Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

Villamor Air Base, Pasay City
Tel. 854-64-55. Telefax 853-51-27

INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTER CONCEPT

Submitted By: GROUP 1

Alday, John Michael
Agrao, Allaine
Aque, Gabriel Lloyd
Bandojan, Patricia Marie
Carandang, Andrei John
Babiera, John Louie
Rosales, Jason

Table of Contents
Syllabus..5-8
PRELIM PERIOD
1. Introduction to Computer Concepts.9
A. Data Processing .9
1.) Data Processing Function9-10
a. Types and Elements.10-11
b. Data vs. Information11
2.) Data Processing System (Cycle) ..12-15
B. Computer System16
1.) Introduction to Computer16-20
2.) Historical Developments..20
3.) Characteristics, capabilities and Limitations..
4.) Classification of Computers.
5.) Basic Elements of a Computer System
a. Hardware.
b. Software
c. Peopleware.
2. Data Recording Media..
a. The Punched Card..
b. Paper Tape, Magnetic Tape & Cassette Tape..
c. Diskettes..
d. Hard Disk or Fixed Disk..
e. CD/ DVD
f. Flash Memory Cards
g. Smart Cards
3. Programming Languages
a. Categories of Programming Languages..
b. Features of Programming languages
4. Algorithm and Flowcharts
a. Advantages and Limitations of Flowcharting
b. Types of Flowcharts
c. Flowcharting Templates and Symbol.

MIDTERM PERIOD
1. Number
System
A. Data representation in Computers
B. Binary System
1.) Binary Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division
2.) Decimal-Binary Conversion..
3.) Binary-Decimal Conversion..
C. Conversion of Fractions.
1.) Decimal to Binary
2.) Non-terminating Conversion of Fractions. .
3.) Converting decimal Numbers with Integral and Fractional Parts into Binary
Equivalent.
4.) Converting Binary Numbers with Integral and Fractional Parts into Decimal
Equivalent
D. Octal
System
1.) Decimal Octal Conversion.
2.) Octal-Decimal Conversion
3.) Octal Fractions
4.) Octal Binary Conversion.
5.) Binary Octal Conversion.
E. Hexadecimal System
1.) Decimal Hexadecimal Conversion.
2.) Hexadecimal Decimal Conversion
3.) Hexadecimal Binary Conversion..
4.) Binary Hexadecimal Conversion

FINAL PERIOD
1. Introduction to Windows Operating System.
A. Introduction
1.) Overview of OS
2.) DOS Commands & Utilities.
B. Windows Operating System
1.) To start and close Windows..
2.) Desktop..
3.) Icons
4.) Program Manager
5.) Control Panel..
6.) Windows Explorer..
7.) Basic mouse skill
8.) Parts of Windows screen
9.) Copying, Editing & Printing Files
10.) File Management

2. Microsoft Word Application

a. Introduction to MS Word..
b. Creating Documents..
c. Opening a New File.
d. Entering Text
e. Saving and Naming File
3. Formatting Documents.
a. Formatting Text changing fonts, Font size & Text color..
b. Aligning & Justifying Text
c. Copying & Moving Data w/ the Clipboard..
4. Specialized & Advanced Application
a. Decorating Files w/ Clip art & Word art..
b. Inserting a Clip Art Image into A File
c. Handling Objects in a File
d. Putting Headers & Footers on Pages
e. Constructing a Table.
f. Laying out the Columns & Rows.
g. Putting Footnotes & Endnotes in Documents
h. Mail-Merge

Index
4

Republic of the Philippines

PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
Villamor Air Base, Pasay City
Tel. 854-64-55. Telefax 853-51-27

INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES

SYLLABUS OF INSTRUCTION
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

COURSE CODE
: IT 111
COURSE TITLE
: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER CONCEPT
COURSE CREDIT : 3 UNITS
Prerequisite
:
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
At the end of the course, the student will have adequate knowledge necessary to
the understanding and appreciation of computers as data processing tools and of the
fundamental concepts of electronic data processing.

VI. COURSE OBJECTIVES

VII. COURSE CONTENTS
PRELIM PERIOD
1. Introduction to Computer Concepts
A. Data Processing
1.) Data Processing Function
a. Types and Elements
b. Data vs. Information
2.) Data Processing System (Cycle)
B. Computer System
1.) Introduction to Computer
2.) Historical Developments
3.) Characteristics, capabilities and Limitations
4.) Classification of Computers
5.) Basic Elements of a Computer System
a. Hardware
b. Software
c. Peopleware
2. Data Recording Media
a. The Punched Card
b. Paper Tape, Magnetic Tape & Cassette Tape
c. Diskettes
d. Hard Disk or Fixed Disk
e. CD/ DVD
f. Flash Memory Cards
g. Smart Cards
3. Programming Languages
a. Categories of Programming Languages
5

b. Features of Programming languages

4. Algorithm and Flowcharts
a. Advantages and Limitations of Flowcharting
b. Types of Flowcharts
c. Flowcharting Templates and Symbols

MIDTERM PERIOD
1. Number System
A. Data representation in Computers
B. Binary System
1.) Binary Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division
2.) Decimal-Binary Conversion
3.) Binary-Decimal Conversion
C. Conversion of Fractions
1.) Decimal to Binary
2.) Non-terminating Conversion of Fractions.
3.) Converting decimal Numbers with Integral and Fractional
Parts into Binary Equivalent.
4.) Converting Binary Numbers with Integral and Fractional Parts
into Decimal Equivalent
D. Octal System
1.) Decimal Octal Conversion.
2.) Octal-Decimal Conversion
3.) Octal Fractions
4.) Octal Binary Conversion
5.) Binary Octal Conversion
E. Hexadecimal System
1.) Decimal Hexadecimal Conversion
2.) Hexadecimal Decimal Conversion
3.) Hexadecimal Binary Conversion
4.) Binary Hexadecimal Conversion

FINAL PERIOD
6

1. Introduction to Windows Operating System

A. Introduction
1.) Overview of OS
2.) DOS Commands & Utilities
B. Windows Operating System
1.) To start and close Windows
2.) Desktop
3.) Icons
4.) Program Manager
5.) Control Panel
6.) Windows Explorer
7.) Basic mouse skill
8.) Parts of Windows screen
9.) Copying, Editing & Printing Files
10.) File Management
2. Microsoft Word Application
a. Introduction to MS Word
b. Creating Documents
c. Opening a New File
d. Entering Text
e. Saving and Naming File
3. Formatting Documents
a. Formatting Text changing fonts, Font size & Text color
b. Aligning & Justifying Text
c. Copying & Moving Data w/ the Clipboard

4. Specialized & Advanced Application

a. Decorating Files w/ Clip art & Word art
b. Inserting a Clip Art Image Into A File
c. Handling Objects in a File
d. Putting Headers & Footers on Pages
e. Constructing a Table
f. Laying out the Columns & Rows
g. Putting Footnotes & Endnotes in Documents
h. Mail-Merge

VIII. COURSE REQUIREMENTS:

Class Standing:
Major Exams:
I.

Quizzes, Seatwork, Assignments, room discussions,

recitations
Prelim, Midterm, Finals

GRADING SYSTEM:
CSP Class Standing in the Prelim Period
CSM Class Standing in the Midterm Period
CSF Class Standing in the Final Period

Midterm Average = 2/3 (Class Standing) + 1/3 (Major Exam. Ave.)

Class Standing = CSP + CSM
2
Major Exam Ave. = P + M
2
Final Average = 2/3 (Class Standing) + 1/3 (Major Exam. Ave.)
Class Standing = CSP + CSM + CSF
3
Major Exam Ave. = P + M + F
3
Note: Raw scores will be transmuted using the departments transmutation table.
Passing is 50%
IX COURSE REFERENCES:
1. La Putt, Juny Pilapil. Introduction to Computer Concepts
Course References:
2. Brookshear, J. Glenn. Computer Science: An Overview
3. De Guzman, Yabut and Mijares. Introduction to Computer Science
4. Microsoft Office CD Package

PRELIM PERIOD
8

Introduction to Computer Concepts

Data Processing
What is Data processing?
Data processing is, broadly, "the collection and manipulation of items
of data to produce meaningful information. In this sense it can be
considered a subset of information processing, "the change (processing)
of information in any manner detectable by an observer."
The term is often used more specifically in the context of a business or
other organization to refer to the class of commercial data processing
applications.
What are the functions of Data processing?
Data Processing Function
Data processing may involve various processes, including:
Validation Ensuring that supplied data is "clean, correct and useful."
Sorting "arranging items in some sequence and/or in different sets."
Summarization reducing detail data to its main points.
Aggregation combining multiple pieces of data.
Analysis the "collection, organization, analysis, interpretation and
presentation of data.".
Reporting list detail or summary data or computed information.
Classifying separates data into various categories
What are the Types of Data Processing?
Data processing goes through a cycle of input, processing and output.
This is done by using specific actions or patterns to attain the needed
outputs. The types of data processing correspond to the specific actions
as discussed below.
9

Recording
This is a type of data processing that pertains to transmitting facts into
various structures or documents. It is also the processing of facts from
intermediary records and data from computations.
Verifying
This pertains to the cautious examination of the documented information
for any inaccuracies.
Duplicating
This data processing pertains to the replication of records into numerous
copies or files.
Sorting
This data processing pertains to assembling or regrouping data in a
preset order, such as an alphabetic or numeric arrangement.
Summarizing and Reporting
This type of data processing wraps up a compilation of facts and
provides conclusions that correspond to the significance of the data
presented.
What are the Elements of Data Processing?
A system, including computer system and associated personnel, that
performs input, processing, storage, output and control functions to
accomplish a sequence on data.

10

In order to be processed by a computer, data needs first be converted

into a machine readable format. Once data are in digital format, various
procedures can be applied on the data to get useful information. Data
processing may involve various processes, including:

Data summarization
Data aggregation
Data validation
Data tabulation
Statistical analysis

What are the difference between Data and Information?

Data and Information
Distinct pieces of information usually formatted in a special way. All
software is divided into two general categories: data and programs.
Programs are collections of instructions for manipulating data.
Data can exist in a variety of forms -- as numbers or text on pieces of
paper, as bits and bytes stored in electronic memory, or as facts stored in
a person's mind.
Data refers to the lowest abstract or a raw input which when processed
or arranged makes meaningful output. It is the group or chunks which
represent quantitative and qualitative attributes pertaining to variables.
Information is usually the processed outcome of data. More specifically
speaking, it is derived from data. Information is a concept and can be
used in many domains.
Comparison chart
Data

Information

Meaning Data is raw, unorganized facts

When data is processed, organized,

11

Data

Information

that need to be processed. Data

can be something simple and
seemingly random and useless
until it is organized.

structured or presented in a given context so

as to make it useful, it is called information.

Each student's test score is one

Example piece of data.

The average score of a class or of the entire

school is information that can be derived
from the given data.

"Data" comes from a singular

Latin word, datum, which
originally meant "something
Etymology
given." Its early usage dates back
to the 1600s. Over time "data"
has become the plural of datum.

"Information" is an older word that dates

back to the 1300s and has Old French and
Middle English origins. It has always
referred to "the act of informing, " usually in
regard to education, instruction, or other
knowledge communication.

What is the Data Processing System?

Data Processing System
The Data Processing Cycle
The data processing activities described above are common to all data
processing systems from manual to electronic systems. These activities
can be grouped in four functional categories, viz., data input, data
processing, data output and storage, constituting what is known as a data
processing cycle.
Input
The term input refers to the activities required to record data and to
makeit available for processing. The input can also include the steps
necessary to check, verify and validate data contents.
Processing

12

The term processing denotes the actual data manipulation techniques

such as classifying, sorting, calculating, summarizing, comparing, etc.
that convert data into information.
Output
It is a communication function which transmits the information,
generated after processing of data, to persons who need the information.
Sometimes output also includes decoding activity which converts the
electronically generated information into human-readable form.
Communicate and Reproduce and Retrieve
Storage
It involves the filing of data and information for future use. The above
mentioned four basic functions are performed in a logical sequences
shown in Fig. 2.3 in all data processing systems.
Computer Processing Operations
A computer can perform only the following four operations which
enable computers to carry out the various data processing activities we
have just discussed.
Input/output operations
A computer can accept data (input) from and supply processed data
(output) to a wide range of input/output devices. These devices such as
keyboards, display screens, and printers make human-machine
communication possible.

Calculation and text manipulation Operations

13

Computer circuits perform calculations on numbers. They are also

capable of manipulating numerics and other symbols used in text
efficiency.
Logic/Comparison Operations
A computer also possesses the ability to perform logic operations. For
example, if we compare two items represented by the symbols A and B,
there are only three possible outcomes. A is less than B (A<B); A is
equal to B (A=B): or A is greater than B (A>B).A computer can perform
such comparisons and the, depending on the result, follow a
predetermined path to complete its work. This ability to compare is an
important property of computers.
Storage and Retrieval Operations
Both data and program instructions are stored internally in a computer.
Once they are stored in the internal memory, they can be called up
quickly or retrieved, for further use.
Data Processing System
The activity of data processing can be viewed as a "system. According
to James OBrien a system can be defined as "a group of interrelated
components that seeks the attainment of a common goal by accepting
inputs and producing outputs in an organized process". For example, a
production system accepts raw materials input and produces finished
goods as output. Similarly, a data processing system can be viewed as a
system that uses data as input and processes this data to produce
information as output. INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT
There are many kinds of data processing systems. A manual data
processing system is one that utilizes tools like pens, and filing cabinets.
A mechanical data processing system uses devices such as typewriters,

14

calculating machines and book-keeping machines. Finally, electronic

data processing uses computers to automatically process data.
INPUT - in these steps the initial data, or input data, are prepared in
some convenient form of processing. The form will defend on the
processing machine.
For example, when electromechanical devices are used
PROCESSING - In this step the input data are changed, and usually
combined with other information, to produce data is more useful form.
Thus, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary
of sales for the month maybe calculated from the sales orders. The
processing step usually involves a sequence of certain basic processing
operations.
OUTPUT - Here the results of the preceding processing steps are
collected. The particular form of the output data depends on the use of
data.

COMPUTER SYSTEM
What is Computer System?
The complete computer made up of the CPU, memory and related
electronics (main cabinet), all the peripheral devices connected to it and
its operating system. Computer systems fall into two categories: clients
and servers.
Clients are the user's laptop, desktop and tablet computers and smart
phones, while servers share their data and applications with multiple

15

users. Servers range from entry-level rack mounts to mainframes. See

rack mounted and mainframe.
A computer system is sized for the number of users it handles
simultaneously, the type of work performed (office, engineering, etc.)
and the volume of data that must be stored.

Introduction to Computer
What are computers?
Computers are machines that perform tasks or calculations according to
a set of instructions, or programs. The first fully electronic computers,
introduced in the 1940s, were huge machines that required teams of
people to operate. Compared to those early machines, today's computers
are amazing. Not only are they thousands of times faster, they can fit on
your desk, in your lap, or even in your pocket.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software.
Hardware refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch,
including the case and everything inside it. The most important piece of
hardware is a tiny rectangular chip inside your computer called the
central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It's the "brain" of your
computerthe part that translates instructions and performs
calculations. Hardware items such as your monitor, keyboard, mouse,
printer, and other items are often called hardware devices, or devices.
Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware
what to do. A word processing program that you can use to write letters
on your computer is a type of software. The operating system (OS) is
software that manages your computer and the devices connected to it.
Two well-known operating systems are Windows and Macintosh
operating system. Your computer uses the Windows operating system.

16

What are the Historical Developments of Computer?

