1

Contents:
PAGE

2 Preface
3

1. The

Highway landscape

4 The Highway Experience

6 The Elements of Attention
8 The Sense of Motion
10 Road Alignment
11 The Motion of the Field
12 The Sense of Space
13 The Extension of Self

Approach
" Goal
Orientation
16

11 Meaning
11 Rhythm and Continuity
18 Sequential

39

Form

18 The Objectives

4.

Methods of Design

39 The Central Artery. Boston

of Design

40 The Boston Image

19

2.

Recording

21 An Abstract

Highway

42 Design Procedure

Sequences

45 The Size and Eccentricity

Notation of Motion and Space

45 Orientation

24 The Notation of Orientation

of the Ring

of the Road System

46 The Fixing of the Main Intersections

27

3.

Analysis

of an Existing

46 Orientation

Highway

to the City

29 The Approach to Central Boston via

the Mystic River Bridge

47 Space-Motion

30 Sequence Diagrams

49 The Centerway

32 A Trip on the Northeast

and View Diagrams

49 The Riverway

Expreaswav

49 The Crossing

35 The Trip in Review

51 Interpretative

Drawings

51 Road Environment
53 Some Comparisons

with the Official Route

54 Road Detail
57 The Night Scene
56 A Running Commentary
62

5. In

on a Clockwise Trip

Conclusion

64 Bibliography

Published

and Photographic

Credits

lor the JOint Center for Urban Slud,es

of the Massachusetts
and Harvard

tnsmute

University

Massechusens

of Technology

by the MIT

Ins\l!me

Press,

of Technology,

Cambnd!jo,

Massacbuseua

ThiS book's

one of a seuee published

Ille auspices

under

of the Jomt Center fat Urban

Studies. a ccopereuve
Massachusetts

venture

rnsutute

of the

01 Technology

and

Harvard

Umverslty

founded

In 1959 to organl~e and encourage

The JOInt Center was

research on urban lind regional

Partlc,pantS

have Included

helds of anthfOpology.
city planning,

problems

scholars

from the

architecture,

economics.

bus.ness.

eoucauco.

lng, hiStory, law, philOSOphy, political

engineer
SCience,

and SOCIology

The nndmgs

and coocrue.one

or th>s book are.

as wllh all JOIn! Center oobucaucos.

the responSlb>llty

The View from the Road

.~

BV DONALD

APPLEVARD,

KEVIN

ollhe

sofery

auuicrs

LVNCH

AND

JOHN

R. MVER

Preface
This monograph deals with the esthetics of
highways the way they look to the driver and
his passengers. and what this implies for their

design. We emphasize the potential beauty of

these great engineering achievements. as
contrasted with their current ugliness. Since
the realization of this visual potential lies in
the hands of the men who design them, this
monograph is addressed to the highway
engineer. We hope that he will find our ideas
of use.
Design involves a balanced judgment about
many factors, of which visual requirements
are only one set. We are convinced, however,
that these requirements are among the most
important that a road must satisfy, and that
they should have substantial weight in final
design judgments.
We became interested in the esthetics of
highways out of a concern with the visual
formlessness of our cities and an intuition
that the new expressway might be one of our
best means of re-establishing coherence and
order on the new metropolitan scale. We
were also attracted to the highway because
it is a good example of a design issue typical
of the city. the problem of designing visual
sequences for the observer in motion. But if
in the end the study contributes something
toward making the highway experience a
more enjoyable one, we will be well satisfied.
This monograph results from a study begun
under a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation and continued in the Joint Center for
Urban Studies of M LT. and Harvard. We are
particularly grateful to the latter for their
support of an expensive process of publication. Some of the basic ideas which underlie
it are expressed in a previous study.' Many
of the ideas, of course, are part of the general
heritage of the design professions, applied to
a new subject.

1. The Highway Landscape

Ugly ~oads are often taken to be one price
of CIVIlization, like sewers or police. The
boring, chaotic, disoriented roadscape seems
to be the natural habitat of that useful but
awkward monster, the American automobile.
From this point of view, we spend too much
of our lives in the car. It would be better to
arrange cities so that everyone could walk to
work, or to let automatic devices take the
wheel. so that we could pull the shades and
watch TV.
The authors take a different position: roadwatching is a delight. and the highway isor at least might be-a work of art. The view
from the road can be a dramatic play of space
and motion, of light and texture. all on a new
scale. These long sequences could make our
vast metropolitan areas comprehensible: the
driver would see how the city is organized,
what it symbolizes, how people use it. how it
relates to him. To our way of thinking, the
highway is the great neglected opportunity in
city design.
The first highway designers were railway
men, who learned their trade when grades
were flat and alignments straight. when the
surrounding landscape was an obstacle to
overcome, and cost. power, and safety were
questions far too urgent to allow thought for
looks. Only the engine driver had to watch the
view, and he was paid for his trouble. This
attitude is still widespread, even among highway users, who bear with resignation the
vacant hours of commutation.

Most of our particular conclusions are the

result of a series of studies of existing highways and of people's reactions to them. They
have been further modified by our attempt to
develop appropriate methods of design.
Chapter 1 contains a summary of our findings
and conjectures, while Chapter 2 proposes a
new graphic language for describing visual
sequences on the highway. Chapters 3 and 4
use these concepts and this language to
analyze the impact of an existing road, and
to illustrate how a new road might be
designed.

IE. 17~
C,7

The Golden Gate 1

'Kevin Lynch. The Image of rhe City. The Technology

Press and Harvard University
Press. Cambridge.
1960.

1964
lnsntute

of Technology

Th"d p"nung.

October

1971

ISBN 0 262

01015

1 (hardcover)

LIbrary of Congress
Primed in the uouec

For explanation

Catalog Card Number

63-9038

States of Amence

01 these drawings

In an affluent society, we may well choose to

build roads in which motion, space, and view
are organized primarily for enjoyment. But
even on highways whose primary function is
the carriage of goods and people, visual form
is offundamental
importance and can be
shaped without interfering with traffic flow.
It is the landscape seen from these workaday
highways that we will deal with here.
Highways have special visual qualities if we
consider them as art. We will discuss them
from the standpoint of the driver and his
passengers, ignoring the issue of how the
highway looks from the outside. We will also
restrict ourselves to the limited-access highway in the city, although much of our material
will be applicable to other roads. We make
this restriction because urban highways seem
to pose the greatest problems and to promise
the richest visual returns.

Cambridge, 1963
Donald Appleyard
Kevin Lynch
John R. Myer

by the Massachusetts

When so many people spend so much of their

time on the road, when they persist in driving
for pleasure, it may be that driving is more
than a necessary evil. There are other kinds of
journeys which are enjoyable in themselves:
walking, horseback-riding, boating, rides in
amusement parks or on open bus tops. There
are even a few roads in this country on which
driving a car is a delight. Most often they
pass through fine natural landscapes, but
there are some pleasant episodes on high1 ways in our big cities New York, Chicago,
Philadelphia, and San Francisco.
There is a tradition of the scenic road in this
country, and a few have been built. The
original parkways, so quickly engulfed by
general traffic, were primarily intended for
pleasure-driving, like the old pedestrian or
carriage promenade.

Richard Peterson organized and conducted

the field work for the sketch interviews on the
Northeast Expressway. The remainder of the
work was done by the joint authors.

Copyright

Those who are alarmed by the ugliness of our

roadways emphasize the repression of vice.
rather than the encouragement of virtue.
Roads should melt into the landscape, billboards should be controlled, the scars of
construction should be disguised by planting.
There is little discussion of turning the highway experience to any positive account.

see page 58

Rotcij

0'l615:,l

,
5

The Highwav Experience

If the highway is a work of art. what are the
raw materials of that art, and what are its
principles? The sensation of driving a car is
primarily one of motion and space, felt in a
continuous sequence. Vision, rather than
sound or smell. is the principal sense.
Touch is a secondary contributor to the
experience, via the response of the car to
hands and feet. The sense of spatial sequence
2 is like that of large-scale architecture; the
3 continuity and insistent temporal flow are
4 akin to music and the cinema. The kinesthetic
sensations are like those of the dance or the
5 amusement park. although rarely so violent.
These are all arts and situations from which
the highway designer may begin to learn his
technique.

..

n t e second place, a highway designer cannot be sure that people will watch his drama
from beginning to end, They will enter and
leave the highway at intermediate points,
even if these points are as limited in number
as they are on a superhighway, The sequence
must therefore be interruptible.
The driving experience can now be described
as being a sequence played to the eyes of a
captive, somewhat fearful, but partially inattentive audience, whose vision is filtered
and directed forward. It is a sequence which
must be long, yet reversible and interruptible.

While the road makes a dynamic impression

on the driver and his passengers. it also exists
6 as a static, bulky object in the landscape, a
substantial piece of the urban scene for those
who live along its borders. This presents a
two-faced problem. much as if a theatrical
7 designer had 10 be concerned with the visual
8 form of his backstage apparatus. However
important. it is a problem that we will not
consider here.

This sequence is made up of many elements.

it is convenient to group them according to a
presumed progression in the process of visual
perception. The incoming light rays evoke
immediate perceptions of intensity and color,
of textures, motions, and outlines. These perceptions are organized into identifiable
objects, which are then interpreted as moving
in space, The observer locates these moving
objects and spaces in a total structure, orienting himself with regard to the world around
him. In addition, he reads meanings into this
world, When perceived over an extended
period of time, these identifiable objects,
motions, spaces, oriented structures, and
meanings are organized at an even higher
level as complex sequences.

Even among the users of the road. there are

several different kinds of audience. The
tourist sees the landscape with a fresh eye.
he attaches relatively few personal meanings
to it. but is urgently engaged in orienting himself within it, The commuter. or other habitual
user of the road. is more likely to ignore
larger landscape features. in favor of activities,
new objects, or the moving traffic of the road.
The driver must watch the scene constantly:
his vision is confined to a narrow forward
angle and focuses on the events in the road
itself. His passenger is freer to look or not to
look, has a wider angle of vision, and is not
necessarily concerned with immediate traffic.
Both driver and passenger are likely to be an
inattentive audience, whether through the
compulsion 10watch only a small part of the
scene. or conversely through the very
freedom to let attention wander. They may
be partially preoccupied with conversation, squabbling among the children, or
private worries,
Yet at the same time both are a captive
audience who cannot avoid remarking. even
if only subconsciously, the most dramatic
events of a scene which is too mobile and 100
dangerous to be ignored, In both cases, vision
is directed forward, a fact which provides the
designer with a means of directing attention
In both cases. there is an undertone of risk,
which may be fearful or stimulating.
9 The modern car interposes a filter between
the driver and the world he is moving
through Sounds, smells, sensations of touch
and weather are all diluted in comparison
with what the pedestrian experiences Vision
is framed and limited, the driver is relatively
inactive He has less opportunity to stop,
explore, or choose his path than does the
man on foot. Only the speed. scale, and grace
of his movement can compensate for these
limitations,

The highway experience has some further

special characteristics. It is usually reversible:
people may traverse the road in either direction, It is as if a movie or a recording had to be
enjoyed when played backward as well as
forward This limits possible effects, or
demands some technique of masking the
"backward" form while the "forward" form is
being sensed.

Perception does not in fact operate in such

neatly divisible successive steps. The processes are highly interrelated and may be
occurring simultaneously, But this analysis
singles out the fundamental actions, and
arranges them by successive levels of organization. It makes a convenient framework for
discussing the highway experience, using the
conclusions and speculations which arose
from the studies described in Chapter 3.
7.8

,..

=-

......

,o--.l.....:::e ~~.. -'--~~

A simple o'gani>ed sequence In the approach to

a Japanese shrine IGoshojinja,

Karnakura)

Come

upon oblIquely, lhe entrance gate slands alone. then

reveals lhe path ahead and some distant steps

as an loterrneorare goal Recurrefll statues mark one's

forward progress, and the steps develop mID a double
flight. partly ,n shade. Midway through this double
flIght, above and beyond a light screen. lhe final goal
appears obliquely onCe more. A small rephca of
the ent,ance gale frames the shrIne, and behind this
begins another sequence Rhythm,c succeSsIon.
progressive revelation continUity, recall

3 Spatial Sequence In ArchiteCTure. The Shah Zinde. Samarkand

4

Spatial Sequence in Architecture,

80 Lin Ssu Temple,

Peiping

Looking at a highway and lookIng out from it at the same POIntS

Isee arrow in FIg, 6)

The Elements of Attention

Let us look first at the kinds of identifiable
elements which capture the attention of a
front-seat passenger. It is clear that these
objects occupy a rather limited part of the
potential visual field. Along one route on
which reactions were tested by us, two-thirds
of all objects sighted were straight ahead,
and only one-third were to either the right or
left. Even then. almost all things seen to the
side of the road were obliquely forward rather
than perpendicular or backward to the line of

travel. On another very open and straightforward route, one-half of all sightings were
straight ahead. The view of the passenger, as
well as that of the driver. is strongly focused.
'OJ Tipping and pointing the road is a powerful
way of directing his attention. On New York's
West Side Drive, for example, observers
noted that the focus of attention regularly
switched from side to side as the road wove
back and forth.
Not only is vision directed forward. but it is
also attracted to the immediate environs of
the right-of-way-the
near and apparently
"moving" objects. rather than the larger
number of distant. seemingly "stable" ones.
Again. on one route, two-thirds of the impressions noted were caused by things in or
adjacent to the road itself. The color and texture of the road surface, the shape and
rhythm of the objects at the shoulder (signs,
guard rails. retaining walls) set the visual
tone. In the forward view of the multi-lane
highway, most of the visual field is filled by
the pavement and the sky. The differentiation
of lanes, shoulders, and medians by texture,
color, and width will articulate and enliven
this scene,
Even in periods of wide scanning, attention
regularly returns to the road itself. The only
exceptions to this rule occur in those brief
periods where the observer passes some important barrier and, being anxious to reorient
11' himself, surveys a new landscape. This is the
moment for visual revelations, when one is
sure of an audience attentive to large effects.
But all this is modified by the speed at which
the vehicle is traveling. As speed increases.
attention is confined to a narrower forward
angle, since coming events must be predicted
further ahead. As near objects rush past more
rapidly, they are harder to perceive and attention may shift to more distant and relatively
more stable elements, landmarks are seen in
clusters rather than singly: la rger spaces and
bigger land forms take command. The scene
shifts from detail to generality.'
11

:~?=
12

13

"IAtt~ntion
is concentrated at the points of
decision. such as at the beginning of a n offramp. The details of the object which divides
the ramp from the main roadway will loom
very large in the driver's total impression. So
will distant landmarks, particularly if they are
sharply silhouetted Similar points of concentrated attention occur when the space is
sharply constricted. No one fails to remark
structures which approach the road closely
enough to make an apparent sidewall. canyon. or tunnel. nor does he miss any overhead
13 structure. such as a bridge. however, momen14 tary its appearance Can any driver be ignorant of his passage under the George Washington Bridge. or his entrance into the Holland
Tunnel? These are all Opportunities for visual
emphasis that will claim attention despite a
normal state of distraction. The silhouette of
an overpass, the texture of a retaining wall.
15 the shape of a bridge column, guard rail or
lamp standard are important events.

!
J

The quality of light will also affect what is

seen, so that a view against the sun, emphasizing silhouette. will be grasped quite differently from one with the sun at the side. where
texture and detail become distinct. Artificial
light is a resource for directing attention, for
cha nging apparent spatial form. for producing
visual sequences At night. the familiar day'
time landmarks and activities may be picked
16 out to give a reassurinq sense of continuity.
A.S The lights of other vehicles indicate and en17 liven the road, On special occasions, a new
world of light may be created, or displays of
light may be made, The nocturnal panorama
of Los Angeles from Mulholland Drive is a
classic example.
If we consider these visual resources. we see
that the road designer has many ways of directing and shaping the driver's impressions,
even if he can do little to form the larger
environment in which the road is inserted.

An interesting example of these effects is the stunt

movie, Go Slow On the Brighton Line. The film has been
speeded up to give an apparent velocity of some 600
miles per hour.

"

8
9

The Sense of Motion

Beyond the concentration
fundamental

sensation

ously referred

on near detail. the

of the road. continu-

to, is the visual sense of motion

and space. This includes

of self. the apparent

The sense of varied motion

moved through.

joyable if continuous

objects

'~

_ =:

18

~ r/
'\

,--L

'"

'~~~~
~
~

:.-------

e-,

feeling,

"

? ---'"

-------.

moving

car on a mod-

The driver receives some cues

his controls,

but if the passenger

19

of one route. An amusement

ride capitalizes

on this by creating

though

26 or the repetitive

for instance,

sweeping

descents Bodily sensations become strong

only at points of abrupt changes in speed or in

ually. Puzzling variations

the apparent

oin

motion of surroun

m'ay include the

8 the' apparent

These clues

rotation

of near objects aroun

far objects, the seeming outward

19 detail and textures

radiation

approach.

Changes of direction

from more complex relations.

into something

if it sinks,
or be
If the

A,H,C road turns, it should pivot about something

28 be deflected

by some other object:

objects clarify the motion,

seemingly

of

from the point dead

20 ahead, and the illusion of growth

in the line are minor

may be relatively

insignificant

crucial in the driver's

These

make it explicit

easier to perform.

or

if it di-

verges, it should be split by something,

assa e of roadside det;rr:--

if

but vis-

If the road forms a hump, it should

27 forced down by an object overhead.

which they know to be really fixed, to be theresult of their own progression.

irritants.

not logically

it should flow down

mg 0 rects.

River

of this kind are most satisfactory

seem to be rising over something:

. They mterpret

,,.

turns of the ap-

Bridge.

Motions

motion they are under

23A

the rhyth-

proach to Boston over the Mystic

explained-explained

p$nd on vision to give them a sense of the

Similar

of the New Jersey Turnpike,

levels of speed, or even gentle climbs or

riders de-

an entire

sensations.

of a milder sort. may be

shuts his eyes it is very difficult for him to

distinguish steadily held turning movements,

, angle of climb or fall~utomobile

rable moments

mical humping

sensations

en-

strong dipping turn was one of the memo-

found on highways

of self is perhaps the

is inherently

and not too violent.

sequence of such motion

spatial form.

True kinesthetic

are slight in a steadily

ern hiqnwav

of exterior

as being motion

10 the enclosing

The sense of motion

through
/

of motion

25 sequences,

primary
__

are all inter-

motion

and is interpreted

in relation

~
___

These factors

since the visual judgment

is based on the apparent

.-::::r

of surrounding

objects. and the shape of the space being

twined.

______

the sense of motion

motion

Although

and

they

in size, they are

view

as objects
are gauged

Occasionally.

where the motion of the car is rather simple

and regular, there may be a sudden reversal of sensation,

and the landscape will

seem to be rolling past under the wheels of a

stationary

vehicle.

Where surrounding
or featureless,

then the sensation

forward

"c

objects are far off, or few,

or moving with the vehicle,

is one of floating,

movement.

of no

This is the experience

one has in an airplane, and the effect is felt on

very elevated
alignment

highways

or those of simple

which have bare, open shoulders.

Such a sensation

may be a relief as an inter-

lude, or as an opportunity
special interest.

to see things of

But our superhighways

induce sleep, frustration,

simply because of this long-continued

:::-terpar..Jhis

apparent

can

or excessive speed,
visua I

inability ~

21 Objects might therefore

be placed along the

road simply to reassure the driver about his

real motion. or even to accentuate

his real

motion, if it is desirable that he slow down.

Perhaps most frustrating
local aimless movement

of all is a sense of
(as in humping

up

and down), when it is coupled with this lack

of apparent
landscape.

forward

onversetv.
2

progression

in the larger

where the near environment

any highly articulated

objects,

ay be one of great velocity,

has

the sensation

ae

so that the ap-

a rent speed at 30 miles per hour on a narrow forest road may be much greater than at
60 miles per hour on a wide open freeway.
Things passing overhead are especially
markable,

roadway edge or on the pavement-is

effective'
rhythm

the textured

23 A heightened

All of these, according

or on a sharp

slackens going upward.

Thus a curving dip occurring

marking

to their
the sense

speed also seems to be

on the downgrade

23 B turn, while tempo

poles,

joints or patterns

and closeness, reinforce

of speed. Apparent

detail becomes

will impart a doubled

vice versa.

26

walls of a cut, the

24 or the passage of pavement

underneath.

the

also

of lights, pickets or telephone

frequency

re-

but the detail close at hand-at

where speed-

close and frequent

sense of velocity,

and

'0
The Motion

Road Alignment
The road alignment

generates

the driver. Since it predicts

the motion

future

29 the shape of that line is always

I n previous

interest,

highway

While

of

movement,

landscape

of compelling
studies.

perspective

view of the alignment

considered

paramount.

of the Field

the apparent

motion,

this

it is also a delight

A,B pass overhead,

along with landscap-

dramatic

ing and the control of roadside detail. Therefore there has already been some study on

of objects

"growth"

42 Building

or rotate.

of the United

curving

and varied

or interruptions.
desired.

but without

distance

of the effect

a large object
Mystic

of form to make visible

the cinema,

as one swings

changing

tended straight tangents.

radius. Ex-

or even any straight

dances

as too monoto-

gether

nous. Similarly,

curves are

Landmarks

long vertical

deemed

best, fitted

without

appa rent straight

Horizontal

easily one to the other,

and vertical

the same order of length,

and perhaps
coincide

th'ir

where

of inflection

possible.

be caught

and revealed,

34 way and then another

and their vertices

points

of objects

powerful
ahead

are seen to-

in a moving
or rotate

is interpreted

as a sequence

avoids small dips or humps,

and is thus itself seen as moving

between

landscape,

curves

broken-back

on summits,

a curving

curves.

flat or straight

reverse

bridges

mark, or may feint,

in

jog. swerve,

terial to the designer's

Things

which

this is a sound approach.

carried

landscape,

the highway

to the

an ocean

same sense of vital rhythm

developed

of gaining

effect. not basic principles,

sharp changes

in alignment,

times be part of the artistic

3, was undoubtedly

in Chapter

to be an awkward

Nevertheless,
prevailing

continuity

of the landscape,

Therefore

ferred

it is useful to
of the road

which

dimensional
can be viewed

models

is

three-

which

the eye or a peri-

scope along the model (see Chapter

world

will

lights
Some-

,,

lapse into chaos.

