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U rban Research Program, Research School of Social Sciences, The Australian National
U niversity, Canberra, ACT. 0200, Australia
A BST RAC T This paper presents an historical materialist view of recent accounts of disability
in W estern societies. This view is presented in tw o main parts: rst, as an in-depth appraisal
of the eld of disability studies, and secondly, as an outline for an alternative, historical
materialist account of disablement.
The critical assessment of disability studies nds that recent accounts of disability are in the
main seriously de cient in terms of both epistemology and historiography (though some
important exceptions are identi ed). In particular, four speci c areas of theoretical weakness are
identi ed: theoretical super ciality, idealism, the xation with norm ality, and an unwillingness
to consider history seriously. It is argued that these de ciencies have prevented the eld of
disability studies from realising its potential to challenge the structures which oppress impaired
people.
From this critical epistemologica l perspective, an outline is made of an alternative,
materialist account of disability, stressing both theoretical and political agendas.
Introduction
T his paper presents a historical m aterialist view of disability studies within W estern
social science [1]. This view is presented in two main parts: theoretical critique and
theoretical alternative.
The rst part of the paper is an in-depth appraisal of the eld of disability
studies. An assessment of this length cannot hope to cover the entire corpus of
literature on disability. T he intention here is not to survey the uneven terrain of
disability studies exhaustively, but rather, to visit this through a series of speci c
theoretical appraisals. Consequently, this review consults a cross-section of
in uential accounts of disability as the basis for its apprais al. The sam ple of
literature is draw n m ostly from North A merican and British sources, although som e
A ustralian contributions are included in the assessment. The review focuses upon
the literature concerning physical disability.
From this critical epistem ological perspective, an outline is then made for an
alternative, historical materialist account of disability. This alternative account
traces both a new theoretical fram ework for understanding disability and the
contours for an emancipatory politic al practice by disabled people and their allies.
0968-7599/97/020179-24 $7.00
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B. J. Gleeson
181
The failure of the social sciences generally to consider physical im pairm ent as
an important issue partly explains the atheoretical cast of its discursive subsidiary,
disability studies. This m ay be seen as part of the wider problem of the entrenched
indifference of social science to issues of hum an em bodim ent [see Frank (1990) and
T urner (1984, 1991) on this].
Before proceeding further it m ust be stated that the policy orientation of
disability studies represents both a weakness and a strength of the eld. T he latter
quality should never be underestim ated. The historical m aterialis t nds m uch that
is gratifying in a theoretical discourse so rm ly rooted in the world of everyday social
practice. Though often expressed in theoretically unsophisticated term s, the assertions contained in the works of m any disability scholars are frequently m arked by a
rst-hand grasp of the social oppression which attends im pairm ent.
By nature, disability studies justi ably challe nges the social theorist by demanding explanations that lead to policy prescriptio n. The high ly-politic ised (if often at a
som ewhat tim orous policy level) nature of disability studies prom ises great potential
for a m ore theoretically-in form ed praxis. A powerful force for this politic isation has
been the increasing numbers of disabled people m aking in uential contributions to
the eld from critic al theoretical perspectives (e.g. Abberley, 1985, 1987, 1989;
H ahn, 1986, 19 87, 1988 , 1989; Oliver, 19 86 & 1990; M orris, 1991, 1993a, b;
A ppleby, 1994).
A series of em pirically-grounded analyses during the 1970s and 1980s by
disability com m entators focused on mainstream social scienti c concerns including gender (e.g. Campling, 1981; Deegan & Brooks, 1985), age (e.g. W alker, 1980 ),
race (Thorpe & T oikka, 1980), education (e.g. Anderson, 1979) and class (e.g.
T ownsend, 1979). Although prim arily cast within a policy fram ework, these investigatio ns of critical sociocultural aspects of disablem ent laid the em piric al and conceptual groundwork for a sociological approach to disability. T he sociological turn,
which gathered strength in the 1980s, represented an im portant departure from a
tradition of disability com mentary which had drawn heavily upon varian ts of
m ethodological individualism (e.g. psychopathology) (Leonard, 198 4; Olive r,
19 90).