Early Computing Machines and Inventors
The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is
still in use today, may be considered the first computer. This device
allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads
arranged on a rack. Early merchants used the abacus to keep trading
transactions. But as the use of paper and pencil spread, particularly in
Europe, the abacus lost its importance. It took nearly 12 centuries,
however, for the next significant advance in computing devices to
emerge. In 1642, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a
French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical wheel
calculator to help his father with his duties. This brass rectangular box,
also called a Pascaline, used eight movable dials to add sums up to eight
figures long. Pascal's device used a base of ten to accomplish this. For
example, as one dial moved ten notches, or one complete revolution, it
moved the next dial - which represented the ten's column - one place.
When the ten's dial moved one revolution, the dial representing the
hundred's place moved one notch and so on. The drawback to the
Pascaline, of course, was its limitation to addition.
In 1694, a German mathematician and philosopher, Gottfried Wilhem
von Leibniz (1646-1716), improved the Pascaline by creating a machine
that could also multiply. Like its predecessor, Leibniz's mechanical
multiplier worked by a system of gears and dials. Partly by studying
Pascal's original notes and drawings, Leibniz was able to refine his
machine. The centerpiece of the machine was its stepped-drum gear
design, which offered an elongated version of the simple flat gear. It
wasn't until 1820, however, that mechanical calculators gained
widespread use. Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar, a Frenchman,
invented a machine that could perform the four basic arithmetic
functions. Colmar's mechanical calculator, the arithometer, presented a
more practical approach to computing because it could add, subtract,
multiply and divide. With its enhanced versatility, the arithometer was
17

widely used up until the First World War. Although later inventors
refined Colmar's calculator, together with fellow inventors Pascal and
Leibniz, he helped define the age of mechanical computation.
The real beginnings of computers as we know them today, however, lay
with an English mathematics professor, Charles Babbage (1791-1871).
Frustrated at the many errors he found while examining calculations for
the Royal Astronomical Society, Babbage declared, "I wish to God these
calculations had been performed by steam!" With those words, the
automation of computers had begun. By 1812, Babbage noticed a natural
harmony between machines and mathematics: machines were best at
performing tasks repeatedly without mistake; while mathematics,
particularly the production of mathematic tables, often required the
simple repetition of steps. The problem centered on applying the ability
of machines to the needs of mathematics. Babbage's first attempt at
solving this problem was in 1822 when he proposed a machine to
perform differential equations, called a Difference Engine. Powered by
steam and large as a locomotive, the machine would have a stored
program and could perform calculations and print the results
automatically. After working on the Difference Engine for 10 years,
Babbage was suddenly inspired to begin work on the first generalpurpose computer, which he called the Analytical Engine. Babbage's
assistant, Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (1815-1842) and
daughter of English poet Lord Byron, was instrumental in the machine's
design. One of the few people who understood the Engine's design as
well as Babbage, she helped revise plans, secure funding from the
British government, and communicate the specifics of the Analytical
Engine to the public. Also, Lady Lovelace's fine understanding of the
machine allowed her to create the instruction routines to be fed into the
computer, making her the first female computer programmer. In the
1980's, the U.S. Defense Department named a programming language
ADA in her honor.
Babbage's steam-powered Engine, although ultimately never
constructed, may seem primitive by today's standards. However, it
outlined the basic elements of a modern general purpose computer and
18

was a breakthrough concept. Consisting of over 50,000 components, the

basic design of the Analytical Engine included input devices in the form
of perforated cards containing operating instructions and a "store" for
memory of 1,000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits long. It also
contained a "mill" with a control unit that allowed processing
instructions in any sequence, and output devices to produce printed
results. Babbage borrowed the idea of punch cards to encode the
machine's instructions from the Jacquard loom. The loom, produced in
1820 and named after its inventor, Joseph-Marie Jacquard, used punched
boards that controlled the patterns to be woven.
In 1889, an American inventor, Herman Hollerith (1860-1929), also
applied the Jacquard loom concept to computing. His first task was to
find a faster way to compute the U.S. census. The previous census in
1880 had taken nearly seven years to count and with an expanding
population, the bureau feared it would take 10 years to count the latest
census. Unlike Babbage's idea of using perforated cards to instruct the
machine, Hollerith's method used cards to store data information which
he fed into a machine that compiled the results mechanically. Each
punch on a card represented one number, and combinations of two
punches represented one letter. As many as 80 variables could be stored
on a single card. Instead of ten years, census takers compiled their
results in just six weeks with Hollerith's machine. In addition to their
speed, the punch cards served as a storage method for data and they
helped reduce computational errors. Hollerith brought his punch card
reader into the business world, founding Tabulating Machine Company
in 1896, later to become International Business Machines (IBM) in 1924
after a series of mergers. Other companies such as Remington Rand and
Burroughs also manufactured punch readers for business use. Both
business and government used punch cards for data processing until the
1960's.
In the ensuing years, several engineers made other significant advances.
Vannevar Bush (1890-1974) developed a calculator for solving
differential equations in 1931. The machine could solve complex
19

differential equations that had long left scientists and mathematicians

baffled. The machine was cumbersome because hundreds of gears and
shafts were required to represent numbers and their various relationships
to each other. To eliminate this bulkiness, John V. Atanasoff (b. 1903), a
professor at Iowa State College (now called Iowa State University) and
his graduate student, Clifford Berry, envisioned an all-electronic
computer that applied Boolean algebra to computer circuitry. This
approach was based on the mid-19th century work of George Boole
(1815-1864) who clarified the binary system of algebra, which stated
that any mathematical equations could be stated simply as either true or
false. By extending this concept to electronic circuits in the form of on
or off, Atanasoff and Berry had developed the first all-electronic
computer by 1940. Their project, however, lost its funding and their
work was overshadowed by similar developments by other scientists.

Five Generations of Modern Computers

First Generation (1945-1956)
With the onset of the Second World War, governments sought to develop
computers to exploit their potential strategic importance. This increased
funding for computer development projects hastened technical progress.
By 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse had developed a computer, the
Z3, to design airplanes and missiles. The Allied forces, however, made
greater strides in developing powerful computers. In 1943, the British
completed a secret code-breaking computer called Colossus to decode
German messages. The Colossus's impact on the development of the
computer industry was rather limited for two important reasons. First,
Colossus was not a general-purpose computer; it was only designed to
decode secret messages. Second, the existence of the machine was kept
secret until decades after the war.

20

American efforts produced a broader achievement. Howard H. Aiken

(1900-1973), a Harvard engineer working with IBM, succeeded in
producing an all-electronic calculator by 1944. The purpose of the
computer was to create ballistic charts for the U.S. Navy. It was about
half as long as a football field and contained about 500 miles of wiring.
The Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, or Mark I
for short, was a electronic relay computer. It used electromagnetic
signals to move mechanical parts. The machine was slow (taking 3-5
seconds per calculation) and inflexible (in that sequences of calculations
could not change); but it could perform basic arithmetic as well as more
complex equations.
Another computer development spurred by the war was the Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), produced by a partnership
between the U.S. government and the University of Pennsylvania.
Consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors and 5 million
soldered joints, the computer was such a massive piece of machinery
that it consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power, enough energy to dim
the lights in an entire section of Philadelphia. Developed by John
Presper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980), ENIAC,
unlike the Colossus and Mark I, was a general-purpose computer that
computed at speeds 1,000 times faster than Mark I.
In the mid-1940's John von Neumann (1903-1957) joined the University
of Pennsylvania team, initiating concepts in computer design that
remained central to computer engineering for the next 40 years. Von
Neumann designed the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer (EDVAC) in 1945 with a memory to hold both a stored
program as well as data. This "stored memory" technique as well as the
"conditional control transfer," that allowed the computer to be stopped at
any point and then resumed, allowed for greater versatility in computer
programming. The key element to the von Neumann architecture was the
central processing unit, which allowed all computer functions to be
coordinated through a single source. In 1951, the UNIVAC I (Universal
Automatic Computer), built by Remington Rand, became one of the first
21

commercially available computers to take advantage of these advances.

Both the U.S. Census Bureau and General Electric owned UNIVACs.
One of UNIVAC's impressive early achievements was predicting the
winner of the 1952 presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower.
First generation computers were characterized by the fact that operating
instructions were made-to-order for the specific task for which the
computer was to be used. Each computer had a different binary-coded
program called a machine language that told it how to operate. This
made the computer difficult to program and limited its versatility and
speed. Other distinctive features of first generation computers were the
use of vacuum tubes (responsible for their breathtaking size) and
magnetic drums for data storage.
Second Generation Computers (1956-1963)
By 1948, the invention of the transistor greatly changed the computer's
development. The transistor replaced the large, cumbersome vacuum
tube in televisions, radios and computers. As a result, the size of
electronic machinery has been shrinking ever since. The transistor was at
work in the computer by 1956. Coupled with early advances in
magnetic-core memory, transistors led to second generation computers
that were smaller, faster, more reliable and more energy-efficient than
their predecessors. The first large-scale machines to take advantage of
this transistor technology were early supercomputers, Stretch by IBM
and LARC by Sperry-Rand. These computers, both developed for
atomic energy laboratories, could handle an enormous amount of data, a
capability much in demand by atomic scientists. The machines were
costly, however, and tended to be too powerful for the business sector's
computing needs, thereby limiting their attractiveness. Only two LARCs
were ever installed: one in the Lawrence Radiation Labs in Livermore,
California, for which the computer was named (Livermore Atomic
Research Computer) and the other at the U.S. Navy Research and
Development Center in Washington, D.C. Second generation computers

22

replaced machine language with assembly language, allowing

abbreviated programming codes to replace long, difficult binary codes.
Throughout the early 1960's, there were a number of commercially
successful second generation computers used in business, universities,
and government from companies such as Burroughs, Control
Data,Honeywell, IBM, Sperry-Rand, and others. These second
generation computers were also of solid state design, and contained
transistors in place of vacuum tubes. They also contained all the
components we associate with the modern day computer: printers, tape
storage, disk storage, memory, operating systems, and stored programs.
One important example was the IBM 1401, which was universally
accepted throughout industry, and is considered by many to be the
Model T of the computer industry. By 1965, most large business
routinely processed financial information using second generation
computers.
It was the stored program and programming language that gave
computers the flexibility to finally be cost effective and productive for
business use. The stored program concept meant that instructions to run
a computer for a specific function (known as a program) were held
inside the computer's memory, and could quickly be replaced by a
different set of instructions for a different function. A computer could
print customer invoices and minutes later design products or calculate
paychecks. More sophisticated high-level languages such as COBOL
(Common Business-Oriented Language) and FORTRAN (Formula
Translator) came into common use during this time, and have expanded
to the current day. These languages replaced cryptic binary machine
code with words, sentences, and mathematical formulas, making it much
easier to program a computer. New types of careers (programmer,
analyst, and computer systems expert) and the entire software industry
began with second generation computers.

23

Third Generation Computers (1964-1971)

Though transistors were clearly an improvement over the vacuum tube,
they still generated a great deal of heat, which damaged the computer's
sensitive internal parts. The quartz rock eliminated this problem.Jack
Kilby, an engineer with Texas Instruments, developed the integrated
circuit (IC) in 1958. The IC combined three electronic components onto
a small silicon disc, which was made from quartz. Scientists later
managed to fit even more components on a single chip, called a
semiconductor. As a result, computers became ever smaller as more
components were squeezed onto the chip. Another third-generation
development included the use of an operating system that allowed
machines to run many different programs at once with a central program
that monitored and coordinated the computer's memory.
Fourth Generation (1971-Present)
After the integrated circuits, the only place to go was down - in size, that
is. Large scale integration (LSI) could fit hundreds of components onto
one chip. By the 1980's, very large scale integration (VLSI) squeezed
hundreds of thousands of components onto a chip. Ultra-large scale
integration (ULSI) increased that number into the millions. The ability to
fit so much onto an area about half the size of a U.S. dime helped
diminish the size and price of computers. It also increased their power,
efficiency and reliability. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, took
the integrated circuit one step further by locating all the components of a
computer (central processing unit, memory, and input and output
controls) on a minuscule chip. Whereas previously the integrated circuit
had had to be manufactured to fit a special purpose, now one
microprocessor could be manufactured and then programmed to meet
any number of demands. Soon everyday household items such as
microwave ovens, television sets and automobiles with electronic fuel
injection incorporated microprocessors.
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Such condensed power allowed everyday people to harness a computer's

power. They were no longer developed exclusively for large business or
government contracts. By the mid-1970's, computer manufacturers
sought to bring computers to general consumers. These minicomputers
came complete with user-friendly software packages that offered even
non-technical users an array of applications, most popularly word
processing and spreadsheet programs. Pioneers in this field were
Commodore, Radio Shack and Apple Computers. In the early 1980's,
arcade video games such as Pac Man and home video game systems
such as the Atari 2600 ignited consumer interest for more sophisticated,
programmable home computers.
In 1981, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) for use in the home,
office and schools. The 1980's saw an expansion in computer use in all
three arenas as clones of the IBM PC made the personal computer even
more affordable. The number of personal computers in use more than
doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in 1982. Ten years later,
65 million PCs were being used. Computers continued their trend toward
a smaller size, working their way down from desktop to laptop
computers (which could fit inside a briefcase) to palmtop (able to fit
inside a breast pocket). In direct competition with IBM's PC was Apple's
Macintosh line, introduced in 1984. Notable for its user-friendly design,
the Macintosh offered an operating system that allowed users to move
screen icons instead of typing instructions. Users controlled the screen
cursor using a mouse, a device that mimicked the movement of one's
hand on the computer screen.
As computers became more widespread in the workplace, new ways to
harness their potential developed. As smaller computers became more
powerful, they could be linked together, or networked, to share memory
space, software, information and communicate with each other. As
opposed to a mainframe computer, this was one powerful computer that
shared time with many terminals for many applications, networked
computers allowed individual computers to form electronic co-ops.
Using either direct wiring, called a Local Area Network (LAN), or
25

telephone lines, these networks could reach enormous proportions. A

global web of computer circuitry, the Internet, for example, links
computers worldwide into a single network of information. During the
1992 U.S. presidential election, vice-presidential candidate Al Gore
promised to make the development of this so-called "information
superhighway" an administrative priority. Though the possibilities
envisioned by Gore and others for such a large network are often years
(if not decades) away from realization, the most popular use today for
computer networks such as the Internet is electronic mail, or E-mail,
which allows users to type in a computer address and send messages
through networked terminals across the office or across the world.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyod)
Defining the fifth generation of computers is somewhat difficult because
the field is in its infancy. The most famous example of a fifth generation
computer is the fictional HAL9000 from Arthur C. Clarke's novel, 2001:
A Space Odyssey. HAL performed all of the functions currently
envisioned for real-life fifth generation computers. With artificial
intelligence, HAL could reason well enough to hold conversations with
its human operators, use visual input, and learn from its own
experiences. (Unfortunately, HAL was a little too human and had a
psychotic breakdown, commandeering a spaceship and killing most
humans on board.)
Though the wayward HAL9000 may be far from the reach of real-life
computer designers, many of its functions are not. Using recent
engineering advances, computers may be able to accept spoken word
instructions and imitate human reasoning. The ability to translate a
foreign language is also a major goal of fifth generation computers. This
feat seemed a simple objective at first, but appeared much more difficult
when programmers realized that human understanding relies as much on
context and meaning as it does on the simple translation of words.
Many advances in the science of computer design and technology are
coming together to enable the creation of fifth-generation computers.
26

Two such engineering advances are parallel processing, which replaces

von Neumann's single central processing unit design with a system
harnessing the power of many CPUs to work as one. Another advance is
superconductor technology, which allows the flow of electricity with
little or no resistance, greatly improving the speed of information flow.
Computers today have some attributes of fifth generation computers. For
example, expert systems assist doctors in making diagnoses by applying
the problem-solving steps a doctor might use in assessing a patient's
needs. It will take several more years of development before expert
systems are in widespread use.
What are the Characteristics, capabilities and Limitations?

Basic characteristics about computer are:

Speed - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few
seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. You will be
surprised to know that computer can perform millions (1,000,000) of
instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond
(10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a
second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer performs
work.
Accuracy - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every
calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7
determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer
are due to human and inaccurate data.
Diligence - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration,
fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without creating any error. If millions
of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every
27

calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers

human being in routine type of work.
Versatility - It means the capacity to perform completely different type
of work. You may use your computer to prepare payroll slips. Next
moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric
bills.
Power of Remembering - Computer has the power of storing any
amount of information or data. Any information can be stored and
recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends
entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and
when to lose or retrieve these data.
No IQ - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without
instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at tremendous
speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in
what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
No Feeling - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and
experience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of work. It
does not distinguish between users.
Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a
large amount of data. You can also store data in secondary storage
devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and
can be carried to other computers.

28

What are the Capabilities and Limitations?

CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF A COMPUTER
We see computer everywhere: at home, in school, in the hospital,
in the bank, in bookstores and Department stores, at recreation centers
and in many other places. They are important pieces of equipment and
they help man in so many ways.
Many people depend so much on computers. They use computers
to do their work, to have fun. To keep in touch with their loved ones, to
store important documents and so on. Why is this so? Because
computers are capable of doing so many things the following items are
the capabilities of a computer.
1. The computer processes information very fast.
Would you believe that computer can get the average of a million sets?
of numbers in a few seconds by pressing a button? It is like getting the
sum or total of one hundred different sets of numbers in one click.
2. The computer gives accurate results.
Some scientists use the computer in their experiments. The needed data
for their experiments are processed in the computer. They can get almost
perfect and more accurate results through it.
3. The computer stores large amount of data and information.
Most computers have storage or accessories wherein the user can save
information or document. These are called floppy diskettes, hard disks
and zip disks.
4. The computer enables one to restore or bring back any of his works.
29

You try to bring your old work when you want to make another
copy of it, or when you want to change something in it. A computer
makes all these possible.
5. It is automatics.
You dont have to wait long for a computer to do a certain job. Most of
the time, you just have to click a button and the computers processor
will do the rest of the work.
6. The computer can do two things at the same time.
You may open two or more programs at the same time. You may work
with the first one while you minimize or hide the other program.
7. The computer can be improved and upgraded.
The computer is unlike other machines or appliances that your
parents discard or throw away when they do not function properly
anymore. Today, it is very easy to replace damaged and obsolete
computer parts. You just have to go to the nearby computer store or ask
a service technician to do installation and repair work for your computer.
However, the computer is not a super machine. Thus, it has its own
limitations, like the following:
1. The computer can only do what you tell it to do.
Do not expect the computer to give you something which you
never tell it to do. It will only give you what you ask it.
2. It cannot generate information on its own.

30

Your computer depends on you. It will not run unless you operate
it. In the same way, it cannot give you information you need if you do
not feed it with the necessary data.
3. The computer will give you wrong information if you feed it with
wrong data.
The computer cannot distinguish between correct data and wrong
data. Thus, if you feed your
Computer with wrong data, it will result with the computer giving
wrong information.
4. The computer cannot correct wrong instruction.
If you give the computer wrong instruction, it will not able to do
anything to correct it. It will only stop functioning. Then, the computer
will depend on you to correct your mistake.
What are the Classifications of Computers?
Computers are available in different shapes, sizes and weights, due to
these different shapes and sizes they perform different sorts of jobs from
one another.
They can also be classified in different ways. All the computers are
designed by the qualified computer architectures that design these
machines as their requirements.
A computer that is used in a home differs in size and shape from the
computer being used in a hospital. Computers act as a server in large
buildings, while the computer also differs in size and shape performing
its job as a weather forecaster.

31

A student carrying a laptop with him to his college is different in shape

and size from all the computers mentioned above.
Here we are going to introduce different classifications of computers one
by one. We will discuss what are in classifications and what job they
perform.

Super computer
The biggest in size, the most expensive in price than any other is
classified and known as super computer. It can process trillions of
instructions in seconds. This computer is not used as a PC in a home
neither by a student in a college.
Governments specially use this type of computer for their different
calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this huge
computer for designing their products.
In most of the Hollywood's movies it is used for animation purposes.
This kind of computer is also helpful for forecasting weather reports
worldwide.

Mainframes
Another giant in computers after the super computer is Mainframe,
which can also process millions of instruction per second and capable of
accessing billions of data.
This computer is commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations
companies, and many other huge companies prefer mainframe because
of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis.
This is normally too expensive and out of reach from a salary-based
person who wants a computer for his home.

32

This kind of computer can cost up to thousands of dollars.

Minicomputer
This computer is next in he line but less offers less than mainframe in
work and performance. These are the computers, which are mostly
preferred by the small type of business personals, colleges, etc.