2},

'See: F. W. Cron, "The Art of Fitting the Highway to

the Landscape." in The Highwav and the Landscape.
W. B. Snow. editor; C. Tunnard and B. Pushkarev, ManMade America. part 3' "The Paved Ribbon."

near objects

a sweeping

namic

Most

static

rushing,

(and potentially

without

and which

unsettling)

to be looked

way epitomizes

it may
is meant

and which

in some

the city or some important

part of it. Such "classical"

views

{Boston

San Francisco

along the Charles,

Hudson}

are important

of a city

from across the

experiences,

so im-

portant

that they may be remembered

visually

static

and long-continued

rea lity they are seen only briefly

tion. Such views
glimpsed

road axis, or through

momentarily

as

even if in
and in mo-

may be valuable

somewhat

even if

to the right or left of the

long slots which

in an oblique

/~

at an

if the road

a view which

across the Bay, Manhattan

can fix his

to be "qrowinq"

at carefully.

the road,

down at this point,

to present

This
effect.

view down the

the driver

rate. Particularly

be sloping

be possible

re-

a dy-

or growing.

losing touch with

is too distant

appreciable

are

sensation

when the road

of all is the distant

axis of the road, on which

35 attention

turn or the view is very re-

one' rotating,

should

against

then the visual field becomes

is a powerful

moving

If these close objects

one has the "floating"

stricted,

on trans-

simple

of the centerline,

by moving

by

the landscape

in the field, or by making

the head- and

to above, Occasionally,

makes

by sketches

plates through

with

removed,

feature

perspective

viewed

for a

the road is highly

and advertisements,

larger background,

of the road line

drawings

impression

of other cars and the blinking

this mobile

stable,

road, and it is

either

by outline

The

of nearby cars

The total visual field may seem to be generally

in advance,

on photographs,

visual
to whom

of the road signals

times

concern.

night he will follow

tail-lights

felt

even his passengers

subconscious

driver

of the ac-

he is forced to

and idiosyncrasies

famillar.At

study this appearance

drawings,

and which

preoccupied

Expressway,

space is an important

to which

may be the principal

of line will be the

also clear that the appearance

can excite as

of all is the motion

with

maneuvers

event,

tone of a pleasant

in the forward

by

kink by the road's de-

Yet it is a powerful

the way in which

intersection

traffic,

will watch

The dip-

described

impressive

be attentive,

A kink, a sudden
intent.

of a modern

Most

slash may some-

Northeast

in the

or pass by his own. The "spa-

companying

of

ping turn in Boston's

of a tug or

well as terrify,

may also be served

off, a long straight

that

of an air-

roads, a jet-

or a railroad-and

ghetti"

is the essence of a road, but drama

32 and even continuity

sheering

as

a specific

Continuity

motions-other

they intersect

style.

These are techniques

movement

and movement

the ascent
progress

The

with

liner. He will be interested

stream,

It is, in fact. a rather well-

artistic

train, watch

trace of other

it gives the

are in real mo-

his own motion

plane, or see the stately

in per-

from point to point of a fine and

31 a skier's track.

parent

of a distant

if the road swings

rather open naturallandscape.

signers.

driver will compare

is both easy to drive

appearance

Particularly

30 smoothly

for if it is

out and well matched

and has a harmonious

spective.

ma-

fascination,

forward

open

direction.

Ex-

presence

of

seen over the Jersey

dome of Florence's

cathe-

rises over the hills as one apon the road from Poggibonsi.

a sense of quiet contem-

plation and also the expectation

to come.

hand.

in the landscape

of Manhattan

the sky, conferring

or slide past

are dramatic

tion exert a corresponding

skillfully

the

a land-

may be achieved.

rising road may be used to direct attention

view as kinks in

the road. *
In general

through

itself toward

it. All of these impressions

road, and so on. these will all ap-

pear in the perspective

It may launch

to follow,

of this are the startling

proaches

to give a

or of foreground-back-

amples

dral. which

land-

slopes upward

discontinuity,

flats, or the floating

first one

sense of being "on line." The road

short curves

same direction,

will keep

axial view, the dramatic

ground

the towers

frame,

Two important

an important

37 effect of truncation,

a background

the designer

of nearly the

distances

adAs in

and eventful.

the road or terrain

against

alignment,

marks may come into conjunction,

should

In more detail.

tangents

intricate

may move against

be masked

be of

become

from a road of complex

or a foreground,

grades between.

curves should

motions

when groups

lines at all, are to be avoided

legible

accordingly,

he

a dis-

its entrance,
Where

These apparent

total skyline,

contrasting

his sequences

blending one into the other through transition

curves of gradually

can decide what

to emphasize-a
distance

differentiation
to approach

is being said. So it is on the city

the designer

a single landmark-and

enough
around

camera

tinct character,

visual breaks

Long easy curves are recommended.

between

to long shot depend-

just his Viewing

in the approach,

rotation

tells its story with dramatic

River

seen sidewise

its own apparent

wants

viewing

the price of

has

Bridge.

is most

ing on what

for ex-

on the

Optimum

determines

in tlie separation

36 highway:

distance

depending

and actor, from close-up

line.

Smooth continuity

changes

from the south on

of putting

in a theater

seats. The cinema

The

Nations

very close to the road. Boston's

now favors a "flowing"

of detail desired.

break in two as they

as it is approached

example

opinion

most objects,

amount

the East River Drive in New York City is an

this subject.
General

amining

self-

in itself, Objects

slip sidewise,

viewinq

in the

is used as a clue to interpret

33 well up and fall behind,

has been

There is an optimum

motion

-,.
34

of a view

to

"

The Sense of Space

The visual field is interpreted not only as
series of remote views, or a collection of objects in motion.

but also as a space, a void

within which the observer can move,

visually or physically. The basic sensation of
space is one of confinement and of the dimensions of that confinement. But this sensation may be modified in many ways: by space
38 form or its proportions, by the character
of the defining elements or objects in the
space. by the position of the observer, One
can be low down in a concave shape. or high
up in a convex one. A space can be narrow
or wide, with solid or jagged. opaque, netted.
or transparent

walls

It may open out in

front or to the side.

The sensation
which

is modified

one is traveling,

which is readable

60

at

by the speed at

so that an opening
miles an hour is form-

less and vast at 3 miles an hour, Similarly,

perception

is affected

by the circumstances

under which the driver is moving'

a road

which is open at the sides may seem pleasantly spacious

under normal

conditions,

that road is filled with fast traffic,

be an uncomfortable
off, Moving

The Extension

at superhighway

large environment.

that he

his proper position

when confronted

in space.

or that other objects

will

intrude upon it,

Confinements

made by cuts, tunnels,

39 sides of hills, Overhead
significant.

an eminence.

notable,

or the

enclosures.

such as

So are the moments

as when

unified sequence.

into a cut thence

as in the approach

Fairmount

Parkway

in Cleveland

effect of this kind

perience

of passing

bridges, each of different

quality.

progressing

to open-walled

tunnel.

again. Such a sequence

,_.. -----

of space is
where

controlled.

where one is "outside"

with the

environment

contact.

in contact

and where it is impossible

within

to the motion
velocity

to

the vehicle which

through

the land-

is the product

of

and of sensuous

Split lanes, by narrowing

the traffic

it to be more responsive

local form, increase the intimacy

to

of contact.

The design of the vehicle itself may do much

ex-

to encourage

of

this sense. The car might be

smaller. easier to open up or to see through,

The East

more sensitive

the

Exterior

spaces.

to the "feel"

of the road.

sounds might be rebroadcas1 within

the car. On the other hand, were movement

to tunnel.

to become too vivid, the driver might react by

to cut and sidehill

reducing
one.

motion

speed, In any case, by making the

of the car vivid with respect to the

and the exterior

spaces clear in

their relation

to the car's occupants.

way designer

can increase the driver's

of mastery

...

mastery

is gone.

the vehicle is small and delicately

landscape,

---- .--- .~.

of the

The scale relation

on skis or on a motorcycle,

way and allowing

share a

can be a thrilling

highway.

both maneuverable

Park and the

series of riverside

from open to sidehill.

modern

scape The sense of mastery

and

under a succession

the vast hills and endless tangents

are irrelevant

one

the repetitive

the dis-

a man and a city, The

occurs when a car breaks

make body motions

park. The

41 River Drive in New York City subjects

driver to a dramatic

as a

descends

into a short tunnel.

road in Philadelphia's

out"

to Hart-

Cross Highway:

bursts out into the central

Rockefeller

---_/-/~.~---

strongest

visual im-

with

may be a way

such a sense at a new level. At

The sense of personal

and "comes

crosses the river while elevated.

simple

of

Central

change may be perceived

ford from the Wilbur

finally

In this regard. the automobile.

reverse sensation

panorama,

Boston's

passes North Station

Spatial

identifiable

down, and the driver must move on foot over

as when the road rides up over

into the inner city, makes a strong

pact

enough,

parity in size between

signs, seem to be

is aware of the sky or a distant

Artery

enough.

one is big

powerful

the very least, it begins to neutralize

the city falls away. and the driver

40 Spatial contrast.

of adequacy

enough,

of establishing

whether

tall buildings.

bridges or even overhead

especially

a feeling

is a re-

and a

by a vast space: that even

its speed and personal control.

are always

spatial freedom,

an observer

in the midst of such a world

and that there is no danger that he will lose

that position

visual sensations

lation of scale between

speeds, the

assurance

of Self

One of the strongest

sense of being pushed

driver needs constant

is occupying

but if

there will

and connection.

the highsense

rs
Goal Approach
At the next level of orga r-rzatton. the driver is
engaged

in building

environment.

a locational

and in orienting

image of his

himself within

this image. In the most direct sense. movement along the road consists
of approaches

of a succession

to goals. These are the prom-

42 inent landmarks

or focal points which the ob-

server moves towards.

attains.

and passes

by. or which represent

his final destination.

By them he measures

his progress and fore-

tells his future. They may be distant goals

which symbolize

the final destination

and

change only slowly, Or they may be nearer

43 objects. which are approached

more rapidly

and which divide the road into visual segments,

<:!::L=

If a goal is not always visible. it should reappear consistently.

so that the sense of for-

ward progress is not long absent

44 A be organized

Goals may

as a simple succession.

lowing another

in a continuous

one fol-

444

chain. On the

prairie. a road may go from one tall silo to the

44 8 next

Or the sequences

may overlap:

driver may pass a whole series of nearby

goals while he is still within sight of a more
44 C distant one.
On the Northeast

Expressway

approaching

Boston, as one goal is attained.

the following

one is already in sight. The approach

interval

is roughly the same for each. and this provides a basic rhythm.
are several smaller

Within

these intervals

approaches

and overlap-

ping them are two longer ones indicating

the

final goal. In a similar way, the towers of

Manhattan

indicate the eventual

destination

of the New JerseyTurnpike.

which is mean-

while maneuvering

through

a monumental

dust rial landscape,

There is a pleasurable

tension. on both roads, between

ent view of the distant

in-

the persist-

goal and the succes-

sion of events that pass along the immediate

roadside.

These goals may be disappointing.

if they are not visibly attained.
east Expressway,

however.

On the North-

Fennos Hill is satisfying

cause it is sighted. approached.

45 by-with

:~'I;'I,i'';'I''Io''''':'~'J'''ll'"j,''';:~~':-'

be-

and passed

a chance for a backward

.:.

---

<.

44'

./

look. But

the Custom House Tower. which has been

sought so patiently,

at the last moment

behind lesser buildings

46 Masking

the goal temporarily

excitement

drops

and disappears.

may add to the

of the trip. if when the goal is re-

vealed again it shows a new face or a new intensity.

But where a dip in the road blots out

the main landmarks

reveals nothing
appointment,

and their return to view

Similarly.

when the Central Artery

"edge"

4'

new. the effect is one of disit is an anticlimax

breaks through

of Boston at North Station.

find itself still in a peripheral

Other kinds of prolongation

47 may be interesting.

43
the

only to

region.

of the approach

such as the way in which

the Boston road seems to search for a way to

reach the Mystic
through
hattan

River B ridge. or to cut

a hill. The railroad approach

to Man-

from the east, over the Hell Gate

Bridge. has a similar quality:

the train sweeps

in a wide arc around the Manhattan

approaching

44C

towers.

them indirectly.

,,

Approach to the Un;ted Nations Building

on the East River Drive. New York City

re
Orientation
Beyond the sense of direct progression
goal, the driver and his passengers
ing themselves
locating

to a

are orient-

in the general environment,

its principal

their own position

features

Meaning

points at which connection

Finally the driver seeks to find meaning

the highway

should

10 them. In

must be achieved,

have sorne general fit

with the local landscape

and discovering

with relation

While the access ramps are the most crucial

throuqh

what he sees: to relate the visible objects

which it is

to the "grain"

activitv.

of the surface streets:

or a sense of the meaning

areas, is an important

part this is a practical. and in part an esthetic.

activity. Finding a way through the intricacies
of a modern city is a demanding performance.

easily in the topoqraphv

may have to be built to fit the road). While this

and one cannot depend entirely

upon such

country

rule may not always

conventional

signs. at least

drive, Unfortunately,

not without

aids as directional
some emotional

insecuntv

not aware of general location

When

with respect

to

the landscape. a driver is likely to make mistakes and is sure to be under stress.'

The fast highway

means for making

the structure

cities comprehensible
sciously designed

the road must be made to lie

is a new

of our vast

For the Sunday

(or new topography

be a practical

one, and a

may at times wish to break with the

and unusable
49 the relation

highway

image, The Central

tramples

confusion,
building

disordered

food market

is hidden from drivers on the

almost

overhead.

view of fascinating

and the result is

meanings

ends.

frequent

periods of orientation

disquieting.

visibly contrasts

or the bustle of new construction

trip. The road itself serves the highly meaningful function

of circulation:

accompanying

traffic

interplay

blindness

may be made more vivid

tendency

to depress the urban highit from the rest of the city

fabric by landscaping,

are

roadside

may be to reduce the

to dull meaninglessness

Would

48

it be possible

to use the highway

means of education,

Successive

differentiated
as distinct

sections

may be visibly

51 be a linear exposition,

so that they can be recognized

parts, Thus the motorist

centers,

can see

exposing

out the symbols

Signs might

proaching

giving directions

The general alignment

running

or pressing

could point out the meaning

form. Continuities

what is produced

of edge, surface, or rhythm

may be used. Typical sequences

one direction

and gradi-

and the sequence

may be made recognizably

ferent from the sequence

in the other

in
dif-

road ahead may be exposed, and strategic

points may be articulated.
sections

may be clarified,

The form of interso that turning

.,

de-

landmarks.
more than

mental

meaning,

favored

which

attached

or service.

be made to explain

they are

there still remains'

The highway
coming

to

mysteriously

connected,

prolonged,

connected

to the

they are leading to : the

must be prepared for, and perhaps

For example,

rather long, projecting

some distance
destination.

is

of severe disorientation.

Ramps should be carefully

visual destination

and

off-ramps

out from the road for

and be directed

On-ramps,

might be

toward

their

on the other hand, can

be clear even when short, if they run parallel

to the expressway

being entered.

See: Driver Needs in Freeway Signing, Automotive

Safety Foundation.Washington. Dec. 1958.
See: The Image of the City, op. cit.

only separable

and is read while

motion,

'0

are recognized

the new viewpoint

rhythm

history

is part of its

moving

through

whereas

visible

that

experiences

Tempo and rhythm

of any sequence,

are the primitive

The tempo

pears to be a sensitive

rooted

in community

goal of a trip, and the

on a highway

likely a temporary
52 whiskey

shanty.

advertisement.

a historic

buildmq.

exchange,

cannot

today is all too

and its goal a

On the other hand,

or the central
be seen.

essence

of attention

of the road. In most cases recorded

where this tempo
concentrated
observers

on near objects

case was coupled

was slow.

to far objects. The first

and heightened

second with a slow floating

of rushing,
tension,

the

quality-a

of the landscape.

of concentration

was
ahead

from right to left.

with a sensation

forced attention,

experience,

straight

this tempo

were scanning

leisurely tasting

by us,

was rapid. attention

giving more attention

ap-

index of the quality

The periods

added spice to the total

but they became oppressive

long continued,

as in a tunnel.

when

Uninterrupted

too, unless the

When there is a slow tempo

interest.

and little to con-

on but the road itself, there is a

The long flat highfor this

but it is shared by the new freeways

everywhere,

which suffer an alarming

fre-

due to inattention.

It may be that there is an optimum

the time interval

between

stock

strong

range for
impressions:

cause boredom.

and

ones bring on strain and confusion.

frequency

with which decisions

ing visual impressions

and interest-

are presented,

This

beat could be varied, but the variation

and within

Since it would

the optimum

be measured

the actual location

should
range.

in time units,

intervals

would depend

on the speed of travel.

in

pivot about which the road turns. The

pivot of motion

the sense

tOD sudden a change

in the tempo will snap the thread.

be coherent

makes its presence

The most powerful

is the visible

A basic

will strengthen

scape should have a basic beat, a regular

in an academic

occur when all three levels are working

unison, when a tower

and enjoyed from

of the highway,

of attention

of continuity,

as when

known to the

Were this true, it would mean that a road-

it helps to

helps to communicate

and its meaning

important,

se-

its role in the

of an object

space. Its presence

of streets and bUildings.

off the ramp of a modern highway

usually a moment

transition

meaning

and the city street are two

worlds,

orfunc-

of a highway-its

image, the meaning

sense. The position

This is most crucial where

the driver is about to make the transition

separate

express-are

task of linking the road to its im-

48 the local landscape

pedestrian

of a district

that longer intervals

environmental

and their

deeper cuts. Continuity

can be also appreciated,

the buildings

shorter

and the highway

environs.

in memory

Local broadcasts
the history

quence of space and motion,

mediate

hills in successively

quency of accidents

passer-by.
aspects

movements

quality,

designs in Chapter 4.
The various

and

of goals may do

of previous

may be

herald the approach

Even where the general images of the city

the difficult

nected whore. An overlapping

this, or a repetition

ways of the prairie are notorious

relate to the building

to, or which

orientation,

environ-

advertisements

by suc-

which seem to be parts of a con-

sense of torpid boredom.

tion of an area. Dr even the local news, to the

established.

meaning

centrate

they may be

flow of traffic.

interrelation

cessions of space, motion,

ndscape is of particular

to enhance

thread of

but it must be supported

may be wearying.

there, who lives there. how

or controned

the material.

qeneralla

congruent

have been clarified

continuity,

while developing,

an essential

are used as advertisements,

of some facility

of many of these ideas are illus-

continuity

and contrasting

scanning

might

Applications

embellishing,

a sale They

and the shape is

trated in the imaginary

form. In such term. the principal

aim is to preserve

of the scene.

cisions become self-evident,

with the principal

is the shaping of its

it grew, what it stands for, Even where they

grouped

The

could

parts, picking

be used for something

may be made to appear as a simple geometric

ents may be developed,

and hu-

by the vital

the working

and the historical

that he is "in the hilly part," as well as "apthe center."

history,

man values of his world? The highway

itself may also be

as a

a way of making the

driver aware of the function,

sequential

in the road: where

just because it is

so visibly located along the river at the very

clarified.

spirals, or the

lanes. One result of the

way, Dr to "buffer"

and the

the sense of

amphitheater

of various

current

via the

edge of a great city,

The image of the highway

the

50 may be the major events of a commuter's

New York's East River Drive, on

the other hand, is satisfying

The Schuyl-

of park and dense city. The activity

of an airport

Boston, as pre-

River Bridge, is disappointing,

river traffic.

the basic artistic

of the highway

on a new scale, such as the passing of similar

New York's East

kill Drive in Philadelphia

spaces, and ragged

by hills, curves,

Mystic

of Boston's

River Drive, on the other hand, affords a clear

for the purpose, they could

sented to the driver approaching

denied to the high-

activity

artery

of Bos-

to the eye, If con-

of central

motive tor his

Artery

present the city as a vivid and well-ordered

Image,
The shapelessness

people and

the sight of other people

progressively

Using all these elements,

The road itselffurnishes

image and

across the local

streets of the market district.

of the road.

life may be a principal

is a pleasure

and use of

"

and Continuity

problem

driver on the rural highway,

way driver. The colorful

pieces of ground and to destroy

between

pleasure

the chance of seeing country

old mold, such breaks are bound to leave ugly

ton, for example,

the urban scene and

to fit it together.'

designer

landscape

In addition, there is a positive pleasure in

being able to recognize

in the country,

to

the stock of ideas in his mind. The sight of

passing, In the city, this will mean paying attention

Rhythm

in

If a fundamental
the optimum

rhythm

of attention,

road or a group of similar

would

within

range, were assigned to a

roads, the driver

know when to expect points of deci-

sion and major visual events, Various

channels-freeways,
-might

collectors,

be given particular

visual rhythms

consistent

with their function

transport,

so that rhythm

ferentiate

and clarify the transport

Thus it would

be possible

given road the frequency

kinds of

local streets

and mode of

itself served to difhierarchy.

to say that on a
of visual events was

too rapid or too slow. or that this frequency

varied in an incoherent
ramp decisions
be examples

manner.

in a downtown

Multiple
area might

of visual events which

fast. and whose frequency

tOD suddenly.

come tDO

has been built up

ia
Sequential

The traditional
temporal

All of these are abstract

Form
way of managing

continuity

management

a sustained

is to set in motion

tenance

a drive

destination

at the climax,

subsiding

then to

with tension

resolved.