Nevertheless, the disability debate still suffers the legacy of theoretical deprivatio n. Put simply, for most of its existence, the eld of disability studies has been
notable in social science for its failure to engage m ajor theories of society. Its
potential to be radically transformed by, and in turn to transform , the broader
currents of social theory has heretofore rem ained largely latent. O ne vainly scrutinises many of the essay collections concerning disability in recent decades (e.g.
Laura, 198 0; Ferguson et al., 1992; Ballard , 1994) for exam ples of com mentators
seriously engagin g social theory and philosophy; m ost references to epistem ology in
these diverse works are either allusive or tokenistic [5].
A pathology of the atheoretical cast of disability studies is the tendency of
com m entators to m ire themselves in a de nitional bog. The seemingly endless
iterations of de nitional orthodoxies concerning the meaning of term s such as
`disability , `im pairm ent and `handicap are a problematic feature of the discourse
(O liver, 19 90). The inability of observers to agre e on the basic term s of the debate
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B. J. Gleeson
is in fact the discourse s incapacity to com prehend the nature-culture relation, which
in turn stems from the absence of strong social theory. W ithout recourse to the
established debates on the nature-culture relatio n, disability studies are condem ned
to a Sisyphean exercise of m oving from one unsatisfactory de nition to another. It
will later be argued that historical m aterialism offers one epistem ological solution to
this de nitional conundrum .
Theoretical super ciality has encouraged a further linguistic diversion in disability debates. This concerns the regular announcements that currently-favoured
collective and individual terms for disabled people have becom e outm oded and in
need of im mediate replacem ent by `less dehum anising alternatives. W hilst not
denying the political im portance of the process of nam ing social groups, it m ust be
stated that this endless tendency to reinvent titles for disabled people is charac teristic
of a vacuous humanism which seeks to em phasise a `hum an com m onality over the
m aterial reality of oppression. Typical of this is the insistence by many com m entators on term s which prim ordially stress the hum anity of disabled people e.g.
`people with disabilities . This paper follows A bberley (19 91a,b ) in rejecting the now
popular notion that `people with disabilitie s is a hum anising im provement on the
term `disabled people (the same m ay be said for the singular form ). Abberley
(1991a ,b) declares this to be a retrograde term inological change which effectively
depoliticises the social discrim ination that disabled people are subjected to. He is
not prepared to accept the displacement of the adjective `disabled until disabled
people are actually perm itted to experience social life in fully hum an ways.
The wider consequences of the theoretical unconsciousness of disability studies
are manifold and cannot be fully essayed here. However, this discussion cannot
neglect to m ention the critic al dynamics of gender and race which rem ain largely
beyond the ken of disability studies. Some movem ent towards consideration of these
other potential oppressions and the m ultip le subjectivity of disabled people
seems to have em erged in recent years [6]. This has doubtless been inspired by the
politic al experiences of practitio ners, advocates, and, m ore im portantly, disabled
people them selves. T he grow ing aw areness in W estern countries of social m ovem ents based upon coalitio ns of the m argin alised, has no doubt encouraged an
increasingly broad view of oppression am ongst disability com m entators (cf.
A bberley, 1991a; Y oung, 1990).
Hahn (1989) has made som e particularly thoughtful surveys of the com mon
politic al ground which m igh t potentially link, if not unite, m inority social m ovem ents. Abberley has also em phasised the link between disability and other form s of
social oppression, rem arkin g that:
This abnorm ality is something we share with wom en, black, elderly, gay
and lesbian people, in fact the m ajority of the population (1991a , p. 15).
In addition, a feminist perspective which explo res the `double handicap of gender
and disability has begun to em erge both in Australia (e.g. Orr, 1984; Cass et al.,
19 88; M eekosha, 1989; Cooper, 199 0; W illiam s and Thorpe, 1992) and overseas
(e.g. D eegan & Brooks, 19 85; Lonsdale, 1990).