Personal computers
Almost all the computer users are familiar with the personal computers.
They normally know what the personal computer is and what its
functions are.
This is the computer mostly preferred by the home users. These
computers are lesser in cost than the computers given above and also,
small in size; they are also called PCs in short for Personal computers.
This computer is small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your
single bedroom with its all accommodation. Today this is thought to be
the most popular computer in all.

Notebook computers
Having a small size and low weight the notebook is easy to carry to
anywhere. A student can take it with him/her to his/her school in his/her
bag with his/her book.
This is easy to carry around and preferred by students and business
people to meet their assignments and other necessary tasks.
The approach of this computer is also the same as the Personal
computer. It can store the same amount of data and having a memory of
the same size as that of a personal computer. One can say that it is the
replacement of personal desktop computer.
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Another classification of computers

According to Size

According to Technology

According to Purpose
According to size

Supercomputers
Mainframe Computers
Minicomputers
Workstations
Microcomputers, or Personal Computers

Supercomputers: are widely used in scientific applications such as

aerodynamic design simulation, processing of geological data.

Supercomputers are the most powerful computers. They are used

for problems requiring complex calculations.

Because of their size and expense, supercomputers are relatively

rare.

Supercomputers are used by universities, government

agencies, and large businesses.
Mainframe Computers: are usually slower, less powerful and less
expensive than supercomputers. A technique that allows many people at
terminals, to access the same computer at one time is called time
sharing. Mainframes are used by banks and many business to update
inventory etc.

Mainframe computers can support hundreds or thousands of

users, handling massive amounts of input, output, and storage.

Mainframe computers are used in large organizations where many

users need access to shared data and programs.

Mainframes are also used as e-commerce servers, handling

transactions over the Internet.

34

Minicomputers: are smaller than mainframe, general purpose

computers, and give computing power without adding the prohibitive
expenses associated with larger systems. It is generally easier to use.

Minicomputers usually have multiple terminals.

Minicomputers may be used as network servers and Internet

servers.
Workstations

Workstations are powerful single-user computers.

Workstations are used for tasks that require a great deal of

number-crunching power, such as product design and computer
animation.

Workstations are often used as network and Internet servers.

Microcomputers, or Personal Computers :is the smallest, least expensive
of all the computers. Micro computers have smallest memory and less
power, are physically smaller and permit fewer peripherals to be
attached.

Microcomputers are more commonly known as personal

computers. The term PC is applied to IBM-PCs or compatible
computers.

Desktop computers are the most common type of PC.

Notebook (laptop) computers are used by people who need the

power of a desktop system, but also portability.

Handheld PCs (such as PDAs) lack the power of a desktop or

notebook PC, but offer features for users who need limited functions
and small size.
Personal Computers (PC)
Desktop
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Lap Top
Palm Top
PDA
According to Technology

Analog Computers
Digital Computers
Hydride Computers

Analog Computers:- These computers recognize data as a continuous

measurement of a physical property ( voltage, pressure, speed and
temperature).
Example: Automobile speedometer
Digital Computers:- These are high speed programmable electronic
devices that perform mathematical calculations, compare values and
store results. They recognize data by counting discrete signal
representing either a high or low voltage state of electricity.
Hybrid Computers:-A computer that processes both analog and digital
data.
According to Purpose
1. General purpose Computers
2. Special Computers

General purpose Computers

A General Purpose Computer is a machine that is capable of carrying
out some general data processing under program control.
Refers to computers that follow instructions, thus virtually all computers
from micro to mainframe are general purpose. Even computers in toys,
games and single-function devices follow instructions in their built-in
program.

Special purpose Computers

A computer that is designed to operate on a restricted class of problems
36

What are the Basic elements of a Computer?

Basic elements of a computer

Motherboard
The motherboard of a computer provides a pathway along which
information and power can travel between components. The hard drive,
power supply, other disc drives, processor and RAM all communicate
using the motherboard. Motherboards typically have several expansion
slots to connect peripheral devices.
Processor
The processor is the brain of the computer. It interprets input from the
user, sends it to the computer as electronic signals and translates the
signals into user-readable output. For example, typing a letter on a
keyboard sends a signal to the processor. The processor then reinterprets
the keyboard press as an electrical signal to send to a word processing
program and to the monitor, alerting the monitor to display the
corresponding characters.
ARM, ARM Networking, ARM NAS, FTTH Processors, Broadband
gateways

RAM

37

RAM (random-access memory) provides the computer with memory to

temporarily store instructions and data to be accessed by your processor.
According to the Indiana University Knowledge Base, most computers
made after 2002 use DDR2 (double data rate) RAM. This type of RAM
transfers data more quickly without reducing your computer's overall
performance. Different types of RAM, such as DDR2 and DDR3, cannot
be used in the same computer.
Storage Media
RAM keeps data in short-term memory --- the duration of the current
work session. When you power off the computer, all data in RAM is lost.
Storage devices, such as hard-disk drives or optical drives, allow you to
store data long term for later access. Hard-disk drives have several
platters that store data magnetically. When you access a file, the
operating system looks for the location of the data on the hard drive and
sends a signal to the actuator arm, which contains a needle that skims
over and reads the clusters of magnetic charges that represent data.
Optical drives use a laser that reflects off the read surface of a CD or
DVD to represent data.
Peripherals
Peripheral devices connect to the computer externally. Your keyboard,
mouse, monitor and speakers are all peripheral devices. The keyboard
and mouse are input devices, allowing you to enter text or manipulate an
on-screen cursor. The monitor is an output device. It interprets signals
from your video card and displays an arrangement of pixels in different
colors: red, green and blue. Your speakers interpret data coming from
your soundcard and play it as MP3s or other audio files.

What is Hardware?

38

Hardware is a comprehensive term for all of the physical parts of a

computer, as distinguished from the data it contains or operates on, and
the software that provides instructions for the hardware to accomplish
tasks. The boundary between hardware and software is slightly blurry firmware is software that is "built-in" to the hardware, but such firmware
is usually the province of computer programmers and computer
engineers in any case and not an issue that computer users need to
concern themselves with.
A typical computer (Personal Computer, PC) contains in a desktop or
tower case the following parts:
Motherboard which holds the CPU, main memory and other parts,
and has slots for expansion cards
power supply - a case that holds a transformer, voltage control and
fan
storage controllers, of IDE, SCSI or other type, that control hard
disk , floppy disk, CD-ROM and other drives; the controllers sit
directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards
graphics controller that produces the output for the monitor
the hard disk, floppy disk and other drives for mass storage
interface controllers (parallel, serial, USB, Fire wire) to connect
the computer to external peripheral devices such as printers or
scanners
What is Software?
System Software has direct control and access to your computer
hardware, and memory locations. They perform I/O operations on
various memory locations, and control the hardware, to make the
application software do a task. Operating systems are the main
examples for system software.

39

Examples of Software:

Microsoft Word
AOL Instant Messenger
Internet Explorer
Mozilla Firefox
Adobe Photoshop
Windows XP
AutoCAD
Microsoft Excel
Pidgin
HyperCam

Examples of System Software:

1) Microsoft Windows
2) Linux
3) Unix
4) Mac OSX
5) DOS
6) BIOS Software
7) HD Sector Boot Software
8) Device Driver Software i.e. Graphics Driver etc
9) Linker Software
10) Assembler and Compiler Software

Application software run under System Software , and are made to do a

specific task i.e. ( Word Processing etc) , which have indirect access to
the hardware (i.e. Behind System Software) .
Examples:

40

Web browser, word processing software, spreadsheet software, database

software, presentation graphics software
1) Opera (Web Browser)
2) Microsoft Word (Word Processing)
3) Microsoft Excel (Spreadsheet software)
5) MySQL (Database Software)
6) Microsoft Powerpoint (Presentation Software)
7) iTunes (Music / Sound Software)
8) VLC Media Player (Audio / Video Software)
9) World of Warcraft (Game Software)
10) Adobe Photoshop (Graphics Software)
If hardware can be said to form the body of a computer system, software
is its mind. Software refers to computer programs, procedures and
documentation that perform certain tasks on a computer system.
Following is an extensive list of examples of the different kinds of
software.
Examples of Software
Application Software: Application software is that which
is designed for the end-users and hence these software are also known as
end-user programs. It employs the capabilities of a computer to execute
tasks that the user wishes to perform on a computer system. Look at the
various examples of application software. They are:

Content Access Software

Educational Software
Enterprise Software
Information Worker Software
Media Development Software
Product Engineering Software
Simulation Software

41

Content Access Software: They are used to access content without

editing it. Electronic media software such as media players, editor
players as also web browsers, which allow user access to web content
are some examples of content access software. Game consoles and
entertainment software are also examples of content access software.
Educational Software: They are used to deliver tests and track
progress. They are used for educational purposes. Training management
and classroom management software are some examples of educational
software. The software used for purposes of edutainment, a form of
entertainment that aims at educating the masses, is also a type of
educational software.
Enterprise Software: It caters to the needs of organization processes
and data flow. Customer relationship management and supply chain
management software are good examples of enterprise software.
Enterprise infrastructure software supports enterprise software systems.
Information Worker Software: It caters to the needs of an individual to
manage information pertaining to a project or a single department.
Resource management software and documentation tools are some of the
popularly used information worker software.
Media Development Software: They are used for generating print and
electronic media in the educational and commercial sector. Image
organizers and image editing software, animation software like Flash,
audio and video editors as well as the web development software are
some examples of media development software.
Product Engineering Software: This software is used in the
development of hardware and software products. Application
programming interfaces and integrated development environment (IDEs)
are the well-known examples of product engineering software. Program
testing tools, debuggers, compilers and CAD are some other examples of
this type of software.
42

Simulation Software: They are used for the simulation of physical and
abstract systems. Computer simulators that are used for simulating
scientific concepts and social ideas, battlefield, vehicle and flight
simulators are some of the popular examples of simulation software.
Programming Languages: They are artificial languages that are used to
write programs that control the functioning of a computer system. They
are the building blocks of computer applications. Go through the
complete list of the different programming languages.
System Software: It is computer software that manages and controls
hardware in order to enable application software to perform its tasks.
System software performs functions like transferring data from memory
to the disk or delivering text onto a display device. Following are the
different kinds of system software.

Device Drivers
Linkers
Loading Programs
Operating Systems

Device Drivers: They are computer programs, which facilitate the

interaction of high-level computer programs with hardware devices.
Drivers also provide interrupt-handling mechanisms.
Linkers: A linker is a program that takes the objects generated by a
compiler and combines them to form a single executable program.
Loading Programs: Loaders are used for loading programs from
executable files into memory, making them ready for execution and then
executing them. It is a part of the kernel of an operating system.
Operating Systems: An operating system manages and coordinates the
activities of a computer. It hosts the applications running on a computer
43

system and also provides certain services to application programs and

users. Microsoft Windows and Linux are two of the most commonly
used operating systems. There are mobile operating systems like
Android, iOS and Mac which are quite popular among mobile users.
Utility Software: It helps in the management of computer hardware and
application software. It performs a small range of tasks. Utility software
are also known as service routines. Here are some examples of utility
software.

Application Launchers
Archive Utilities
Compression Utilities
Disk Defragmenters
Editor Utilities
Encryption Utilities
Network Managers
Registry Cleaners
System Profilers
System Utilities
Virus Scanners
Screensavers

Application Launchers: They provide application software with an

access point to run on a computer system.
Archive Utilities: They output a single file or a stream when provided
with a directory or a set of files.
Compression Utilities: When they are provided with a file or a single
stream, they present the input stream in a compressed form.
Disk Defragmenters: They detect computer files whose contents are
stored in the form of disjoint fragments and move the fragments
together. A disk checker scans the contents of a hard disk to detect
44

corrupted areas. A disk cleaner helps in segregating the unnecessary files

that can be deleted, which are still residing on the hard disk.
Editor Utilities: Editor utilities directly modify data or files without
changing the actual program. They come in forms of binary, hex and text
editor utilities.
Encryption Utilities: When they are provided with plain text and an
accompanying key, they use encryption algorithms to output the
encrypted stream.
Network Managers: They check computer networks, data transfers and
log events.
Registry Cleaners: They remove the old registry entries, thus cleaning
and optimizing the windows registry. There are a number of popular
registry cleaners available today.
System Profilers: They provide computer users with information about
software and hardware in the computer system. Backup software are
capable of making a copy of all the information on a system or of
selected files. Disk compression software is used to compress the data
on a disk so that more amount of information can fit onto it.
System Utilities: They are a set of different utility programs that
provide methods for routine data management tasks like modifying,
copying, merging, renaming and cataloging data sets.
Virus Scanners: They scan for viruses on a computer system. They are
widely known as antivirus software.
Screensavers: They are utility software designed with the purpose of
preventing phosphor burn-in of CRT displays. Phosphor burn-in is the
discoloration of certain areas on the display due to improper usage of

45

pixels. Screensavers blank the screen or fill it with images, when the
display is not in use.
Content - control software: It refers to the software designed for
controlling content that is permitted for the user to access. It can
determine what content will be available on a particular machine or
network. Content-control software are commonly used at homes and in
schools to restrict the content that can be accessed over the Internet by
children.
Data Recovery Software: Apart from the facility of copying data files,
data recovery software supports user needs of backing up important
computer data. It allows the user to specify what is to be backed up and
when.
Open Source Software: The concept of open source software refers to
computer software, whose source code is available to the users (is in the
public domain). Users are allowed to use, modify, improve and
redistribute open source software. Linux is a well-known example of
open source software.
Proprietary Software: Contrary to open source software, proprietary
software involves restrictions on its use. The creators of proprietary
software restrict source code access through legal means or through
technical measures.
Portable Software: It is an important class of software, which includes
software that is suitable for portable devices. Portable software is used
on portable drives like USB and Palm PDA.
Project Management Software: It refers to the software used for
scheduling, budget management and resource allocation. It comprises
collaboration software and documentation systems.

46

Shareware: The term refers to commercial software that is distributed

on a trial basis. It is distributed without payment and with limited
functionality. Shareware is commonly offered in a downloadable format
on the Internet. The distribution of this kind of software aims at giving
the users a chance to analyze the software before they become its
licensed users.
Spyware: The basic purpose of spyware is monitoring user behavior. It
can also collect personal information, redirect browser activity and
change computer settings.
Weblog Software: It consists of a content management system created
for maintaining weblogs.
What is People Ware?
People ware is a term used to refer to one of the three core aspects of
computer technology, the other two being hardware and software. People
ware can refer to anything that has to do with the role of people in the
development or use of computer software and hardware systems,
including such issues as developer productivity, teamwork, group
dynamics, the psychology of programming, project management,
organizational factors, human interface design, and human-machineinteraction.
The concept of people ware in the software community covers a variety
of aspects:

Development of productive persons

Organizational culture
Organizational learning
Development of productive teams, and
Modeling of human competencies.

47

What are the Data Recording Media?

Data Recording Media
A Punched card, punch card, IBM card, or Hollerith card is a piece of
stiff paper that contains digital information represented by the presence
or absence of holes in predefined positions. Now an obsolete recording
medium, punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century
for controlling textile looms and in the late 19th and early 20th century
for operating fairground organs and related instruments. They were used
through the 20th century in unit record machines for input, processing,
and data storage. Early digital computers used punched cards, often
prepared using keypunch machines, as the primary medium for input of
both computer programs and data. Some voting machines use punched
cards.
Punched cards were first used around 1725 by Basile Bouchon and JeanBaptiste Falcon as a more robust form of the perforated paper rolls then
in use for controlling textile looms in France. This technique was greatly
improved by Joseph Marie Jacquard in his Jacquard loom in 1801.
Semen Korsakov was reputedly the first to use the punched cards in
informatics for information store and search. Korsakov announced his
new method and machines in September 1832, and rather than seeking
patents offered the machines for public use.
Semen Korsakov's punched card
Charles Babbage proposed the use of "Number Cards", "pierced with
certain holes and stand opposite levers connected with a set of figure
wheels ... advanced they push in those levers opposite to which there are
no holes on the card and thus transfer that number" in his description of
the Calculating Engine's Store

48

Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could

then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media, such
as those above (other than Korsakov), had been for control, not data
Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage,
consisting of a long strip of paper in which holes are punched to store
data. Now effectively obsolete, it was widely used during much of the
twentieth century for teleprinter communication, for input to computers
of the 1950s and 1960s, and later as a storage medium for
minicomputers and CNC machine tools.
Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin
magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was
developed in Germany, based on magnetic wire recording. Devices that
record and play back audio and video using magnetic tape are tape
recorders and video tape recorders. A device that stores computer data
on magnetic tape is a tape drive (tape unit, streamer).
Magnetic tape revolutionized broadcast and recording. When all radio
was live, it allowed programming to be prerecorded. At a time when
gramophone records were recorded in one take, it allowed recordings to
be made in multiple parts, which were then mixed and edited with
tolerable loss in quality. It is a key technology in early computer
development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically
created, stored for long periods, and to be rapidly accessed.
Today, other technologies can perform the functions of magnetic tape. In
many cases these technologies are replacing tape. Despite this,
innovation in the technology continues and tape is still widely used.
Over years, magnetic tape can suffer from deterioration called stickyshed syndrome. Caused by absorption of moisture into the binder of the
tape, it can render the tape unusable.

Audio recording
Compact Cassette
49

Magnetic tape was invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in

1928 in Germany, based on the invention of magnetic wire recording by
ValdemarPoulsen in 1898. Pfleumer's invention used a ferric oxide
(Fe2O3) powder coating on a long strip of paper. This invention was
further developed by the German electronics company AEG, which
manufactured the recording machines and BASF, which manufactured
the tape. In 1933, working for AEG, Eduard Schuller developed the ring
shaped tape head. Previous head designs were needle shaped and tended
to shred the tape. An important discovery made in this period was the
technique of AC biasing which improved the fidelity of the recorded
audio signal by increasing the effective linearity of the recording
medium.
Due to the escalating political tensions, and the outbreak of World War
II, these developments were largely kept secret. Although the Allies
knew from their monitoring of Nazi radio broadcasts that the Germans
had some new form of recording technology, the nature was not
discovered until the Allies acquired captured German recording
equipment as they invaded Europe in the closing of the war. It was only
after the war that Americans, particularly Jack Mullin, John Herbert Orr,
and Richard H. Ranger were able to bring this technology out of
Germany and develop it into commercially viable formats.
A wide variety of recorders and formats have developed since, most
significantly reel-to-reel and Compact Cassette.

