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AFRICAN BREATHING AND SPIRITUAL HEALING

Steve Edwards, Nomahlubi Makunga, Jabu Thwala and Dumisani Nzima
University of Zululand, Department of Psychology, South Africa
sedwards@pan.uzulu.ac.za

ABSTRACT
Discerning visitors to Africa typically have an ancestral-roots experience on encountering
an essential humanity and communal spirituality which may seem lacking in their home
communities. This is scarcely surprising when it is considered that converging lines of
evidence from various scientific disciplines all point consistently to Africa as the cradle of
civilisation for all humanity.
In its original, essential and literal meaning, psychology is concerned with the breath,
energy, consciousness, soul or spirit of life that leaves a person at death and continues in
some other form. Such an essential and spiritual form of psychology, still practiced internationally, has its roots in African communal spirituality and spiritual community. Today,
such reality remains concretely apparent in the experience of the Zulu diviner of being
breathed by the ancestors during the divine healing process (ukububula kwedlozi) and in
the mobilising of spiritual healing power (umoya) by African Indigenous Church faith
healers.
The aim of this paper is to make clear some of the implications of this ancient theme of
African breathing and spiritual healing for the promotion of health for contemporary
humanity.

Keywords: Communal spirituality, divine healing, breathing healing, spiritual

healing
INTRODUCTION
Human beings breathe to live. Since ancient African times, this vital link between
breath and life has been the foundation for various religions, philosophies,
beliefs and practices related to survival, meaning, preservation and promotion of
life in this world and in the afterlife. For example, in its original, essential and
literal meaning, psychology is concerned with the breath, energy, consciousness, soul or spirit of life that leaves a person at death and continues in some
other form. The term spirit is derived from the Latin word spiritus, meaning
breath and healing and implying a process of making whole. Spiritual healing is
concerned, quite particularly, literally and originally, with holistic transformations
related to deep breathing (Edwards 2004; Myers 1993; Hergenhahn 2001).
Human beings also drink, eat, sleep and co-exist in a cosmos of plants, animals,
water, earth and sky. We are part of what appears as infinite energy in a universe of earth, air, water and fire that we have called Void, Nature, Great Spirit,
Way, or God. We have scientific explanations including relativity, Big Bang and
Chaos Theory to understand the phenomena and dynamics of this reality. Philosophical models of science such as positivism and phenomenology provide
us with different ways of approach this world. We have travelled to the moon and

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other planets. Along the way, we have learned ecology, how to purify water with
improved filtration and to survive in space through negative ion generators. Such
creativity has brought new methods of optimising such essential nutrients as
water and air. It has renewed our respect for ancestral practices of seeking pure
sources of running streams, spiritual retreats in high mountains and ways of
harnessing universal energy patterns in the form of breathing skills to prevent
illness and promote health.
Human life begins with an inspiration and ends with an exhalation. After the first
infant inhalation human life lasts about one hundred million breaths (Loehr &
Migdow 1999). When we die, we leave this world with one last clavicular breath.
Spiritual beliefs and practices are grounded on the experience and observed
phenomena of life and death. This phenomenology has always been the special
province of the shaman, traditional healer, diviner, psychologist and priest, as
revealed in the following Judaic and Christian themes. Genesis 2:7 reads: The
Lord God formed the man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his
nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being. From a Christian
perspective, this message is interpreted as follows: When God removes his life
giving breath our bodies once again return to dust. Therefore our life and worth
come from Gods spirit (Life Application Study Bible 1991: 8). In John 20:21
Jesus says, Peace be with you! As the father has sent me, I am sending you.
And with that he breathed on them and said, Receive the Holy Spirit.
Similar themes occur in other world religions and philosophies such as Islam,
Buddhism, and Taoism which recognize breathing as first human life sine qua
non. The psychologist Maslow (1968) postulated a hierarchy of survival and
growth needs, ranging from physiological needs, safety, belongingness and
love through to self-esteem and self-actualization needs. Beginning with a big
five of basic physiological needs, we may list in order: breathing, water, sleep,
food and movement. Breathing is an individual, typically unconscious and forgotten fact of life, in its reality as a finite number of breaths and breath-taking moments. Except in cases of extended cellular respiration in infants, yogis and
other breathing adepts, humans can only live for a very few minutes without
breathing. Conversely, from time immemorial, deep abdominal breathing with
balanced and harmonious breath control has been recognized as an essential
foundation for a long and healthy life and a fundamental way of promoting
health.
Pranayama and chi-gung refer to Indian and Chinese forms of breathing or
energy control skills that have become internationally popular as forms of health
promotion and illness prevention for the violent and stressful lifestyles of contemporary humanity on planet earth. Pranayama is one of eight paths or limbs in
the practice of Yoga, an ancient Hindu tradition, which seeks union the Sanskrit meaning of the term yoga between personal and universal consciousness. Many chi-gung practices have been developed from the teaching of
pranayama in the fifth century A.D by the Indian Tantric Buddhist monk, Bodhidharma, nicknamed Tamo at the Shaolin monastery in Honan Province in
northern China (Reid 1998).