Climax

a conclusion
should

not be 100 long delayed,

of continuity

Contrast

toward a final goal. This drive may be interrupted. prolonged. and embellished at
rhythmic intervals. but it never entirely loses
forward momentum. and it achieves its

powerful.

spatial confinement

as the emergence

into a spatial

and transition

Some

of sequence,

appear in Chapters

The Objectives
The principal

enters and leaves at different

marized. The first is to present

from end to beginning

than vice versa. Thus the sequential

rather

which

and rhythm

has continuity

in which an underlying

transitions,

self-contained

episodes,

form of its own: or forms

with climaxes

ends, so that a two-way

audience

played to: or the unified climactic

have to be abandoned
"endless"

composition,

jazz or medieval
"Br'er

Rabbit."

may

can be

modulations

form may

roadside

of the kind typified

polyphony,

environment).

it is possible

(both of self or the external

It may be constructed

or touch.

The second objective

and strengthen

to

of the design

the driver's

to give him a picture

a different

the use of

structured,

distinct,

split lanes or differential

masking,

risks inducing

But here the

possible.

severe disorientation

for the driver.

He should

and connections

disposed

are

proaching

over time, in which dissonances

later intervals

those features

sophisticated

designs,

played simultaneously

diverging,

and reacting

against

of

nature, or symbolism

it may

surrounding

of motion

of space, for example.

in the highway,

through

areas of different

grammar.

For example,

53 A may gradually

in sequential

one characteristic

melt into the other, like a

movie dissolve

53 c The latter

before the second

model may be embellished

alternation

of character

acter is fully established,

"A~l

by an

before the new charby use of hints and

.;

echoes:
530

The transition

may be abrupt and shocking

53 E The change may be mediated

necting

link of a different

Holland

Tunnel

by a minor con-

kind, as when the

stands between

New Jersey

and Manhattan
53 F Contrariwise,
by a continuous
ground:

connection
invariant

53D

.~'

may be maintained
characteristic,

objective

Many of the elements

topography

should

should

be achieved

at every level.

should

Usually,

or

53F~

.'

... :.J

must capture the

at reasonably

close inter-

a quick perspective

sketch

than a photo-

unnecessary

and exaggerates

elements,

vertical

eye records them,

If the sequence

is a proposed
reality,

These methods

without

photographic

aids,

have already

and if the user has enough

skill. they give him the informa-

tion from which

he may reconstruct

sulting visual sequence.

highway

Chapter

the re-

4 describes

design for Boston

that was constructed

primarily

from such

But they also have many disadIn particular,

elements

they fail to select

from the mass of things

perceivable;

to reconstruct
pattern

being

design rather than an

of representation

been developed,

potentially

detail

just as the

then we must depend on base

maps and sketches

essential

of irritation

obliques

graph, since it eliminates

vantages.

more than an absence

for detail

effects. The aerial

in the field is more valuable

can be achieved

to nothing

photographs,

be taken from many view-

vals. Very often,

an imaginary

land

This may be supplemented

of views

interpretative

the

of the road, plus

and ground

the ground

sequence

in con-

map, showing

mass, and open space, furnishes

much information
54 by oblique

alas, one aspires

design.

that go into making up

and other natural features,

use, building

obliques

both in its

aspects

can be recorded

and elevation

points:

will discuss the prob-

ways. A detailed

location

land have

of the art is thereby

visual sequence,

a visual sequence

to

or architecture

and subjective

ventional

and rebuilding
be analogous

Both are possible

they require the user

a third dimension:

present the material

use or form, There

53 B Or the first may disappear

builds up

interlock

in highway
on the road.

as the road moves

are models for this problem

and its

book to read on the run.

We believe these objectives

will be faced re-

peatedly

The roadside

a notation,

This chapter

techniques,

might be played against

of transition

of the highway

Ideally, all three objectives

by means which

to

of the use, history,

each other.

a sequence

short of buildlnq

drawings,

recorded

the observer's

of his environment:

landscape,

be a fascinating

and meeting,

A sequence

The problem

is to deepen

give him an understanding

two or three pro-

gressions

surety,

of
its

such a technique,

roads. This would

cccurredl, but the growth

existing

grasp of the meaning

in

be possible to use some of the more advanced

devices of counterpoint:

with

by or ap-

them

The third objective

and distor-

reactions

This is the counterpoint

music. In future

of the land-

and mass are

around a pivot, They are balances

tions call forth compensating

as

be able to locate himself.

and to sense how he is moving

not static ones, where position

is well-

and as far-ranging

scape, to recognize

In any case, the balances

is to clarify

which

the road, and the major features

Without

and three-dimensional

image of the en-

vironment.

designer

from

even via secondary

on a road

through

from

in light. color, or texture,

detail, or perhaps

make each of the two directions

composition,

This form
of space or

in

or such tales as

Alternatively.

well-joined

balance,

senses such as sound, smell,

but

alternatives,
full-scale

lem of recording

and devel-

contrasts,

and a moving

those of motion

at both

for the articulated

provides

a technique

and communicating

we are unable to express or refine design

restricted.

form, a form

may be built out of the sensations

each with a

have to be symmetrical,

which

the high-

the viewer

sequential

opment.

total development

in shaping

may now be sum-

with a rich, coherent

may have to be more like a magazine serial.

depends on separate

objectives

way visual experience

form

... visual sequences.

without

of Design

This is a useful model for highway design. but

it suffers from the handicap that the audience
be proceeding

is to develop

analyzing,

music without

in anticlimax.

points. or may

recording,

expanse-

3 and 4

tension. once developed, be thrown away

If we want to change the view from the road,

the first essential

from

is maintained.

of the development

contrast,

nor should

are the meat and drink

that continuity

examples

2. Recording Highway Sequences

design, and no effect can be so

for example,

provided

"

for the

or for the main-

in the midst of change

and change

of highway

models

of transition,

as a static,

rather than as a dynamic

Even skilled designers

shortcomings.

and they
over-all
sequence.

are misled by these

20

The sense of reality is improved if a scale

There are techniques

model is prepared.

defects. Several

environs,

showing

and perhaps

the road and its

allowing

of the road in alternative

for placement

positions.

tion is still seen as an over-all

The situa-

pattern

rather

especially

just at the roadside.

results a marked

the

cardboard.

and pliable materials

Plasticine,

an essential

as

balsa. or Styrofoam.

are

part of the process of designing

a spatial composition,

brought

effect from a model. if the eye is

down by some optical

simulated

position

means to a

on the road surface

then is moved along that surface

which

corresponds

at a speed

to the real speed at the

model scale. This can be done crudely

a small mirror. and much better
558 held periscope

or one on a mobile

We now have a technique

sequence,

mount,

that records

but the record is perishable

visible to only one person at a time

it is still not adequate
for communication

Therefore

for comparability,

to groups

We are thus tempted

which

and

of people,

to go to motion

record sequences

nor

in a permanent

form

55 A that can be shown to large groups of people.

Movies

may be taken of existing

quences,

either at normal

gerated

se-

speed or at exag-

of such highway

are quite useful in conveying

of motion,
support

There are technical

problems

but the most serious difficulty

between

movies.

the sense

for the camera to prevent

difference

of

is the inherent

man eye. The eye has a very small angle of

with a very broad angle

of hazy vision, It perceives

by searching

irregular

motion.

relationships
camera.

the details of

peripheral

that the world

acute vision over an angle of

moderate

size. In one way. it records too

much, if we want to simulate

a human eye; in another

the workings

peripheral

vision. Further-

more. its center of attention

does not leap

of

platform,

looks "flat"

on Its attention

fixed with insane intensity,

features

as road curvature.

will neglect

traffic,

are not directly

Any abstract

complicated

these problems

cost. a motion

picture

sense of sequence
to studies

of technique

ahead.

is never at first intuitively

be warned

permanent

recordings

sequences,

Selective

Motion

as supplements
pictures

meaning

or special

to other records.

may be employed

has been thoroughly

compress

and of surroundings)

The perception
analyzed

of motion
through

for

orientation.
(both of self

a changing,

spatial form.
of motion

and space may be

into the following

parts

self-motion:

speed. direction.

(stop-go,

accelerate-decelerate.

and

right-left).

alongside.

apparent

of the visual field

or underneath,

spreading

or texture,

motion
overhead,

translation;

or shrinking

general stability
velocity

3. Spatial

or

after that sequence

analyzed

stood. High-speed

of a

techniques

of: (1) locauona!

and (2) the experience

light-filled

to analyze, We

passing
rotation.

of outline

or instability;

or lack of it.

characteristics:

to com-

as a work of art. the character

of a sequence,

is quite difficult
chose to develop

2. Apparent

existing

style. can be used to

details.

the "feel"

of motion.

meaning)
therefore

up-down.

camera work. in the

record brief sequences,

before any such sys-

of

adjunct

films are useful as

of important

experience

obvious.

that it will take

The sequence

(beyond that of simple functional

communication

clear it may

of the
details

in lights, signs, rails. or paving

their changes

gives such a direct

that it is a valuable

wide-angle

of

of roadside

easily recorded.

1. Apparent

and

in map, sketch. and model form.

Multicamera.

aspects.

has already

the scene.

and under-

a. Presence and position

of enclosing

or surfaces.
enclosure,

and degree of

their solidity

objects

movies may be used to

the outstanding

events of a trip into

b. General proportions

a brief compass.

of the space enclosed;

scale with respect to the observer:

position

of the observer.
that the advantages

of

may be brought

to bear

of scale models.

designs via the use

If a motion-picture
correct

c. Quality

of the light which

apparent.

intensity

d. Relationship of spaces in sequence

and overlapping.

then

scale could be

made of any desired path of motion

e. Direction

number

eye toward
enclosure.

paths through

could be recorded

would

a given

and com-

of proposed

could be predicted

be seen by the moving observer.

only in highway
city-planning

The

that from an auto-

or any other vehicle-along

This would

could be

be valuable

not

layout but also in many

landscape,

and

design,
has been partially

ing and moving the periscope.

perfected.
counter

the resulting

the difficulties

and scanning
however,

vision

de-

problems

and particularly

of

of mount-

Even when

films will still enof simutannq

The periscope

peripheral
itself.

has already been developed

to the

point that it is useful for the direct visual

inspection

of principal
different

views. which

aspects

draw the

of the spatial

new

as they

and at any velocity

jointing

through

a model. Thus the visual effect of a great

of alternative

makes the space

and direction.

camera

to a mobile periscope.

exposure,

of

however

time and some practice

lighting,

which

notation.

tem will seem to communicate

interpreted

nota-

feature

road-changes
meaning

the equi-

(whether

good or bad]' which

along a

of basic

meaning

that are significa nt at the scale of the entire

texture-is

on paper.

to be shown. The result is a work of art

or the

in the landscape

an inevitable

any simple presentation

be logically.

by us. but it presents

It

elements

The sequence

consists

detail, the sense

and the apparent

landscape,

does not present

of the highway

of roadside

and space, the feeling

orientation,

as in a movie, but rather

tion. This is probably

The reader should

Such an instrument

such as the

directly

and interrelations

veloped

of objects at the roadside,

many other elements.

objects

the scanning.

These techniques

such

sense of total space. or the appearance

more distant

shot. the dissolve,

appears to be

effect and will exaggerate

of this type

who has worked on this ques-

and must perforce

phases of architectural.

to us.

It can have a

hypnotic

visual "growth"

Philip Thiel.'

tion in depth. The technique

have led us to think that the

experience

in the perception

heavily from the previous work of

require a skilled operator.

easily simulated.

and seems to be taken either from a tunnel or

for a technique

select the visual elements

any trajectory

with blinders

borrows

action of the eye. but in a very slow

of the observer.

Our studies
essential
of motion

Our proposal

line or staff, as in musical

selective

al-

to their essentials.

continuous

mobile. airplane.

from a moving

stripped

it by placing

view of a pedestrian-or

is that a

ternatives.

of sequence

symbolizes

be less important

ahead along a road

and comparison

de-

va riable depth of focus. but these seem to

looking

into a small space,

allow the rapid com-

many compromise

environments

The net effect of these differences

would

developed

pared. or the appearance

here,

draw-

therefore

are also other differences.

vision and a fixed rather than a

reproducible

could Compress the

sequence

environment

such as the absence

munication

of

easily

have

from object to object as does the eye, There

movie. taken while

after

The re-

to assure him

These symbolize

be

employing

Movie cameramen

55 C movies of apparently

way. it records too

visual sequence.

so rapidly.

the close-up,

to

to com-

It would

is moving

can be coupled

uniformly

of binocular

""

since he has

mechanism

offailure

the sense of sequence.

ings on paper. which

is stable when the visual field

on the study of proposed

eye of

municate

and Space

or of inability

essence of the experience

at one object
is moving.

for the observer.

movie presentation

sight. The

on the other hand. is a staring

little by reducing

sult is vertigo

It is also possible

the spatial

of the whole field partly by

the essentials.

made. easily understood,

the visual field in a quick

while sensing

means of blurred,

can scan

of the human eye.

while the vehicle

municate.

vibration.

the camera and the hu-

acute vision. coupled

objects

the scanning

more conventional

of the major visual effects. We

have made a number

which

highway

speeds. to convey in briefthe

essentials

another.

Despite

pictures.

of cost or complexity.

abstract

recording

and expensive.

the camera may be pointed

librium

by a hand-

vantages

Such a technique

To simulate

of Motion

suffer from disad-

useful to devise a simple graphic technique

in reality,

and formal way. so as not to disturb

by

:r

ex-

however.

vices, such as the panning

and

on a

of his vision, There

is difficult

Notation

All of these techniques

sense of three-dimensional

no compensatory

It is also possible to capture some sense of

sequential

with a view which

the whole scene much as it would

The technique

An Abstract

may

screen. so that the ob-

reality. and the eye of the observer

Otherwise

model may convey the general spatial form

but obscure the way in which this is modified
and overlaid by detail and texture. Nevertheless, quick and rough study models, made of
such inexpensive

or curved

tends to the periphery

carefully executed. or even exaggerated.

these

cameras

be used. and their film may be projected

wide-angle

server is presented

than as a sequence. but it occupies threedimensional space. Details may have to be

for circumventing

co-ordinated

of scale models, *

"This type of modelviewing periscope is now manutecurec commercially by Optec Ltd,. 54 Upper Montagu
SI.. London W1, England

55C
A periscope movie
of a model
of the same road,

See his unpublished memoranda: 'The Urban Spaces

at Broadway and Mason," August 1959: "An Architectural and Urban Space-Sequence Notation:' August
1960. his article in the Town Planning Review for April.
1961. entitled: "A Sequence Experience Notation:' and
that in Landscape. Autumn 1961 "To the Kamakura
Station."

All these characteristics

their sequential

must be shown

and concurrent

each other. The following

all these elements
vertical

relation

proposal

as occurring

23

in

58 Where

to

indicates

along a

from bottom

to top. In the background

drawn regularly

spaced

are

lines to indicate

time

DROPPING INTO A CUT

intervals.

APPARENT

the central

a band representing
This band widens

line is overlaid

apparent

turning

progression

movements.

by shading

RISI~G INTO A TUNNEL

surface.

tions are entities

the band is

is located

band is marked

with horizontal

resent apparent

velocity.

the greater

are the lines.

Stops are shown

bars across the

of the observer

in

by a dot in the secdot

OBSERVE~ LOW AND LEfT ,"

TROUGH DISTANT END

a small space in relation

and vice versa, The section

so that the observer

SAME SPACE OBSeRVER HIGH AND RIGH r

dots are in

line and occur at the point in the

road to which

the

speed. the closer together

by white

vertical

lines to rep'

NA~~OW SLOT, DISTANT END

and a dark

size of the observer

large dot symbolizes

..w

HIGH WALL RIGHT

or

scale of the space is indicated

to the observer,

broken and then picked up again, Finally. the

WALL CLOSE AHEAD

('.'1X;:::'

the frontal

a light oval being distant

by the relative

sense that sharp mo-

to themselves.

length of lines in section,

on the oval symbolizing

tion. General

.:::?
.......'.

of the space is shown

the space is represented

To maintain

major

sensation.

SCALE

oval close. The position

base

~I

in the sec-

band to indicate

proportion

by the relative

along the base line and to sym-

bolize the subjective

AND

a brief

color are placed at

affect the spatial

The general

to base. The band is bent right or left to

symbolize

of separate

PROPORTION

recording

might then look like this'

rein-

visual events.

they are repeated

which

total diagram.

sequence,

a dark tone is laid

band. These symbols

the edge of the motion

views

pro-

files of the road. laid flat and attached

the road passes under a

or into a tunnel.

even though

by

just as if it were
vertical

highway

tions, Arrows

self-motion,

of two exaggerated

An illustrative

band. Where

force the sense of important

to show ascent and nar-

rows to show descent.

Occurs at the side

motion

over the motion

SELF-MOTION

56 In our system,

composed

to be read in sequence

confinement

of the road. a black edge is added to the

bridge

base line, scaled to elapsed time.

which is intended

strong

the section

refers.

LOW AND Ln

IN V,RY

lARGE TROUGH

S.AME OBSERVER POSITION

WALLS LITTlE HIGHER THAN OBSERVER

band.

LIGHT

The quality
APPARENT
57

MOTION

The apparent
shown

alongside

apparent

"',

from bright

band.

indicating

color:

movement

or

rotation

apparent

apparent

or shrinkage

, -':

:'"

immobility

I
I

....
; "

general field and a re shown

where they are perceived.
tant feature

of the

at the point

If a single impor-

is being referred to. a dot is

appended

These are also shown where they are per-

t
t

ceived and not where they are physically

located.

I ncrease in apparent

field is indicated
of the arrow,

velocity

by increasing

r:
I
I
I

of the

the length

To the right of the motion

sion of cross-sectional
SOliD

flOOR

~~O lEfT

W~LL. SCReEN OVER

, ,

souo

\
nOOR

SCREEN AHEAD

SOLID RIGHT WALL ANO AHEAD. SCREEN UNDeR

'-'

01

characteristics
Enclosing

blocking

diagrams

showing

are represented
without

underneath,

Spaces that are perceived

GOING BY

be shown
spatial

overlapping

sequence.

Where

screens are drawn

by dotted

in diagrammatic

while those in front are shown

oval.

indicate

symbol

A circle indicates

and clearly bounded,

ill-defined

appears

color. to

the total space

a space sharply

and a cross, a space so

as to be imperceptible.

so. These two symbols

show gradations

or

STRONGLY DEFINED

8>

DEFINED

section.

of another

the degree to which

is defined.

lines.

as a facing

To the right of the space section

small separate

constant.

space is significant

(widening.

change

position).

of observer

or almost

can be combined

of total definition:

the

one

change

in the

narrowing.
OBSERvm RISING IN A~D MOVING
10 CENTR OF A NAAROWrNG SLOT

I.

sections.

) a gradual

an abrupt

dissolution

desirable

handle

to

and chaos between

representation

two spaces

it would

to add a sense of the activity

be
which

these spaces. the in-

of accompanying

traffic

in particular.

quantity.

like the

we have yet to find an easy way to

it, Sooner

sity of the activity

CoO=">
,
I

or later, however,

find a means of adding the nature

UNDEFINED

gateway

shift

Since this is a fluctuating

lighting,

or constricting

to our analysis.

we must
and inten-

appears

speed begins to pick up. and the

ends.
in a concentrated

must be read as three parallel

is probably

inescapable.

number

of elements

the space sections

First, it

columns.

considering

Second,

This

the

being presented'
do not read as

as do the other elements.

since they have been "laid flat"

on the paper,

while the other symbols

are map or point

representations,

such sections

Setting

immediately

handling,

color

I ~ij'JI

portal

on the left which

form, It has at least three deficiencies.

would

the dia-

and in contrasting

fills and characterizes

ILL DFINED

to

object

paper model, would

by sym-

merging

><an intervening

tensity

'%:

prominent

upright

along the line, as in a simple three-dimensional

and nature of the transition

is shown

seems to

view opens up to

the right. The road then drops again toward

easily in sequence

a series of

may be used,

To this whole
SOMEWHAT DEFINED

OBSERVER BETWEEN TWO WAllS

~ FLOOR COMMON TO LARGER SP~CE WITH
DISTANT L"l
WALL ANO ,No SCRUN

serves for the entire

progressive

the observer

speed slacks off. until at the

This puts the experience

can

Where

at

of the road, while ap-

"float." and an important

SPACES

in section,

section

elevation

be growing;

concurrently

form is essentially

diagrammatic

give

and side surfaces

of the light. or the

CHANGING

The light becomes

peak of the climb the observer

sequence

FiElD

clockwise.

and apparent

(the rush hour. for example].