Video recording
Videotape
The practice of recording and editing audio using magnetic tape rapidly
established itself as an obvious improvement over previous methods.
Many saw the potential of making the same improvements in recording
television. Television ("video") signals are similar to audio signals. A
major difference is that video signals use more bandwidth than audio
50

signals. Existing audio tape recorders could not practically capture a

video signal. Many set to work on resolving this problem. Jack Mullin
(working for Bing Crosby) and the BBC both created crude working
systems that involved moving the tape across a fixed tape head at very
fast speeds. Neither system saw much use. It was the team at Ampex, led
by Charles Ginsburg, that made the breakthrough of using a spinning
recording head and normal tape speeds to achieve a very high head-totape speed that could record and reproduce the high bandwidth signals of
video. The Ampex system was called Quadruplex and used 2-inch-wide
(51 mm) tape, mounted on reels like audio tape, which wrote the signal
in what is now called transverse scan.
Later improvements by other companies, particularly Sony, lead to the
development of helical scan and the enclosure of the tape reels in an
easy-to-handle cartridge. Nearly all modern videotape systems use
helical scan and cartridges. Videocassette recorders used to be common
in homes and television production facilities, but many functions of the
VCR are being replaced. Since the advent of digital video and
computerized video processing, optical disc media and digital video
recorders can now perform the same role as videotape. These devices
also offer improvements like random access to any scene in the
recording and "live" time shifting and have replaced videotape in many
situations.
Data storage
In all tape formats, a tape drive (or "transport" or "deck") uses motors to
win the tape from one reel to another, passing tape heads to read, write
or erase as it moves.
Magnetic tape was first used to record computer data in 1951 on the
Eckert-MauchlyUNIVAC I. The recording medium was a thin strip of
one half inch (12.65 mm) wide metal, consisting of nickel-plated bronze
(called Vicalloy). Recording density was 128 characters per inch (198
micrometer/character) on eight tracks.

51

The Compact Cassette, also called audio cassette, cassette tape,

cassette, or simply tape, is a magnetic tape sound recording format. It
was designed originally for dictation, but improvements in fidelity led
the Compact Cassette to supplant the Stereo 8-track cartridge and reelto-reel tape recording in most non-professional applications. Its uses
ranged from portable audio to home recording to data storage for early
microcomputers. Between the early 1970s and the late 1990s, the
cassette was one of the two most common formats for prerecorded
music, first alongside the LP record and later the Compact Disc.
Compact Cassettes consist of two miniature spools, between which a
magnetically coated plastic tape is passed and wound. These spools and
their attendant parts are held inside a protective plastic shell. Two stereo
pairs of tracks (four total) or two monaural analog audio tracks are
available on the tape; one stereo pair or one monophonic track is played
or recorded when the tape is moving in one direction and the second pair
when moving in the other direction. This reversal is achieved either by
manually flipping the cassette or by having the machine itself change the
direction of tape movement ("auto-reverse").
A floppy disk is a disk storage medium composed of a disk of thin and
flexible magnetic storage medium, sealed in a rectangular plastic carrier
lined with fabric that removes dust particles. They are read and written
by a floppy disk drive (FDD).
Floppy disks, initially as 8-inch (200 mm) media and later in 5.25-inch
(133 mm) and 3.5-inch (89 mm) sizes, were an ubiquitous form of data
storage and exchange from the mid-1970s well into the first decade of
the 21st century.
By 2010, computer motherboards were rarely manufactured with floppy
drive support; 3 12" floppies could be used as an external USB drive,
but 5 14", 8", and non-standard drives could only be handled by old
equipment.
While floppy disk drives still have some limited uses, especially with
legacy industrial computer equipment, they have been superseded by
52

data storage methods with much greater capacity, such as USB flash
drives, portable external hard disk drives, optical discs, memory cards,
and computer networks.
A hard disk drive (HDD; also hard drive, hard disk, or disk drive) is a
device for storing and retrieving digital information, primarily computer
data. It consists of one or more rigid (hence "hard") rapidly rotating
discs (platters) coated with magnetic material, and with magnetic heads
arranged to write data to the surfaces and read it from them.
Hard drives are classified as non-volatile, random access, digital,
magnetic, data storage devices. Introduced by IBM in 1956, hard disk
drives have decreased in cost and physical size over the years while
dramatically increasing in capacity and speed.
Hard disk drives have been the dominant device for secondary storage of
data in general purpose computers since the early 1960s.[3] They have
maintained this position because advances in their recording capacity,
cost, reliability, and speed have kept pace with the requirements for
secondary storage.
CD/DVD is an optical disc storage format, invented and developed by
Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs offer higher
storage capacity than Compact Discs while having the same dimensions.
Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that
physically stamp data onto the DVD. Such discs are known as DVDROM, because data can only be read and not written nor erased. Blank
recordable DVD discs (DVD-R and DVD+R) can be recorded once
using a DVD recorder and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable
DVDs (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM) can be recorded and
erased multiple times.
DVDs are used in DVD-Video consumr digital video format and in
DVD-Audio consumer digital audio format, as well as for authoring

53

AVCHD discs. DVDs containing other types of information may be

referred to as DVD data discs.
Flash memory is a non-volatile computer storage chip that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed. It was developed from EEPROM
(electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) and must be
erased in fairly large blocks before these can be rewritten with new data.
The high density NAND type must also be programmed and read in
(smaller) blocks, or pages, while the NOR type allows a single machine
word (byte) to be written or read independently.
The NAND type is primarily used in memory cards, USB flash drives,
solid-state drives, and similar products, for general storage and transfer
of data. The NOR type, which allows true random access and therefore
direct code execution, is used as a replacement for the older EPROM
and as an alternative to certain kinds of ROM applications. However,
NOR flash memory may emulate ROM primarily at the machine code
level; many digital designs need ROM (or PLA) structures for other
uses, often at significantly higher speeds than (economical) flash
memory may achieve. NAND or NOR flash memory is also often used
to store configuration data in numerous digital products, a task
previously made possible by EEPROMs or battery-powered static RAM.
Example applications of both types of flash memory include personal
computers, PDAs, digital audio players, digital cameras, mobile phones,
synthesizers, video games, scientific instrumentation, industrial robotics,
medical electronics, and so on. In addition to being non-volatile, flash
memory offers fast read access times, as fast as dynamic RAM, although
not as fast as static RAM or ROM. Its mechanical shock resistance helps
explain its popularity over hard disks in portable devices; as does its
high durability, being able to withstand high pressure, temperature,
immersion in water etc.
A smart card, chip card, or integrated circuit card (ICC) is any pocketsized card with embedded integrated circuits. Smart cards are made of

54

plastic, generally polyvinyl chloride, but sometimes acrylonitrile

butadiene styrene or polycarbonate.
Smart cards can provide identification, authentication, data storage and
application processing. Smart cards may provide strong security
authentication for single sign-on (SSO) within large organizations.

Programming Language
What are the Programming Languages?
Programming Language Categories
There are literally thousands of programming languages in the world and
each has its own strengths and weakness. Many are simply for teaching
or language research. These languages do not interest or concern me.
They are frequently limited and almost useless. There is a certain set of
programming fields/categories that I believe are currently distinct
enough to have an independent programming language to represent
them. Each is however, narrow enough that there is no need for more
than one language.

Language Role

Best Candidate

Scripting
Programmer's scripting
Application Development
Low-level
Pure Functional
Complete Core

Better Scheme (+OO)

C/C++

55

Scripting
The most basic need of for scripting languages is one which is simple to
use because it will be used by those with a minimum of programming
knowledge or in situations where cranking out code which does the job
is all the matters. An example of where this language might be used by
people with more of a programming background is in web scripting.
Examples of languages that might fall into this category are PHP,
JavaScript, Perl, and Python. VB could also be considered in this family
but it is too frequently used for application development today.
There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category.
When one is chosen I believe it should bare resemblance to the
Application development language but with more bells and whistles to
let one crank things out and make it easier.
Programmer's scripting
Real programmers also often have a need for scripting capabilities.
However, they need a language which is simple and complete. It must
never stand in their way as is all too often the case with standard
scripting languages. It must be able to easily integrate into other
languages.
Better Scheme is an excellent language for use in Programmer's
Scripting. It is simple, complete, powerful and concise. In addition many
programmers are exposed to Scheme or Lisp during their education and
so are already familiar with it. One thing which will most likely be
needed is a good extension to Better Scheme which provides solid
support for object oriented programming because Better Scheme scripts
will frequently need to interact with objects created in other languages.
Application Development
To develop applications a language is needed which is complete and
powerful but very safe. The complexity of large application mandates a
56

compile time safe language. It should also be fairly high level and object
oriented. The only languages which I believe comes close to this today
are Eiffel and Java.
There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category.
Low-level
For the purpose of operating systems and other low level code we need a
language that operates fast and just above the machine level. Of course
there will always be occasion to slip into assembly but that is by its
nature machine specific and so not considered here.
Both C and C++ can be used for this. They provide the low level power
needed while giving a reasonable level of safety and abstraction.
Pure Functional
Certain tasks can best be done working in a purely function
environment. And these languages while not as widely used today are in
many ways so distinct from others that it is important to keep their
legacy alive in the hopes that they may positively influence more
common languages. The only real example of this today is Haskell since
languages like ML are not purely functional.
There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category.
Complete Core
This language may never be used for real programming but I still think it
would be important to have in mind. It would be a core language which
the application, scripting and pure functional languages could build on
and modify. It would have everything truly necessary and little more.
One might think that the lambda calculus would be a minimal example
of this. However, it makes no provision for mutability which is clearly a
key concept to many languages. In addition the lambda calculus has no
concept of types, another important feature of modern languages. There
are no examples of a complete core language today.

57

There is currently no outstanding candidate language for this category.

What are the Algorithm and Flowcharts?

Algorithm and Flowcharts Menu
1. Uses
o Flowcharts are used in mapping computer algorithms.
However, with computer advancement in the 1970s, physical
flowcharts lost some significance because programming
languages made the process easier. It is common for a
business to use a flowchart in the development of new
systems or software, but most often its via flowchart
software. A good example is DrawAnywhere that can be used
online without downloading software. You can also buy
software such as Visio or SmartDraw, which offer more
options.
Document Flowchart
o A document flowchart traces the movement of a document,
such as internal memos, payroll information and interoffice
mail, through a system. The chart is columns that are divided
by vertical lines. Each column represents a section,
employee, department or unit in a company. The flowchart
shows how a document passes from one part of the company
to another. Usually, document flowcharts contain minimal
detail, just the route the document takes from one place to
another.
Data Flowchart
o A data flowchart illustrates how data pass through a system.
Symbols connote operations involved in the flow of data and
the storage, input and output materials needed to keep the
58

flow going. This is a good way to track where data originates

and where it ends up. Data flowcharts are more concerned
with the movement of the data than how the data is
processed.
System Flowchart
o A system flowchart shows how an entire system works by
demonstrating how data flows and what decisions are made
to control this event. Symbols that connote decisions,
processes, inputs and outputs and data flow are the most
important elements of a system flowchart. These differ from
data flowcharts because they show decisions, which are more
detailed. System flowcharts are used in fields such instances
as aircraft control, central heating and automatic washing
machines.
Program Flowchart
o A program flowchart demonstrates how a program works
within a system. These flowcharts show any and all userinteraction pathways by using boxes and arrows. These
arrows and boxes form hierarchical menus. Program charts
can be large and complex. However, they are useful for
mapping an entire program. One example of program
flowchart is storyboarding for a film. With all intentions
mapped, people can see exactly how a program functions.
1. Credits
2. Flowchart Intro & Method of Problem Solving
3. 5 Steps using computer as tool and Algorithm Definition
4. Basic and Additional Symbols
5. Examples of:

59

o Simple Sequential
o Selection/Branching structures
o Repetition/Looping structures
o Combination of structures

Flowchart Introduction & Method of Problem Solving

Remember a computer is only a problem-solving tool! (one of the many
different tools engineers use in solving problems)

Method of Problem Solving

1. Recognize and understand the problem.
2. Accumulate facts.
3. Select appropriate theory.
4. Make necessary assumptions.
5. Solve the problem.
6. Verify results.
Performing step 5 (Solve the problem) may involve a computer.

The 5 steps in using a computer as a problem-solving tool

1. Develop an Algorithm and a Flowchart.
60

2. Write the program in a computer language. (i.e. Fortran, C)

3. Enter the program into the computer.
4. Test and debug the program.
5. Run the program, input data, and get the results from the computer.
Definition of Algorithm and Flowchart
An Algorithm is just a detailed sequence of simple steps that are
needed to solve a problem.
A Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.

Basic Symbols
Of the many Symbols available, these 6 Basic Symbols will be used
most:

Start/Stop

Question, Decision (Use in Branching)

Input/output

61

Connector (connect one part of the flowchart to

another)

Process, Instruction

Comments, Explanations, Definitions.

2 Additional Symbols
Related to more advanced programming

Preparation (may be used with "do loops" explained

later)

Refers to separate flowchart

("Subprograms"(explained later) are shown in separate flowcharts).

Examples of Flowchart
Sequential structure

62

Given the radius and height for a cylinder

find the volume and surface area

Selection/Branching Structure

Repetition/Looping Structure

63

Combination of Structures

64

Reference:

Computers!, Timothy Trainor and Diane Trainor

Infoculture The Smithsonian Book of Information Age Inventions, Steven Lubar. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1993.

Alan Turing: The Enigma Andrew Hodges, 1983. Simon & Schuster, New York.

"Insanely Great," Steven Levy. Popular Science, February, 1994.

"Stevie Wonder," Joseph Nocera. GQ, October, 1993.

"Reading Apple's Uncertain Future," MacWorld, October, 1993.

"Ripe For Change," Michael Myer. Newsweek, August 29, 1994.

"Future Games," James K. Willcox. Popular Mechanics, December, 1993

"Electronic Worlds Without End," Keith Ferrell, Omni, October 1993.

"Mario's Big Brother," David Sheff. Rolling Stone, January 9, 1992.

"The PC Week Stat Sheet: A Decade of Computing," PC Week. February 28, 1994.

"R.I.P Commodore, 1954-1994," Tom R. Halfhill. Byte, August, 1994.

"Playing Catch Up" Jim Carlton, Wall Street Journal October 17, 1994.

Breakthrough to the Computer Age, Harry Wulforst

IBM's Early Computers, Charles J. Bashe, Lyle R. Johnson, John H. Palmer, Emerson Pugh.

The Computer Comes of Age, R. Moreau

The Computer Pioneers, David Ritchie

Zap: The Rise and Fall of Atari, Scott Cohen

1993 Grolier's Encyclopedia, Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.

65

French, Carl (1996). Data Processing and Information Technology (10th ed.). Thomson.
p. 2. ISBN 1844801004.

Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback

Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780192800466.

Google Ngram viewer. Retrieved June 26, 2013.

Truesdell, Leon E. (1965). The development of punch card tabulation in the Bureau of the
Census, 1890. United States Department of Commerce.

Bohme, Frederick; Wyatt, J. Paul; Curry, James P. (1991). 100 Years of Data Processing: The
Punchcard Century. United States Bureau of the Census.

Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback

Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192800466.

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y2790E/y2790e0c.htm#TopOfPage

MIDTERM PERIOD
Number System
When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number
system where there are only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent
different values depending on the position they occupy in the number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using
The digit
The position of the digit in the number

66

 The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of
digits available in the number system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system.
Decimal number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number
system, the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units, tens,
hundreds, thousands and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal
number 1234 consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the
hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position, and its value can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)
(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following

number systems which are frequently used in computers.
S.N
.

Number System and Description

1
Binary Number System
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

67

2
Octal Number System
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7
3
Hexa Decimal Number System
Base 16. Digits used : 0 to 9, Letters used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows:
Uses two digits, 0 and 1.
Also called base 2 number system
Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example
2xwhere x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012

Calculating Decimal Equivalent:

Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number
68

Step 1

101012

((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2

101012

(16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3

101012

2110

Note : 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows:
Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.
Also called base 8 number system
Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 8 0
Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example
8xwhere x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Octal Number

Decimal Number

69

Step 1

125708

((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2

125708

(4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3

125708

549610

Note : 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows:
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.
Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E =
14, F = 15.
Also called base 16 number system
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16).
Example 160
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16).
Example 16x where x represents the last position - 1.

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number
70

Step 1

19FDE16

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2

19FDE16

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3

19FDE16

(65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4

19FDE16

10646210

What are the Data representations in Computers?

Data Representation refers to the methods used internally to represent information
stored in a computer. Computers store lots of different types of information:
numbers
text
graphics of many varieties (stills, video, animation)
sound
At least, these all seem different to us. However, ALL types of information stored in a
computer are stored internally in the same simple format: a sequence of 0's and
1's. How can a sequence of 0's and 1's represent things as diverse as your
photograph, your favorite song, a recent movie, and your term paper?
It all depends on how we interpret the information. Computers use numeric codes to
represent all the information they store. These codes are similar to those you may have
used as a child to encrypt secret notes: let 1 stand for A, 2 stand for B, etc. With this
code, any written message can be represented numerically. The codes used by
71

computers are a bit more sophisticated, and they are based on the binary number
system (base two) instead of the more familiar (for the moment, at least!) decimal
system. Computers use a variety of different codes. Some are used for numbers, others
for text, and still others for sound and graphics.

Memory Structure in Computer

Memory consists of bits (0 or 1)
o a single bit can represent two pieces of information
bytes (=8 bits)
o a single byte can represent 256 = 2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2 = 2 8 pieces of
information
words (=2,4, or 8 bytes)
o a 2 byte word can represent 2562 pieces of information (approximately
65 thousand).
Byte addressable - each byte has its own address.

