmr, Favonian, Userloginname, LinkFA-Bot, The
Quill, Mrtsqurt, Numbo3-bot, Alanscottwalker, Tide rolls, Bguras puppy, Lightbot, Spartanmongol, Luckas Blade, Arbitrarily0, Quantumobserver, Ben Ben, Wajwoda, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Victoriaearle, SwisterTwister, Eric-Wester, Synchronism,
AnomieBOT, Kmp109, Quirq, True as Blue, Tucoxn, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Mugginsx, Nick UA, Flewis, Materialscientist, ImperatorExercitus, Er Cicero, Madras Cuddy, Mattsibson, Toad rules, ArthurBot, Oftopladb, Xqbot, Platewq, Estlandia, Gilo1969,
RedKiteUK, GrouchoBot, Homyakchik, Cruz-iglesia, Polishroyalty69, Wizardist, Alexscara, Herefordnuthouse, Anotherclown, RibotBOT, SassoBot, Sabrebd, Colinward1970, Williamli94, GhalyBot, DITWIN GRIM, Joaquin008, Vlastimil Svoboda, Green Cardamom,
, Huntrt789467, Hunter789467, FrescoBot, Wilfridselsey, Tobby72, Urgos, LavenhamHistorian, Igna, Weetoddid, Drew R. Smith,
HamburgerRadio, Hchc2009, Prettysmartideas, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Hamtechperson, Codwiki, Nobart, SpaceFlight89, JamesGrimshaw, Jandalhandler, B-Machine, Full-date unlinking bot, Alarichus, Jauhienij, Tim1357, Abc518, Kgrad, Thestraycat57, Clarkcj12,
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Connor1138, Jbower47, Wikipelli, TeleComNasSprVen, John of Lancaster, ZroBot, F, Traxs7, Adelbrecht, Wayne Slam, UltimaRatio, L1A1 FAL, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Brandmeister, L Kensington, Kranix, Reigen, Donner60, 2tuntony, Andercm,
Damirgrati, Orange Suede Sofa, BobM3, Shvybzik, TRAJAN 117, Alexandrevennes, ClueBot NG, Sherlock701, Onegoodone, Hjvesey,
Piast93, Name Omitted, Bright Darkness, ConconJondor, Primergrey, Barbeau87, MrBurglarMan, PukiBunz81, Duderush, Widr, Andrew
Thomas 2, Limestone93cmb, Renee91, Mt2489, Helpful Pixie Bot, DmitryKsWikis, Tidus360, Calidum, Calabe1992, Buboy1954, Lowercase sigmabot, Justintbassett, Athomas.wadh, Krenair, Mouloud47, Northamerica1000, Ouikimedia, Wiki13, ISpinksy, Chris the Paleontologist, Mark Arsten, Ramma re, Fed0ras, Dainomite, Lapipette, Zilla And LeGit, Writ Keeper, WyzimaXIV, Mishmiceter, Achowat, Lllloooovvvveeee, Cormag100, Justincheng12345-bot, Paddy1234, I1990k, Betterbinder, Aldwynson, GoShow, Khazar2, Milhisfan, JYBot,
Symphonic Spenguin, Platopete, Mr Timeline, Dexbot, Mogism, Doyler182, Dechrwr, Yahoo12123, Lugia2453, Jdmcclain1212, Frosty,
Kevin12xd, CSorBb, Radarm, Blaue Max, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Jan Haseler, Ljoenf, Ghousd, Pauline1965, LordWiltshire1529,
MaestroEditador, Faithwashere, Aragotton, Iloveobama69, Ginsuloft, Sam Sailor, Theo'reillyfactor, Noyster, P.p.japonensis, The toad
licker, Steelersfan1031, Walz47, Thebestmotherippinghistorianever, Dameon.Crago, Jiltsedge, Lmfame, Fposting, Craymsh1, SamWilson989, Gemerrty, FourViolas, BUjjsp, Jacopo machetti, Jambler98, Ll Da Mo ll, Fi1029 and Anonymous: 1502

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File:Agincourt_miniature.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Agincourt_miniature.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:Assassinat_louis_orleans.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Assassinat_louis_orleans.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Bibliothque nationale de France (BnF) -Banque d'images du dpartement de la reproduction Original artist:
Anonymous
File:BattleofSluys.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bf/BattleofSluys.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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class='image' title='Image:Meuble hraldique Fleur de lys.svg'><img alt='Image:Meuble hraldique Fleur de lys.svg'
src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg/20px-Meuble_h%
C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg.png' width='20' height='26' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Meuble_
h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg/30px-Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/5/59/Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg/40px-Meuble_h%C3%A9raldique_Fleur_de_lys.svg.png
2x'
data-le-width='711' data-le-height='919' /></a> (Yorick )
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Translation of this: de-Wikipedia German map into English Original artist:
Original by Roger Zenner (de-WP)
File:Charles_VII_by_Jean_Fouquet_1445_1450.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Charles_VII_by_
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Grandes_Chroniques_de_France.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Grandes Chroniques de France, British Library Cotton MS
Nero E. II pt.2, f.152v Original artist: Copiste inconnu
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graded.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Joan_of_arc_miniature_

Colour-graded to reveal more detail using GIMP software curves tool Original artist: Miniature from the 15th century
File:Map_France_1477-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Map_France_1477-en.svg License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work. Image renamed from Image:Map France History XVe.svg. Data: # Map France in the late 15th
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of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Royal_Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Kingdom_of_Scotland.svg Original artist:
Sodacan

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File:Siege_orleans.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Siege_orleans.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:TimeLine100YearsWar_(cropped).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/TimeLine100YearsWar_
%28cropped%29.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from: TimeLine100YearsWar.png <a href='//commons.
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TimeLine100YearsWar.png' class='image'><img alt='TimeLine100YearsWar.png' src='//upload.wikimedia.
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srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TimeLine100YearsWar.png/75px-TimeLine100YearsWar.png
1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/TimeLine100YearsWar.png/100px-TimeLine100YearsWar.png 2x'
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32.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.histoire-fr.com/valois_charles7_4.htm Original artist: Unknown

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