INTERCHONDRAL LIGAMENTS

The eighth and ninth costal cartilages are firmly united by fibrous tissue. The
chondro-xiphoid ligament attaches the ninth costal cartilage to the xiphoid
cartilage. The remaining cartilages are rather loosely attached to each other
by elastic tissue.
STERNAL ARTICULATIONS
In the new-born foal the seven bony segments are united by persisting
cartilage (Synchondrosses intersternales). The last two segments coalesce
within a few weeks after birth. In old subjects there is more or less
ossification of the intersternebral cartilage, which may lead to fusion of
adjacent segments, especially posteriorly. The internal sternal ligament
(Lig.sterni proprium internum) lies on the thoracic surface of the sternum. It
arises on the first segment, and divides opposite the second chondro-sternal
joint into theree parts. The median branch passes backward and spreads out
on the last segment and the xiphoid cartilage. The lateral branches-thicker
and wider-lie along the lateral borders above the chondro-sternal joints, and
end at the cartilage of the eighth rib; they are covered by the transversus
thoracis muscle.
THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE SKULL
MANDIBULAR ARTICULATION
This joint (Articulation mandibularis) is a diarthrosis formed between the
ramus of the mandible and the squamous temporal bone on either side.
The articular surfaces are dissimilar in from and size. That on the
squamous temporal bone is concavo-convex, and the long axis is directed
outward and somewhat forward; it consists of a condyle in from and a glenoid
cavity, which is continued upon the postglenoid process behind. The
mandible presents a transversely elongater condyle.
The articular disc (Discus articularis) is placed between the joint surfaces,
which it renders congruent. Its surfaces are molded upon the temporal and
mandibular surfaces respectively, and its circumference is attached to the
joint capsule; thus it divides the joint cavity into upper and lower
compartments, the former being the more roomy.
The joint capsule is strong and tight. It is reinforced by two ligaments. The
lateral ligament (Lig. Laterale) extends obliquely across the anterior part of
the lateral surface of the capsule, from which it is not distinctly separable.
The posterior ligament (Lig. Posterius) is an elastic band which is attached
above to the postglenoid process, and below to a line on the posterior face of
the neck of the mandible.
Movements.-The chief movements take around a transverse axis passing
through both joints. Associated with this hinge-like action is slight gliding
movement, as in opening and shutting the mouth. When the mouth is shut,
the condyle of the mandible lies under the glenoid cavity. When the mandible
is depressed, the condyle moves forward under the articular eminence of the
temporal bone, carrying the disc with it. In protrusion and retraction of the

lower jaw the gliding movement just described occurs without the hingle-like
rotation of the condyle. These movements are similar in both joints. In the
tranverse movements (as usually performed in mastication) the action
consists of rotation of the condyles around a vertical axis, while the disc
glides forward on one side and backward on the other.
SYNARTHROSSES OF THE SKULL
Most of the bones of the skull are united with the adjacent bones by sutures;
A few are united by cartilage. The difference in the uniting medium depends
on the fact that most of these bones are developed in membrane, but some
are preformed in cartilage. Most of these joints and are obliterated at various
periods during development and growth. Their importance lies in the fact that
so long as they persist, continuous growth is possible. They are usually
designated according to the bones which enter into their formation, e.g.,
sphenosquamous, naso-frontal, etc.
The principal synchondroses are:
1. That between the basilar part of the occipital bone and the body
sphenoid (Synchondrosis spheno-occipitalis);
2. That between the presphenoid (Synchondrosis intersphenodalis);
3. Those between the parts of the occipital bone (Synchondrosis
intraoccipitales).
The first is ossified at four or five years, the second at three years, and the
occipital bone is consolidated at two years.
The symphysis mandibulae ossifies at one to six months.
THE HYOIDEAN ARTICULATIONS
The temporo-hyoid articulation is an amphiarthrosis, in which the articular
angle of the dorsal end of the great cornu of the hyoid bone is attached by a
short bar of cartilage to the hyoid process of the petrous temporal bone. The
cartilage (Arthrohyoid) is about half an inch (ca.1-1.5 cm.) in length. The chief
movement is hinge-like, the axis of motion passing transversely through both
joints.
The intercornual articulation is an amphiarthrisis formed by the junction of
the ventral extremity of the great cornu with the dorsal end of the small
cornu of the hyoid bone. They are united by a very short piece of cartilage, in
which there is usually a small nodule of bone in the young subject. This
nodule, the epihyoid or middle cornu, is usually fused with the great cornu in
the adult. The chief movement here is also hinge-like, the algle between the
cornua being increased or diminished.
The basi-cornual articulation is a diarthrosis formed by the junction of
each small cornu with the body of the hyoid bone. The small has a concave
facet which articulates with the convex facet on either end of the dorsal
surface of the body. The capsule is ample enough to allow considerable
movement, which is chiefly hinge-like.
The movements of the hyoid bone are concerned chiefly in the acts of
mastication and swallowing. In the latter the ventral parts of the hyoid bone