Binary Numbers
Normally we write numbers using digits 0 to 9. This is called base 10. However, any
positive integer (whole number) can be easily represented by a sequence of 0's and 1's.
Numbers in this form are said to be in base 2 and they are called binary numbers. Base
10 numbers use a positional system based on powers of 10 to indicate their value. The
number 123 is really 1 hundred + 2 tens + 3 ones. The value of each position is
determined by ever-higher powers of 10, read from left to right. Base 2 works the
same way, just with different powers. The number 101 in base 2 is really 1 four + 0
twos + 1 one (which equals 5 in base 10).

Text
Text can be represented easily by assigning a unique numeric value for each symbol
used in the text. For example, the widely used ASCII code (American Standard Code
for Information Interchange) defines 128 different symbols (all the characters found
on a standard keyboard, plus a few extra), and assigns to each a unique numeric code
between 0 and 127. In ASCII, an "A" is 65," B" is 66, "a" is 97, "b" is 98, and so forth.
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When you save a file as "plain text", it is stored using ASCII. ASCII format uses 1
byte per character 1 byte gives only 256 (128 standard and 128 non-standard) possible
characters The code value for any character can be converted to base 2, so any written
message made up of ASCII characters can be converted to a string of 0's and 1's.

Graphics
Graphics that are displayed on a computer screen consist of pixels: the tiny "dots" of
color that collectively "paint" a graphic image on a computer screen. The pixels are
organized into many rows on the screen. In one common configuration, each row is
640 pixels long, and there are 480 such rows. Another configuration (and the one used
on the screens in the lab) is 800 pixels per row with 600 rows, which is referred to as a
"resolution of 800x600." Each pixel has two properties: its location on the screen and
its color.
A graphic image can be represented by a list of pixels. Imagine all the rows of pixels
on the screen laid out end to end in one long row. This gives the pixel list, and a
pixel's location in the list corresponds to its position on the screen. A pixel's color is
represented by a binary code, and consists of a certain number of bits. In a
monochrome (black and white) image, only 1 bit is needed per pixel: 0 for black, 1 for
white, for example. A 16 color image requires 4 bits per pixel. Modern display
hardware allows for 24 bits per pixel, which provides an astounding array of 16.7
million possible colors for each pixel!

Compression
Files today are so information-rich that they have become very large. This is
particularly true of graphics files. With so many pixels in the list, and so many bits per
pixel, a graphic file can easily take up over a megabyte of storage. Files containing
large software applications can require 50 megabytes or more! This causes two
problems: it becomes costly to store the files (requires many floppy disks or excessive
room on a hard drive), and it becomes costly to transmit these files over networks and
phone lines because the transmission takes a long time. In addition to studying how
various types of data are represented, you will have the opportunity today to look at a
technique known as data compression. The basic idea of compression is to make a file
shorter by removing redundancies (repeated patterns of bits) from it. This shortened
file must of course be de-compressed - have its redundancies put back in - in order to
be used. However, it can be stored or transmitted in its shorter compressed form,
saving both time and money.

73

Binary System

Binary System
Any number can be represented by any sequence of bits (binary digits), which in turn may be represented by
any mechanism capable of being in two mutually exclusive states. Any of the following rows of symbols can
be interpreted as the binary numeric value of 667:
1010011011
||||||
xoxooxxoxx
ynynnyynyy

Now that we know binary numbers, we will learn how to add them. Binary addition is much like
your normal everyday addition (decimal addition), except that it carries on a value of 2 instead of
a value of 10.
For example: in decimal addition, if you add 8 + 2 you get ten, which you write as 10; in the sum
this gives a digit 0 and a carry of 1. Something similar happens in binary addition when you add
1 and 1; the result is two (as always), but since two is written as 10 in binary, we get, after
summing 1 + 1 in binary, a digit 0 and a carry of 1.
Therefore in binary:
0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10 (which is 0 carry 1)
Example. Suppose we would like to add two binary numbers 10 and 11. We start from the last
digit. Adding 0 and 1, we get 1 (no carry). That means the last digit of the answer will be one.
Then we move one digit to the left: adding 1 and 1 we get 10. Hence, the answer is 101. Note
that binary 10 and 11 correspond to 2 and 3 respectively. And the binary sum 101 corresponds to
decimal 5: is the binary addition corresponds to our regular addition.

74

example:
1 + 11 = ?

Answer: 1 + 11 = 100.
Explanation:

1
1

If we take the first column from the right, we get the binary addition of 1 and 1, which is:
1 + 1 = 10 = 0 carry 1
The rightmost digit of our answer is therefore 0.
The second column from the right becomes: 0 + 1 + 1 (from the carry). In binary addition:
0 + 1 + 1 = 10 = 0 carry 1
Therefore, the second rightmost digit is a 0 and a 1 is carried to the next column. The next
column doesn't exist (there are no numbers), therefore the 1 drops into the next slot of the
answer. So our answer is: 1 0 0

Binary Subtraction
The four possibilities for subtraction are
00=0
11=0
10=1
0 1 = 1 and adjust columns to left in the number in the top row (as illustrated below).
Method: In the case of a column containing 0 1 put down 1 as the answer and in the top
row move to the left a column at a time changing every 0 to a 1 until a 1 is found, change
this 1 to a 0.
Example: Calculate 1001001 1111. (The column being subtracted is shown as shaded.)

Example:
1.)101101 100111 = 110:
0 10
1 0 1 1 10 1
1 0 0 1 1 1
1 1 0

75

2.) 100010110 1111010 = 10011100:

0 1 1 1 10
1 1 1
1
1 10 1 1 0
0 0 0

1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
3.) 1010110 101010 = 101100:
0
0
1 10 1 10 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 0

Binary Division
Follow the same rules as in decimal division. For the sake of simplicity, throw
away the remainder.
For Example: 111011/11
1.) 10011 r 10
_______
11)111011
-11
______
101
-11
______
101
11
______
10

76

Binary Multiplication
A tutorial on how to multiply binary numbers, along with
examples, exercises and answers is presented.
let us first add binary numbers with one digit
0x0=0
0x1=1
1x0=1
1x1=1
The above simple additions are similar to those of decimal.
We now multiply numbers with more than one digit: 1 0 1 1 x 1 0
01
1) The multiplication of binary numbers is similar to the multiplication of decimal numbers.
1

x
___ ___ ___ ___
_
_
_
_

__ __ __
___ ___ ___ ___
_ _ _
1

The multiplication of binary numbers is done by shifting by one bit and adding. It can be easily
checked that 1011 which is 11 in decimal multiplied by 1001 which is 9 in binary gives 99 which
is 1100011 in binary.

77

Decimal To Binary
Conversion
To convert a decimal
number to binary, first
subtract the largest
possible power of two,
and keep subtracting the
next largest possible
power form the
remainder, marking 1s
in each column where
this is possible and 0s
where it is not.
Decimal to Fraction
Example 1 - (Convert
Decimal 44 to Binary)

The technique I just demonstrated lets you convert any

terminating decimal to a fraction.
("Terminating" means "it ends", unlike, say, the decimal for 1/3,
which goes on forever. A non-terminating AND NONREPEATING decimal CANNOT be converted to a fraction,
because it is an "irrational" (non-fractional) number. You should
probably just memorize some of the more basic repeating
decimals, like 0.33333... = 1/3and 0.666666... = 2/3. Check
out the table on the last page.)
Any terminating decimal can be converted
to a fraction by counting the number of
decimal places, and putting the decimal's
digits over 1 followed by the appropriate number of zeroes. For
example:

Example 2 - (Convert
Decimal 15 to Binary)

In the case of a repeating decimal, the following procedure is

often used. Suppose you have a number like 0.5777777.... This
number is equal to some fraction; call this fraction "x". That is:

x = 0.5777777...
There is one repeating digit in this decimal, so multiply x by "1"
followed by one zero; that is, multiply by10:

78
Example 3 - (Convert
Decimal 62 to Binary)

10x = 5.777777...
Now subtract the former from the latter:

That is, 9x = 5.2 = 52/10 = 26/5. Solving this, we get x = 26/45. (You can verify this by plugging "26
into your calculator and seeing that you get "0.5777777..." for an answer.)

45"

If there had been, say, three repeating digits (such as in 0.4123123123...), then you would multiply thex by "1"
followed by three zeroes; that is, you would multiply by 1000. Then subtract and solve, as in the above example.
And don't worry if you have leading zeroes, as in "0.004444..."; the procedure will still work.

Decimal to Percent
Decimal-to-percent conversions are simple: just move the decimal point two places to the right.
(Remember, $0.50 is one-half, or 50%, of a dollar.) For example:

0.23 = 23%
2.34 = 234%
0.0097 = 0.97%
(Note that

0.97% is less than one percent. It should not be confused with 97%, which is 0.97 as a decimal.)

Fraction to Decimal
If you remember that fractions are division, then this is easy. The calculator can do the work for you, because you
can just have it do the division. For example:

The bar is placed over the repeating digits, for convenience sake.

79

When converting fractions to decimals, you may be told to round to a certain place or to a certain number of decimal
places. For instance, looking at that last example, 2/7 as a decimal rounded to the nearest tenth (rounded to one
decimal place) is 0.3; to the nearest hundredth (to two decimal places) is0.29; to the nearest thousandths (to three
decimal places) is 0.286; to the nearest ten-thousandths (to four decimal places) is 0.2857; et cetera. If you're not
sure how you should format your answer, then give the "exact" form and the rounded form:

Note that the rounded form can be useful for word problems, where a final answer in rounded form may be more
practical than a repeating decimal.

Decimal fraction to binary fraction conversion

1.
Successive multiplication method is used to convert a given fractional decimal number to its equivalent
binary fraction.
2.
In this method of conversion the fractional part of the given decimal number is multiplied by 2 (i.e. the
radix of binary number system).
3.
The product obtained has an integer part and fractional part, the integer part here is also referred as carry.
4.
The carry that we obtain at each multiplication iteration becomes a digit in the fractional binary number.
5.
The fractional part obtained is again multiplied and the process is repeated until the fractional part becomes
zero or the number of multiplication iteration equals the number of significant digits after the decimal point in the
given fractional decimal number.
6.
The carry that we obtain at each stage are taken from first iteration to the last iteration to form the numerals
in the fractional binary number i.e. the carry obtained in the first multiplication iteration is the most significant bit
(MSB)after the decimal point and the carry obtained in the last multiplication iteration is the least significant bit
(LSB)
7.
This procedure is illustrated in the following example.

Ex1: Convert (0.625)10 decimal number to binary number (?)2 using successive multiplication method
1st Multiplication Iteration
Multiply 0.625 by 2
0.625 x 2 = 1.25(Product)

Fractional part=0.25

Carry=1

(MSB)

2nd Multiplication Iteration

Multiply 0.25 by 2
0.25 x 2 = 0.50(Product)

Fractional part = 0.50

80

Carry = 0

3rd Multiplication Iteration

Multiply 0.50 by 2
0.50 x 2 = 1.00(Product)

Fractional part = 1.00

Carry = 1 (LSB)

The fractional part in the 3rd iteration becomes zero and hence we stop the multiplication iteration.
Carry from the 1st multiplication iteration becomes MSB and carry from 3rd iteration becomes LSB.
Hence, the fractional binary number of the given fractional decimal number (0.625)10 is (0.101)2.

Decimal to Octal Converter

To use this decimal to octal (base 8) converter tool, you must type a decimal value like 245 into the
left field below, and then hit the Convert button. Therefore, you can convert up to 10 decimal
characters (max: 4294967295) to octal number.

Decimal to octal conversion examples

(24)10 = (30)8

(112)10 = (160)8

(2048)10 = (4000)8

81

Decimal Octal Conversion Chart Table

Octal To Decimal Conversion

Decimal

Octal

10

11

10

12

11

13

12

14

13

15

14

16

15

17

16

20

The following utility will enable you to convert octal to decimal and vice versa
Octal is base 8.
Base 8 is where the only numbers you can use are zero thru to seven. ie: the decimal value for 1 is represented in
octal as 1 but the octal value of 8 (Decimal) is shown as 10 the value of 9 (Decimal) is 11 in octal.

82

Decimal

Octal

Decimal

Octal

Decimal

Octal

11

13

30

36

12

14

40

50

13

15

50

62

14

16

60

74

15

17

70

106

16

20

80

120

17

21

90

132

10

18

22

100

144

11

19

23

500

764

10

12

20

24

1000

1750

Convert octal fraction to decimal fraction

Solved examples of octal fractions to decimal fraction conversion
Problem 1: Convert ( 2 1 . 2 1 )8= ( ? )10

21. 2 1

MSD

LSD

= 2 x 81 + 1 x 80 . 2 x 8-1 + 1 x 8-2

= 2 x 8 + 1 x 1 . 2 x ( 1 / 8 ) + 1 x ( 1 / 64 )

83

= 16 + 1 . ( 0. 2 5 ) + ( 0 . 0 1 5 6 2 5 )

= 17 + 0. 265625
= 17 . 265625

Therefore ( 2 1 . 2 1 )8 = ( 1 7 . 2 6 5 6 2 5 )10

Problem 2: Convert ( 0.357 )8= ( ? )10

= 0 .357

MSD

LSD

= 0 x 80 . 3 x 8-1 + 5 x 8-2 + 7 x 8-3

= 0 x 1 . 3 x ( 1 / 8 ) + 5 x ( 1 / 64 ) + 7 x ( 1 / 512 )

= 0 . (0. 375) + (0 . 0 7 8 1 2 5 ) + ( 0.013671875 )

= 0 . ( 0 . 466796875 )
= 0 . 466796875

Therefore ( 0 . 3 5 7)8 = ( 0 . 466796875 )10

Problem 3: Convert ( 100.01 )8= ( ? )10

= 10 0.01

MSD

LSD

= 1 x 82 + 0 x 81 + 0 x 80 . 0 x 8-1 + 1 x 8-2

84

= 1 x 64 + 0 x 8 + 0 x 1 . 0 x ( 1 / 8 ) + 1 x ( 1 / 64 )

= 64 + 0 + 0 . ( 0 ) + ( 0. 015625 )

= 64 . ( 0. 015625 )

= 64 . 015625

Therefore ( 1 0 0 . 0 1 )8 = ( 64 . 0 1 5 6 2 5 )10

Octal to Binary
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to octal. Simply look up
each octal digit to obtain the equivalent group of three binary digits.
Octal:

Binary
:

000

001

010

011

100

101

110

111

Octal =
Binary =

011

100

101

= 011100101 binary

Binary to Octal
An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits into sets of three, starting
with the least significant (rightmost) digits.
Binary: 11100101 =

11 100 101
011 100 101 Pad the most significant digits with zeros if necessary

85

to complete a group of three.

Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary
:

000

001

010

011

100

101

110

111

Octal:

Binary =

011

100

101

Octal =

= 345 oct

Decimal to Hexadecimal
Here is an example of using repeated division to convert 1792 decimal to hexadecimal:
Decimal Number

Operation

Quotient

Remainder

Hexadecimal Result

1792

16 =

112

112

16 =

00

16 =

700

done.

The only addition to the algorithm when converting from decimal to hexadecimal is that a table
must be used to obtain the hexadecimal digit if the remainder is greater than decimal 9.
Decimal:

Hexadecima
l:

Decimal:

10

11

12

13

14

15

Hexadecima
l:

Hexadecimal to Decimal

86

Converting hexadecimal to decimal can be performed in the conventional mathematical way, by

showing each digit place as an increasing power of 16. Of course, hexadecimal letter values need
to be converted to decimal values before performing the math.
Hexadecima
l:

Decimal:

Hexadecima
l:

Decimal:

10

11

12

13

14

15

A2DE hexadecimal:
= ((A) * 163) + (2 * 162) + ((D) * 161) + ((E) * 160)
= (10 * 163) + (2 * 162) + (13 * 161) + (14 * 160)
= (10 * 4096) + (2 * 256) + (13 * 16) + (14 * 1)
= 40960 + 512 + 208 + 14
= 41694 decimal

Hexadecimal to Binary
Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from binary to hexadecimal.
Simply look up each hexadecimal digit to obtain the equivalent group of four binary digits.
Hexadecima
l:
Binary:

1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110

1111

Hexadecimal =
Binary =

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hexadecima
l:
Binary:

1010

0010

1101

1110

Binary to Hexadecimal

87

= 1010001011011110 binary

An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group binary digits into sets of
four, starting with the least significant (rightmost) digits.
Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101
Then, look up each group in a table:
Binary:

0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hexadecima
l:
Binary:

1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110

1111

Hexadecima
l:

Binary =
Hexadecimal =

1110

0101

= E5 hex

Conversion of Fractions
Consider the decimal number 11.37510. We already know that the binary value of 11 is 10112.
Now we need to find the binary number for the fractional part 0.37510. The steps below show
how to convert this number to binary using repeated multiplication.

88

1. First, we multiply 0.375 by 2 to find the most significant

digit (the rightmost digit). Since our result is less than 1, the
most significant digit in our answer is 0.

2. Next, we take the fractional part of our previous result

(0.75) and multiply by 2 again. Now the result is greater
than 1, so the next digit of our answer is 1.

3. Again we take the fractional part of our previous result

(0.5) and multiply by 2. This time our result is exactly 1, so
the least significant digit (the leftmost digit) is 1. Since the
fractional part of our result is 0, this is the last
multiplication needed to find our answer.

0.375*2 = 0.75
Answer:
0.0??

0.75*2 = 1.5
Answer:
0.01?

0.5*2 = 1.0
Answer:
0.011

We can also organize this conversion in table form as we did with the previous one.

0.375 * 2 = 0.75 (leftmost digit)

0.75 * 2 = 1.5
0.5 * 2 = 1.0 (rightmost digit)
This time we read our answer of 0.0112 from top to bottom since the first multiplication gives us
the most significant digit, and the last multiplication gives us the least significant digit.
Animated version
Consider the decimal number 11.37510. To find the binary value for this
number we use both repeated division on the integer part (11)
and repeated multiplication on the fractional part (0.375). Then we
simply combine the two binary values to get our answer of 1011.0112.

1011.0
+ 0.011
1011.011

It is important to note that many decimal fractions do not have an exact representation in binary.
For example, when we convert the decimal fraction 0.110 to binary, our answer looks like this:
0.00011001100110011001100...
Notice how this binary fraction repeats infinitely. Since we cannot represent some fractions
exactly in binary, we cannot perform exact arithmetic with fractions. You may not realize it, but
89

your computer actually has very tiny amounts of error in its computations. You rarely see these
errors because the binary approximations are very close to the exact decimal value. However,
when programmers write programs which perform many mathematical computations, they must
consider this error to ensure their answers are reliable.