Nonetheless, it m ust be concluded that disability studies still exists in a state of
183
Idealism
W here social theory has been consulted in disability studies, the analyses have
frequently em phasised the non-m aterial dynam ics (e.g. attitudes, aesthetics) that
supposedly charac terise the hum an experience of impairm ent. M uch of the social
theoretical work on disability has been sourced in philo sophical idealism , an epistem ology which presum es the human enviro nment to be the product of ideas and
attitudes (Gleeson, 1995). A bberley (1991a ), for exam ple, identi es certain form s of
individual and social psychological perspectives as evidence of idealist explanations
of disablem ent. Hevey also declaim s again st idealist explanations of disability where
the m aterial world (for disabled people, the material world of physical
inaccessibility) is taken as given and xed and is an artefact of the world of
attitudes and ideas (1992, p. 14).
Individual psychology approaches are evident in many studies of disability and tend
to explain disability as a `personal trage dy which `sufferers m ust adjust to, or cope
with (Oliver, 1990). The historical genesis of this approach may be traced to the
early 1960s when, for exam ple, W right (19 60, p. 1) was able to observe approvingly
that
the study of adjustm ent to disability is
beginning to be regard ed as a
serious area of investigatio n by m ore than a few psychologists (em phasis
added).
Both O live r (198 6, 1990) and Abberley (1991a ) have exposed the inadequacy of
this `personal trage dy mysti cation which is central to the individ ual psychology
perspective. Social psychology, on the other hand, has inspired a form idable
idealism in disability studies and deserves som e critic al appraisal.
For com mentators who subscribe to a social psychology view, disability is
viewed as an ideological construct rooted in the negative attitudes of society towards
im paire d bodies (A bberley, 1991a; Fine & Asch, 1988). W hilst `social forces are
acknowledged as constitutive dynam ics, their material contents are overlooked in
favour of psychological or discursive structures (M eyerson, 1988). The m ost notorious exam ple of social psychology is the explanation of disability advanced by the
interactionist perspective, whose chief evangelist was Goffm an (e.g. 1964, 1969 ).
For Goffman, an individual s `personality is said to arise from social interaction as an iterative process between actors where attitudes are form ed on the
basis of the perceived attribu tes (positive and negative) of others (Jary & Jary, 1991 ).
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B. J. Gleeson
N orm alisation
T he principle of social role valo risation, which began life with the revealing epithet,
`norm alisation , was described by W olfensberger & Thom as (1983, p. 23) as `the use
of culturally valued m eans in order to enable, establish and/or m aintain valued social
roles for people . As the origin al title suggests, this service philosophy which has
been taken up with great vigo ur in m uch of the W estern world since the 1970s
[7] has the norm alisatio n of socially-d evalued (or `devalorised ) people as its object
[8]. The appeal to extant `culturally valued m eans to im prove the social position of
groups such as disabled people effectively forecloses on the possibility of their
challenging both the established norm s of society and the em bedded material
conditions which generated them. `N orm ality , as the set of `culturally valued social
roles is both naturalis ed and rei ed by this principle.
Abberley (1991a , p. 15), speaking as a disabled person, adm onishes `normalising philosophies and service practices for failin g to locate `abnorm ality
in the
society which fails to m eet our needs . These perspectives assume, instead, that
abnormality resides with the disabled subject. Abberley s (1991a ) rebuke emphasises
185
the materialist view, already considered in this discussion, that hum ans are characterised by varyin g sets of needs which cannot be described through references to
`norm s . A s he sees it, disabled people, am ongst other social groups, are oppressed
by societies which fail to m eet their basic hum an requirements, m ost notably the
desire for inclusion in social relatio ns.
Abberley (1991a , p. 21) argues that disabled people do not desire the current
social standard of `norm ality , but rather seek a `fuller participation in social life .
For m any disabled people (especially historical m aterialists like Abberley), the
predom inant bourgeois m ode of social life is neither `normal , nor one to which they
aspire [see also A bberley (199 3) on this]. This is to echo Young s (1990) in uential
critiq ue of norm ative politic al theories which have effaced the critical fact of hum an
social difference by presupposing abstract, hom ogenized notions of human subjectivity.