AND

right

and the visual field on the

plain and rises high above it. The light is bright

at some special time under study

OVERLAPPING

an object

again a nd comes from the rear. The road rises .

at night.

as follows:

by solid

which

SUBDUED fRONTu!

from hour to hour, or season

condition

however,

the road swings

parent speed is at its highest,

The light will

different

slot

Before this

bursts out of the slot into a vast. ill-defined

are not

symbol.

can only be used to indicate

predominant
condition

DARK DIfFUSE

The

at the bottom,

and enters from above, SUddenly,

the lowest

of shape. move-

to season. and be markedly

grammatic

the

completely

vision. are indicated

Overhead,

specification

and color which

change

left rotates

CROSSuT

dimmer

bols to the right of and between

band is a succes-

lines. screens or other objects.

a sense of enclosure

DIM

{no dot}

has qualities

The symbol

lit from the left.

visual field is mov-

This space gradually

is completed.

(still dropping).

from one space to another

of the space being traversed.

surfaces

transition

by this simple

normally

speed in an ill-

the general

flies rapidly overhead,

crossut

diagrams

CHARACTERISTICS

and in which

to top,

has a floor and a screen

at the right. and is brightly

of the liqht:

ERIGHT BACK!.IT

covered

OBJECT GOING OVER RAPIDLY

space which

with the observer

ment. texture,

IMMOBILE

with gathering

defined

frorrtllt

The duration
SPATIAL

dropping

from bottom

in this way: The road is

merges into a small, deep. and narrow

illumination
FiElD

includ-

intensity

to dark. and a shaded dot symbol

This is a bare minimum

'

reading

can be translated

GROWS

I
These refer to the characteristics

general

the direction

diffuse

59 The diagram.

ing past the observer

or
OBJECT

in

of contrasting

backlit

growth

diagram

ing a base tone showing

or over,head

sidewise

apparent

.,:,:.::.'
.

ill a contrasting

of light in the space is shown

separate

color to the right of the space section.

directly

or on top of the self-motion

These are drawn

moving

FIELD

of the visual field is

by small arrow symbols.

alongside

,.,.
,,',

OF THE VISUAL

motion

another

and reproduction.

such as activity

not adequately

handled.

><

()

A PORTAL OR GATEWAY BETWE[N

A GRAOUAl

MERGING

below

to describe

but

drafting.

Third. fluctuating

characteristics.

tem has reasonable

solve this difficulty

complicate

and light. are

As it stands, the sys-

merit and will be used

a real highway.

In this regard, it may be interesting to compare this

technique with a recording system developed for ballet.
See: Labanotation, Ann HutchinSOfl. New Directions.
New York, 1961

--

---------

24
The Notation of Orientation
Space and motion is the immediate essence

We have used the shorthand

given below.

various

along a vertical

of a highway

axis to the same scale of elapsed

run. But there is an important

elements

are shown

space and motion

aspect of the trip which is more complex and

conceptual. This is the sense of orientation-

diagram.

The

60 The total distance

time as the

a vertical

and are sym-

bolized as follows

visible.
moment

paths

of past experience.

In particular.
ments"

previously

developed.'

we will use the "image

paths, nodes. districts,

landmarks.
observer

tt-

edges. and

along which the

roads. canals, walkways),

lines which

111111/111 111\ 11/1

ele-

feels he can move (highways,

(lake shores. riverbanks.

rail-

Edges are those

appear as barriers

he imagines

squares.

or boundaries

edges of develop-

edges

Where

Landmarks

he does not customarily

distinctive

and within

the areas of some extent which

as being relatively
fiable (residential

red a rrows superimposed

indicate

landmarks

neighborhoods,

located and remembered

scale environment,

through

nodes, breaks through

other paths, enters districts.

They are shown where

located,

intensity,

are indicated

ening the district

darkening
directly
... BREAK IN CONTINUITY BETWEEN THREE PATHS

edges. crosses

proach and attainment

an important

feature

and

itself. are shown

111111 I 1111111111

with

OF CONTACT

the path or its relation

of successive

question

sketches.
SEE'!

and

goals is

an overlay

the

elements.

driver seeks to gain some sense of the strucenvironment,

the road itself.

A"

orientation sequence diaqram

fore show the following things:

must
,

apparent
PATH TURNS RIGHT

the,,}

apparent

motions

appear as superimposed
cision are shown

arrows.

by black circles

and continuity

path. plus the sequence

of elements

of the

pendently

GOAL FIRST SIGHTED

the "out-

veloped.

elements.
VIEW BACKWARD

TO LEFT

ing way

At the beginning,

ward extension

relation.

of the "outside"

ment. including

and strength

in the follow-

reading from botof indefinite

out-

on the right. and a strong

edge (perhaps

INVISIBLE

UNCERrAIN

WHfRE

PASSW

specification,

for

band. would

I he edge on the left is losing

occurs, and immediately

its visual
a decision

imporpoint

a new and important

goal is visible

a strong barrier edge in the

right distance

(for example.

The road swings

VISIBLE

right

a ridge of hills).

the edge goal disap-

pears. the edge on the left begins to fade out.

and the path that the driver is on loses its
VISIBLE

V,RY

IMPORTANr

sense of continuity.
new goal appears
building)

This is resolved when a

a landmark

(such as a tail

to the right of the road, But this

disappears

again. no part of the scene beyond

the road itself is visible. and there occurs an

image blackout.
its continuity.

although

Suddenly.

the path maintains

both the landmark

and the strong edge are visible again, and

the path that the driver is on becomes

SHORI APPROACHES

stronger

as a visual element.

disappears

The landmark

and then is suddenly

and visibly

arrived at and also seen from the rear, while

the edge goal maintains
OVERLAPPING

IMPORTANT APPROACH

a whole
of motion

The chosen scheme will guide

design of the road.

straight

its visibility,

now

ahead, The image of the path itself

becomes

very stron~, and so does the sight of

the approaching

edge (the ridge of hills).

which

and pierced at a climactic

is reached

moment.

simply shows the location

of major visual events, or the level

without

Such a diagram.

62

further

which

would
shaded

be useful to analyze or express

the basic rhythmic

while a path whose

tance. The node is reached.

See The Image of the City. op, cit

compositions

62 of general visual intensity.

origin is unclear enters from the left rear

periods of loss of contact.

the designer

sketch out and evaluate

which

and timing

is visible as a goal. This goal dis-

appears. then reappears,

of the

environ-

to be avoided.

look like a time graph. or a variously

a lake shore) on the left, while

a node on the road ahead (an intersection.

example)

image elements

can be translated

tom to top, there is a district

to them, and how they overlap and succeed

one another.

(major
to be

He may wish to use an even more abstract

6t

POINT OF DECISION

to conven-

elements

strong visual elements),

the detailed

there is a "back reference"

3. The location,

referring

"fixed"

desire lines. connections

and orientation,

they are at-

may be deserve the function

While

series of alternative

SHIFTS

inde-

and from

rough sketch in ordinary

existing

61 This diagram

tained. whether

for a par-

of the preliminary

notation,

whether

or

design procedure.

made. areas and structures

in the path,

that are

goals along the trip, showin

design

They will therefore

topography,

decisions.

when they are visible.

as possible

tional maps showing

Points of de-

by

the

cases. in order to be-

of the other material,

can quickly

LANDMARK

Undoubtedly.

have to be simplified

them a more concrete

by

associated with the path itself. and the pOlnl

at which the driver must make locational

2. The principal

would

by a

or perhaps

Since the diagra rns conta in the kernel of the

INVISIBLE IN PASSrNG

1. The image strength

or perspective

visual effect, they might be evaluated

image. or major

of the outside

by a

as to signifi-

ticular purpose.

turns of the path

to the outside

studies.

com'"e as expressive

6RIULY

is

or cut) is shown

be supplemented

They can also be reinforced

diagrams

tone of the color of the outside

Major

with respect

outside

with

would

map. by notations

addep to for individual

elements

influences

must be read as one experience.

motion-picture

to recognize

mark. Loss of contact

it radically

itself. In any case. the

series of rough study models,

AND REACHW

by a break in the path line, plus a

side" image (as in a tunnel

is shown on the space-motion

cant detail, and by photographs

dark-

to an intersection,

in-

as when the view of all important

conventional

SEfN

or of ability

from

or to duplicate

to another.

The diagrams

the path, and the path

in black. "Outside"

be

two diagrams

the size and dark-

few.

design in

the elements

to cross-refer

the mot ibn sequence

and importance
symbol.

see the imaginary

necessary

landmark

and overlaps

cases.

used are relatively

diagram fit a point where

SEEN IN RETROSPECT

color.

Loss of continuity.
lOSS

the ap-

of it. In addition.

ture of the surrounding

These lines

would

into one diagram.

Chapter 4. page 38. It will sometimes

formation,

from left to right in order of

so that successions

In-

tone, and thickening

associated

are in another

is one of con-

movement

might then look

one diagram

passes land-

experience

forward-directed

of a total diagram

the line of path or edge, Elements

represented
tinuous

clarity,

by increasing

ness of the node or landmark

of

made up of image elements,

Since the highway

A portion
like this:

60

they are physically

not where they are perceived.

creasing

itself is of

marks. Thus it is both an image element

a sequence

For an example.

as well)

notation

in individual

where the elements

other than straight

is important.

both aspects

This may be possible

can be shown.

of the large-

On its course it goes

compress

or arrival mark shows that this

moment

meaning

should be the same. A better

mark

Darkening

of spaceIdeally. as

we have noted before, the means used to

lines. Small

one

overlap.

clarify both (and to express

but

of the line means that the

to read

since the perception

motion and of orientation

may be

course a path, with more or less clarity

directions

is an important

can be arranged

are

office dis-

The highway

form and direction.

particular
length,

from the highway.

just as in any other experience

viewing

ahead. Darkening

record the essence of the view

them together.

it refers,

on the visibility

the one symbolizing

and the other orientation.

from the road. It will be necessary

with no back reference.

the line also fades out in dotted

districts

and identi-

tricts. large parks). All these elements

we can quickly

may

into parts,

space and motion

line ties the

to which

image to the path

With these two diagrams.

there

unless

and

In that case. the diagram

have to be broken

look is

the goal is not only not attained

of a visibility

he imagines

homogeneous

and a dotted

fades out uncertainly,

which

Districts

is not stable.

marks after the

the goal is never visibly attained.

Where

nodes

enter (tall buildings.

signs. monuments).

the relation of the outside

repre-

points to

that a backward

system.

the track of the road is very complex

it is potentially

"pennant"

goal line to the element

intersections).

positions.

This seems to be a satisfactory

by

was the goal at the

indicate

total approach

are the points in his image which

are only reference

which

is no arrowhead,

that he can enter (city

railroad terminals.

in which

projections

of arrival. Visibility

arrowhead

ments, walls). Nodes are the focal points into

which

a single goal

possible, These lines and their projections

are in black.

Paths are the lines in the mental

image of the environment

it. triangular

and a triangular

the element

Recording this image demands a subjective

interpretation. but we can use some concepts
and techniques

Along

sent the periods

scape that develops in the mind. partly as a

result of what is presently visible. partly

which

visible is indicated

line to the right of the image

diagram.

the general image of the road and the land-

as a result of the memory

within

is at least occasionally

structure

of a road.

......

ae
27

3. Analysis of an EXisting Highway

signs of emotional

reaction.

runs are compared.

indices of where

attention

This monograph is based on various tests of

the visual impact of the highway. The substantive results have been summarized in the
first chapter. but we must also describe the

A similar graphic

tests themselves

the Northeast

in order to identify

the

source of our conclusions To illustrate both

source and method. this chapter will concentrate on the test results from one particular

route.

focus on a common

of many urban highways in the East: Route 2.

Storrow

Drive. and the Northeast

in Boston,

Expressway

the approach to Hartford

over the

technique

of people (twenty
not entirely,

extremely
drawings

to the central

delphia through
feller Parkway

part of Phila-

Fairmount

Park: the Rocke-

in Cleveland.

We have drawn

consciously

the location

all drawn to a

time scale. Thus it was possible

see what the entire set of subjects

at similar

are necessarily

as to be unintelligible

cause they have at least some quality

know the road, Each subject

as sequences.

identify

of the experience.

memory.

and its analysis

both on the spot and from

camera, and sketch pad to

all ambiguous

impressions.

sions are therefore

based largely on the re-

educated

observers.

subjects

Our conclu-

divergences

among people of another

Most of the subjects

minimum

graphic skill (little

be apparent
drawings

in kind.

exhibit

content

connected

drawings.

people to

of attention.

or possibly
on

little data.

on the road

the high selectivity

view of the roadway.

commuter,

a well-

sequences,

a daily

even if he chooses to look. may

possibly find pleasure

or meaning

in other kinds of phenomena'

as new construction.
signs, new detail.
information

primarily

novelties

changing

activity

moving traffic,

are woven into the analysis

below,

the correlation

physiological

to visual

laboratory

experiments

experience

or

testing
degrees

city traffic,

we made all trips

in the presence

of familiarity,

view or the ex-

of the road in very heavy traffic,

Most of our data comes from this subjective

evaluation.

but other kinds of tests and

records were also made. The use of photographs, sketches,

and motion

pictures

already been noted. We experimented

recording

a continuous

pressions.

given without

control

pause and at such

the Northeast

by several research

attention,

of the roads. parExpressway

personnel.

ings were tra nscribed

for the tempo

and must say the

into his head. These

were done for a number

63 ticularly

with

loses much conscious

of his observations

first thing that comes

has

stream of verbal im-

speed that the observer

in Boston,

These record-

and timed, and analyzed

of attention,

for the objects

positions

of

and for some of the more obvious

of

events.

the highway

and varied in a

fashion,

of other groups'

There might be
those with different

or with different

or background.

Responses

who are placed in different

in the car might be studied.

examination

but not at rush hours, Thus they

do not convey the night-time

perience

of normal

in which

is simulated

of subjects
in the daytime,

reactions

temperament

During our investigations.

impact of the

road might be imagined

more controlled

We lack

detail.

like large

results of these verbal and graphic

such

on this,

outlines

or the rear ends of trucks. and

Other tests of the subjective

On the other hand, ex-

cept again for dramatic

at the side or overhead.

against the sky, roadside

buildings

described

scenes. much as we

such as

spatial

long axial views appear again and again.

enjoy even

through

and general

Features

to vision or movement

Detailed

these mild and familiar

the vast

obstacles

recordings

find pleasure

similar. Considering

was striking.

if they were

to look they would

attention

by many people

concurrence

conscious

although

moments,

be recorded,

silhouetted

the visual sequence

data

and the objects

of objects that could potentially

the forward

is that they

one, Elsewhere

known countryside.

be interesting
other groups,

and the drawings

are surprisingly

along a highway,

in driving

look. but the

gave us further

of attention
At climactic

is "forced:'

they might be able to shut out the view from

stimulated

It would

This sketch technique

quantity

in the same (if in a somewhat

attention.

to connect

among the daily users of a route.

confinement

muted) way wherever

I), but a

The latter

a poor ability

to expand these tests among

are likely to occur

Our guess as to commuters

was a powerful

untrained,

is still similar to the more highly

class or culture

whom we have extremely

respond

had at least

as this may

under such conditions

on the tempo

of long habit.

(about which we know nothing).

would

of his

after the run was

complete.

particularly

we have indicates

whom the road is not a matter

among daily commuters

and

of other

not differ markedly

at least among other middle-class

The greatest

immediately

to be less sharp.

but what scanty evidence

that they would

sensitive

The reactions

might be expected

was asked to

elements

parts. They have a fragmentary

record momentary

actions of alert and presumably

to those who do not

few were completely

The process was aided by the use of

tape recorder.

crude, and

are so compressed

in some detail. All of them were chosen be-

and evaluation

to

recorded

points on the road.

many of the indications

numerous

control

were timed

in which each

in rows one above another,

The drawings

used was the one com-

three

he is under such

was made: they could then be arranged

the above roads

repetitions

Again

of many other

criticism

the scene at an

averaging

pressure that he cannot

drawinqs

to sketch

roads, but we have studied

mon to all artistic

but

and professional).

was given a small pad of

upon the visual experience

The basic technique

sample

mostly,

what he records. The sketches

common

as the approach

wider

middle-class

per minute,

Schuylkill

as well

only, and was

subjects:

rapid tempo,

to indicate

in Philadelphia,

was used on

Expressway

carried out by a somewhat

Connecticut River. the East River and West

Side Drives in New York City, the Jersey
Turnpike from Newark to New York: the
Expressway

to

ranges more widely.

Here the subject

were built up from the study

is compelled

object and where it

paper and required

OUf conclusions

When several

they prove to be valuable

the front-seat

dealt primarily

(Our

with the case of

paasenqe r.] None of these

other tests have been attempted

by us.

or

------------28

!
The Approach to Central Boston
via the Mystic River Bridge
Boston

affords

at least one interesting

example of the approach to the central

city: the Northeast Expressway, which
comes in at a high level over the Mystic
River Bridge.

It traverses

strong topo-

graphical and urban forms and has a decided

shape of its own. In its variety

it illustrates

of urban highways:
trated

and its tempo

many of the visual possibilities

motions,

panoramas,

the interplay

fast concen-

of major and

minor qoals. It has many visual flaws. and

yet it affords a dramatic approach to the
city. This is the approach that Whitehill
refers to in the opening
on the history

f",

"Only

words of his book

of Boston:"

residents

of Essex County

and New Hampshiremen,

approach

Boston

and Maine

traveling

by car,

with any decency,

upper deck of the Mystic

particularly

in the early morning,

panorama

of the city in Monet-like

and grays unfolds

From the

River Bridge,
a marvelous
blues

itself"

A study was made of this route from its

intersection

with

Squire Road in Revere to

63 -the Fort Hill exit in the heart of downtown

64 Boston,

a distance

of 6Y. miles, This trip

takes 12M minutes

at an average speed

of 32 miles per hour. Map 64 shows the

general

layout of the road, From the flat

ground

near the Revere airport.

west through

a thinly

turns southeast

settled

it runs south-

area and then

to pass around the nose

of Fennos Hill, It swings

Mt Washington

southwest

and Powder

and makes a similar

between

Horn Hill

double turn once again

as it enters Chelsea and comes into line

with the Mystic

River Bridge. It crosses the

river at a high level. crosses a smaller

on another
eastern

bridge, and descends

end of Charlestown,

channel

across the

to turn south-

east once more as it traverses

the mouth

of the Charles River in a region of railroad

yards and docks. Passing alongside
Station,

it enters

elevated

grade. skirting

Dock Squares
eastern

Boston

Haymarket

and curving

the expressway

at the Fort Hill

exit, where the off-ramp

turns sharply to the

massive

to street level between

old buildings.

The impressions
primarily

of this road given below are

those of two men who took the trip

many times,
passenger.

both as driver and as front-seat

They are built on the basis of

on-the-spot

recordings

These recordings

of the experience.

were verbal (in both a

"stream-of-consciousness"
considered
quences).

'%;",.
<\<~'

,
64 Map of Northeast

Expressway

<
';-1.1:;-

passenger

attention

the rapid sketches

that of

who is paying

to the scene. The analysis

by these two observers

,,I.

(rapid on-the-

plus slides and movie se-

The view is fundarnentallv

the front-seat
conscious

and also a more

style) and graphic

spot sketches.

."Ie"

at the time

of our test it terminated

right and descends

district.

now continues

on south past South Station,

HARBOR

and

around the

edge of the financial

Although

North

proper, still at an

was supplemented

of twenty

other subjects.

'Walter MuirWhilehilL BosWn. A Topographical

History, Harvard University Press. Cambridge. 1959.

by

......."

ar

<r----J

10

.La

I.....
SKYllr.lE

..

~tJt
cft\
~:L]
70

7' ------:-

"

'\. \
"' \\
,

10

'...!.'

1---"
, ,
l-!...I

'1I!1

'..!..'

'.I.'

.. ..

",

"

69

'.

.,.,

BRIDGE

...

V
..

[J
1II111t':l!11II1II1

ea

4- __

.....
Sequence

Diagrams

Some of the visual components

65 ence are graphically

presented

..'.1

of this expenin Figures 65

66 and 66, drawn to a time scale, in which the

course of the road has been diagrammatically
simplified

to a straight

64 ings on the conventional

line, The time markmap, Figure 64,

allow the reader to relate it to these special

65 drawings.

Figure 65 is a diagram of the

passenger's

66 Figure 66 illustrates

11111111111111111111

67

sense of motion and space. while

his orientation-his

image of the total landscape, Both of these

diagrams follow the conventions
the previous chapter.

developed

in

1~--_

"
"

0-

65 Space Motion

O.
Diagram

for Northeast

Expressway

66

Orientation

Diagram

for Northeast

Expressway

,
,,

az
33

A Trip on the Northeast Expressway

Let us describe a brief trip on this road. as it

ready passed gives a satisfying

might impress

pletion

a typical

passenger.

At the

start after rising up onto the road by a short

ramp, there begins the first or familiarization,
phase. Attention is confined to the road itself.
to the signs and accompanying

traffic,

and Continuity

between

sense of com-

The spatial contrast

the confinement

of the cut and the

sense of the open but still defined valley between

to the

the ridges is equally Satisfying,

time after coming

fly-by of small close objects which give the

basic sensation of speed. In the late afternoon
in winter. when mosl of the trips were made.

observers

out. the sketches of various

show a striking similarity

focus on certain

For a

features,

as they

such as the hill op-

posite, a factory on the left. and the curving

sweep of the road ahead.

the road points at a low sun. and the qtistening of the sky and of the road and car sur-

faces is a notable feature. The attention

silhouetted

objects

to

is heightened.