Octal
Octal is another number system with less symbols to use than our conventional number system.
Octal is fancy for Base Eight meaning eight symbols are used to represent all the quantities. They
are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. When we count up one from the 7, we need a new placement to
represent what we call 8 since an 8 doesn't exist in Octal. So, after 7 is 10.

Octal

1
0

1
1

12

1
7

20

30

7
7

10
0

Deci
mal

10

1
5

16

24

6
3

64

Just like how we used powers of ten in decimal and powers of two in binary, to
determine the value of a number we will use powers of 8 since this is Base Eight.
Consider the number 3623 in base eight.
83

82

81

80

1536+384+16+3
1939
Each additional placement to the left has more value than it did in binary. The third
digit from the right in binary only represented 23-1, which is 4. In octal, that is 831
which is 64.

Hexadecimal
The hexadecimal system is Base Sixteen. As its base implies, this number system
uses sixteen symbols to represent numbers. Unlike binary and octal, hexadecimal
has six additional symbols that it uses beyond the conventional ones found in
90

decimal. But what comes after 9? 10 is not a single digit but two Fortunately, the
convention is that once additional symbols are needed beyond the normal ten,
letters are to be used. So, in hexadecimal, the total list of symbols to use is 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. In a digital display, the numbers B and D are
lowercase.
When counting in hexadecimal, you count 0, 1, 2, and so on. However, when you
reach 9, you go directly to A. Then, you count B, C, D, E, and F. But what is next?
We are out of symbols! When we run out of symbols, we create a new digit
placement and move on. So after F is 10. You count further until you reach 19.
After 19, the next number is 1A. This goes on forever.
Hexade
cimal

9 A

1
0

Decima
l

1
9
0

1
1

1
2

1
3

1
4

1
5

1
6

11

1
9

1
A

1
B

17

2
5

2
6

2
7

1C

9
F

A
0

28

1
5
9

1
6
0

Digits are explained as powers of 16. Consider the hexadecimal number 2DB7.
163

162

161

160

8192+3328+176+7
11703
As you can see, placements in hexadecimal are worth a whole lot more than in any
of the other three number systems.

Binary Numeral System - Base-2

Binary numbers uses only 0 and 1 digits.

91

B denotes binary prefix.

Examples:
101012 = 10101B = 124+023+122+021+120 = 16+4+1= 21
101112 = 10111B = 124+023+122+121+120 = 16+4+2+1= 23
1000112 = 100011B = 125+024+023+022+121+120 =32+2+1= 35

Octal Numeral System - Base-8

Octal numbers uses digits from 0..7.

Examples:
278 = 281+780 = 16+7 = 23
308 = 381+080 = 24
43078 = 483+382+081+780= 2247
Decimal Numeral System - Base-10
Decimal numbers uses digits from 0..9.
These are the regular numbers that we use.
Example:
253810 = 2103+5102+3101+8100

Hexadecimal Numeral System - Base-16

Hex numbers uses digits from 0..9 and A..F.

92

H denotes hex prefix.

Examples:
2816 = 28H = 2161+8160 = 40
2F16 = 2FH = 2161+15160 = 47
BC1216 = BC12H = 11163+12162+1161+2160= 48146

Reference:
http://www.rapidtables.com/math/number/Numeral_system.htm

tibasicdev.wikidot.com/binandhex

cs.furman.edu/digitaldomain/more/ch6/dec_frac_to_bin.htm

mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/56091.html

FINAL PERIOD
Introduction to Windows Operating System
OVERVIEW of OS
An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software resources
and provides common services for computer. The operating system is an essential component of
the system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating
system to function.

93

Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also
include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and
other resources.

For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system
acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application
code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently make a system call to an
OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating systems can be found on almost any device that
contains a computerfrom cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web
servers.

Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, Linux, OS
X, QNX, Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these examples, except
Windows, Windows Phone and z/OS, share roots in UNIX.

DOS COMMAND & UTILITIES

What are the DOS COMMAND & UTILITIES?

In the PC operating systems MS-DOS and PC DOS, a number of standard system

commands were provided for common tasks such as listing files on a disk or moving files. Some
commands were built into the command interpreter; others existed as external commands on
disk. Over the several generations of DOS, commands were added for the additional functions of
the operating system. In the current Microsoft Windows operating system, a text-mode command
prompt window can still be used.

94

The command interpreter for DOS (COMMAND.COM) runs when no application programs are
running. When an application exits, if the transient portion of the command interpreter in
memory was overwritten, DOS will reload it from disk. Some commands are internal built
into COMMAND.COM; others are external commands stored on disk. When the user types a
line of text at the operating system command prompt, COMMAND.COM will parse the line and
attempt to match a command name to a built-in command or to the name of an executable
program file or batch file on disk. If no match is found, an error message is printed, and the
command prompt is refreshed.

External commands were too large to keep in the command processor, or were less frequently
used. Such utility programs would be stored on disk and loaded just like regular application
programs but were distributed with the operating system. Copies of these utility command
programs had to be on an accessible disk, either on the current drive or on the command path set
in the command interpreter.

In the list below, commands that can accept more than one filename, or a filename including
wildcards (* and ?), are said to accept a (file specification) parameter. Commands that can
accept only a single filename are said to accept a filename parameter. Additionally, command line
switches, or other parameter strings, can be supplied on the command line. Spaces and symbols
such as a "/" or a "-" may be used to allow the command processor to parse the command line
into filenames, file specifications, and other options.

The command interpreter preserves the case of whatever parameters are passed to commands,
but the command names themselves and filenames are case-insensitive.

While many commands are the same across many DOS systems (MS-DOS, PC DOS, DRDOS, FreeDOS, etc.) some differ in command syntax or name.

95

Windows Operating System

Microsoft Windows is a series of graphical interface operating systems developed, marketed,
and sold by Microsoft.

Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985 as a

graphical operating system shellfor MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical
user interfaces (GUIs). Microsoft Windows came to dominatethe world's personal
computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in
1984.

As of April 2014, the most recent versions of Windows for personal

computers, smartphones, server computers andembedded devices are respectively Windows
8.1, Windows Phone 8.1, Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows Embedded 8.

TO START AND CLOSE WINDOWS

DESKTOP

What is desktop?

A desktop computer is a personal computer in a form intended for regular use at a single
location desk/table due to its size and power requirements, as opposed to a laptop whose
rechargeable battery and compact dimensions allow it to be regularly carried and used in
different locations. The most common configuration is a computer monitor, keyboard and mouse,
and a case that houses the main components of the PC, namely the power supply, motherboard,
hard drive, optical drive, and previously the floppy drive. The form factor of the case is typically
an upright tower or (horizontal) desktop. All-in-one computers, that integrate the monitor and

96

main PC components in one unit, are often categorized under the desktop computer umbrella,
particularly if they require an external power source and separate keyboard/mouse. The desktop
category has also encompassed home computers and workstations.

ICONS

What is an Icon?

An icon is generally a flat panel painting depicting Jesus, Mary, Saints and Angels, which
is veneratedamong Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and in certain Eastern Catholic
Churches.

Icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done
in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Icons are often illuminated with a
candle or jar of oil with a wick. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for oil lamps are preferred
because they burn very cleanly, although other materials are sometimes used.) The illumination
of religious images with lamps or candles is an ancient practice pre-dating Christianity.

Although common in translated works from Greek or Russian, in English iconography does not
mean icon painting, and "iconographer" does not mean an artist of icons, which are painted or
carved, not "written", as they are in those languages.

Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as "icons", although
"iconic" may be used to describe a static style of devotional image.

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PROGRAM MANAGER

What is a Program Manager?

Program Manager is the shell of Windows 3.x and Windows NT 3.x operating systems. This
shell exposed a task-orientedgraphical user interface (GUI), consisting of icons (shortcuts for
programs) arranged into program groups. It replaced MS-DOS Executive, a file manager, as the
default Windows shell.

Program Manager descends from PMShell, the shell for OS/2 1.2, and shares the same
icons.Unlike PMShell, which presented its program groups in a simple list, Program Manager
opens program groups in child windows using the new multiple document interface in Windows
3. It is possible to run PMShell in Windows by using Presentation Manager for Windows; in that
case, PMShell will read the Program Manager groups via DDE.When executables were dropped
into Program Manager from File Manager, Program Manager automatically used the executable's
default icon embedded as data inside the .EXE file. Additionally, the Windows Setup program,
which populated Program Manager with the standard icons of a fresh install, could also be used
to add new icons in bulk after installation. Using SETUP /P from the command line, a standard
layout could be installed on many machines in an enterprise using a single SETUP.INF
configuration file.

Beginning with Windows 3.1, Program Manager contained a StartUp group. Programs and files
placed into that group would be loaded when Windows starts.

Holding down the shift key while mousing FILE then EXIT WINDOWS will save the current
configuration of Program Manager to PROGMAN.INI, including the position of all program
group icons, assuming that auto-arrange has been disabled. This allowed Microsoft testers to try
many different configurations, but the feature remained in the shipped version.

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In later versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0,
Program Manager was replaced by Windows Explorer as the default shell. Specifically, theStart
Menu took over program organization and launching duties. However, Windows 95 still gave the
user the option to start Program Manager at boot.

For backward compatibility with old applications[citation needed], Program Manager was still included
in later versions of Windows, and could be accessed by executing PROGMAN.EXEfrom the
command line or Run dialog. If the user wished, it could be used as the default shell by
specifying the Shell value in the registry at eitherHKLM\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows
NT\CurrentVersion\Winlogon (per machine) or HKCU\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows
NT\CurrentVersion\Winlogon (per user).

Today, Program Manager has little practical use beyond compatibility with pre-Windows 95
programs.[citation needed] Microsoft removed Program Manager from Windows XP Service Pack 2,
and the executable only serves to convert Program Manager shortcuts to Windows Explorer
shortcuts. In Windows Vista, PROGMAN.EXE has been removed entirely.

CONTROL PANEL
What is a Control Panel?

The Control Panel is a part of the Microsoft Windows graphical user interface which allows
users to view and manipulate basic system settings and controls via applets, such as
adding hardware, adding and removing software, controlling user accounts, and
changing accessibility options. Additional applets can be provided by third party software.

The Control Panel has been an inherent part of the Microsoft Windows operating system
since Windows 2.0, with many of the current applets being added in later versions. Beginning
with Windows 95, the Control Panel is implemented as a special folder, i.e. the folder does not
physically exist, but only contains shortcuts to various applets such as Add or Remove
Programs and Internet Options. Physically, these applets are stored as .cpl files. For example,
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the Add or Remove Programs applet is stored under the name appwiz.cpl in
the SYSTEM32 folder.

In recent versions of Windows, the Control Panel has two views, Classic View and Category
View, and it is possible to switch between these through an option that appears on either the left
side or top of the window.

Many of the individual Control Panel applets can be accessed in other ways. For
instance, Display Properties can be accessed by right-clicking on an empty area of the desktop
and choosing Properties.

The classic view consists of shortcuts to the various control panel applets, usually without any
description (other than the name). The categories are seen if the user use "Details" view.
The category view consists of categories, which when clicked on display the control panel
applets related to the category. In Windows Vista, the category used applets below the name of
the category.

WINDOW EXPLORER

What is a Windows Explorer?

Windows Internet Explorer, commonly abbreviated IE orMSIE) is a series of graphical web

browsers developed by Microsoft and included as part of the Microsoft Windows line
ofoperating systems, starting in 1995. It was first released as part of the add-on package Plus! for
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Windows 95 that year. Later versions were available as free downloads, or in service packs, and
included in the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) service releases of Windows 95 and
later versions of Windows.

Internet Explorer is one of the most widely used web browsers, attaining a peak of about
95% usage share during 2002 and 2003. Its usage share has since declined with the launch
of Firefox (2004) and Google Chrome (2008), and with the growing popularity of operating
systems such as OS X, Linux and Android that do not run Internet Explorer. Estimates for
Internet Explorer's overall market share range from 27.4% to 54.13%, as of October
2012 (browser market share is notoriously difficult to calculate). Microsoft spent over US$100
million per year on Internet Explorer in the late 1990s, with over 1000 people working on it by
1999.

Since its first release, Microsoft has added features and technologies such as basic table display
(in version 1.5);XMLHttpRequest (in version 5), which aids creation of dynamic web pages;
and Internationalized Domain Names (in version 7), which allow Web sites to have nativelanguage addresses with non-Latin characters. The browser has also received scrutiny throughout
its development for use of third-party technology (such as the source code of Spyglass Mosaic,
used without royalty in early versions) and security and privacy vulnerabilities, and both the
United States and the European Unionhave alleged that integration of Internet Explorer with
Windows has been to the detriment of other browsers.

The latest stable release is Internet Explorer 11, with an interface allowing for use as both a
desktop application, and as aWindows 8 application.

Versions of Internet Explorer for other operating systems have also been produced, including
an Xbox 360 version called Internet Explorer for Xbox and an embedded OEM version called
Pocket Internet Explorer, later rebranded Internet Explorer Mobile, which is based on Internet
Explorer 9 and made for Windows Phone, Windows CE, and previously, based on Internet
Explorer 7 for Windows Mobile. It remains in development alongside the desktop

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versions. Internet Explorer for Mac andInternet Explorer for UNIX (Solaris and HP-UX) have
been discontinued.

From January 12, 2016, only the most recent version of Internet Explorer on each operating
system will be supported, depending on operating system it will be IE 11 or could be down to IE
9 for older Windows versions.

On April 26, 2014, Microsoft issued a security advisory relating to a vulnerability that could
allow "remote code execution" in Internet Explorer versions 6 to 11.[10] The vulnerability was
resolved with a security update May 1, 2014.

BASIC MOUSE SKILL

What are the basic Mouse Skills?

Mouse skill was a game-based computer tutorial aimed at teaching new users how to operate a
computer mouse[1] at a time when many were unfamiliar with this feature of a computer.

Mouse Practice was created using Macro Mind Director and released in 1992 by Apple for
the Macintosh computer platform. It involved the user learning the key functions of the mouse by
controlling a scuba diver in an underwater environment.

Another program, Mouse Basics, served a similar purpose on earlier Macintosh computers, but
did not have the game-based approach of Mouse Practice.

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PARTS OF WINDOW SCREEN

What are the parts of a Windows Screen?

A window screen, also known as insect screen or bug screen is designed to cover the opening
of a window. The mesh is usually made of metal wire, fiberglass, or other synthetic fiber and
stretched in a frame of wood or metal. It serves to keep leaves, debris, insects, birds, and other
animals from entering a building or a screened structure such as a porch, without blocking fresh
air-flow. Most houses in Australia, the United States andCanada and other parts of the world
have screens on the window to prevent entry of disease carrying insects like mosquitoes and
house flies. Formerly, screens were required to be replaced by glass storm windows in the winter,
especially in regions like the northern United States and Canada, but now combination storm and
screen windows are available, which allow glass and screen panels to slide up and down.
Desktop The opening screen of windows 98.
Icons a pictorial representation of a program or file.
Taskbar Is the bar that shows the tasks that are open and also contains the start button, the
lunch buttons, and the system tray.
Launch Buttons start certain window programs immediately
System Tray Contain programs that started the same time window 98 did.
Task buttons Show what programs are running
Window a program or group of icons that is open.
Title bar Displays the name of the window, or the document in the window
Menu bar Show one or two words commands that commands the computer what to do.
Tool bar icons that give shortcuts to different commands contained in the menu bar.
Work area the white area in the middle of the window.
Status bar Gray bar at the bottom that gives hints about what you are doing.
Mouse buttons- Left, right, and center - Left mouse button chooses things; Right mouse button
brings up a short cut menu, Center if present controls the scrolling bar.
Click - chooses things
Drag and drop It moves objects by clicking and holding left mouse button down and moving
mouse
Double click opens things.
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Copying, Editing & Printing Files

FILE MANAGEMENT

What is File Management?

A file manager or file browser is a computer program that provides a user interface to
manage files and folders. The most common operations performed on files or groups of files
include creating, opening (e.g. viewing, playing, editing or printing), renaming, moving or
copying, deleting and searching for files, as well as modifying file attributes, properties and file
permissions. Folders and files may be displayed in a hierarchical tree based on their directory
structure. Some file managers contain features inspired by web browsers, including forward and
back navigational buttons.

Some file managers provide network connectivity via protocols, such

as FTP, NFS, SMB or WebDAV. This is achieved by allowing the user to browse for a file
server (connecting and accessing the server's file system like a local file system) or by providing
its own full client implementations for file server proto

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.Microsoft

Word Application

Introduction to MS Word
Microsoft Word is a word-processing program that can be used to create professionallooking documents such as reports, resume, letters, memos and newspapers. It includes many
powerful tools that can be used to enhance the appearance of documents and collaborate with
others. This handout provides an overview of Microsoft Word user interface and covers how to
perform basic task such as creating, saving, editing, formatting and printing documents, as well
as getting help.

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b.
Creating

Documents
To create New Document:
1.) Click the FILE tab, and then click the New. The New page of the Backstage
view displays thumbnails of the available templates and templates categories.
2.) Under Available Templates, click Blank Document.
3.) Click the Create button. A new blank document opens in a new window.
NOTE: You can also press CTRL + N to create a new document.
c. Opening a New File
When you open a file in Microsoft Office, you have several options for how the file
opens. You can open the original file for editing, open a copy, or open the file as read-only, which
prevents you from saving the file unless you save it by using another name.

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Open a file

1.) Click the Microsoft Office Button

, and then click Open.

**NOTE: If you don't see the Microsoft Office Button

, click Open on the File menu.
Keyboard shortcut : To display the Open dialog box, press CTRL+O.
2.) In the Look in list or Navigation pane, click the folder, drive, removable media (such as
flash drive, CD, or DVD), or Internet location that contains the file that you want to open.
**NOTE: By default, the files that you see in the Open dialog box are only those files that
are created by the program that you are using. For example, if you are using Microsoft Office
Excel, you do not see files that are created by using Microsoft Office Word unless you
click All Files in the Files of type box.
3.) Click the file, and then click Open.