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B. J. Gleeson
Before review ing the lim ited attem pts to produce histories in disability studies,
it is advisable to rst m ention the wider problem which has contrib uted to this
failin g.
187
have had for the historical consciousness of disability enquiry. Importantly, the
lim ited historiograp hy of disability studies seems to have burdened the eld with a
num ber of assumed orthodoxies about the social context of impairm ent in previous
societies.
The rst orthodoxy is the belief that the predom inance of a `Judeo-Christian
ethic in past European (particularly pre-modern) societies was directly responsible
for the historical oppression of impaired people. Sm ith & Smith (1991, p. 41)
evidence the continuing currency of this view by pointing to
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B. J. Gleeson
signify that those with physical `maladies had a valued place within the pre-m odern
social order.
The other rei cation of the schematic approach to history is the view that all
im paire d people were beggars in the pre-industrial era. This orthodoxy is explain ed
by Sa lios-Rothschild (1970) :
the disabled have always been `problematical for all societies throughout
history, since they could not usually perform their social responsibilitie s
satisfactorily and becam e dependent upon the productive ablebodied.
(Emphasis added.)
H ahn (1988, p. 29 ) is also convinced that disabled people in the pre-modern world
were doomed to becom e either beggars or m instrels
who wandered through the countryside until they becam e the rst group to
receive outdoor relief under the English Poor Law of 1601 and subsequent
legislation.
Elsewhere he repeats this view in even m ore strongly fatalistic term s:
To the extent that disabled persons had any legitim ized role in an inhospitab le enviro nm ent prior to the advent of industrializa tion, they were
beggars rather than com petitive members of the labor force. (Hahn, 1987,
p. 5.)
Consequently:
Unlik e m ost disadvantaged groups, disabled adults never have been a
signi cant threat to the jobs of nondisabled workers (Hahn, 198 7:5).
W illiam s & Thorpe (1992) , although not writin g within the disability studies
discourse speci cally, testify to the resilience of the disabled-as-beggars approach in
A ustralia. They quote Cass et al. (19 88) in the following:
In Australia, people with disabilities were regard ed in the nineteenth
century as part of the `deserving poor and, as such were `approp riate
objects for pity, protection and charity . (W illiam s & Thorpe, 1992,
p. 110.)
T he effect of this view is to silence history, projecting disabled people s relatively
recent experience of service dependency and m argin alisation through the entirety of
past social form ations. T his assum ption m ust be rejected on two grounds. First, it
is based on a lim ited reading of extant textual and visual records of disability and
m akes no attempt to capture the concrete experience of im paired persons in
historical societies (Scheer & Groce, 1988). Thus, the view of all disabled persons
as beggars is based upon an ontological and methodological selectivity which must
inevitably run the danger of rei cation. Second, this construction of disability in
history has odious politic al implications by encouragin g the identi cation of im pairm ent with social dependency.
The second approach to history in disability studies is relatively recent in origin .
It contrasts with the rst, being charac terised by a greater depth of analysis, the
189
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B. J. Gleeson
prim itive social forms. Dettwyler (1991) sees the social category of dependency as
exceedingly uid, and warns again st the tendency to reduce it to physical im pairm ent:
In reality, every population has m em bers who are, for varyin g lengths of
tim e, nonproductive and nonself-supporting. (1991, p. 379.)
D ettwyler believes that
as with children, disabled people in m ost societies partic ipate as m uch as
they can in those activitie s that they are capable of perform ing. (1991,
p. 380.)
T hus,
[e]very society, regardless of its subsistence base, has necessary jobs that
can be done by people with disabilities (D ettwyler, 1991, p. 380 .)
T he consequence of this view is that
[i]t is presumptuous of anthropologists to assum e that they can accurately
assess how productive disabled individ uals m ight have been in the past.
(D ettwyler, 1991, p. 381.)
O ne would expect the accuracy of such analysis to be rather better for societies in
the more recent past; D ettwyler is probably thinking of prim itive society when
m aking this rem ark. However, the com ment serves as a general caution again st the
historicist tendency to cast im paire d people as the objects of a `distrib utive dilem ma
throughout hum an history.