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An essential difference between Indian and Chinese systems of breath control is

the relatively greater emphasis on breath coordinated movement in the Chinese
system. Chi gung was the first branch of Traditional Chinese Medicine to develop and probably took root some 10,000 years ago as a form of tribal and
ceremonial great dance (da-wu), which was discovered to have therapeutic
benefits. The first written references to chi-gung are found in texts dating back
4000 years, when another slow-moving aerobic and therapeutic dance was
specifically developed to prevent illnesses arising from dampness and flooding in
the Yellow River basin and to promote health through guiding and gathering chi
(dao-yin). This dance combined breath control with rhythmic bodily movements
patterned on those of animals in nature (Reid 1998).
Judaic, Indian and Chinese cultures evolved out of common IndoEuropean and
earlier African cultures. The aim of the present article is to describe and elucidate some original African beliefs and practices concerning ways of channelling
energy through breathing skills, which formed the foundation for modern practices.
OUR AFRICAN HERITAGE
Discerning visitors to Africa typically have an ancestral-roots experience on
encountering an essential humanity and communal spirituality lacking in their
home communities, especially in economically developed countries. A meaningful, homecoming or dj vu experience on African soil is scarcely surprising
when it is considered that converging lines of recent evidence from various
disciplines such as genetics, linguistics, palaeontology and archeology all point
consistently to Africa as the cradle of civilization for all humanity. Homo sapiens
evolved some one hundred and fifty thousand years ago and gradually migrated
across the Sinai Peninsula some fifty thousand years later (Jobling, Hurles &
Tyler-Smith 2004). In evolutionary terms homo sapiens are most closely related
to great apes such as chimpanzees and bonobos. However, despite our diversity, contemporary humanity is so closely related that there is more genetic
diversity amongst a single group of chimpanzees than the entire human species.
Sykes (2001: 353) has pointed out that we use our ancestral mitocondrial DNA
formula constantly:
Every atom of oxygen we take into our bodies when we breathe has to be
processed according to the formula that has been handed down to us by our
ancestors. This is a very fundamental connection in itself.
While an infinity of factors, including language and creative intelligence, would
have played a role, it is clear that contemporary humanity has survived primarily
because of a remarkable facility to form and maintain social relationships (Jobling, Hurles & Tyler-Smith 2004; Myers 1993; Sykes 2001). The fundamental
form of these links in human relationships is poetically portrayed in the Zulu
saying umuntu umuntu ngabantu. This saying, which literally refers to the fact
that a person becomes a person through other people only through you do I
become an I, and I am because we are has deeper implications of a shared