are moved forward and upward, carrying the root of the tongue and the
larynx with them, and then return to their formed position.
THE ARTICULATIONS OF THE THORACIC LIMB
In the absence of the clavicle the thoracic limb forms no articulation with the
trunk, to which it is attached by muscle. The movement of the shoulder on
the chest-wall is chiefly rotation around a transverse axis passing through the
scapula behin the upper part of the spine.

THE SHOULDER JOINT

The shoulder or scapulo-humeral joint (Articulation scapulo-humeralis) is
formed by the junction of the distal end of the scapula with the proximal end
of the humerus. The articular surfaces are:
1. on the scapula, the glenoid cavity;
2. on the humerus, the head.
Both surfaces are approximately spherical and similar in curvature, but
the humeral surface is about twice as extensive as that of the scapula.
The joint capsule is ample enough to allow the bones to be drawn apart
about an inch (ca. 2-3 cm.); but this requires a very considerable amount of
force unless air is admitted into the joint cavity. The fibrous layer is not
attached to the margin of the joint surfaces, but at a distance of one to two
centimeters from it. It is strengtherned in front by two diverging elastic
bands, which arise on the tuber scapulae and end on the tuberosities of the
humerus. A pad of fat is interposed between the capsule and the tendon of
the biceps.
Ligaments are abent from this joint, but the muscles and tendons around it
afford remarkable security, so that dislocation very seldom occurs. The large
extend of the head of the humerus is also of importance in this regard.
Movements.-While it is a typical enarthosis in structure, and capable of the
various movements of the ball-and-socket joint, the chief normal movements
are flexion and extension. In the position of rest the angle formed between
the scapula and humerus posteriorly is about 120 to 130 ; in flexion it is
reduced to about 80, and in extension it is increased to about 145.
Adduction and abduction are very resticted, the formed being limited chiefly
by the infraspinatus, the latter by the subscapularis and the low insertion of
the superficial pectoral muscles. Rotation is somewhat freer, but does not
exceed 33 when all the muscles are removed (Franck).
THE ELBOW JOINT
This, the cubital articulation (Articulatio cubiti), is a ginglymus formed
between the distal extremity of the humerus and the proximal ends of the
radiu and ulna.
The articular surfaces are:
1. A trochlear surface formed by the condyles of the humerus;
2. The corresponding glenoid cavities and ridge on the proximal