The basic motion

of the road here is interest-

ing and pleasant

Having approached

recti on. The route lacks those elements

distant

direction

in which

on. A foretaste
tower,

for example,

edge paralleling

on the right. It shortly

and puts Powder

of

probing

House

or a sense of the water

features

z<

in the ordinary

while the outside

of ordinary
centers

1 to

1M.

slackened

later, on the ap-

River Bridge, where the

observer feels that he might

the road into Boston.

be searching

the two hills there is another

still

housing
of

minute

of

tempo

The tempo
group also

project.

1M.

the dip is rather puzzling,

spur of

Fennos Hill. the interest

begins to rise again.

slows down:

of confusion

road's intentions.
the northern

Momentarily

vertical

the observer
attention.

awaits

The ap-

crest, he expects

some announcement:

hiding. without

equivalent

to the observer,
an inexplicable

is largely

small variations.

whose origins

Hill suddenly
mounts

becomes

into the cut.

under the two bridges overhead,

sweeping

by the spatial

confinement

passing overhead.

the earlier experience

and the cut marks the pas-

continuity

edge in the orientation

before, the framed

scheme. The turning

of the road adds to the

right. Industrial

conveying

a sense of centrifuga

force and apparently

scape (which
bridges)
strong

causing

is framed

centration

sidewise,

is reflected

and tempo

This

in the con-

of attention.

On bursting

out of the cut, the observer's

Hill, whose

principal

and a water

tower)

landmarks

degree turn to the left (actually

68 nearer 60 degreesl.
himself

moving

Hill. whose
contrast
backward

Horn

view of an orientation

element

motion

while the trusses

----

al-

to the

and

the crest of the

the long

tion and, surmounting

it, picks up a new goal:

on the right. At
appears. just

down over the crest to the toll ba mer.

the observer

is brought

to a halt at minute

of

and intensified,
momentarily.

and the observer.

is ready for a climax.

Since the road now points down, directly

to-

ward Boston,

to

it would now be opportune

70 appears, smaller

when
bridge

than the first, an inexplicable

River is presumably

past. (The new bridge crosses the Little

Mystic

Channef.) This bridge block'S off the

city panorama,

and when the latter is reis already dulled by

the long wait.

almost

district.

sketch

view. however,

fore and after the second

strong

features:
distant

and the

as rapidly as they can, bebridge. noting

the skyline,
landmarks.

sense of the central

many

industrial
There is a

city and its rna ny

recognizable

House, the State House, the John Hancock

are still visible,

Within

motion,

and then

House tower appears

and engages

first to the right

River Bridge

in an arnusmq

a turning

features

objects

general form, nor is its relation

in any way clear.

Furtherwith

it can be seen to turn

with increas-

up to the very moment

The tempo

of sketches

off here. but certain

and retypical

appear, particu larly the church and

the approaching
At minute

mouth

of the bridge.

5X, the road begins a long rise, and,

with a sudden

break-through

the housetops

at minute

high world

at the level of

6. it rises up into a

of its own. Attention

slows notice-

the Hotel Madison.

Unfortu natelv. this view has no recognizable

over to the left.

that persists

the Custom

the Court House, the Old North

North Station,

then to the

more, since it is a long linear landmark

silhouette.

Building,
Church.

skyline

is at first far

giving that same sense of scouting.

a distinctive

the

of major goals, a small two-

church on the left is sighted

of anticipa-

objects

marks slacked

ea

pass overhead

to the right as before.

of entrance.
~'

at
of

climb. One reaches the crest with anticipa-

common

an industrial

reached

impression

enough,

vealed again, its impact

a peak, and the

to the right. and then swings

--

Logically

bridge, since the Mystic

similar.

distant

ing speed and tension

~~

7, and gives a strong

Here, however,

into line

to be visible

River Bridge is finally

minute

dips down. and swings

left. The Mystic

to the urban scene at the right. This

seems to check his imenvironment.

bridges. signs. and distant

sliding

along the back side of Fennos

moving

notations

passed by. The Custom

rocks and slopes make a pleasant

objects

it is interesting

in the road itself, Even the non-

passenger

It is still a compelling

over the rooftops

finds

of distant

the toll barrier is passed, a second

of

River Bridge, then the

are notably

Our

to see that there still was a regular return to

observers

towered

90-

the proportion

now rose significantly,

reveal the entire city, Unfortunately,

and gas tanks roll

there is no break of continuity.

the turn is

and the observer

noticed

reached

69 larger rhythm

through

the first bridge. There is an apparent

Although

rate of sketching
of cut

intense.

partly because

to the driver

chimneys.

(a hospital

is moving

Just as

view slides quickly

The road passes through

are seen in the framed

view while the observer

crossing'

eyes

and immediately

pick up the next major event. Powder

to the left. The

progression.

now continue

to

unless the

they fail for long periods to give a sense of

up to the end of the route. At this point. the

landmarks
sweep the far landscape

bridges, at

House tower, These basic themes

orientation

by the cut and the

to move swiftly
impression

Custom

the far land-

one

tion at the crest of the long rise has been

gives a sense of both

chimneys

by, then the Mystic

Like

This intensification

a nd forward

sage of an important
interest.

were proportionately

to pay his toll. Thus the moment

cut, a sharper turn, the

bridges closer together.

and the bridges

fre-

ridge, in fact, is an in-

of the earlier

deeper. narrower

and makes a

left turn. Visual speed is intensified

if it were too prolonged,

may be stupefying

pausing

repetition

of a road is motion.

highways

by a cut crossed by two overhead

tensified

on all sides, But since

purpose

landscape

stretched

of this second

of

1M there are in-

at the end of the bridge,

on the left, to

and sketches

crossing

panoramas

the primary

Fennos Hill. this new ridge is also traversed

a point where the road swings

to Fennos

at minute

the same time the toll barrier

to the

of an increasing

quency of comments

are not visu-

clear. and excitement

as the road plunges

Horn Hill is approached

the accompaniment

but

act only as minor irritants.

Once past this hump, the approach

teresting

Coming
Powder

since
rail

is not yet the boredom

the early stretch

The Bunker Hill Monument

observer.

in the line,

Changes of level can be quite exciting.

ally explained,

and

visual intensity

upon release. is a disappointment

invisible

most irritating

views. This little

river and ocean fully explaining

and so the hump is for him

irregularity

rail just at eye level, an annoy-

long rise is in the bridge itself. the visible

only by a bland

by a small mound and dip in the

67 passes over a road which

or a more

horizon. Confinement

1X This mound

be

appears again and again in the drawings.

alongside.

goal, But the confine-

ment of the dip is succeeded

way, He would

ance that now becomes

The Mystic
of

his release

and featureless

at minute

of a balustrade

mediate,

On rising to the

ribbon of road that may point it out

alignment

in a leisurely

there is a

visual interest,

vivid view of a previous

invisible,

the

with heightened

pass this barrier. The cut is turned

to the road and is therefore

landscape

driving

deprived

view of the city, a new landmark.

at the same real

able, that is, except for the usual annoyance

the objects

and doubt as to the

At first it is not clear how. or if, the road will

at an angle

about a

But like the mound at

of attention

moment

As the road approaches

is obscured

small

3M). The motion

dip (minute

pivoting

by the sample

traveling

slowly. and that he is able to enjoy the whole

motion

since it is combined

at this point.

proaching

for

in itself is not unpleasant,

falls off markedly.

While

speed, he feels that he is going much more

boredom

with a sweep to the right

on the road ahead. but the tempo

observation

is repeated

and unexplained

land-

Attention

panorama.

to distant

the sea, boats, the Boston

might guess that the leisure would change

This part of the

highway-driving,

the sketching

or

is most like the run

scape is still of weak quality,

trip, from minute

itself again.

for a way to cross the barrier. This

Between

of the road and in the basic sense of

speed diminishes.

reverses

proach to the Mystic

be of great value.
interest

industry,

This leisureliness

Horn Hill

Horn Hill once more on the

same movement

the route to the left, would

Soon the original

Powder

left. Thus there is a sense of scouting

it is so rich farther

view of the Custom

objects

Fennos

side, the road has re-

versed and now approaches

there is little to orient the

and he has to trust the road for di-

observer.

begins to scan right

it blocks off sweeping

Hill on the left-hand

In the beginning

ably, and the observer

and left and to pay more attention

to the water

The road now sweeps down. focusing attention ahead. On the left are docks. factories.
and a set of brightly painted chimney stacks.
which seem to move and grow in an interesting way. At the right is the Bunker Hill
Monument, now drawing abreast. so that the
road appears to pass a gate marked by pylons
on either side, Both of these objects were
drawn by almost everyone. The road seems
to gather speed, pointing at a tangle of
traffic lanes below. which convey the sense
of a big city, and produce a feeling of doubt,
or even concern,
At minute 9, the road enters an exaggerated
dip at Charlestown, an unforgettable experience of motion and space occasioned by the
intersection at City Square. The road plunges
steeply down, directly at a small building
which divides the roadway like the cut water
of a boat. then veers left to avoid this building and. at the very bottom, sweeps up and
over in an ascending reverse curve to the
right. The alignment of the road is strongly
reinforced by the little "divider" building,
and then by the lofty windowless wall of a
warehouse on the left, seen as the road
climbs out of the hole and is pressed back to
the right. Finally, as the road rolls over the
top. it again swings left and toward the city.
This is a strong motion experience. as well as
a sharp break in orientation continuity. It
caused a rapid increase in the tempo of observation, both verbal and graphic. The key
elements in the sequence are drawn repeatedly. More drawings are produced here
than at any other time on the trip. The motion
experience is strong enough to carry the observer through the break in orientation, and
the break itself intensifies the Boston approach, last seen as a general panorama and
now. after this momentary hiding, to be
entered directly. Coming up the crest. there is
a sense of disappointment as before. since
the horizon is empty and the expected view
of the Charles River does not materialize, But
the pace of movement carries the observer
beyond the turn. and as the road swings left.
he sees Boston for the second time. now
close at hand.
At minute 10. still scanning, he is swept
under the stub end of a roadway at a higher
level. oppressive but exciting. The sketches
are typically heavy and black, This ceiling
comes over him too fast. before he has been
able to adjust to his closeness to the city.
There is a sense of darkness. confusion. and
strain. Under the girders he sees the base of
the Custom House again, and suddenly he
slides sideways to the right and rushes toward the gap alongside the massive bulk of
the North Station. with the Custom House
much enlarged and directly on axis. and the
signs flying by overhead. This is a climactic
moment. Hardly one sketcher failed to
record it.
On bursting through this apparent wall
around the central city. the observer again
scans the landscape. The objects in view are
now all nearby objects; he has arrived. The
wide road sags away before him, bending
slightly left (like an echo of the hill crossings?) The city behind the wall opens out into
a rather formless bowl. whose edges are undistinguished, except for the presence of the
Custom House. now shifting right.

The observer's elation gradually ebbs away.

He is not at the city center-after all. but in
some fringe region, The tempo of attention
slows again. though not as drastically as before. since there are a number of interesting
objects and signs around him, While verbal
comment drops off. the rate of sketching is
maintained for some time. If the observer
knows Boston. he may regret his inability to
see any evidence of the market activity below
him. or to sense the presence of the nearby
ocea n. The bust I ing market area appears gray
and chaotic from the rooftop level, one of the
finest harbors on the Atlantic coast is two
blocks away but has disappeared without
a trace

==
------------ ----==
em

"

"

rc

Meanwhile. the observer is faced with two

off- ramp decisions in rapid succession the
first to Haymarket Square. the second to
Dock Square. The tempo of decision, so placid
before, has increased alarmingly. The acceleration of this tempo, although perhaps a
natural featu re of the center, has in this case
been extreme.
The Custom House now slips off to the right,
sinks behind lower buildings, and becomes
visible only fleetingly down the side streets.
This major goal. which has been apparent
from an early stage of the trip. is now neither
decisively reached nor visibly passed by. since
the surrounding buildings block off the view
as it comes alongside and falls behind This
failure adds to the disappointment of
the arrival.

Meanwhile, the road reaches the edge of the

open bowl. and pivots sharply to the right
around the end of an old mercantile buildinq. Attention is focused momentarily on its
brick and stone, and the marks of old stair
treads on its end wall. This pivot building not
only marks the turn but strengthens its sensation. much as one can swing quickly around
when one grasps and pivots on a corner post.
The building appears frequently in the
drawings.

AHEAO

RIGHT

The Trip in Review

Going back over the whole experience, it is
interesting to analyze, in a rough quantitative
way, the items mentioned in the rapid recording of verbal impressions, Roughly two-thirds
of the sightings were directed straight ahead.
and only one-third either to right or left, Even
in the latter case, almost all things seen were
obliquely right or left rather than perpendicular to the line of travel. Vision in motion is
apparently strongly focused, even for the
passenger
Two-thirds of the remarks had to do with
nearby and apparently moving objects. rather
than the potentially larger nu mber of distant
"stable" ones, Almost two-thirds of the impressions were caused by things in or adjacent to the right-of-way. As a resu It half of
all the comments had to do with things which
were in the right-of-way, were near and apparently moving, and were in the central
sector of vision. This limited portion of the
landscape was disproportionately important
as the source of visual material. How these
characteristics varied during the trip is
71 illustrated in Figure 71, which shows. in the
case of one observer, the timing of his comments and the relative distance and angle of
the things to which he refers.
If the total of recorded comments by the two
men who studied the road in detail is broken
down by subject matter. we can summarize
them in the following table:
Number of comments
Subject maner

168

the structure of the road system

detail and texture of the edge

The road now takes on, for a short time. a

new and pleasant motion, Running level. it
weaves gently from side to side. passing close
by the upper stories of the commercial buildings at the fringe of the office district. This
weaving motion. pleasurable in itself, directs
the attention now to this and now to that side
of the building wall, picking out various
features for attention. The closeness of these
structures, and the fact that they are already
familiar in a different context as seen from the
streets below, greatly adds to the interest of
the scene. For the moment. one seems to be
on tour. The spatial proportions are quite
pleasing.

traffic
pavement
128

94

The Sense of Space and Motion

without Other Specific Reference
The Meaning of the
Surrounding landscape:
aClivity and use
topography. natural features
structures at medium distance

81

The Sense of Orientation,

Location and Approach

61

Miscellaneous:

A new "divider" appears, a yellow cutwater.

with its sign directing the observer to his
exit. The path sweeps down to the right, past
a new parking garage which slowly rotates on
the left. The tempo qraduallv slows, and the
vehicle sinks down into the dark slotted
spaces of the central city. For the last lime.
the sketchers concur in recording these
key features.

Features of the Roadscape Itself:

signs

silhouette
light. weather, and sky
detail and texture not at the road edge
plants
people, etc.
532

Total Comments

Although this exit lacks the satisfaction of a

strong terminus to the journey, it has a commendable feature. While most expressway
exits are quite sudden and plunge quickly into
the confusion of the lower streets, the Fort
Hill exit descends straight ahead for some
distance, As he gradually enters the heart of
the city, the observer has time to adjust himself to the new scale. and to reorient himself.
A short, turning ramp often leaves the observer dizzy and adrift.

N~AR OBJ~CT

FAR OBJECT

n
0
u

""

"

c
71

Rhythm and Locus of Attention

,,

-~~--------------

36

The correspondence

of these data to the

general categories

discussed

may be remarked.

Beyond the concentration

on the details

of the roadscape

signs were particularly

mental

sensation,

throughout

in Chapter
(in which

important),

continuously

a very subjective
drawings

the

motion

the funda-

referred

to

the trip. was the visual sense of

surrounding

the apparent

objects.

motion

judgment,

Certain

as such

drawn

the bridge.

the dip at City Square. the

to

143!
SENSE OF BUILDING

lEFT

Even in these

of general orientation.

LAMPS

(58!

The majority

of major urban and natural features

subjects

with

and on reading the meaning

the surrounding
buildings.

landscape:

elements-the

roadscape

the impression

of space and motion,

sense of orientation.
landscape
highway

to be

highway

the basis of the

experience.

It is difficult
directly

to compare

parallel categories

all the objects drawn

all the sketches,

of notations
number

since

and compare

in

the frequency

in each class with the total

of notations.

we can construct

the

table to the right.

Almost

10-15%

objects overhead

importance

all the groups above the 5 per cent

5-10%

most sharply

distant landmarks

,
:= 8-

,,

,,
rtl

drawings

guardrails, and other edge detail

~~
~
2Jo1-5%

lampposts

hills

approximates
ever a majority

but with rather similar frequencies

sketch sequences,

appearance

ofthe

view of the road is especially

achieve the frequency

striking,

the sketches

of every observer

as is that of the buildings

or forced,

It does not reflect

noted in the table. it

of things passing overhead

objects

focused

to

appears each time in the great majority

at approximately

point. Thus it shows where

of

The impact

or other large

it is focusing

on.

since in some portions

many

and in others few drawings

the sketches

indicate

on the outside

of a curve. toward
by the pointing

or buildings

which

seem to "direct"

course of the road. dividers.

obstacles

which the

of the car.

visibly avoided

this highway,

CUSTOM HOUSE

the general

He was involved

problems

of cost. traffic

structure.

He can hardly be censured

that the isolated

whether

are typically

objects

is the importance

of objects

in axial view

as the road comes out of confinement:

the

sign. the Custom

works

BUILDlriG
WALL

BRIDGe STRUCTUR,

and delightful

Therefore

House tower,

attempt.

I.ISTOM

of

safety,

and

for

to expectation,

rather seldom
irregularly,

esthetic

in the drawings.

supposed"

its failures

HOSPITAL BUILO'NGS

17
Q

(44)

and very

FACTORY lEFT DF ROAD

felt that they "weren't

did appear, the view most frequently

JThIl

it

shown

HOSPITAL Ori

to block the view. There was sub-

stantial

traffic on the road. but it was not at

a peak. Sketches
have shown

lri

139)

was the rear end of a large truck which

tended

w'-'-'-'-"-'-"-'-"-BRIDGES'

and applaud-

noted it often.

to draw such things, Where

) j )

WALL

HILL

DiSTANCE

"
"
r

WALL

a:

ill

WATER TDWER ON HILL

SCURVE IN ROAD

more oars.

DEPTH EXAGGERATED

OVERHEAD SIGN

c
~

during the rush hour might

LAMPS

the Northeast

most not at all. Perhaps it was more difficult

to note. or the subjects

BRIDGE IN DISTAriCE

(53)

experience.

traffic appeared

Some observers

SIGN

I)

OVERHEAD SIGN_jl'~IP\

ing its successes,

Contrary

as if it were such a deliberate

analyzing

HOUSE

5~~1\
1~

.
DOUBLED BRIDGES

(49)

could be

to make drivinq

we have discussed

Expressway

ROAD CURVES LEFT

of art, that the material

is at hand with which

coherent

amoce

aim, But it is the

conscious

striking feature

the Seagram's

was never his conscious

vertical

Another

[(m.""",,,

a work of art, if this

thesis of this paper that highways

seen in silhouette.

water tower,

capacity,

lamps. chimobjects

LOZENGE SHAPED ROAD SIGN

with the

by the alignment.

It is also remarkable
neys. or towers.

by the designer

pivots. or

which are recorded.

DISTRIBUTED]

C<M"

CITY HALL TOWER

most of these impressions

failure to produce

IG,NERALlY

were never considered

the

TW'NTOWERED CHURCH LEFT

of drawing.

Undoubtedly.

CUSTOM HOUSE

147)

These last are most often either buildings

eye is directed

INSIDE BRIDGE

GUARD RAil

~.

are

TOLL GATES AND LAMPS

f\_"_"_ce_,

'";~.~_

(38!

the tempo of drawing.

are being made but of diverse

alongside

----

aD

is

however,

tempo

~x
I

the

made but of all the same things. The symbols

which occur right at the roadside

-[fif,',
, 11'
?
v--, ,A

the same

sketches
objects.

is also notable,

111

III BUNKER HILL MONUMENT

If-I IAjl

(57!

view

making

attention

and what

But

style which
were

DIPS AHEAD

APPROACHING SECOND BRIDGE

TOWER

the most usual detail) when-

same drawing
TWIN TOWERED CHURCH

perspective

;"'M""~
CUSTOM HOUSE

saw. that is. it repro-

of observers

ROAD DIVIDES AriD

A~

BOSTON SKYlIN,

(46)

of a sense

in the skilled

duces a sketch (in a simplified

line appear not only with that average

The repeated

They differ

of a composite

BUILDING AND FLYINGA SIGN

~Jlt---~--~

the connections

of what the sketchers

frequency,

in most of the individual

and the

and very weak in the others.