By historically universalising the qualities of certain m odes of production, Stone
(1984) is encourage d to adopt confusing generalisations, such as seemingly equating
`peasant societies (a vague term in her analysis) with subsistence form s of production. A subsistence comm unity is characterised by the absence (or extrem e
lim itatio n) of productive surplus and m ost com m only refers to sim ple societies such
as trib es or hunter-gatherer groups (Jary & Jary, 19 91). Peasant societies, by
contrast, em body a different form of social developm ent, usually organised around
an agraria n economy, and where surpluses m ay be both comm on and signi cant.
Consequently, Stone s (1984) analysis m ust be seen as applyin g only to relatively
recent W estern m odes of production viz. feudalism and capitalism in spite of the
wider historical am bit it assum es.
The second objection to Stone s (1984 ) account is that it avoids or trivialis es
the prim al m otive force of distribution the social relatio ns of production. The
statist approach emphasises disability as a juridical and adm inistrative construct,
thereby subjecting it to conceptual de-materialisation. This approach can only reveal
the meaning of disability to the state; it cannot adequately claim to capture the
concrete reality of impairm ent in social relatio ns generally. The actual lived experience of im pairm ent in the past can only be sensed through m aterialist analyses of the
organisation of production and reproduction [14].
Insofar as Stone (1984) has produced a record of public policy approaches to
disability in relatively recent W estern history, the project m ay be seen as a quali ed
191
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B. J. Gleeson
did not preclude the great majority of disabled people from partic ipating in
the production process, and even where they could not participate fully,
they were still able to make a contribution. In this era disabled people were
regard ed as individ ually unfortunate and not segregated from the rest of
society. (O live r, 1990, p. 27.)
O live r (1990) is clearly again st the `beggared view of im pairm ent in history.
The feudal situation is one that Oliver (1990) and the other m aterialists
contrast with the experience of disablement in capitalist social form ations. For these
com m entators, disability is viewed as a historically- and socially-s peci c outcome of
social developm ent. Consequently, they are at pains to point out that im pairm ent
hasn t always been equated with dependency, and that material change m ay liberate
disabled people from contem porary form s of oppression.
M aterialising Disability
T he historical m aterialist view of disability is a recent development. In the past,
M arxian theory and practice has ignored or trivialis ed m ost social oppressions that
193
weren t dependent upon class; critical social dynamics like gender, race and disability were sim ply ignored or m argin alised as theoretical `specialism s (Vogel,
19 83). In fact, M arx m ade some interesting allusions to disability, in the form of
com m ents on the surplus lab our force (the `industrial reserve arm y ) and the
`cripp ling effects of industrialism (M arx, 1976) [17]. These remarks, however, were
ignored by subsequent M arxist scholars and activists and it m ust be acknowledged
that the issue of disablem ent has been large ly neglected in the socialis t tradition [the
work of M andel (1968) is a rare exception].
In recent years some m embers of the British D isability Studies com munity have
been exploring historical m aterialism as a social theory which m igh t illum inate the
genesis and reproduction of disablem ent in W estern societies [see, for exam ple, the
work of A bberley (1987, 1991a, b), Finkelstein (1980) and Oliver (1986, 1990)].
Leonard s (1984) attem pt to theorise identity form ation amongst those social groups
m argin alised by the capitalist economy, including the unem ployed and disabled
people, was an im portant early step in the development of a materialist understanding of disability (Oliver, 1990). Leonard s (1984 ) explanation of the `disabled
identity drew upon the inchoate sociological accounts of disability com m entators,
such as Finkelstein (1980) and Cam pling (1981) . These early critic al instincts in
disability studies encouraged Leonard (1984) to im plicate certain ideological structures (e.g. professional knowledge) and social institutions (e.g. the fam ily) in the
genesis of the disabled identity. However, Leonard s materialism is critically lim ited
by his failure to problematise, and explain , the political-economic structures
(notably, employm ent m arkets) which economically devalue disabled people and
thus expose them to ideological margin alisatio n.