extremity of the radius, together with the semilunar notch of the ulna.
The joint capsule is extremily thin behind, where it forms a pouch in the
olecranon fossa under the anconeus muscle and a pad of fat. In front it is
strengthened by oblique fibers (Lig. Obliquum or anterior ligament), and on
each side it fuses with the collateral ligaments. It also is adherent to the
tendons of muscles which arise from the distal end of the humerus or end on
the proximal end of the radius. The synovial membrane sends
prolongations to the small radio-ulnar joints and also pouches downward
under the origins of the flexors of the digit and the lateral flexor of the
carpus. There are two collateral ligaments.
The medial ligament (Lig. Collateral radiale) is attached above to an
aminence on the medial epicondyle of the humerus, and divides into two
parts: the long, superficial part ends on the medial border of the radius, just
below the level of the interosseous spacel; the deep, short part is inserted
into the medical tuberosity of the radius.
The lateral ligament (Lig. Collateral ulnare) is short and strong. It is
attached above to a depression on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus, and
below to the lateral tuberosity of the radius, just below the margin of the
articular surface.
Movements.-This joint is a typical ginglymus, the only movements being
flexion and extension around an axis which passes through the proximal
attachments of the collateral ligaments. In the strading position the articular
angle (in front) is about 150. The range of movement is about 55 to 60.
Complete extension is prevented chiefly by the tension of the collateral
ligaments and the biceps muscle. (The axis of movement is slightly oblique,
so that in flexion the forearm is carried somewhat outward.)
THE RADIO-ULNAR ARTICULATION
In the foal the shalt of the ulna is attached to the radius above and below the
interosseous space by the interosseous ligament of the forearm (Lig.
Interosseum antibrachii). Below the space the two bones become fused
before adult age is reached. Above the space the ligament usually persists,
but may undergo more or less ossification in extreme old age.
The transverse or arciform ligament (Lig.transversum ulnare et radiale
ulnae et radii) consist of fibers which pass above the interosseous space from
esch border of the shaft of the ulna to the posterior surface of the radius. The
proximal radio-ulnar articulation (Articulatio radio-ulnaris proximalis),
formed by two small convex facets on the ulna and the corresponding facets
on the posterior surface of the proximal extremity of the radius, is inclosed in
the capsule of the elbow-joint and does not require separate consideration.
The distal extremity of the ulna fuses early with the radius, and is therefore
regarded usually as a part of the latter.
Movement.- This is inappreciable, the forearm being fixed in the position of
pronation.
THE CARPAL JOINTS
These joints taken together constitute the composite articulation carpi, or
what is popularly temed the knee-joint in animals. This consists of three

chief joints, viz., (1) The radio-carpal or antibrachio-carpal joint

(Articulation radiocarpea) formed by the distal end of the radius and the
proximal row of the carpus; (2)the intercarpal joint (Articulatio intercarpea),
formed between the two rows of the carpus; (3) the carpo-metacarpal joint
(Articulatio carpometacarpea), formed between the distal row of the carpus
and the carpus and the proximal ends of the metacarpal bones. The proximal
and middle joints may be regarded as ginglymi, although they are not typical
or pure examples of hinge-joints. The distal joint is arthrodial. In addition
there are arthrodial joints formed between adjacent bones of the same row
(Articulationes interosseae). All these from a composite joint with numerous
ligaments. The articular surface have been described in the Osteology.
The joint capsule may be regarded, so far as the fibrous part is concerned,
as being common to all three joints. It is attached close to the margin of the
articular surface of the radius above and the metacarpus below; its deep face
is also attached to a considerable extent to the carpal carpal bones and to
the small ligaments. Its anterior part, the dorsal carpal igament, is loose,
except during flexin, and assist in forming the fibrous canals for the extensor
tendons. Its posterios part, the volar carpal ligament( Lig. Carpi volare),
is vety thick and dense, and is closely attached to the carpal bones. It levels
up the irregularities of the skeleton here, and forms the smooth anterior wakk
of the carpal canal. It is continued downward to form the subcarpal or
inferior check ligament, which blends with the tendon of the deep flexor of
the digit about the middle of the metacarpus, and may well be regarded as
the carpal(tendinous) head of the muscle.
The synovial membrane forms three sacs corresponding to the three joints.
The radio-carpal sac is the most voluminous; it includes the joints formed
by the accesory carpal bone, and also those between the proximal carpal
bones as far as the interosseous ligaments. The intercarpal sac sends
extensious upward and downward between the bones of the two rows as far
as the interosseous ligaments; it comunicates between the third and fourth
carpal bones with the carpo-metacarpal sac.The latter is very limited in
extent, and is closely applied to the bones; it incloses the carpo-metacarpal
joint, and lubricates also the lower parts of the joints between the distal
carpal bones and the inter-metacarpl joints.
The lateral carpal ligament(Lig. Carpi collaterale ulnare) is attached
above to the lateral tuberosity of the distal end of the radius. Its long
superficial part is attached below to the proximal end of the lateral small
metacarpal chiefly, but some fibres end on the large metacarpal bone. A
canal for the lateral extensor tendon separates a short deep band which ends
of the ulnar carpal bone. Other deep fibres connect the latter with the fourth
carpal bone, and the fourth carpal with the metacarpus.
The medial carpal ligament(Lig. Carpi collaterale radiale) resembles the
preceding in general, but is stronger and wider distally. It is attached above to
the medial tuberosity of the distal and of the radius and ends below on the
proximal ends of the large and medial small metacarpal bones. The first
carpal bone, when present, is usually embedded in the posterior part of the
distal end of the ligament. The posterior part of the ligament is fused with the
transverse ligament of the carpus(Lig. Carpi transversum), and concurs in the
formation of a canal for the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis.