73 Figure 73 is something

traffic

2~

is strong

It;

(~(

note somewhat

of orientation,

LAMPS AND SIGNS NEAR CREST

d~~DIVIDER

while the un-

in the conveyance

to indicate graphically
between things.

signs

1//-,

ON LEFT

Otherwise

movement

CONFINEMENT UNDER STUB

CREST, BRIDGE UP IN OISTANCE

WAREHOUSE ~.

most likely this is simply due to an inability

skylines

WATER TOWER IN D1STAriCE

BRIDGE OVERHEAD IN CUT

140)

DISTANT OBJECT

ill

"
ill

<

W::-;:RI.ICK

J."1

"
~

to

(49)

EMBANKM"H

73
72 Skilled

LEFT

Unskilled

Observers

Camera

Eye

Composite
of Northeast

FRDM REAR IGEriERALLY DISTRIBUTEDI

OVERH,AD

SIGN

ROAD CURVES AHeAD

. 1

RAMP UP AND

LOZENGe-SHAPED SIGN

"'1\---

------

;0 "".,

is

and so were signs, Traffic

drawings

of space. which

sense of confinement at the side

_______~ 1

(471

the

were drawn some-

of silhouette,

sophisticated

",Me os

DARKNESS AriD
)~

to that of the other group

the sense of dynamic

CUSTOM HOUSE TO RIGHT

'~~~~{I
\l'"

""

are much the same. Both convey

fewer elements

"

more often.

the groups

large objects at the edge of the road

.;;;iii
ti b
o _
:0'15

similar

PIVOT BUILOING Ori RIGHT

But a quantitative

at the roadside

shape of the road ahead

are not easy to construct.

But if we classify

f-i:i
::l ti

~:5o

the sketches

with the verbal comments.

20-25%

cruder

to connect

and hills were rarely recorded,

Our studies of other

are generally

what

Class of objects drawn

of this particular

experience.

noted down,

Buildings

G,O';oM "CO,"",

skilled,

of the classes of things shown

surprisingly

of the

roads lead us to guess that these same

four elements

analysis

the

being traversed-appeared

a lack of ability

elements

proper in detail,

and the meaning

the basic components

showing

These four

( I

RAMP RIGHT AND SIGN

this might

were obviously

72 than those done by the graphically

its activities.

and natural features,

(r

skill. and we were

to see what difference

make. Their sketches

of

were com-

but six of the twenty

had no graphic

interested

respect to self. and the noting of distant

landmarks).

of the sketchers

petent draftsmen.

;11 ~ 11

space being moved through.

Attention otherwise centers on orientation

[includinq the sense of approach, the location

'Ir'
1M t

CANYON SPACE, RAMP DOWN

~.~

are

the approach

there is also a strong sense

of spatial character.
and of silhouette.

and the shape of the

of

sequences

commonly

crude drawings,

of

most of the

convey a very strong feeling

and sequence.

entry past North Station.

motion and space, including the sense of

one's own motion.

As far as we can judge, and this is necessarily

Sketch

Sequence

Expressway

"

ml-

~
~
~

,i

"

~~"",CENTER

AND LANDMARK

39

4. MethodsofDesign

The road shoots through

suddenly

emerges

a sl.nrt tunnel

in a park, which recalls

the rural land of the approach.

><

If we look at highways as works of art

rising again, the approach

experienced

up by a sweeping

by the driver, what effects of

space or sequence

might be achieved?

As a first illustration.
an imaginary

to an imaginary

and orientation

rhythm

horizontal

is picked

turn. bringing

more. He begins to rise out of this riverside

city,

74 This is shown in Figure 74, which illustrates

how a simplified analysis of both spacemotion

Instead of

the driver into touch with the river once

we have constructed

approach

and

can be shown in one

drawing.

park, passing
symbolizes

another landmark

an approaching

which

has been foreseen,

central

area from hilly farmland

and falling by making a succession

urban subcenter.
center

and will pass by an

approaching

along the general

the main

line of the river.

How might such an approach

be organized?

~
RIVER

A basic rhythm

is established

rises and falls over the rolling

In a dip, the highway
landmark
which

(building,

symbolizes

the city and announces

view. The pavement

of the curve. and the view is directed

boundary

of the main

the ridge in a deep cut. a strong

spatial confinement,
framed

OmrUmH1J1I

On the downgrade.

in the walls of the cut. the driver

enjoys a sustained
center to which

axial view of the city

he is going. marked by some

tall buildings.He

sees a great bridge in the

middle distance,

which foretells

course. and he senses the entire

his future
city

gradient

continues

view disappears,
momentarily

right-hand

S
SUB-CENTER

I.

to rise.

re-enters

The driver makes

side, and then enters an outlying

the highway

to rise and fall. just as it did

directly

of

the road, and above the trees floats a

truncated view of a tall central
very close
A last landmark

announces

building.

now

the final view.

drops down through

an intensely

active

urban space. to plunge into an underground

terminus

at the foot of the central buildinq.

Leaving his vehicle. the driver may walk out

to the riverbank.
intensive

where the water skirts the

inner core of the centra I district.

of the tall building

the city center from

This is a simplified

situation,

unusual one. Any real design must fit a

detai led pattern

while

ment. and must serve particular

builds up. When his vehicle

rises once more, the driver finds the sub.

of circulation.

center

illustrate

immediately

into it in a sweeping
urban space where
initial

before him. He descends

turn. entering
activity

peak of visual interest.

an

reaches an

of topography

of as a sequential

experience.

and designing

and that our

means of ex-

that experience.

Using them, we were able to consider

organize

the structure

will

can be thought

are a convenient

pressing

demands

But perhaps the example

that a highway

diagrams

and develop-

and

of the moving

while leaving open the questions

view.

of detailed

form and character,

The design illustrates

ties: sustained

RIVER

interwoven

~
AURAL

to a final goal

with approaches

transmuted
elevation

a few simple possibili-

progression

goals: establishment

to preliminary

of a basic rhythm.

but not broken,

the use of

to give distant views. and of

curves to give sidewise

views:

the contrast

of rural and urban development,

or of

open and closed space; the regular repetition

of such features
announcing
entering

as contact

with a river,

a view by a prior symbol. or

a nodal point via a descending

the gradient

of activity

which

of hesitation

the culmination,
and development

turn,

leads up to

each climax, but which is interrupted

moment

or suspense

These techniques
serve to underline

by a

before
of contrast
the act

of approach.

IlmU1I1II EDGeS

..."""
~

1\

~AR~
IMAGE BLACKOUT

rr-

This example

is no more than an illustration

CONFINEMENT

of method,

NODE

many possibilities
texture

L/l,NDMARK
GOAL ARRIVAL

74 City Approach - Hypothetical

Design

Boston,

at one point, and which will receive

area. Although

draining

the

part of this

inner ring has now been constructed,

location

the

of other parts is controversial.

There is one published

however,

route for this artery,

which has been the route used as

It lacks real content

and neglects

of light and form, of

and detail. The outward

been considered.

We have accepted
the general

the basic concept

pattern

and function

but have relocated

it as if no investment

struction.

The criterion

and

of the
and
had yet

governing

or con-

this imagi-

nary design has been the visual, esthetic

experience

of those driving

only constraint

imposed

reasonableness

on the road. The

was that of general

as to cost and traffic function.

was made to find the cheapest

the most efficient

or

layout. above this level of

general reasonableness.
a theoretical

tion. not advanced

as something

the present official

proposal.

illustrate

than

but used to

how roads might be shaped if visual

form were the dominant

criterion,

vious that in actual practice

would

construc-

better

be of equal or greater

It is ob-

other criteria
importance.

in this early stage of development

But

we can

clarify our ideas best by emphasizing

esthetic factor.

the

The Master Highway Plan for the Boston Metropalitan

Area, Charles A, Maguire and Assocs" Boston. 1948.

but not an

sinks; he loses sight of all but local detail,

activity

central

to the central business

The design is therefore

At the next rise, the driver sees the bridge

appears close at hand, The road

road of expressway

which will encircle

No attempt

the center itself. The highway

close under the shadow

while the

proposed

been made in plans, land acquisition.

the

with the intense activity

which has symbolized

the beginning,

again in the middle distance.

design. but this time it will

This artery is an inner-ring

redesigned

along

the river itself. The space is confined.

park contrasts

in the rural area. but now it rises on artificial

structures

let us turn

We proceed to make

is based on Boston's

Central Artery,

the park. running

elevated

subcenter

,.

the

with the river. on his

urban region. From this point

continues

the activity

great curve which crosses the river and

The road drops to the valley bottom:

situation,

a basis for our analysis.'

At the second curve to the left, the road

embraces

contact

When

The road breaks out of the park. rising in a

before him,

distant

regularly

views are of the river

and its green banks. Meanwhile,

a

and to explore

and problems,

right. the view is of city development,

while the leftward

river system. The road rises high, yet penetrates

turns. At each turn,

rises to ascend the next

ridge, the topographic

BRIDGE

confine the space on the inside

looking

sign)

to an existing

metropolitan

horizontal

reverses from one side to another.

illustration.

specific methods

the major radial expressways

of

Thus the spatial opening

ex-

nor the

of a real case To present

a more concrete

district

structures

as the road

passes a solitary

the

of rising

rural hinterland.

pylon. gateway,

visual interest

coming tangentially

sweeping

outwards,

~
~
~

rhythm

ample. has neither the problems

standard

core is in view again. Descending

valley bottom,

Boston

as a purely hypothetical

Central Artery.

and crosses the

A radial highway is directed toward the

center of a large city located on the banks
of a river. The road will enter the metropolitan

road recalls the original

Artery.

be one which

river, From the crest of the bridge, the

to the flat urbanized

Central

another imaginary

view,

The road goes up onto the great bridge

which

The

The foregoing,

trip has not

-~~------------The Boston Image

Our first step was to put down the basic
organization ofthe central city, as it can be
grasped through land-use maps, topographic
maps, area photographs, and general experience. This pattern of organization was
75 charted on a map (Figure 75).
The original settlement of Boston was on a
peninsula at the mouths of the Charles and
Mystic Rivers. which form a good harbor as
they run into a combined estuary. The peninsula was made up of several hills. fringed
by tidal flats and connected by a narrow neck
with the mainland, In time. the hills were
leveled, the tidelands reclaimed. and the neck
greatly enlarged. The harbor now reaches up
the Mystic River, while the Charles River has
been dammed to make an ornamental basin.
The downtown area has expanded and developed into several districts of diverse
activity. Shopping has grown down Washington and Tremont Streets. pivoting around the
Common and up Boylston to Coplev Square,
the higher-quality shopping center, The
financial district still centers on State Street
and Post Office Square. while a new business
center is growing up around Copley Square
To the State House and Court House on
Beacon Hill will be added new city. state. and
federal buildings to form a government center
running from Beacon Hill down to Dock
Square. Cultural activities have become
focused in the Huntington Avenue and Copley
Square areas. A new cluster of office buildings is planned on the railroad yards just west
of Copley Square,
The old street system radiates out from the
original hub. the majority of the radials fan
out along the old neck. while a few cross the
Charles and the inner harbor on bridges and
in tunnels, The railroad lines converge on two
termini at the north and south. the southern
lines slashing across the neck in an awkward
diagonal line. Just to the north. across the
inner harbor. lies Logan International Airport.
On this pattern of circulation is now being
imposed still another element, the new
expressway system.
How well is this organization perceived by the
inhabitants of the city? From the air the form
of a city might express its function in a relatively clear way, but on the ground, where it
is seen and experienced by the people who
use it. the city may make a very confused
image in their minds. The nature of this image
was deduced from the results of interviews
made in connection with another project *
Reported in The Image of the City. op. cit.

A selected group of Boston residents were

asked to indicate their knowledge of the layout of the central peninsula. and from these
interviews a composite map of the commonly
remembered parts of the city was made
76 (Figure 76)',These surveys were conducted
on a limited scale. using a small group of
people and covering only the central part of
our area. But the results have been confirmed
in other ways, The charting of such a map
provides very useful information. for one
primary aim of this highway design is to repair and reinforce this city image and to
orient the driver to it Among the weaknesses
of this image, the following stand out as the
most significant
1. The location of water in the city is confusing, The Charles River is lost soon after it has
flowed past the Longfellow Bridge. because
it is interrupted by the Charles River Dam and
various road and railroad crossings. The
water surface is sliced up into so many
fragments that it disappears as a continuous
visual form. The Fort Hill Channel on the
South Bay suffers from a similar disruption.
The unknown origin of the Mystic River in the
industrial flatlands behind Charlestown is also
puzzling. and even the harbor itself is so cut
off from the main traffic streams that its
shape and presence is perpetually elusive
Boston is a port. and yet many people never
see the sea. even though it is within a short
distance of the downtown area,
2. The hub or radial pattern of downtown
Boston. with its irregularly converging routes.
is another source of disorientation, There is
no clear compass direction. so that people
use other more local elements in finding their
way, These characteristics will be troublesome for a ring road.
3. Several parts of the central city are invisible
from the official expressway route Scollay
Square. Tremont and Washington Streets.
the Boston Common. Boylston Street. These
four lack integral landmarks which are visible
from the "outside."
4. The bend in the axis of the central district at
the Common presents its own orientation
difficulty, The loosely clustered cultural
center of Huntington Avenue and the Fenway
lacks landmarks or clear connections to the
rest of the city.
5. Inner-ring "grayness" is a characteristic of
almost every American city. The central core
is recognizable, familiar. and often dramatic.
but the surroundings are featureless and un.
known, Thus. although the low hills of Roxbury. Somerville. East and South Boston
surround the central peninsula. they are not
very tall. and their landmarks-local churches
and town halls-are seldom seen from the
building-enclosed streets. Skyline views are
infrequent in Boston. with the exception of
those seen from the Charles River Basin.

"

The strength of an image in the minds of city

dwellers depends on three things: its visual
impact, its functional or symbolic meaning.
and whether anyone is there to see it, A
dramatic but relatively meaningless advertising sign may be impressive. or a relatively
small but significant church spire may be
remembered, But both have to be within the
visual reach of a sufficient number of people.
The dock area in Boston, for instance. is both
visually exciting and symbolically important,
yet it is blocked off from the main viewing
points. remaining blank on the image map.

KEY
RETAil

SHOPPING

INSTITUTIONAL
PARKS

SOMERVILLE

INDUSTRIAL

ORIGINAL SHORE liNE

Of aOSTON

HARVARD
CAMBRIDGE

Some of the visual potentialities of Boston

can also be listed:

EAST BOSTON

1. From the air and on a plan. the layout of the

central peninsula, surrounded by water, and
even the radial street layout seem very clear.
This order may at present be very difficult to
decipher on the ground, but at the scale of an
expressway this could be resolved.
2. The presence of large open spaces around the
central peninsula-the
Charles River. the
harbor. and even the large tracts of the railroad yards outside North and South Stations-maintains
a sense of free space
around the center where one can stand back
and look at the city.
3. The surrounding hills indicate specific locales.
with their town halls as in Somerville, or
churches as in Charlestown. South Boston.
and Mission Hill. These landmarks, which
greatly increase the apparent height of the
hills. could be much better appreciated if the
road were built high enough to look over
the rooftops,
4. The downtown districts are varied and have
distinctive landmarks: the Government
Center with the State House and the Court
House. the financial district with its high
buildings: the new office center which is to
contain a fifty-story tower over half again as
high as the already overpowering John
Hancock Building. Each of these clusters of
landmarks is quite different in character.
possibly excepting the confusion between the
Court House and other office buildings. Although very much out of scale with Boston
as it stands today. the proposed new office
center (the Prudential Insurance Company
development) will nevertheless provide. together with the John Hancock Building as the
other pole. a clear axis down the peninsula.
which will tell travelers how they are oriented
to downtown. The square plan of the proposed tower, however, may cause some confusion when the building is seen alone, since
every side will appear the same .

RoxaURV

-------

,
75 Map of Structure

--

r::::::;)
MISSIONiR"":::::=c~

OORCHESHR BAV

of Boston

76 Existing Image of Boston

...::
'"

$/

,,

MVSTlC ROVERaRIOGE

' .. ;.

....

-." ;:-.-. .. -.

,' ...

".',

./"

CHARLESTOWN

,." ....

...

'

EAST
BOSTON

BROOKLINE

6. Almost the whole south side of the peninsula

fades away in the image. for this is an area
of transition, of extensive railroad yards, of
old and new industry-a region of formlessness. scattered objects, and ragged enclosure. From ground level there seems to be
no order beyond that of the downtown landmarks in the distance. and the glimpse of the
hill of South Boston by the sea Only from the
air or from high up off the ground can the
lines and directions of the railroad tracks be
understood. The lack of visual connection between the north and south side of the peninsula constitutes a further problem.

KEY
_

_WEAK

STRONG IMAGE
IMAGE

.to
I::.

*"
'''1111

MAJOR LANDMARKS

1/1/1/1

CENTRAL

MINOR LANDMARKS

:'W;';!

BUILT UP

NODES

OPEN SPACE

EDGES
STRHTS

'"'"

R R. YARDS

OCUSTOM

HOUSE

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NORTH STATION

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HOUSE

MANGER

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OF PUBLIC WORKS

/' dQ O$'

43//

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CUSTOM HOUSE
TOWER

COURT

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FENWAY
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STADIUM

rJ;i

KENMORE

SOUARE

MISSION
Hill
CHURCH

fENWAY

COURT HOUSE

CUSTOM HOUSE
TOWEA
~

Design Procedure
Detailed explorations were made along the
general alignment of the officially proposed
route, to study the character of the districts
passed through, the possible landmarks,
nodes, vistas, etc. Excursions were made off
the route to gain an idea of possible alternative locations. Important views of the city
were also studied. Skyline relationships between different landmarks were noted from
77 different positions and different heights.'
The coincidence and overlapping of landmarks give certain viewpoints a more concentrated importance than others, Thus the
view from the Cottage Farm Bridge. which
takes in the towers of the financial district.
the State House on Beacon Hill, and the
Charles River in front of all, sums up a great
part of central Boston in one glance. This
view would be seized upon as a basic
reference point.

/~/

WOAKS

".~

CUSTOM HOUSE
TOWER

4
77 Example of Reconnaissance Sketch

COURT
HOUSE

The form of the city has to be seen from

different viewpoints. from different heights.
and even from different speeds, so that the
range of possibilities can be grasped before
choices are made. The designer must place
himself in the position of a motorist traveling
along a road that isn't there. He imagines
buildings cleared away and new buildings
where none now exist. He pictures the future
form of the road in front of him, placing himself high up in the air. A helicopter would
be of great use. while some sort of mobile
extension ladder might also be helpful. This
particular survey was carried out by climbing buildings of different heights.

HUNTINGTON
AvENUE

Our design. while the product of extensive

personal surveys, must be considered a
limited first attempt The drawings which
illustrate it begin with the location of the
79.81 proposed road on a map of Boston, plus an
80 aerial perspective and a section through the
road, followed by progressively subjective
drawings interpreting different aspects of the
road experience.
The plan, section, and perspective show the
proposed road's physical relationship to the
city, the section illustrating vertical alignment
78 in relation to structures both inside and outside the ring, The reasons for certain basic
decisions must first be given.
Diagrammatic sketches were often found to be more
useful than photographs 01 skylines, since the camera
reduces distant objects out of all proportion to their
apparent visual dimensions

SYMPHONY HMl
PRUDENTIAL

I,

JOHN

HANCOCK

I
I
I

I
I
I

11
/
I

I
COLUMBUS
POINT TOWERS

The static view is also very different from

the moving one. and sometimes a study from
a moving vehicle is more useful. even if not
in the precise projected location. Other techniques can be used in addition to direct field
reconnaissance: a visual recording of alternative routes taken through a carefully made
scale model, the layout of routes on oblique
aerial or ground photos taken from different
angles. or the study of possibilities by means
of the notation developed in Chapter 2.
Present expressway designers who are not
accustomed to using these or equivalent
methods must have very little idea of the
visual experience they are creating, or of the
possibilities that they have within their power
They are working blind, and one imagines the
surprise with which new vistas open up to
them as they travel along their new roads,

I
I

SOUTH
BOSTON

"

'.

I
I
I

I
I
I

~'J:


, l
, "

"

EDISON
CHIMNEYS

BOSTON
HARBOR

.c-

II
BUNKER Hill
MONUMENT

CITY
INCINERATOR

;:

I
I

I
I

--.

I
I

I'

79 Location of Proposed Inner Belt

CUSTOM HOUSE
TOWER

"FANEUll
HAll
BOSTON
CITY HALL

t, MARKET

I
I

ej

=l

I
I
I

."

I
I
I
I

l1

KRESGE
AUD'TORIUM

M.lT
DORMITORIES

2--...

~~

-"''''"-'''"
~'':a.

78 Road Sections Looking Inward and Outward

"

B
H

81

Comparison

of Proposed

The Size and Eccentricity

The first noticeable
proposal
81 location

portion,

scheme is that our

residential

road further
summits

ring.

are either to take the

out onto the slopes and along the

surrounding

hills or to

bring it closer in,

Unfortunately,

the structure

of Boston would

from those hills as

The confused

the dense foreground

path structure,

development,

lack of any really high viewing

ent points and would be very troubling

ing these radials together
directions

and the

points result

on the eastern side contacts

82 The ring road now becomes

section at each apex. It would

In

clustering
would

in taking the road exclose contact is

Unfortunately,

ways comprehensible,

require that a certain distance

therefore

been tightened,

the official

Eye Perspective

be held

with

line, just enough to allow each

proper viewing

has been maintained,

experience

allowing

ring would be monotonous.

of unvarying

joins and leaves

point.) The

decision

making:

instead of

choose one out of three. The problem

of the

is to reduce the number

rather than to avoid boredom,

as on many rural roads

For anyone crossing

the center city. it would

be necessary to

negotiate

only one leg of the triangle.

leg would

have its own recognizable

we shall call the Riverway:

sweeps

Each
char-

Cambridge

the one which

around the city center, the Center-

way; and the third leg, which returns across

an

impact. and lacking

in the sense of arrival at a goal.'