Open a file as a copy

When you open a file as a copy, the program creates a duplicate of the file, and you
look at the duplicate. Any changes that you make are saved to the copy. The program gives
the copy a new name. The default is to addCopy (1) of to the beginning of the file name.
1.) Click the Microsoft Office Button

, and then click Open.

**NOTE: If you don't see the Microsoft Office Button

, click Open on the File menu.
Keyboard shortcut To display the Open dialog box, press CTRL+O.
2.) In the Look in list or Navigation pane, click the folder, drive, removable media (such as
flash drive, CD, or DVD), or Internet location that contains the file that you want to open.
3.) Click the file that you want to open a copy of.
4.) Click the arrow next to the Open button, and then click Open as Copy.
**NOTE: When you open a file as a copy, a new copy of the file is created in the folder that
contains the original file.
Open a file as read-only
When you open a file as read-only, you are looking at the original file, but you cannot
save changes to it.
1.) Click the Microsoft Office Button

, and then click Open.

Keyboard shortcut To display the Open dialog box, press CTRL+O.

2.) In the Look in list or Navigation pane, click the folder, drive, removable media (such as
flash drive, CD, or DVD), or Internet location that contains the file that you want to open.
3.) Click the file that you want to open as read-only.
4.) Click the arrow next to the Open button, and then click Open Read-Only.
** NOTES:

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 Using Microsoft Windows XP, to create a shortcut to a folder on a network file server,
Web server, or removable media (such as flash drive, CD, or DVD), use My Network
Places on the My Places bar in the Opendialog box.
Using Windows Vista, to create a shortcut to a folder on a network file server, Web
server, or removable media removable media (such as flash drive, CD, or DVD),
use Navigation pane in the Open dialog box.
The Recently used files list on the File menu or the Recent Documents list available
when you click theMicrosoft Office Button
displays a list of the last few files that
you opened. Click the file name to open the file.
The My Recent Documents folder in the Open dialog box lists the previous files and
folders that you have opened.

d. Entering Text
Let us see how easy is to enter text in a word document. Hope you are aware that when
you start a word, it displays a new document by default as shown below:

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Document area is the area where where you type your text. The flashing vertical bar is called the
insertion point and it represents the location where text will appear when you type.
So just keep your mouse cursor at the text insertion point and start typing whatever text you
would like to type. I typed only two word "Hello Word" as shown below. The text appears to the
left of the insertion point as you type:

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There are following two important points which would help you while typing:

You do not need to press Enter to start a new line, as the insertion point reaches the end of
the line, Word automatically starts a new one. You would need to press enter if you want to have
a new paragraph.

When you want to add more than one space between words, use the Tab key instead of
the spacebar. This way you can properly align text when you use proportional fonts.

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e. Saving and Naming File

You can save a document as one of several file formats to a folder on a hard disk drive,
CD, DVD, flash drive, your desktop, or to a folder on your network.
**TIP: To quickly save a document, click Save
on the Standard toolbar. To save a
document in a different location or format, use the procedures below.

Save a copy of a file (Save As)

1.) On the File menu, click Save As.

2.) In the File name box, enter a new name for the file.
3.) Click Save.
Save a file to another format
1.) On the File menu, click Save As.
2.) In the File name box, enter a new name for the file.
3.) Click the Save as type list, and then click the file format that you want the file saved in.
4.) Click Save.

Save files automatically

1.) On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Save tab.
2.) Select the Save AutoRecover info every check box.
3.) In the minutes box, enter the interval for how often you want to save files. The more
frequently your files are saved, the more information is recovered if there is a power
failure or similar problem while a file is open.
** Auto Recovery is not a replacement for regularly saving your files. If you choose not to save
the recovery file after opening it, the file is deleted and your unsaved changes are lost. If you
save the recovery file, it replaces the original file (unless you specify a new file name)
Speed up saving a file
1.) On the Tools menu, click Options, and then click the Save tab.
2.) To save only the changes to a file, select the Allow fast saves check box, and then
continue to save as you work on the file.
** To save a complete file, clear the Allow fast saves check box when you finish working on
the file, and then save it one last time. A full save occurs when this check box is cleared

Save a Word document as a Web page or a frames page

1.) On the File menu, click Save as Web Page.

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2.) If you want to save the document in a different folder, locate and open the folder.
3.) In the File name box, type a name for the document.
4.) Click

Formatting Documents
a. Formatting Text changing fonts, fonts size and text color
To create and design effective documents, you need to know how to format text. In
addition to making your document more appealing, formatted text can draw the reader's
attention to specific parts of the document and help communicate your message.
In this lesson, you'll learn to format the font size, style, and color; highlight the text; and
use the Bold, Italic, Underline, and Change Case commands.

Formatting text

Formatted text can emphasize important information and help organize your document.
In Word, you have many options for adjusting the font of your text, including size, color, and
inserting special symbols. You can also adjust the alignment of the text to change how it is
displayed on the page.
To change the font size:
1.

Select the text you wish to modify.

2.

Click the drop-down arrow next to the Font Size box on the Home tab. A
drop-down menu appears.

3.

Select the desired font size from the menu. Alternatively, you can type the
value that you want and then press Enter on your keyboard.

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You can also use the Grow Font and Shrink Font commands to change the size.

To change the font:

1.

Select the text you wish to modify.

2.

Click the drop-down arrow next to the Font box on the Home tab.
The Font drop-down menu appears.

3.

Move the mouse pointer over the various fonts. A live preview of the font will
appear in the document.

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4.

Select the font you wish to use. The font will change in the document.

To change the font color:

1.

Select the text you wish to modify.

2.

Click the Font Color drop-down arrow on the Home tab. The Font
Color menu appears.

3.

Move the mouse pointer over the various font colors. A live preview of the
color will appear in the document.

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4.

Select the font color you wish to use. The font color will change in the
document.

Your color choices aren't limited to the drop-down menu that appears. Select More
Colors at the bottom of the list to access the Colors dialog box. Choose the color
that you want, then click OK.

To highlight text:
1.

From the Home tab, click the Text Highlight Color drop-down arrow.
The Highlight Color menu appears.

2.

Select the desired highlight color.

3.

Select the text you wish to modify. It will then be highlighted.

4.

To switch back to the normal cursor, click the Text Highlight Color command.

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 To use the Bold, Italic, and Underline commands:

1.

Select the text you wish to modify.

2.

Click the Bold (B), Italic (I), or Underline (U) command in the Font group on
the Home tab.

To change the text case:

1.

Select the text you wish to modify.

2.

Click the Change Case command in the Font group on the Home tab.

3.

Select the desired case option from the list.

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 To change the text alignment:

1.

Select the text you wish to modify.

2.

Select one of the four alignment options from the Paragraph group on
the Home tab.
o

Align Text Left: Aligns all selected text to the left margin.

Center: Aligns text an equal distance from the left and right margins.

Align Text Right: Aligns all selected text to the right margin.

Justify: Justified text is equal on both sides and lines up equally to the
right and left margins. Many newspapers and magazines use full
justification.

You can use Word's convenient Set as Default feature to save all of
the formatting changes you've made and automatically apply them to new
documents. To learn how to do this, read our article Changing Your Default Settings
in Word.

b. Aligning and Justifying Text

Horizontal alignment determines the appearance and orientation of the edges of the
paragraph: left-aligned text, right-aligned text, centered text, or justified text, which is aligned
evenly along the left and right margins. For example, in a paragraph that is left-aligned (the most
common alignment), the left edge of the paragraph is flush with the left margin.

Align the text left or right

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1.) Select the text that you want to align.

2.) On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Align Left

or Align Right

Center the text

1.) Select the text that you want to center.
2.) On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Center

Justify the text

You can justify the text, which might make the last line of text in a paragraph
considerably shorter than the other lines.
1.) Select the text you want to justify.
2.) On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Justify

c. Copying and Moving Data within the Clipboard

You can transfer field contents to and from the operating system clipboard using the
operating system clipboard interface. You do not use the functions provided in the Edit menu.
They are only meant for communication between SAP applications.
Procedure
Operating on Single Fields
You can operate on single fields as follows:
1. To select a field or the text you want to copy or move, click and drag the cursor over the
desired text. The selected text is highlighted.
To move the data from an input field to the clipboard of your operating system,
choose

with the quick info text Customizing of local

layout Clipboard Cut (CTRL+X).

The field is now blank.
To copy data from the field to the clipboard, choose

with the quick info

text Customizing of local layout Clipboard Copy (CTRL+C).

Data remains in the field.

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3. To paste data, position the cursor where you want the data to be pasted and choose
with the quick info textCustomizing of local layout Clipboard Paste (CTRL+V).
The text is pasted at the current cursor position. The transferred data remains on the
clipboard until you use Cut or Copy again to move or copy new texts on the clipboard.
You can paste data in fields of another SAP screen or external application.

Operating on Multiple Fields

To copy data from several fields or different field types to the clipboard, you must turn on the
selection mode. To do this:
1. Choose

with the quick info text Customizing of local

layout Clipboard Mark (CTRL+Y)

The pointer changes into a crosshair cursor.
2. Select one corner of the area you want to copy. While holding the mouse button, drag the
cursor to the opposite corner (for example, from top left to bottom right).
The system displays a rectangle to indicate the selected area.
3. Release the mouse button when the rectangle covers the entire text you want to copy.
4. Choose

with the quick info text Customizing of local

layout Clipboard Copy (CTRL+C) or Cut(CTRL+X).

The selected text is placed on the clipboard.

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Result
The clipboard now contains all the information from the fields you have selected,
including the field names and short descriptions. You can use this method to copy the content of
all selected input fields into a screen with the same layout. Because the field names are appended
to the previous input field, they will be truncated. Be aware that in this mode you copy only the
visible part of the fields; the non-visible part of scrollable input fields will also be truncated. This
feature can also be used for copying SAP information and pasting it into an external program,
such as Microsoft Word.

4. Specialized & Advanced Application

a. Decorating Files w/ Clip art & Word art
Open a new document in Word.
Go to Clip Art and Media on MICROSOFT OFFICE Online to find Halloween clip art.
In the Search for box, type Halloween.
In the Results should be text box, select Clip Art. Then, click Go.
Find one to several clips that you want to use. Under each clip you choose, click the check
box. When you have selected all the clips you need, click Download <number> clips in the
upper left corner of the page.
Click Download Now. The Microsoft Clip Organizer opens, showing you the clips that you
downloaded.
If you have never visited Office Clip Art and Media before, you may need to read and accept the
Microsoft Service Agreement before downloading the clips.
Click each clip, and then drag them on to your Word document one at a time.
To modify the size, right-click the clip and click Format Picture.
In the Format Picture dialog box, click the Size tab and use the arrows to make it the size
you want.
the File menu, click Print. Then, cut out the shape and tape it to your window.
b.Inserting a Clip Art Image Into A File
Insert clip art
Do the following for all programs listed in the Applies To at the top of the article.
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On the Insert tab, in the Illustrations group, click Clip Art.

In the Clip Art task pane, in the Search for text box, type a word or phrase that describes
the clip art that you want, or type all or some of the file name of the clip art.
2
3

To narrow your search, do one or both of the following:

1

To limit the search results to a specific collection of clip art, in the Search in list,
select the check box next to each collection that you want to search.
For more information about collections, see About Clip Organizer collections.

To limit the search results to clip art, in the Results should be list, select the Clip
Art check box. You can also select the check boxes next to Photographs,
Movies, and Sounds to search those media types.

Click Go.

In the list of results, click the clip art to insert it.

TIP To insert clip art into the notes pages of your Office PowerPoint 2007 presentation,
switch to Notes view, and then do the procedure above.
c.Handling Objects in a File
The following code read 3 obj and write them into a file. however im unable to retrieve objects
properly using the below code. data is duplicated and is not in order
plz help
old code :
#include<fstream.h>#include<conio.h>
class mail
{ public: char un[25];
// user name char pd[25];
// passsword
void reg(int);
} obj[5];
void mail::reg(int k){ int i; i=k;
clrscr(); cout<<"Enter user name ( enter unique name )\n"; cin>>un;
cout<<"Enter password\n"; cin>>pd;
ofstream filout; filout.open("email",ios::app||ios::binary); if(!filout) { cout<<"cannot open
file\n"; } else { cout<<"\n "<<i; filout.write((char *)&obj[i],sizeof(mail)); filout.close();
}
cout<<"You are now registered. \n"; getch();
}
// end of sign up or register func
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void main(){
int t; clrscr(); obj[0].reg(0); obj[1].reg(1); obj[2].reg(2);
mail obj2;
ifstream filein; filein.open("email",ios::in||ios::binary); if(!filein) { cout<<"Unable to open
file to read\n"; } else { while(!filein.eof()) {
filein.read((char *)&obj2,sizeof(obj2));
cout<<"username "<<obj2.un<<" passwword "<<obj2.pd<<"\n"; } filein.close(); }
getch();
}

d.Putting Headers & Footers on Pages

Document with headers that are different on the odd and even pages.
Having different headers and footers on odd and even pages is excellent for some documents.
For example, you've probably noticed that many books have the book title on the even
numbered pages and the chapter title on the odd numbered pages.
Once again, you use the Page Setup button
even check box.

. On the Layout tab, select theDifferent odd and

Tip Word adds text above the header or footer area to show whether you're on an odd or even
page. Again, this reminder is for your benefit only; it does not appear in the document, but only
in header and footer view.
But odd and even headers and footers apply across the whole document, so what happens if you
have different chapters or sections? Read on to find out.
e.Constructing a Table
Introduction
You may want to consider using HTML tables in your website. In addition to creating HTML
tables to present data in rows and columns, you can also create HTML tables to organize
information on your web page.
The process of creating an HTML table is similar to the process that you used to create your web
page and any elements that you may have already included in your page, such as links or frames.
Coding HTML tables into your web page is fairly easy since you need only understand a few
basic table codes.

Creating a basic table

The basic structure of an HTML table consists of the following tags:
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Table tags: <TABLE> </TABLE>

Row tags: <TR> </TR>

Cell tags:

<TD> </TD>

Constructing an HTML table consists of describing the table between the beginning table tag,
<TABLE>, and the ending table table tag, </TABLE>. Between these tags, you then construct
each row and each cell in the row. To do this, you would first start the row with the beginning
row tag, <TR>, and then build the row by creating each cell with the beginning cell tag, <TD>,
adding the data for that cell, and then closing the cell with the ending cell tag, </TD>. When you
finish all of the cells for a row, you would then close the row with the ending row tag,
</TR>.Then, for each new row, you would repeat the process of beginning the row, building
each cell in the row, and closing the row.
The following table is an example of a basic table with three rows and two columns of data.
Data 1

Data 2

Data 3

Data 4

Data 5

Data 6

The codes that generated this table look like this:

<TABLE>
<TR>
<TD>Data 1</TD>
<TD>Data 2</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Data 3</TD>
<TD>Data 4</TD>
</TR>
<TR>
<TD>Data 5</TD>
<TD>Data 6</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>

123

This table contains no border, title, or headings. If you wish to add any of these elements to your
table, you need to include additional HTML codes. The codes for these elements are explained
in the next section.
Adding a border, title, and headings
In addition to the basic table tags, several options are available for adding additional elements to
your table. For example, if you add a border, title, and column headings to the table in the
previous section, the table would then resemble the following:
TABLE TITLE

Column
A

Column B

Data 1

Data 2

Data 3

Data 4

Data 5

Data 6

The following codes generated the border, TABLE TITLE, and Column A and Column B
headings for this table:
<TABLE BORDER="5">
<TR>
<TH COLSPAN="2">
<H3><BR>TABLE TITLE</H3>
</TH>
</TR>
<TH>Column A</TH>
<TH>Column B</TH>
Note: If you wish to view the codes that generated the Data 1 through Data 6 cells, refer to the
previous section.
Notice that the beginning table tag, <TABLE>, now includes the border tag, BORDER="5",
which places a border around the table and frames each cell. The number that you ascribe to the
border tag, BORDER=n, sets the width of the table border. Depending on how you design your
table, you can then determine the border size that best suits your table and the overall design of
your web page.
124

To add a title to your table, you would place the title and the attributes of that title between the
row commands, <TR> and </TR>. The heading codes, <TH> and </TH>, define a heading cell
and, by default, these codes center the heading and set it in bold type. However, if you want the
title to span across the columns below it, you need to include the COLSPAN=n code. Since this
table has two columns, the COLSPAN="2" code was necessary. To add emphasis to the header,
you can use the header commands to make the text larger. In this table, notice that the <H3> and
</H3> commands made the title larger. Finally, the <BR> tag created a space above the title.
The individual column headings are also described by the heading codes, <TH> and </TH>.
Since these codes, by default, center the heading and set it in bold type, no additional commands
or attributes were included in the heading commands.
Polishing your table
To give your table a more polished look, you can include commands that will adjust the size of
your table, add space in the cell, add space between rows, and align the data in a cell. Working
with these commands is basically a process of trial and error to create the most appealing
presentation of your information. The type of table that you create and the overall design of your
web site will help you determine what works best for your table.
Some of the commands that enable you to customize your table include:
The WIDTH=n% command sets the width of your table as a percentage of the screen.
The letter n designates the percentage that you assign to this command. For example, if you
want the width of your table to be one half the width of the screen, you would include the
WIDTH="50%" command in the beginning table command.
9

10 The CELLPADDING=n command adjusts the vertical dimension of the cells. The letter

n designates the numerical value that you assign to this command.

11 The CELLSPACING=n command sets the space or border around the cells. The letter n

designates the numerical value that you assign to this command.

12 The ALIGN=(LEFT, RIGHT, or CENTER) command will horizontally align the data in a

cell. For example, if you wish to place the data in the center of each cell in a row, you would
include the ALIGN=CENTER command within the row command.
13 The VALIGN=(TOP, MIDDLE, or BOTTOM) command will vertically align the data in

a cell. For example, if you wish to place the data in the center of each cell in a row, you
would include the ALIGN=MIDDLE command within the row command.

125

In addition to the codes that were explained in the previous sections, the table below now
includes some of these commands.