Movements- Taking the joint as a whole, the chief movements are flexion
and extension. In the standing position the joint is extended. When the joint is
flexed, slight transverse movement and rotation can be produced by
manipulation. The dorsal part of the capsule is, of course, tense during
flexion, the volar part in extension.
INTERMETACARPAL JOINTS
The small joints formed between the proximal ends of the metacarpal
bones(Articulationes intermetacarpeae) are enclosed by the carpal joint
capsule, as described above. The opposed surfaces of the shafts of the bones
are closely united by an interosseous metacarpal ligament ( Lig.
Interosseum metacarpi), which often undergoes mor or less extensive
ossification.
THE FETLOCK JOINT
This, the metacarpo-phalangeal articulation( Articulatio metacarpophalangea), is a ginglymus formed by the junction of the distal end of the
large( third) metacarpal bone, the proximal and of the first phalanx, and the
proximal sesamoid bones.
Articular Surfaces- The surface on the large metacarpal bone is
approximately eylindrical in curvature, but is divided into two slightly unequal
parts by a sagittal ridge. This is received into a socket formed by the first
phalanx below and the two sesamoids together with the intersesamoid
ligament behind. The latter is a mass of fibro-cartilage in which the sesamoid
bones are largely embedded. It extends above the level of the sesamoids,
and is grooved to received the ridge on the metacarpal bone; its volar surface
forms a smooth groove for the deep flexor tendon.
The joint capsule is attached around the margin of the articular surfaces. It
is thick and ample in front; here a bursa is interposed between it and the
extensor tendons, but the tendons are also attached to the capsule.
Posteriorly it a forms a thin-walled pouch which extends, upward between the
metacarpal bone and the suspensory ligament about as high as the point of
bifurcation of the latter. The capsule is reinforced by two collateral ligaments.
The collateral ligaments, medial and lateral( Lig. Collaterale ulnare,
radiale), are partially divided into two layers: the superficial layer arises
from the eminence on the side of the distal end of the large metacarpal bone,
and passes straight to the rough area below the margin of the articular
surface of the first phalanx; the deep layer, shorter and much stronger,
arises in the depression on the side of the distal and of the metacarpal bone,
and passes obliquely downward and backward to be inserted into the abaxial
surface of the sesamoid and the proximal end of the first phalanx.
Movements-These are of the nature of flexion and extension, the axis of
motion passing through the proximal attachmets of the collateral ligaments.
In the ordinary standing position the joint is in a state of partial dorsal flexion,
the articular angle(in front) being about 140.( In the hind limb it is about 5
greater.). Diminution of this angle( sometimes termed overextension) is
normally very limited on account of the resistance offered by the
sesamoidean apparatus, but it varies considerably in amount in different