Oil is true that if the ring were enlarged on the east
if the road leaped Over the harbor entrance On a great
bridge, a magnificent panorama of the city from aCrOSS
the water would be opened up, In this case, we are
restrained by the excessive cost. and Questionable
function. of such a iocation,

of

that have to be made at high speed

acter: the section passing through

the eastern part to run close to the center,

An equidistant

west

one out of six exits, the driver would

in heavy traffic,

of the center city, AI the same time,

eccentricity

of the

of radials into three groups of two

simplify

choosing

decisions

The ring has

part of the road to be within

80 Bird's

speeds

in comparison

traveling

urban expressway

road and city if the sense of that

city is to be communicated.

distance

it is not al-

expressway

now be pos-

point, and so on. (In the official

the belt at the northernmost

clearer than an over-all view,

close to the center:

rather
inter-

radials: those going north leave from the

told sequence may be

There are advantages

a triangle

sible to grasp the general direction

northernmost

between

the

the sea. with off-

than a circle, with a large three-way

plan, Route

at the speed of the motorcar.

always exciting.

at three key points

north, south, and west. The bulge

in oblique views of the city which are inde-

tremely

to

on the ring road, the points representing

cipherable

this case, a carefully

problem

The radials under the ot-

ramps at Sumner Tunnel to cross the harbor.

not be so comprehensible
it might appear

in orientation,

hold in mind, This is solved here by gather-

areas and is consequently

of Boston's

of the Road System

A circular road presents a difficult

ficial scheme enter the belt at many differ-

since it travels low

The alternatives

Route

Orientation
this

route suffers grave disadvantages

in its western
through

Official

Ring

between

encloses the city in a tighter

The official

"lost."

ofthe

difference

and the official

Route with

the old peninsula,

the Crossing.

."
b

McGUIRE

SUGGESTEO ROUTE

ROUTE

46

~
GOVERNMENT'"

",,'"
r"

It"r))
*
MARkET

N-

fIN,,-,"CIAl ...
DISTRICT ."".

KENMORE SOUAR~

NIGHT LIFE

~KN
t-:RUDENTIAL
BAS.SAlL

HANCOCK
CENTER

STADIUM

82 Structure

of Trip

The Fixing of the Main Intersections

The location of the intersections becomes
very important in this type of scheme. The
river-crossing at the Cottage Farm Bridge has
been chosen as the western apex of the triangle, There is already a definite break here
in the continuity of the river. If a new bridge
were built elsewhere. the Charles River would
be so broken up into small stretches

afwater

that its breadth and continuity would be lost.

Moreover. from the Cottage Farm Bridge the
river widens into the Basin. to provide one
of the finest long views of the city skyline.
The north and south intersections are located
in the railroad yards outside North and South
Stations, open areas where there is space for
the construction of large intersections commanding good views. The harbor is the climax
of the Centerway and might be considered as
a symbolic eastern intersection, were there
roads that went out to sea,

Orientation
to the City
The new ring road is related to the city in
several ways, so that an incoming traveler will
recognize and comprehend what he is approaching, The city core stretches northeastsouthwest from the old harbor on the Centerway to the midpoint of the Crossing, at
Symphony Hall. There is a bend in this linear
core, as noted above, but the Prudential-John
Hancock section parallels the Riverway. So
there are two poles about which the route
runs. the older and the newer centers. The
driver is always approaching some sort of
goal. for no sooner has he passed through the
downtown area at the eastern end than he is
moving out and along towards the PrudentialJohn Hancock pole at the western end. The
approximate nature of these directions is perfectly adequate, since a motorist cannot
gauge exact angles,
The Riverway and the Centerway emphasize
the form of the peninsula, the Crossing confines it at its neck, This effect would be
strengthened if the "buried" southern edge
of the peninsula were more sharply demarcated by means of open land or the control of
building bulk.
Two of the large intersections have been
located in the railroad yards, where there will
be no disruption of the street and block system. The third intersection is also freed from
the street pattern by being placed over the
river, Wherever possible, the legs run with the
"grain" of the local structure.
The detailed bearings of the road have been
chosen to direct the traveler's eye to certain
aspects of the central area. For example, it is
arranged so that he can separate and identify
different groups of landmarks, since he sees
each one separately at a certain point on his
trip. In this way, a more analytical approach
is made to the city, while the relation between parts is maintained by general views
and overlapping shots. Greatest reliance must
be put on relatively stable features: major
activity concentrations, growth directions,
basic circulation, topographic form, or key
historic symbols.

At the same time, views are directed to the

more important landmarks outside the central
area, so that the motorist can locate himself
with regard to the exterior, which will be a
help when searching for the desired radial to
get out of the city. Thus, the Harvard University towers, Somerville's City Hall. the
Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, the
airport and the harbor, the hill of South
Boston, and the Mission Hill Church in
Roxbury are built up as important external
landmarks.
The characteristics of each leg of the road
should be considered separately, since much
traffic will probably use only one of the legs at
a time, Each stretch of the road has also been
designed twice. a sequence for the travelers
movinq in each direction, although these
experiences have been related.'
"The lanes have been split at certain points, but only
in the vertical dimension. Splitting horizontally was
considered. but the restricted nature of the areas being
passed through, with their relatively small scale. seemed
to suggest that this would only cause more confusion,

Space-Motion
and View Diagrams
83,84 Figures 83 and 84 are diagrams of the sense
of motion and space produced by the road, as
it would be experienced when travelling in
the two opposing directions, From these
diagra ms the different aspects of the three
legs can be seen the Riverway with its kink,
the Centerway with its bulqe. and the Crossing
with its close confinement This space-motion
combination tends to direct the eye, and
when the intended views are linked up to the
objects seen, a more complete idea of the
experience is given. Views are seldom seen at
specific points, but can be seen over a certain stretch of road. At what part of the
stretch the object will be seen cannot necessarily be predicted. For this reason a series of
sight lines issues from the road along the
stretch within which a particular object will
probably be seen. Furthermore, when the
view to be seen is a panoramic one-the
harbor, for example, rather than a specific
landmark-the
view lines radiate over the
whole area.
83.84 The two diagrams of clockwise and counterclockwise movement emphasize the separateness of the two experiences, The same
objects may be seen but will be seen from
other directions, and therefore they will look
different and relate differently to other
landmarks. The two main groups of landmarks-on
the one hand, the towers of the
financial district and of the Government
Center (which also mark the Washington
Street shopping areal. and on the other,
the Prudential-John Hancock towers which
mark Copley Square and the Boylston Street
shopping-are
drawn in distinctive colors,
If this route is followed with the sketches
and commentary, the pattern of experience
should become clear. This drawing in particular explains the alternate focusing on
"inside" and "outside," the separation and
refating of these main clusters of landmarks,
and most of all the relationship between
space, motion, and view.

......

----------------,
The Riverway
The Riverway

has been consciously

the Charles River. At the West

6
66

6
6

,6

about 80 feet in the air over the existing

ment of the Roxbury

Cottage Farm Bridge. and comes out of the

intersection behind M.LT. at rooftop level.
This first part lies parallel to the river. allowing
general views of Cambridge, the John Hancock Building, and the Prudential Center
Passing around M.I.T., it then goes briefly into

of the Prudential

the confinement

of Ihe East Cambridge

trial area before turning down the old canal

the State House. the Court

House. the Government

longfellow

8 ridge. one of the historic

entries

travels right

MTA bridge, past the Museum

of Science and

the Charles River Dam, restoring

to the river by linking
water.
The North

up the views of the

is situated

The road turns around in front of

Charlestown.

with views of the Bunker Hill

Monument,

the Mystic

River Bridge, and the

harbor in that order. and on the inside with

a rotating

view of downtown.

The road turns

slowly to the right. into line with the financial

district.
Following

this same leg in the opposite

tion, the traveler

Intersection,

direc-

starts high at the North

with

views out to Somerville

and

East Cambridge

across the railroad yards.

The first straight

stretch

down to and along

the river gives Prudential

and John Hancock

a good exposure,

with back glances at down-

town and the State House, before the road

sinks to water

level near the Longfellow

83 Space-Motion and View Diagram, Clockwise Travel

Bridge, The bridge

84 Space-MotionandViewD;ag"m~w;

before the road curves up through

is seen in profile this time,

an indus-

trial area to give a second view of Cambridge:

the City Hall. Central
of Harvard

Square, and the towers

University.

The stretch

M.I T. is without

strong

incident.

except for

the local interest

ofthe

Institute

buildings.

This section

simply

follows

tance of a few hundred

for panoramic

the river at a dis-

yards and allows time

views of Cambridge

of the Crossing.

alongside

It is not necessary

and parts
to follow

along the very banks to maintain

a feeling

contact

relation-

with

a river. The different

of

ships that the road has with the river along

this leg will tell much more about the nature
of the river than would
parallels it

a road that merely

Intersection

principally

viewing

of important

that of the State

landmarks,

House, which

acts as the climax for the eastward-moving

traveler.

The whole

downtown,

as the outer lane is raised above

center section

and hold together

the river at

swooping

the Post Office Building

slightly

the river-edge
towards

and descending

to

below ground level. It passes the

Government

Center and City Hall very closely

Dock Square

city, and passing through

theater,

itself in the

a public amphi-

Then it swerves

left. up and out over

the harbor, gaining a view out to the sea and

the airport
toward

before turning

the towers

around and back

of the financial

At this point the road would

down the Prudential-John
descended

district.

Hancock axis, as it

into the tunnel. The tunnel would

serve as the second downtown

climax point

(the food market being the ti-stl, and some

underworld

environment

city's night life would

"roots"

track. the

of buildings,

of great conduits,

It

to expose some of the

of a city: the subway

masonry

with the

light up the tunnel.

might also be possible

"insides"

connected

or the system

Out in the open air again,

the road rises to the third-story

level, moving

freely in the open space ot the railroad yards,

winding

in relation

in relation

to the tracks just as it did

to the river, and then turning

towards

the sea and Dorchester

entering

the big South Intersection,

The approach

to downtown

begins as a long, winding

Bay before

from the south

passage through

Center coming

Building

closer on the

left. South Boston on the right. and ahead

the shapeless mass of towers
financial

district.

which is the

The State House may be

seen at one point if the road is high enough,

This would be an important
the connection
peninsula.

between

view to increase

the two sides of the

The tunnel and the curve out to the

harbor is similar

to the southbound

experi-

into the market

it picks up views of Bunker Hill and

the Mystic

River Bridge.

and curves.

serves to contrast

the two outer stretches.

The Centerway
downtown

approaches

by the two

market and underworld

relief The

but the type of movement

similar enough forthem

symmetrical.

as central

differ, one being open and the

other confined,

is

to be considered

The scale of this leg is much

larger than the other two, with its views of

harbor. ocean, airport, shipping.

the Mystic

River Bridge, and South Boston industry,

as

well as the central focus of the downtown

section

itself. All of these give it a heightened

quality

not found on the other legs. It lies

more or less parallel to the sea, as its

end views of harbor and Dorchester
emphasize.

Avenue

the Prudential-John

Bay

both

to

Avenue

and

lies the main off-ramp

Hancock

for

center, and

after this the road curves left with the

changed direction

of the street pattern

enters the Fenway, curvinq

and

right and left.

low among the trees, The curves here, besides echoing the natural forms, allow the
user to take in views up and down the Fenway
for reference,
indicates

Going north, the dome of M.I.T.

that the river is near again. and

curve between

versity stadium
and Kenmore

Square with

Commonwealth
rise towards
Intersection
Traveling

the Boston Uni-

with its high electric

Avenue

lamps

its advertising

signs, the road runs parallel

to the river and

and soon begins to

the high and narrow West

to the south while coming down

from the West Intersection,

one gets a pan-

oramic view of the area to be traversed.

clUding the Parker Hill Hospital
Mission

in-

and the

Hill Church, The road comes in line

with the Prudential-John

Hancock group, be-

fore descending

between

Kenmore Square

and the stadium,

Through

the Fenway the

twin spires ofthe

Mission

Hill Church are

road passes the Prudential

Then the

off-ramp,

bends.

and travels south over the rolling vertical

alignment

to the South Intersection.

view of the sea, of South Boston,

left. of downtown
The Prudential

off-ramp

with a

and to the

and the Symphony

Hall node act as the central climax on this

leg, the south part of which is rigidly straight.
confined,

and residential.

moving

only up and

down. The north part is more free-tlowmq,

passing horizontally
Kenmore

through

objects

the Fenway and

like the stadium

and

Square with its giant advertising

signs facing in all directions.

scale. and tightly confined,

The whole charof a small

without

contact

with water or with large open spaces. The

glimpses

(day and night). with the bulge out towards

the harbor and airport

Huntington

only long views are at the beginning.

is dominated

climaxes:

with

being crossed. At

of Massachusetts

acter of this stretch is generally

area, and as it runs out to the north intersection,

the obstacles

around circular

a view of the City Hall and Govern-

ment Center. It descends

emphasize
the crossing

seen again as a check reference.

open space, with the John Hancock

and Prudential

out

on both

lanes rising and falling independently

after another

look directly

road is tipped towards

the inner lane at the intersections

The confined

into downtown,

line, confined

up and down over the old

roads that travel up the peninsula,

ence, but the road turns back to give the

kink in this leg enables sideways

or broadside

and then, crossing

some height, plunges through

buildings

is a straight

sides but swinging

The Centerway

traveler
The central

Avenue

two blocks west of the avenue. Here the

alignment

on the right and goes through

in the rail-

a gas tank and a railroad round-

and cuts into the mass of housinq one or

and the food markets, smothering

Intersection

road yards

continuity

area. A view

Center and John Hancock

house, glances up Massachusetts

The road takes a wide curve at the North

Center, and the

the confine-

residential

Building is taken in, and the road, swerving

between

indus-

along the river's edge, then up and over the

se Travel

a turn to the

north is made before entering

into the city. The third stretch

~~

From the South Intersection.

the road crosses the river at right angles.

line towards
6

The Crossing

related to

Intersection,

the

out of the Fenway in the middle, and

the brief rooftop

stretch.

views on the southern

------------------.,.

50

et

CONCRETE

Interpretative
OUf illustrative

WUl

complete,
WEST INTERSECTION

Drawings
design is conceived as one

sequential

experience

space. light. texture.

found it necessary

to represent

jective experience

in some abstract.

hand way. This problem

fENWAY

In de"

veloping and analyzing the design, we have

BOSTON UNIVERSITY

KENMORE

of motion.

and orientation,

this total subshort-

has been discussed

at some length in Chapter 2, but it arises here

SOUARE

again as soon as one wishes to communicate

PARK STADIUM

the character
critically
Therefore
SYMPHONY

HML

of a design, or to weigh it

against other alternatives.

we made a number of drawings

to interpret

selected

jective experience

aspects of the sub-

of driving

the new ring

road. Films might present this material

in

the sharpest

way. but a graphic technique,

reproducible

on paper, is needed for speed,

economy,

and communication

audience.

However,

sequential

experience

to a large

the presentation

of a

on a single page

requires special effort from the reader, who

should have before him only what can be

GAS TANK

seen at one point. remembering

RR TURNtABLE

what has

gone before, and not yet aware of what is

to come.

STRIP LIGHTING

Road Environment
Our drawings
SOUTH INTERSECTION

(minutes

are drawn

to a time scale

at an average speed of 45 miles per

hour). and are laid out in linear sequences,

the events are experienced.
difficult

to imagine what such a journey

from a circular

CITY INCINERATOR

straightened

out by breaking

so that it can be read as a

continuous
problem

is like

plan, the route has been

intersections

sequence.

distortion

as

Since it is

it at the corner

This causes some

and confusion,

but it is a special

that would rarely arise, since most

routes extend roughly in one direction.

Now the environment

begins to relate to the

road rather than the road to the environment

as in the first drawings.
and the character
relation

We see the spaces

of the confining

walls, the

of the road to rivers, hills, and the

open railroad yards. and the kinds of activities

85,86 and areas which are passed. Figure 85 shows

-,'

the sense of motion and space, drawn

ing to the conventions

CUSTOM HOUSE TOWER

right is added a diagram

PARKING

tempo of attention,

GARAGES

recurrent

CITV HAll

of the resulting

the basic rhythm

intersections,

figure 86 overpage

-"-' ~,""""""--

eral orientation
illustrates
NORTH INTERSECTION

gives the observer's

approach

to various
landmarks

against the major

in the city core. Both figures

85 and 86 are drawn only for the clockSTRiP

UGI'TING

wise trip.
SCIENCE MUSEuM
BRIDGE

LONGfEllOW

BRI[}GE

"n
KRESGe AUDITORIUM
ADVERTlSiOMENTS

85 Space, Motion, and View, ClOckwise

WEST INTERSECTION

Crossections

Presumed Tempo of Attention

gen-

and

the play of external

and the road intersections

destinations

by a

Similarly,

to his surroundings,

the successive

goals, showing

of the

each followed

double climax of visual intensity.

accord-

of Chapter 2. To the

-'

" ,

---

sa

WEST INTERSECnON

Some Comparisons with the Official Route

If we now turn aside for a brief critique of
some visual features of the official. or
81 Maguire plan, we can clarify some of our own
reasoning still further. In the Maguire plan
the route crosses the Charles River at the
Cottage Farm Bridge as in our scheme. but
then the road cuts across Cambridgeport
near Central Square, and goes on to meet
Route 2 in the constricted railroad yards on
the Somerville border. before turning right to
return to the river through the North Station
yards. Thus it runs far out from the center,
enclosing East Cambridge. which is an area of
little importance compared with downtown
Boston, The route loses all contact with the
river and with the downtown area until the
last moment. when without preparation it
plunges past North Station. There is not so
much as a glimpse of the famous State
House: this would indeed be a blank and
mysterious journey,

"

KENMORE SQUARE
~

~ENMORE SQUARE

STADIUM
Fi'NWAV

4
~

SYMPHONY HAll

.W ----

MISSION HILL CHURCH

SQUARE

~"""

CHRIST'AN

SCIENCE CHURCH

JOHN HANCOCK BUILDING

On the eastern leg, or Centerway, the

Maguire route has now been built. and its
character can be assessed directly from driving experience. It has many good qualities. for
it comes in high from the north and curves
around the financial district before descending into the Summer Street Tunnel. But skirting the center at rooftop level is also unsatisfactory. for there is no sense of arrival: the
road seems to veer off from the heart of
things. Furthermore. although it is at points
less than a block from the harbor. the ocean is
never seen Fringe buildings as well as the
balustrade and cant of the road block the
view: and the road is never directed at the
water On the other end beyond the tunnel,
the official route runs close to the side of
the peninsula. too close under the building
wall for the inbound travelers from the south
to gel a good view of downtown,

SOUTH

INlERSECT'ON

SQUIH BOSTON

SOUTH BOSTON
PRUDENTIAL

'-

CENTER

JOHN HANCOCK

Although both ends of the proposed Crossing

(the South and West Intersections) fall in the
same place as those on the official route. the
Maguire line travels further out through
Roxbury: past the hospital area and over a
stretch of the Fenwav It will be depressed.
and it is difficult to see what pleasure there
will be in driving it. Except for the Fenwav,
the route will travel through residential
areas as mysterious and dull as those of
Cambridgeport. The Fenway itself will be
culverted and made to disappear,

CUSTOM HOUSE lOWER

AND FINANCIAL DIS1~1('
~

AIRPORT
BEACON Hill. STATE ~OUS'
AND GUV~"NM[NT(,NIH

,
\

POINTS OF DECISION
AREAS OF CONfUSION

NOATH
'NTER
SECIION
FINANCIAL

REVOLUTION OF FIELD

DISTRICT
BUNKER Hill

"

NODES

MAJOR LANDMARKS
MINOR

MAJOR GOALS

MINOR

JOHN HANCOCK

SECONDARY

PATHS
-If-H-iHPRUDENTIAL CENHR

.n

ANO CENTRAL
CAMBRIDGE

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

PRUDENTIAlSOUA

EO
.JOHN

RAILROAD
ROAD

EDGES

HANCOGl

!WI'/(

INDUSTRIAL

1NL

INSTITUTIONAL

111111/1"

RESIDENTIAL

DISTRICTS
PARK
~

....

gWf

It will seem to be a most devious way of going

downtown. the goal toward which most
motorists will be directed. The change of direction will be confusing and disruptive. since
the road curves slowly through a gridiron
street pattern As the motorist rides in his
confined channel and cuts the old blocks at
different angles, the change in direction will
be incomprehensible to him

TRANSPORTATION
[R,R YARDS. CANALS, ETC,I
WATER
HILLS

Reference to our own proposal will clarify the

way in which we intend to overcome these
difficulties,

CONCReH

VIEW DiRECTOR

,'.:

NEW OPEN'NG TO
KENMORE SQUARE

ARCHING TREES

eRIC~ SIDE WAllS

Road Detail
Once the general location is settled. a whole
set of road details can be used to emphasize
and direct the motorist's view. The traveler
may be oriented. in a direct visual way.
through detail and choice of materials without complete reliance on road signs.
The North and South Intersections have
been built up as strong forms which can fill
the vacuum of their surroundings, They are
81 designed as three-level 'r-tntersecnons. 50 or
60 feet high, and might be diagrammed as
follows.
RADIAL
RADIAL

87 Diagram of Intersection

Huge lamps are proposed. so that those

curves will be lit up at night. In all cases the
lanes of the ring road run side by side. with
the outer one at a higher level, while the
radials are in two levels, At the West Intersection the roads pass almost over the
present Cottage Farm Bridge and will arrive
at the highest point on the whole route.
consistent with the most important view.
Each leg of the route would be surfaced in
a different color or texture. symbolized on
88 the drawing (Figure 88l. so that a driver
will instantly know which leg he is on.
In our proposal. the Riverway would be
white. the Centerway red. and the Crossing
black. At intersections each radial would
have its code color: and colored stripes
would direct the motorist onto his chosen
route.