TABLE TITLE

Column
A

Column B

Data 1

Data 2

The following codes, along with codes previously discussed, created this table:
<TABLE BORDER="5" WIDTH="50%" CELLPADDING="4" CELLSPACING="3">
<TR>
<TH COLSPAN="2"><BR><H3>TABLE TITLE</H3>
</TH>
</TR>
<TR>
<TH>Column A</TH>
<TH>Column B</TH>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="CENTER">
<TD>Data 1</TD>
<TD>Data 2</TD>
</TR>
</TABLE>
Notice that the TABLE command now includes the WIDTH="50%" command. This command
extends the table across one half of the width of the text. Also, the CELLPADDING="4"
command increases the vertical dimension of the cells, and the CELLSPACING="3" command
increases the border around the cells. Finally, the ALIGN="CENTER" command places Data 1
and Data 2 in the center of the cell.
f.Laying out the Columns & Rows
Overview
includes a number of facilities for laying out the components of an application. This guide
describes the following application layout features:
The simple default layout with a sidebar for inputs and a large main area for output.

126

Custom application layouts using the Shiny grid layout system.

Segmenting layouts using the tabsetPanel() and navlistPanel() functions.
Creating applications with multiple top-level components using the navbarPage() function.
These features were implemented using the layout features available in Bootstrap 2, an extremely
popular HTML/CSS framework (though no prior experience with Bootstrap is assumed).
g.Putting Footnotes & Endnotes in Documents
Footnotes and endnotes are used in printed documents to explain, comment on, or provide
references for text in a document. You might use footnotes for detailed comments and endnotes
for citation of sources.
NOTE If you want to create a bibliography, you can find commands for creating and managing
sources and citations on the References tab in the Citations & Bibliography group.
In this article
About footnotes and endnotes
Insert a footnote or an endnote
Change the number format of footnotes or endnotes
Create a footnote or endnote continuation notice
Delete a footnote or an endnote
About footnotes and endnotes
A footnote or an endnote consists of two linked parts the note reference mark and the
corresponding note text.
14
15
16
17
18

Footnote and endnote reference marks

Separator line
Footnote text
Endnote text
TOP OF PAGE
127

Insert a footnote or an endnote

Microsoft Office Word automatically numbers footnotes and endnotes for you, after you specify
a numbering scheme. You can use a single numbering scheme throughout a document, or you can
use different numbering schemes within each section in a document.
When you add, delete, or move notes that are automatically numbered, Word renumbers the
footnote and endnote reference marks.
NOTE If the footnotes in your document are numbered incorrectly, your document may
contain tracked changes. Accept the tracked changes so that Word will correctly number the
footnotes and endnotes.
2

In Print Layout view, click where you want to insert the note reference mark.

On the References tab, in the Footnotes group, click Insert Footnote or Insert
Endnote.
1

Keyboard shortcut To insert a subsequent footnote, press CTRL+ALT+F. To insert a

subsequent endnote, press CTRL+ALT+D.
By default, Word places footnotes at the end of each page and endnotes at the end of the
document.
To make changes to the format of footnotes or endnotes, click the Footnotes Dialog Box
Launcher, and do one of the following:
1

In the Number format box, click the format that you want.

To use a custom mark instead of a traditional number format, click Symbol next
to Custom mark, and then choose a mark from the available symbols.

Click Insert.

NOTE This will not change the existing symbols. It will only add new ones.
Word inserts the note number and places the insertion point next to the note number.
1

Type the note text.

Double-click the footnote or endnote number to return to the reference mark in the
document.
1

TOP OF PAGE
Change the number format of footnotes or endnotes
1 Place the insertion point in the section in which you want to change the footnote or
endnote format. If the document is not divided into sections, place the insertion point
anywhere in the document.

128

On the References tab, click the Footnote & Endnote Dialog Box Launcher.

Click Footnotes or Endnotes.

In the Number format box, click the option that you want.

Click Apply.

TOP OF PAGE
Create a footnote or endnote continuation notice
If a footnote or endnote is too long to fit on a page, you can create a continuation notice to let
readers know that a footnote or endnote is continued on the next page.
1

Make sure that you are in Draft view by clicking Draft next to View on the status bar.

On the References tab, in the Footnotes group, click Show Notes.

If your document contains both footnotes and endnotes, a message appears. Click View
footnote area or View endnote area, and then click OK.
1

In the note pane list, click Footnote Continuation Notice or Endnote Continuation
Notice.
1

In the note pane, type the text that you want to use for the continuation notice. For
example, type Endnotes continued on the next page.
1

TOP OF PAGE
Delete a footnote or an endnote
When you want to delete a note, you work with the note reference mark in the document
window, not the text in the note.

Note reference mark

If you delete an automatically numbered note reference mark, Word renumbers the notes in the
new order.
Delete a note

129

In the document, select the note reference mark of the footnote or endnote that you want
to delete, and then press DELETE.

H.Mail-Merge
Mail merge is a software function describing the production of multiple (and potentially large
numbers of) documents from a single template form and a structured data source. The letter may
be sent out to many "recipients" with small changes, such as a change of address or a change in
the greeting line. Both WordStar (via an ancillary program) and WordPerfect offered this
capacity for CP/M and MS-DOS systems. MS Word Mail Merge allows a user to send letters or
documents to many people simultaneously; users simply create one document that contains the
information that will be the same in each version, and then add placeholders for the information
that will be unique to each version.

Now used generically, the term "mail merge" is a process to create personalized letters and preaddressed envelopes or mailing labels mass mailings from a form letter a word processing
document which contains fixed text, which will be the same in each output document, and
variables, which act as placeholders that are replaced by text from the data source.
The data source is typically a spreadsheet or a database which has a field or column for each
variable in the template. When the mail merge is run, the word processing system creates an
output document for each row in the database, using the fixed text exactly as it appears in the
template, but substituting the data variables in the template with the values from the matching
columns.
Mail merging is done in following simple steps:
19 Creating a Main document.
20 Creating a Data Source.
21 Adding the merge fields into main document.
22 Merging the data with the main document.

A common usage is for creating "personalised" letters, where a template is created, with a field
for "Given Name", for example. The templated letter says "Dear <Given Name>", and when
executed, the mail merge creates a letter for each record in the database, so it appears the letter is
more personal. It is often used for Variable Data Printing.

130

Another common usage is for creating address labels from a Customer Relationship
Management database, or for mass emails with pertinent information in them, perhaps a
username and password.

INDEX

Computers!, Timothy Trainor and Diane Trainor

Infoculture The Smithsonian Book of Information Age Inventions, Steven Lubar. Houghton
Mifflin Company, 1993.

Alan Turing: The Enigma Andrew Hodges, 1983. Simon & Schuster, New York.

"Insanely Great," Steven Levy. Popular Science, February, 1994.

"Stevie Wonder," Joseph Nocera. GQ, October, 1993.

"Reading Apple's Uncertain Future," MacWorld, October, 1993.

"Ripe For Change," Michael Myer. Newsweek, August 29, 1994.

"Future Games," James K. Willcox. Popular Mechanics, December, 1993

"Electronic Worlds Without End," Keith Ferrell, Omni, October 1993.

"Mario's Big Brother," David Sheff. Rolling Stone, January 9, 1992.

"The PC Week Stat Sheet: A Decade of Computing," PC Week. February 28, 1994.

"R.I.P Commodore, 1954-1994," Tom R. Halfhill. Byte, August, 1994.

"Playing Catch Up" Jim Carlton, Wall Street Journal October 17, 1994.

Breakthrough to the Computer Age, Harry Wulforst

IBM's Early Computers, Charles J. Bashe, Lyle R. Johnson, John H. Palmer, Emerson Pugh.

The Computer Comes of Age, R. Moreau

The Computer Pioneers, David Ritchie

131

Zap: The Rise and Fall of Atari, Scott Cohen

1993 Grolier's Encyclopedia, Grolier Electronic Publishing, Inc.

French, Carl (1996). Data Processing and Information Technology (10th ed.). Thomson.
p. 2. ISBN 1844801004.

Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback

Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780192800466.

Google Ngram viewer. Retrieved June 26, 2013.

Truesdell, Leon E. (1965). The development of punch card tabulation in the Bureau of the
Census, 1890. United States Department of Commerce.

Bohme, Frederick; Wyatt, J. Paul; Curry, James P. (1991). 100 Years of Data Processing: The
Punchcard Century. United States Bureau of the Census.

Illingworth, Valerie (11 December 1997). Dictionary of Computing. Oxford Paperback

Reference (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780192800466.

http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y2790E/y2790e0c.htm#TopOfPage
http://www.rapidtables.com/math/number/Numeral_system.htm
tibasicdev.wikidot.com/binandhex
cs.furman.edu/digitaldomain/more/ch6/dec_frac_to_bin.htm
mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/56091.html
BIO-DATA
Personal Data
Name
City Address
Telephone/ Cellphone
Provincial Address
Date of Birth
Place of Birth
Civil Status
Sex
Citizenship

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

AQUE, GABRIEL LLOYD

Blk. 14, Lot 1, Phase 2, Sampaguita West, Lipa City
(043) 757 49 22 / 0907 472 42 72
Quezon City
May 24, 1996
Quezon City
Single
Male
Filipino
132

Height
Weight
Religion
Fathers Name
Occupation
Mothers Name
Occupation
Their Address
City
Languages or Dialects you
Can Speak or Write
Person to be contacted
In case of Emergency
His/ Her Address and
Telephone No.

:
:
:
:
:

55
50 kg
Iglesia Ni Cristo
Gabriel Aque Jr.
Businessman
: Emilia Vino-Aque
: OFW
: Blk. 14, Lot 1, Phase 2, Sampaguita West, Sampaguita, Lipa
: English and Tagalog
: Marinet Catibog/ Donny Catibog
: #265 Kapitan Simeon Luz St., Brgy 2, Lipa City
: 757 49 22

Educational Background
College
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance
Course
Special Skills

:
:
:
:

: Philippine State College of Aeronautics (PhilSCA)

Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, Batangas
2014 - up to present
Associate in Aviation Information Technology
Computer Skills

Secondary
: Batasan Hills National High School
Address
: IBP Road, Batasan Hills, Quezon City
Inclusive date of Attendance : 2009 - 2013
Elementary
: Payatas A Elementary School / Cermino Memorial School
Address
: Ilang-Ilang St., Payatas A / San Juan Bautista St., Payatas A,
Quezon City
Inclusive date of Attendance : 2005 - 2009 / 2001 2005

Character Reference
Name
Position/Occupation
Address

: Donny Catibog
: Aircraft Mechanic A, Qatar Airways
: Doha, Qatar

Name
Position/Occupation
Address

: Emilia Vino
: Office Clerk. Azizi Investments
: API Tower Suite No.902 Sheik Zayed Road, Dubai, UAE

Name
Position/Occupation
Address

: Engr. Oliva L Villalobos

: Instructor
: PhilSCA FAB Campus, Fernando Air Base, Lipa City
133

BIO-DATA

Personal Data
Name
City Address
Cellphone/Telephone
Provincial Address
Date Of Birth
Place Of Birth
Civil Status

:Bandojan, Patrricia Marie Suarez

:BLK 2 Lot 8 San Isidro Homes,Lipa City
:09103683215/09107179376
:Brgy. San Isidro, Lipa City, Batangas
:September 08,1997
:Lipa City, Batangas
:Single
134

Sex
Citizenship
Height
Wieght
Religion
Fathers Name
Occupation
Mothers Name
Occupation
Their Address
Languages/ Dialects
You Can Speak/Write
Person To Be Contacted
In case of Emergency
His/Her Address
And Telephone No:
Educational Background
College
Address
Inclusive Date of attendance
Course
Special Skills
Secondary
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance
Elementary
Address
Inclusive Date Of Attendance

Name
Position/Occupation
Address
Name
Position
Address

:Female
:Filipino
:52
:40kgs.
:Roman Catholic
:Roberto V. Bandojan
:Chief Mechanic
:Marissa S. Bandojan
:Housewife
:BLK 2 Lot 8 San Isidro Homes,Lipa City
:Engligh, Tagalog
:Marissa S. Bandojan
: BLK 2 Lot 8 San Isidro Homes,Lipa City
:09282077795

:Philippine State College Of Aeronautics (PhilSCA)

:Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, Batangas
:2014-up to present
:Associate Aviation in Information Technology
:Dancing
:Inosloban Marawoy National High School
:San Isidro National High School
:Inosloban, Lipa City
: Brgy. San Isidro, Lipa City
:2010-2013
:2013-2014
:Senator Maria Kalaw Katigbak Memorial School
:Marawoy, Lipa City
:2004-2010
Character References
:Roldan S. Bandojan
:O.I.C./Technical
:Inosloban, Lipa City
:Mary Anne M. Rolle
:Teacher
:Inosloban, Lipa City

135

BIO-DATA
Personal Data
Names
City Address
Telephone/cell phone
Provincial
Date of Birth
Place of Birth
Civil Status
Sex
Citizenship
Height
Weight

: ALDAY, JOHN MICHAEL

: Bagoong Pook lipa city Batangas
: 0918-497-93-69
: Brgy. Bagoong Pook Lipa City
: December 28, 1995
: Lipa City, Batangas
: Single
: Male
: Filipino
: 55
: 50kgs

136

Religion
Fathers Name
Occupation
Mothers Name
Occupation
Their Address
Languages or dialects you
Can Speak
Person to be Contact
In case of Emergency
His/Her Address and
Telephone No.

: Roman Catholic
: Jun Q Alday
: Factory Worker
: Elvie M Alday
: Housewife
: Bagoong Pook Lipa lipa city Batangas
: English/Tagalog
: Jun Alday
: Lipa City Batangas
: 0918-667-84-07

Education Background
College
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance
Course
Special Skills

: Philippine State College of Aeronautics

: Fernando Airbase Lipa City
: 2014 - up
: Aviation in Information Technology
: Runner

Secondary
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance

: Pinagtong Ulan National High School

: Pinagtong Ulan Lipa City Batangas
: 2009-2013

Elementary
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance

:Bagongpook Elementary school

: Bagongpook LIpa City
2014-2010

Name
Position/occupation
Address

Character References
Gina rosita
Teacher
Tambo Lipa City

Name
Position/occupation
Address

Asst.Prof O. DIaz
Head, teacher
PhilSCA Fernando Air Base Lipa City

137

BIO-DATA
Personal Data
Name
City Address
Telephone/ Cellphone
Provincial Address
Date of Birth
Place of Birth
Civil Status
Sex
Citizenship
Height

:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:

BABIERA, JOHN LOUIE HERNANDEZ

Calingatan Mataas Na Kahoy Batangas
0905 951 83 52
Lipa City
March 04, 1997
Pasig City
Single
Male
Filipino
57

138

Weight
Religion
Fathers Name
Occupation
Mothers Name
Occupation
Their Address
Languages or Dialects you
Can Speak or Write
Person to be contacted
In case of Emergency
His/ Her Address and
Telephone No.

:
:
:
:

58 kg
Catholic
Babiera Julius B.
Restaurant Crew
: Babiera Ruby P.
: HouseWife
: Brgy. Cuayan Angeles City Pampanga
: English and Tagalog
: Hernandez Raul
: Calingatan Mataas Na Kahoy Batangas
: 461 - 22 - 37

Educational Background
College
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance
Course
Special Skills

:
:
:
:

: Philippine State College of Aeronautics (PhilSCA)

Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, Batangas
2014 - up to present
Associate in Aviation Information Technology
Computer Skills

Secondary
: Angeles City National High School
Address
: Blvd. Arayat Angeles City Pampanga
Inclusive date of Attendance : 2009 - 2013
Elementary
: Calingatan Elementary School
Address
: Calingata Mataas Na Kahoy Batangas
Inclusive date of Attendance : 2003 - 2009

Character Reference
Name
Position/Occupation
Address

: Aurea P. Dungca
: Teacher
: Angeles City Pampanga

Name
Position/Occupation
Address

: Manolo Estrella
: Civil Engineer
: Calingatan Mataas Na Kahoy Batangas

Name
Position/Occupation
Address

: Engr. Oliva L Villalobos

: Instructor
: PhilSCA FAB Campus, Fernando Air Base, Lipa City

139

BIO-DATA
Personal Data
Name
City Address
Telephone/Cellphone
Provincional Address
Date of Birth
Place of Birth
Civil Status

: AGRAO, KRISTAL ALAIN PERALTA

: 448 Purok 5, Bagongpook, Lipa City, Batangas
: 0905-856-70-80
: Brgy. Bagongpook, Lipa City, Batangas
: September 24, 1997
: Lipa City, Batangas
: Single
140

Sex
Citizenship
Height
Weight
Religion
Fathers Name
Occupation
Mothers Name
Occupation
Their Address
Languages or Dialects you
can Speak or Write
Person to be Contacted
in case of Emergency
His/Her Address and
Telephone No.

: Female
: Filipino
: 53
: 50 kgs.
: Roman Catholic
: Arnel Agrao
: Employee
: Lani Peralta Agrao
: Housewife
: 448 Purok 5, Bagongpook, Lipa City, Batangas
: English, Tagalog
: Lani P. Agrao
: 0909-105-87-55

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
College
Address
Inclusive Date of Attendance
Course
Special Skills

: Philippine State College of Aeronautics (PhilSCA)

: Fernando Air Base, Lipa City, Batangas
: 2014 up to present
: Associate in Information Technology (AAIT)
: Dancing

Secondary
Address
Inclusive date of Attendance

: PinagtongUlan National High School

: PinagtongUlan, Lipa City
: 2010 - 2014

Elementary
Address
Inclusive date of Attendance

: Bagoongpook Elementary School

: Bagongpook, Lipa City
: 2004 - 2010

Character References
Name
Position/ Occupation
Address

: Mr. Reymon Lanto

: Registered Nurse
: Bagongpook, Lipa City

Name
Position/ Occupation
Address

: Ms. Maria Theresa Dumdumaya

: Instructor
: PhilSCA FAB, Fernando Air Base,Lipa City

Name
Position/ Occupation
Address

: Asst. Prof. Iluminado B. Laguna Jr.

: Head, Technical Department
: PhilSCA FAB, Fernando Air Base, Lipa City
141

142