subjects. Volar flexion is limited only by contact of the heels with the
metacarpus. During volar flexion a small amount of abduction, adduction and
rotation are possible.
THE SESAMOIDEAN LIGAMENTS
Under this head will be described a number of important ligaments which are
connected with the sesamoid bones and form a sort of stay apparatus or
brace.
The intersesamoidean ligament( Lig. Intersesamoideum) not onlly fills the
space between and unites the sesamoid bones, but also extends above them,
entering into the formation of the articular of the fetlock joint. Other facts in
regard to it have been given above.
The collateral sesamoidean ligaments, lateral and medial( Lig.
Sesamoidea ulnare et radiale), arise on the abaxial surface of each sesamoid
bone, pass forward, and divide into two branches, one which ends in the
depression on the distal end of the large metacarpal bone, the other on the
eminence on the proximal end of the first phalanx. They are partly covered by
the braches of the suspensory or superior sesamoidean ligament.
The suspensory ligament or interosseus tendon(Tendo interosseus) lies
in great part in the metacarpal groove, where it has the form of a wide, thick
band. It is attached above to the proximal part of the posterior surface of the
large metacarpal bone and to the distal row of carpal bones. At the distal
fourth of the metacarpus it divides into two dierging branches. Each branch
passes to the abaxial face of the corresponding sesamoid, on which a
considerable part is attached. The remainder passes obliquely downward and
forward to the dorsal surface of the first phalanx, where it joins the extensor
tendon; there is a bursa between this extensor branch and the proximal end
of the first phalanx. This ligament possesses considerable elasticity, and is
the highly modified interosseous medius muscle.It consists mainly of the
tendinous tissue, but contains a variable amount of striped muscular tissue,
especially in deep part and in young subjects. Its principal function is to
support the fetlock, to prevent excessive dorsal flexion of the joint when the
weight is put on the limb. The branches which join the common extensor
tendon limit volar flexion of the interphalangeal joints in certain phases of
movement.
The distal sesamoidean ligaments are three in number. The superficial
or straight sesamoidean ligament( Lig. Sesamoideum rectum) is a flat
band and is somewhat wider above than below. It is attached above to the
bases of the sesamoid bones and the intersesamoid ligament, below to the
complementary fibro-cartilage of the proximal end of the second phalanx.
The middle sesamoidean ligament( Lig. Sesamoideum obliquus) is
triaungular, with thick, rounded marginds and a thin central portion. Its base
attached to the sesamoid bones and intersesamoid ligament, and ist deep
face to the triangular rough are on the volar surface of the first phalanx. The
deep or cruciate sesamoidean ligaments( Lig. Sesamoidea cruciata),
consist of two thin layers of fibres which arise on the base of the sesamoid
bones, cross each other, and end on the opposite eminence on the proximal
end of the first phalanx.

The two short sesamoidean ligaments( Lig. Sesamoidea brevia) are best
seen by opening the joint in front and pushing the sesamoid bones backward;
they are covered by the synovial membrane. They are short bands which
extend from the anterior part of the base of the sesamoid bones outward and
inward, respectively, to the posterior margin of the articular surface of the
first phalanx.
The distal sesamoidean ligaments may be regarded as digital continuations
of the suspensory ligament, the sesamoid bones being intercalated in this
remarkable stay apparatus, by which the fetlock is supported and concussion
siminished.
This, the proximal interphalangeal articulation( Articulatio
interphalangea proximalis), is a ginglymus formed by the junction of the
distal and of the first phalanx and the proximal end of the second phalanx.
The articular surface are: (1) On the first phalanx, two slightly unequal
convex areas with an intermediate shallow groove; (2) on the second
phalanx, a coresponding surface, completed behind by a plate of fibrocartilage.
The joint capsule is close-fitting in front and on the sides, where it blends
with the extensor tendon and the collateral ligaments respectively. Behind it
pouches upward a little and is reinforced by the straight sesamoidean
ligament and the branches of the superficial flexor tendon.
There are two collateral and four volar ligaments.
The collateral ligaments, medial and lateral( Lig. Collaterale radiale,
ulnare), are very short and strong bands which are attached above on the
eminence and depession on each side of the distal end of the first phalanx,
and below on the eminence on each side of the proximal end of second
phalanx. The The direction of the ligaments is about vertical and, therefore,
does not correspond to the digital axis.
The volar ligaments( Lig. Volaria) consist of central pair and lateral and
medial bands which are attached below to the posterior margin of the
proximal end of the second phalanx and its complementary fibro-cartilage.
The lateral and medial ligaments are attached above to the middle of the
borders of the first phalanx, the central pair lower down and on the margin of
the triangular rough area.
Movements-These are very limited, and consist of flexion and extension. The
axis of motion passes transversaly through the distal end of the first phalanx.
In the standing position the joint is extended. A small amount of volar flexion
is possible, and in this position slight lateral and medial flexion and rotation
can be produced by manipulation. Dorsal flexion is prevented by the lateral,
volar, and straight sesamoidean ligaments.