The downtown climax is built up by advertising signs in selected places. controlled

as to size and other characteristics, and
finally by parking towers. These advertising
signs would be mounted on cylinders.
cubes, and pyramids. revolving slowlv as
their messages change. They would be lit.
at night. from the inside. The approach
along the Riverway would include advertising signs for hotels and events taking place
in Boston. would pass signs for local products
in the industrial area, and would finally go
by advertisements for downtown entertainment. On the way out again. signs for travel
outside Boston and for nationwide industries
would predominate.
At the market area. the road descends to a
lower level than surrounding streets. and
wide steps are built out and up to Dock
Square. As in an amphitheater. people could
sit and stand on these steps looking at the
cars. and the driver could reciprocate.
On ceremonial days this would be a public
grandstand. assuming that many parades
and arrivals of the future will occur on the
main highways. In the Summer Street
Tunnel. on the other side of the seaward
bulge, an underground restaurant is proposed. with lights and colored windows
looking out and down onto the road. This
section could be grottolike and would act as
a nighttime complement to the market
climax. The modern freeway has become an
abstract world where people are scarcely
seen. The sight of people would be an
important characteristic of these special
centers. On the bulge between these two
points, the financial district forms the solid
internal wall. while the external view of the
harbor is framed by high parking towers.
A giant water spout would be placed across
the harbor, similar to the one at Geneva.

RAILWAY TlJRNTAeLE

STRIP LIGHTING

OUT OF TOWN ADVERTISEMENTS

"

"

"

GROTTO RESTAURANTS
IN DOVER STREET TUNNEL

WATER SPOUT

TERRACI~G WITH PEOPLE

DOWNTOWN AOVERTISEMENTS

STRIP LIGHTING

BOSTON INDUSTRIAL

Where the route is depressed through parts

of the residential area. sculpture. painting.
or signs might be used to depict some
characteristics of the region being traversed.
The Symphony Hall area would be opened
up by pUlling down some buildings to form
an open plaza. Through the Fenway the road
curves and drops in among the trees. Many
other devices might as easily be developed
to enhance the interest and clarity of
the scene.

LAPPING WATER

VIEW CUTS INTO

M,IT.

>

QUAORANGLES

"
,
"

INTOWN ADVERT'SEMeNTS

(HDTELS. RESTAURANTSI

i,)

~\

COl::;; ,

'.C~

CONCRETE V'EW DIRECTDR

GUIDE lI~ES

88 Diagram

of Road Detail, Signs and Pavement

,,
-,

,
,
,
,

~-

()

,
,""
,

56

The Night Scene

Our lighting

At night a new order reigns in the city. The

general

chaotic skylines. jagged spaces. erratic

signs. forms.

89 emphasis

have followed

and clarification

of the existing

pattern.

Many of the lights shown

darkness. to be replaced by luminous dots.

strips, and diffused light. The path system

drawing

already

clearer.

Light is needed for circula-

tion. and so cars, street

and advertising

lights.

shop windows.

signs build up from the

reference

to the sunlit form, To change

of the city at night might be

but also confusing.

softly lit residential streets to the clamor

landmarks,

of lights on the commercial

and John Hancock

more prominent

avenues.

intersections

gain extra emphasis

The

or nodal points

with stop lights.

tional signs. or drugstores:

such as entertainment

direc-

and certain areas.

districts

or shopping

daytime

must be lit up and should

have a similarity
exciting.

on the

exist. The principal

points

the pattern

the

of the entire design

into the

becomes

and shapes disappear

proposals

principle

The higher

such as the Prudential

Building,

Center

would

have

beacon lights, The green and red lights of

the railroad
airport

yards and the blue ones of the

could be more clearly associated

with these methods

of transportation.

centers that are open at night. become

nocturnal

landmarks.

The daytime

The reflectivity

landmarks

night. or maintain

are often lit up at

some form of lighted

sign. The dome of the State

89 Night Diagram

and the John

weather

House

Building

Invariably

the lighting

of the object.

The John

BUilding,

a squat fat tower

becomes

much less dominating

at night because

ofthe

light, The blackness

is floodlit.

carries

its

changes

the

and slimmer

both sides of the Charles

contrast

lamps shining

with the gloomy

on masts and tops of ships that

border the harbor.

Massachusetts.

well lit and provide

could be brightly

districts
feature

lights are hung in

they are

illuminated

central

to pick out the

road from the Crossing.

district

at the bend in the

core could be lit up to be seen from

the outside
would

traffic
---;?<;

the highways
and unpleasant

at the expense

themselves

slender

poles, which

sion of the daytime

interesting

of the surrounding
high upon

are a dominant
rcadscape.

to experiment

with greater

illumination,

impres-

It would

lation of the light. or with the removal

in favor of low-level

are lit to

glare, emphasizing

scene. The light has its source

be
articu-

of poles

or with the

use of light to break open the visual prison of

the pavement,

in-

Hall Square

at night. This is a place where

searchlights
emphasize

could be used. These

the bend which

time heart of the city, On festive

a uniform

are already

good directional

The entertainment

rotating

left dark.
At present

Hunting-

Avenues

The new Symphony

main in-town

River

yellow

strips of

and of the parks is also a nocturnal

the trees, but more frequently

down

dicators,

in the daytime.

of residential

of the city. Sornetimes

lighting

has already been

by the continuous

ton and Commonwealth

Hancock

vertical

to some extent

This would

sign on the top, but others dis-

appear.
nature

Hancock

of water

utilized

extra lighting

might

Fenway, fireworks

is the nightoccasions

be used. lanterns
on the Charles

in the

River.

58
59

A Running Commentary on a
Clockwise Trip
To complete our picture of this imaginary
expressway, let us pretend that we are driving around the loop in a clockwise direction.
(This trip may be followed on the previous
drawings. or on the sequence of diagrammatic perspectives,
Figure 90. which appear
alongside the text commentary and which are
keyed to this text by reference in the margin
to the number

of each perspective,

head at the side of the drawing

open view in that direction
perspectives

13 The road slopes down to the river, paralleling

a small channel of water.
sides. Straight
shortened

14 After

has also been repeated

drawing

Then we are rising again, stowrv. up

moment.

--~----~
--_.--..-,a,~..........

trip. start at the

from

a glance back up the river to the right.

arrive at water level, parallel again to the

on the

to page 64, Continue

with their

15 river. The sense of water strikes us for a

of

on the lower left hand corner of page

2, and run forward

Bridge. that old granite

we swoop down to the left of the bridge and

lower corners of the pages throughout the

book. so arranged that they can be seen as a
moving sequence by riffling them in front of
the eyes. For the complete

on both

leaping out of the dark

jumble of Beacon Hill rooftops

dominating
dome,

an

The sequence

Longfellow

pile, its pepperpots

An arrow-

indicates

but confined

up ahead comes the fore-

16 and over the Charles River Dam and the white

domes of the Museum

..

17 town towers

,~

apartment

of Science, The down-

come into view over the new

structures

of the West End to our

right, and soon we see that Bunker Hill is

18 again straight

ahead of us, We are going in

the lower right hand corner on page 63, and

the same direction

run back again to page '.)

now two or three stories above the river, we

cross the MT A lines, the road, and the railroad

We begin high up on the bridge, crossing

Charles River at between
hour. The direction
in contrast

the

along the railroad tracks:

is now almost

The oncoming

down through

silhouette

the intersection,

At
the

trict. Further

of the financial

Center dominates

city, and behind it, pointing

town,

and grandly

towards

lies the old John Hancock

below or on the left-hand

sporadic

landmarks

down-

the large expanse

we glimpse

gently sloping

rush to-

fleeting

confined,

za

ahead down the

road racing at rooftop

the Cambridgeport

one another,

the Aatro dormitory

area

5 Kresge Auditorium
towards

revolves

Prudential

tower,

the

tion. chimneys,

"

Avenue

past M.I.T. into dense industry,

signs for downtown
of the Bunker

9 quickly

ahead rises the

and

to the right. but growing

in size, it comes across the line of

10 vision and veers to the left as we ourselves

11 turn right and begin to descend
river again. We pass another

towards

the

pair of gas tanks

12 on the left and are now looking

straight

at the

State House on Beacon Hill, the Court House

to its left, the Longfellow

Bridge below, and

behind, again, the towers

of the financial

Building

slope of the road allows

view of the area directly

in front

right at the Post Office

in the center of the financial

Red brick warehouses

district.

and advertisements

roll by on either side. The Custom

a widened

the view begins to open out again. A large gas

8 tank lies slightly

-, ...

descends

hotels and

Hill Monument.

,--

a wall of

into the heart of Boston.

House

26 widens out into a large basin. The road

and plunge

a power sta-

Straight

Now we plunge through

tower slides in from the left, and the space

and then a cluster of adver-

7 other entertainment.
pinnacle

_',1

tracks

on our right into North

25 of us We are directed

across the turf

can be seen through

6 We cross Massachusetts

tisement

and

parallel to us,

are running parallel

us a generous

us, The river, and above it the

trees running

of the harbor and the Old

The gentle downward

to

unfolds,

We seem to bounce off the hill

glimpse

buildings

4 on the left and then the M.I.T. campus on the

right. The M.I.T. domes move in relation

and

the intersec-

North Church on our left, the railroad

24 Station.

level.

residential

Hill through

23 and cross the river at right angles. There is a

wards us on our right. we can tell how high

skimming

Bunker

tion structure.

and we turn our eyes straight

rotate in front of

us, and as we turn, the outer lane lowers.

Charlestown.

we are. The view is momentarily

of the railroad yards and

22 the river. The hills of Boston

and

3 As the upper stories of a warehouse

side, leaving clear

21 tion to it. We are high again, looking across

and

of Cambridge

of the inter-

the view of the center city as we turn in rela-

There is hardly time for a glance across the

and low hills, the industry

and excitement

section, with its signs and ramps, take place

Building.

flatlands

our eyes

into the city

The confusion

dis-

the whole

guiding

road which turns slowly

~.'

to the right the huge tower of

the Prudential

on the skyline,

around the curving

dome of the State House seen against the

of the towers

into

curve under the high arc lamps which stand

20 like sentinels

of Beacon Hill, with the golden

background

traffic

and the road surface

changes from white to red We ourselves

the bridge structure

out towards

signify

The signs read NORTH,the direc-

tion stripes guide the northbound

to the river. The wall pushes our eyes to the

this height the river widens

the Northeast

and the hill and churches

19 Charlestown

"

a wall which

right, to one of the best views of Boston,

comes

Bunker Hill and the

River Bridge indicate

Expressway:

L-~=-----L'_'-'----"'" ~

blocks most of the view to the left except for

glimpses

Mystic

dark surface

lane on our left

is higher than we are, creating

Intersection

into view, Route 93 snakes away to the left

45 and 50 miles per

to the previous

2 of the Crossing.

yards. as the huge North

stripes on the road have

just gone by, and the pavement

white

as before. Still rising, and

district.

90 Perspective

Sequence

now to ground level, and then into

cutting.

sr

27 The market is very close on the right and at

the same level. The bustle of people and the
crates of vegetables can almost be felt. Behind them rise the new office blocks of the
Government Center. and we are under the
28 first bridge, past the off-ramp to Dock Square.
Just beyond. people are sitting on the wide
29 steps to our right. which gently descend from
Dock Square itself. There is a momentary
30 glimpse of Faneuil Hall before we are cornpletely dominated by the overbearing mass of
the Custom House tower looming right up
front. and almost over us.

-.

31 The road. just in time. curves quickly to the

left to avoid the obstacle, It rises suddenly.
skirting the edge of the financial district. and
32 passes the first pair of downtown parking
towers on the left. A high fountain of water
tells us that the harbor is near: then the whole
33 view opens up and we look away across the
34 water to the airport. and beyond that to the
ocean itself.
35 The road turns inland Into line with the axis of
36 the John Hancock and Prudential buildings,
37 seen in the distance. The second group of
38 parking towers pass by on the left. and we
39 drop underground beneath the towers of the
financial district. The tunnel is brightly lit.
then gradually dims until the sides and roof
40 turn into glass as we pass into an underworld
restaurant colored lighting. people eating at
41 tables. jazz bands. perhaps an audible burst
of music. At a lower level. a subway train is
crossing our path

58

42 After a slight curve, daylight appears at the

43 end of the tunnel. We rise to the open air and
44 continue up to the sky. flattening out at the
third-stcrv level. feeling free in the air, crossing the Fort Point Channel and the railroad
45 tracks. We reorie.nt ourselves by two visible
landmarks on the right. the Prudential and
John Hancock t~wers. Downtown is directly
behind us. and we are heading towards the
three chimneys of the city incinerator.'
46 which we pass on the right.

~-.~~c5DDO
--0(

The railroad tracks do not confine the eye; the

road is high. and the views are wide. There is
time to look around, To the left the hill of
South Boston hides the sea. except in the left
distance. where Dorchester Bay and some
islands can be seen. Ahead the lamp stand47 aros of the South Intersection stake out a
skyline: to the right twin church spires.
hospitals, and the hills rise just above the
Roxbury rooftops, Some out-of-town advertisements crop up. as we approach the
intersection itself.
48 The Southeast and Southwest Expressways
can be seen winding into the distance, the
direction stripes appear again. and the road
surface changes from the red of the Center49 way to the black of the Crossing. As we turn
50 more than 90 degrees back toward the city.
what was on the right is now on the left.
51 Mission Hill has shot over to that side. and
we almost face the Prudential and John
Hancock buildings. The south edge of the city
stretches away on the right to downtown.
and the road we have just been on reappears
52 We snake left and right through circular struc53 turas. a gas tank. and a railroad turntable.
54 After a glance down Massachusetts Avenue.
55 we are in the residential area of Roxbury, The
56 space is confined here as the road descends
57 under Washington Street and rises again over
58 Columbus Avenue, There is a strong sense of
59 the main cross streets. with brief vistas to60 wards the downtown section. but the alignment of the road does not deviate' it holds
rigidly to the existing street pattern The
closeness to residential buildings is nowhere
so evident as along the Crossing.

'h. , . .

'The presenl location of the road "lac"

t
d'
I'
..
~
cly,nclO~ra Or Irect, yon ax,s, Here is a case where too much
Im~ortance IS given to a comparatively unimportant
object Icynocs may disagreel.

.,

t::=-,-,--"c<cc::'_-"C'

""

=~. .'

'.~_.

e;o,

OOQ

"

ee

48

..
--=---"""""'_.-J -

-~~..--, --~
1

J-

,i

<::-=-___ 'L'__~:__

33

~~

""4i

/'

,,

,
,
,

I'

34

...
36

~
sa

"

36

"

--.=--:;;;'- ~

J
~

62

61 Past Columbus

Avenue,

across the railroad tracks. There is a cross

vista of John Hancock, the Prudential appears
across the rooftops.
62 proaeh the Symphony

This study was motivated

is near. We ap-

Hall node

There is the

and bustle, where

Huntington

crosses Massachusetts

Avenue.

Avenue

with

a long vista up Huntington

the new downtown

cultural

63.64 We immediately

a housing

and curves in response.

that

about highway

analyzing

design.

the highway

experience,

The crucial test will come in

these ideas to actual design probthe results obtained

of design and of analysis

from a serious attempt

in this direc-

experience

right. and the space opens out to the right as

more powerful

at the Huntington

number

University.
straight

Close
63

experiment.

Avenue.

west, swooping

the pudding.
up

curve left. and are on the road. with

71 the river and Harvard towers

the right and the sun setting

following

of highways.

sequences

network

and relating
sequences,
"solid"

for design

us on

or. more

road would

be the proof of

efforts

recording

technique

quence. whether

can be developed.

The fragmentary
further.

vehicle.

We

predic-

cameras.

emphasis

is a thorny subject.
sibilities

ex-

markedly

consolidated

the

and whose

different

from the

to date,

It would be useful to extend the analytical

tematic

and extended

operations.

70

"'"

......

.69

buses. even
If automated

general. then the nature of

audience will also change, The

of designing

everywhere
acteristic

or airplanes.

become

the highway
problem

paths. such as

railroads.

boats, escalators.

for vision in motion

fundamentally

solutions

perience

is

the sa me. but cha r-

will be greatly affected

the speed and mode of movement.

of a city is basically

by

The ex-

a moving view.

and this is the view we must understand

if we

wish to reform the look of our cities

There are a number of factors which this
study has expressly

avoided.

pact of the highway

on the people who must

One is the im-

look at it from the outside. We have neglected

this aspect of the road partly because it is
currently

receiving

some attention,

and pa rtly

because our work required a sharper focus.

The effect of a road on its surroundings
extremely

important

outward

view. Unfortunately.

are radically

is an

aspect of its design. and

this inward view must be integrated

with the

the two views

different

by nature, How may

they be co-ordinated,

or at least prevented

from conflicting

with each other? When the

driver wants an elevated

platform

to view his surroundings.

while the stationary

from which

citizen wishes the road to be out of sight. how

do we arbitrate

the issue?

is only

by more sys-

But enough

has been

to expose the possibilities

esthetic.

of a

We might now test some of

these ideas in a real but experimental

be remembered

kinds of movement:

city streets. or to other kinds of

carriers-subways.

of the city landscape

out in regard to it

Our highways

other types of automobile

in

and of the

and there are many pos-

design.

are no mean achievements

the history of technology,

to different

primarily

of motion

In all these respects. this monograph

highway

groups studied

to the driver. But our

a foray into the subject. and its gains must be

it would be interesting

the road is designed.

has dis-

in the visual

of analysis and design that remain

for whom

view is probably

from

has been on orientation

road itself. The meaning

developed

highways

of area or

and the way in which this mean-

to be brought

here can be pressed

In particular.

this monograph

cussed the issue of meaning

man who makes up a major part of the public

ordinary

and intersecting

as distinguished

reference to the meaning

or by means

analyses of the highway

presented

techniques

of differentiating

and visual form, and on meaning

se-

to study the view of the daily commuter.

es

in many

parts, of transfer

of branching

sequences

greatest

models seen by moving

or motion-picture

perience

conflict.

the functional

ing is communicated

from a study of the existing

by a hovering

of three-dimensional
viewers

traversed

and of the possibilities

landscape,

that can be useful. The

need to increase our skill in making

72 it is evening and we are lucky.

of move-

as occurring

purely linear ones.

But there are other. more

academic

landscape

in a city.

is only prelude

could be provided,

tions of the visual effect of a proposed

in front of us. if

high-

We have not

ways. Then one comes on prob-

To some extent.

for the

down and under. heading

in a continuous

and succession,

such a road as a national

An experimental

the river. We choose the Massachusetts

70 Turnpike.

than any

It might be pos-

if special resources

and execution

for the turn to the north and the

We take the off-ramp

dealt with a network

lems of intra-system

Boston

and the Charles River. heading

69 river-crossing,

of what the

and evocative

of paper projects,

sible to layout

Still rising. we find we are

parallel to Commonwealth

For the most part, we have considered

ways as single linear sequences.

complicated

example

Intersection.

in speed and scale is visually

ment. in all modes. considered

could be. an example far

up to the West

lot. the

Most often

separate

highway

68 fore we start to rise straight

entrance.

Studying

interest

be-

this transition

upon the

the parking

strengthened.

would be a concrete

for a brief moment

of transition.

we have not touched

with a system of movement

head. as we curve left again. The advertising

follows

In particular.

properly,

signs over Kenmore

confinement

and have passed

more lightly over the problem

can be refined. and our grip on principles

tion. but a road built for vision in motion

Square flash from left to

scene.

with the phenom-

motion

to dealing with the entire experience

Park Stadium.

opening.

both of which

abrupt and brutal.

Not only would we learn much of technical

lamps rotates over-

Avenue

enon of continuous

design of the terminus

toward

Here the techniques

ea

giving a view of the

the Fenway

We have dealt primarily

Perhaps

first efforts

lems. and in evaluating

across the river. and then we are underneath

The circle of enormous

the view of the

the factors that will

These are speculations

66 M I.T. dome. We go down the Fenway and

67 and alongside

and its lighting,

have a major impact on the highway

garage. or the building

applying

drops

of vehicle design. or the details

in mak-

could be used in dealing with them.

area.

the road, which

of the roadway

have to be dealt with, and the techniques

the

65 curve to the left, and see trees in front of us,

The Fenway envelops

the questions

we have also indicated

center,
re-enter

of vision inherent in our speed

large urban areas,

which have been

upon only very briefly, They include

and by a desire to find a visual

ing a case for considering

Museum of Fine Arts. and other buildings of

Boston's

touched

of movement.

driver when a road is being designed.

to

University,

the scope of this monograph.

the new world

We hope we have at least succeeded

area, A glance to the left

might take in Northeastern

by the promise of

means for pulling together

off-ramp to the Prudential Center and the

high-price shopping district. The walls of
buildings open out on the right-hand side to
show shops. traffic.

Even within

there are a number offacets

and advertisements

warn us again that a climax

63

5. In Conclusion

the space opens out

Will they also

as works of art?

in

64

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aEeH 1991
DEC' 1 19
JAN3119