Am ongst other things, materialism requires the recognition that all social
relatio ns are products of the practices which hum ans pursue in meeting their
basic needs for food, shelter, affective ties, m ovem ent and the like. The social
practices of each com munity are seen as transform ing the basic m aterials
both physical and biological received from previous societies (Bottom ore et al.,
19 83). These basic, historically-re ceived m aterials are known to m aterialism
as ` rst nature , and include everything from the built environm ent to the
bodies social actors receive from previous generatio ns. W hen these materials are
then taken and rem ade by a succeeding society they becom e known as `second
nature .
From materialism em erges a distinctive conception of disability which parallels
this twin conception of rst and second natures [see, for exam ple, Abberley (1987,
19 91a,b ), Finkelstein (1980) and Oliver (1986, 1990)] . These theorists have insisted
upon an im portant conceptual distinction between im pairment, which refers to the
absence of part of or all of a lim b, or havin g a defective lim b, organism or
m echanism of the body and disability, which is the socially im posed state of
exclusion or constraint that physically im paire d individuals m ay be forced to endure
(O liver, 19 90). From this disability is de ned as a social oppression which any society
m ight produce in its transform ation of rst nature the bodies and m aterials
received from previous social form ations. The critical point is that the social
construction of physically im paire d people as disabled people arises, in the rst
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B. J. Gleeson
instance, from the speci c ways in which society organises its basic m aterial activities
(work, transport, leisure, dom estic activities). A ttitudes, discourses and sym bolic
representations are, of course, critical to the reproduction of disablement, but are
themselves the product of the social practices which society undertakes in order to
m eet its basic m aterial needs. Important is the assum ption that im pairm ent is sim ply
a bodily state, charac terised by absence or altered physiology, which de nes the
physicality of certain people. N o a priori assum ption is m ade about the social
m eaning or signi cance of impairm ent. Impairm ent can only be understood concretely viz. historically and culturally through its socialisation as disability or
som e other (less repressive) social identity.
This is not to say that the m aterialist position ignores the real lim its which
nature, through impairm ent, places upon individuals. R ather, materialists seek to
separate, both ontologically and politic ally, the oppressive social experience of
disability from the unique functional lim itatio ns (and capacities) which im pairm ent
can pose for individuals. Impairm ent is a form of rst nature which certainly
em bodies a given set of lim itatio ns and abilitie s which then places real and ineluctable conditions on the social capacities of certain individuals. However, the
social capacities of im paire d people can never be de ned as a set of knowable and
historically xed `functional lim itatio ns . The capacities of impaired people are
conditioned both culturally and historically and m ust therefore be de ned through
concrete spatiotem poral analyses.
Far from being a natural hum an experience, disability is what may become of
im pairm ent as each society produces itself sociospatially : there is no necessary
correspondence between im pairm ent and disability. There are only historicalgeograp hical correspondences which obtain when som e societies, in the course of
producing and reproducing themselves, oppressively transform im paired rst nature
as disablement. A s the foregoing survey dem onstrated, there is an established
tendency for disability analysts to reduce disability to im pairm ent: the ahistorical
and aspatial assumption that nature dictates the social delimitation of disability.
A gain st this, m aterialis m recognises that different societies m ay produce environm ents which lib erate the capacities of impaired people whilst not aggrav ating their
lim itatio ns.
It is certainly possible to point to historical societies where im pairm ent was
sociospatially reproduced in far less disablin g ways than has been the case in
capitalism . The historical analyses of M orris (1969) , T opliss (1979) , Finkelstein
(1980) , Ryan & Thom as (19 87), Gleeson (1993) and Dorn (1994) have all opposed
the idea that capitalist society is inherently less disabling than previous social form s.
G leeson s (199 3) substantial em pirical investigatio n has shown, for exam ple, that
whilst im pairm ent was probably a prosaic feature of the feudal Englan d, disablem ent
was not.
Gleeson (1993) attribu tes the non-disablin g character of feudal Englis h society
both to a con ned realm of physical interaction and, m ore importantly,
to the relative ly weak presence of com modity production. He argues that the
grow th of comm odity relations in late feudal Englan d (i.e. from around the 15th
century) slowly eroded the labour-power of impaired people. M arket relatio ns,
195
and the com m odi cation of labour, introduced a social evaluation of work the
law of value into peasant households which had heretofore been relatively
autonom ous production units. T he increasing social authority of the law of value
m eant the subm ission of peasant households to an abstract external force (m arket
relatio ns) which appraised the worth of individual labour in term s of average
productivity standards. From the rst, this com petitive, social evaluation of
individual lab our-power m eant that `slower , `weaker or m ore in exib le workers
were devalued in term s of their potential for paid work [see also M andel (1968 ) on
this].
Im paired workers thus entered the rst historical stage of capitalis t accum mulation handicapped by the devaluing logic of the law of value and com petitive
com m odity relatio ns. Also under the im press of com m odity relatio ns, sites of
production were them selves evolving (in fact, convulsively by the late 18th century),
and were recreating as social spaces which were compelled by the logic of
com petition to seek the m ost productive forms of labour-power. The `origin al
handicap which early com m odity relatio ns bestowed upon im paire d people was
crucial in setting a trajectory of change in both the social relations of production and
their sociospatial settings (e.g. factories) which progre ssively devalued their labour
power.
The com m odi cation of lab our resulted in the production of increasingly
disabling enviro nments in Britain and its colonies. The emergence of the industrial
city in the late eighteenth century crystallised the sociospatial oppression of disabled
people which had been slowly rising after the appearance of com m odity relations in
the late feudal era.
One disablin g feature of the industrial city was the new separatio n of hom e and
work, a comm on (if not universal) aspect of industrialism which was all, but absent
in the feudal era. This disjuncture of hom e and work created a powerfully disabling
friction in everyday life for physically im paire d people. In addition, industrial
workplaces were structured and used in ways which disabled `uncompetitive
workers, including physically im paired people. The rise of m echanised form s of
production introduced productivity standards which assum ed a `norm al (viz,
usually m ale and non-im paired) worker s body and disabled all others.
As M arx (1981) pointed out at the tim e, one result of these changes was the
production of an `incapable stratum of labour, m ost of which was eventually
incarcerated in a new institutional system of workhouses, hospitals, asylum s, and
(later) `crippleages . Industrialism , he believed
produced too great a section of the population which is
incapable of
work, which owing to its situation is dependent on the exploitatio n of the
labour of others or on kinds of work that can only count as such within a
miserable m ode of production. (M arx, 1981, p. 366.)
For impaired people then, the social history of capitalism appears as a sociospatial
dialectic of comm odi cation and spatial change which progressively disabled their
lab our power.
19 6
B. J. Gleeson
197
T his is certainly not to say that attitudinal change, for example, should not be an
im portant goal in the struggle again st disablem ent. The m aterialist view acknowledges the critical role of beliefs, sym bols, ideologies, and the lik e, in reproducing
disabling social enviro nm ents. [Shakespeare (199 4), for example, has argued persuasively for the consideratio n of `cultural representations within `social models of
disability.] However, the central em phasis for a transform ative politic al practice
m ust be on changing the m aterial structures which margin alise and devalue im paired
people.
Im portantly, these structural phenom ena cannot be reduced to sim ple `material
surfaces , such as the built enviro nm ent, but m ust include the social practices and
institutions which devalo rise the capabilitie s of impaired people [18]. The discriminatory design of workplaces, for example, often appears to disabled people as the
im m ediate source of their economic exclusion. However, this is true in only a very
im m ediate sense. The real source of econom ic devaluation is the set of sociostructural forces that condition the production of disablin g workplaces. The com modity
lab our market is, for exam ple, clearly im plicated in the construction of disabling
em ploym ent enviro nm ents. T his m arket realm , through the principle of employm ent competition, ensures that certain individuals (or bodies) will be rewarded and
socially-en abled by paid labour, whilst others are econom ically devalued and sentenced to social dependency, or worse.
An obvious targe t for change is the social system through which the labour of
individuals is valued (and devalued). This suggests that the com m odity labour
m arket m ust either be dispensed with or radically restructured so that the principle
of com petition is displaced from its central role in evaluating tness for em ploym ent
(cf. Barnes, 1992; Trowbridge, 1993; Lunt & Thornton, 199 4). The com modity
lab our m arket uses the lens of competition to distort and magnify the lim itatio ns of
im paire d people: a just society would seek to liberate the bodily capacities of all
individuals (cf. Y oung, 1990).
Short of a profound transform ation of competitive labour relations, it is dif cult
to im agine the end of disablement. In the era of global `market truim phalism
(A ltvater, 1993), m any will prom ptly dism iss the m aterialist view forthwith as
politic ally naive. A recognition, however, that comm odity relatio ns exploit workers
or that patriarchy oppresses wom en has not stopped feminist and class-based social
m ovem ents pursuing broad political change aim ed at transforming these oppressive
structures. N either should the vastness of the emancipatory project overw helm
disabled people and their allies.
NOT ES
[1]
Historical materialism the philosophical underpinning of M arxist social theory sees the
production of people s natural (physical) needs as the motive force in human history
(Bottomore et al. , 1983). Very broadly, materialism is a mode of social explanation that
emphasises the economic and social activities which humans undertake in order to m eet
their everyday needs. In this view, ideological, psychological and other non-material
processes, are seen as important, though not in themselves determinative, dynamics in
social life.
19 8
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
B. J. Gleeson
This is to say, self-consciously organised, rather than lucid or insightful.
Barnes (1995, p. 378) has argued recently that `most of the work on disability coming out
of
the USA
has been bereft of theory .
There are relatively few academic departments which deal exclusively with disability theory
and policy in W estern universities.
The collections edited by Barton (1989) and Swain et al. (1993) are exceptions to this
observation; although in both volumes the engagement by m any of the contributing authors
with social theory is both uneven and limited.
See, for example, the collection by Begum et al. (1994) and the recent review of this by
Oliver (1995).
Normalisation continues to inform service policy and practice in many Western countries:
witness the recent volume of essays on Norm alisation in Practice edited by Alaszewski & Ong
(1990).
See also Wolfensberger & Nirje (1972) for a full explanation of the principle.
The title of Hevey s (1992) recent treatise on disability, social theory and photography
suggests the abandonment of disabled people by the discipline of history.
These authors make the general claim that `while modern social science developed, the
disabled as a social group were ignored (M cC agg & Siegelbaum, 1989, p. 5).
The six historical essays on disability in the Soviet Union in the M cCagg & Siegelbaum
(1989) collection m ust also be noted here. Unfortunately, the rather singular national focus
of the studies reduces their relevance to the present discussion.
See also Berkowitz (1987) and Liachowitz (1988) for alternative statist accounts which
focus on the development of disability policy in the United States.
`The customs and code of honour of the tribe are opposed to any individual accumulation
in excess of the average (M andel, 1968, pp. 30 31, his em phasis).
It is timely, given this and previous criticisms, to recall here Marx s (1978, p. 5) warning
that we cannot judge `a period of transformation by its own consciousness; on the contrary,
this consciousness must be explained rather from the contradictions of material life
.
Liachowitz (1988) has also produced a chronicle of American disability legislation. The
author alludes to a materialist position by asserting that disability is the product of the
`relationship between physically impaired individuals and their social environments
(1988, p. 2). However, Liachowitz later reduces this `social environment to its juridical
content by announcing her intention to `demonstrate how particular laws have conv erted
physical deviation into social and civil disability (1988, p. 3, em phasis added). Thus, the
entire m aterial substrate of the social environment vanishes leaving only a juridical
superstructure.
C riticism of the important and erudite work of Hahn is made with some hesitation.
However, it m ust be said that he tends at times to dematerialise his analysis by relying too
heavily on aesthetically-based explanations of disability (see especially his 1987 paper).
According to M arx, the industrial reserve army included `the demoralised, the ragged, and
those unable to work , including `the victims of industry the mutilated (1976, p. 797).
See Gleeson (1993, 1995) and Longmore (1995), for a fuller explanation of the dangers
of crude m aterialisms which reduce the the social oppression of disability to a problem of
`access in the built environment.
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