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sense of self in both temporal and spatial dimensions that include the common
ancestral heritage of contemporary humanity.
FAMILIAL AND COMMUNAL SPIRITUALITY
Taub-Bynum (1984) has described the family unconscious in terms of an active,
intense and immediate shared energy field, characterized by affective interactional patterns, communal dreaming, telepathy and various other psi phenomena. Such phenomena are fully experienced in African extended family kinship
ties through ongoing communication with the world of the recently deceased and
older living dead ancestors, all of whom continue to be freshly experienced as
responsible for shaping the lives of contemporary humanity.
Family and communal spirituality and spiritual community are repeatedly affirmed in religious worldviews, communal rituals and sacrifices (umsebenzi) in
rememberance of ancestors (amadlozi) and God (uNkulunkulu, uMvelinqangi).
Berglund (1976), Ngubane (1977) and Gumede (1990) have described a host of
spiritually-orientated preventive and promotive health beliefs and practices for
the child and adult, family and community. Such original indigenous forms of
community spirituality, as located within traditional Zulu communal ways of living,
have been articulated in related papers (Edwards, Makunga & Nzima 1997;
Makunga, Edwards & Nzima 1997). The central emphasis placed on the communal psyche and related concepts such as intersubjectivity, mutuality, humanization, socialization and interdependence are beautifully expressed in the idiom
umuntu umuntu ngabantu which can be interpreted in many ways (human
being becomes a person through others; only through you do I become an I, I
am because we are). This is a community and spiritual psychology in, of, with, by
and for the people. This communalism and/or collectivism is expressed in further
concepts such as ubunye, simunye and ubudlelwane and conveyed in such
idioms as izandla ziyagezana (one hand washes the other) and kuhlonishwana
kabili (respect is mutual and should be reciprocated). This is a spiritually
grounded community psychology that begins and ends in the community and
ensures a form humanism as expressed in the practice of ubuntu, which implies
essential caring, respectful humanity and beneficial humane relationships.
Treating others with ubuntu is a fundamental way of promoting community
health, welfare, education and development (Edwards, Makunga, Ngcobo &
Dhlomo-Sibiya 2004). Philosophers such as Heidegger (1927) and Mbiti (1971)
describe such care as fundamental to human-being-in-the-world, which includes
healthy ecological relationships. Ngubane (1977) clearly describes how traditional Zulu cosmology is permeated with ideas about ecological influences on
community health and illness. The importance of promoting order and preventing
disharmony, as implied in the notion of maintaining a healthy balance, are
conveyed in the term ukulungisa.
We should not neglect to mention that inspirational and spiritual healing is not
the sole province of the priest or psychologist and occurs readily in everyday life.
It is more common in ceremonial, ritual and communal spiritual gatherings

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(umsebenzi). For example, a sneeze is believed to be an indication of ancestral

presence and is followed by an exhortation to the ancestors (makhosi!). A sixyear-old child may be required to breathe deeply (ukuhogela) the burning fumes
of izinyamazane (pieces of animal skin and fat) as a preventive and strengthening tonic when being given a second name which characterizes his/her earthy
existence to date. A woman in labour will be told to breathe like a dog (hefuzela)
during contractions. Men working together during a slow physical activity, such
as digging a trench, may chant in time to deep abdominal breathing rhythms
before taking a breather (ukhukhokh umoya) in order to regain energy and
strength. Such deep breathing, rhythm and harmony are characteristic of traditional singing and dancing.
INSPIRATIONAL SOUTH AFRICAN HEALING
All spiritual healing traditions African, Eastern and Western converge on two
basic points: Firstly, the energy, will and/or intention that created the universe
and all its life are guided by a set of primordial principles, collectively called
wisdom or truth that transcends all cultural definitions. Secondly, the universal
energy or power of creation has always been motivated and should always be
accompanied by that compassionate empathy for life called love. Wisdom, love
and power refer to three inseparable virtues or forces of the universe requiring
balance and harmony. Power without wisdom is destructive, power without love
is cold, love without power is impotent, wisdom without power is useless (Reid
1998). The Khoisan describe such forces in terms of Haitse Eibub, n/um and
!kia. The Zulu speak of uNkulunkulu, uthando and amandla and in Christian
tradition there is Father, Son and Holy Spirit. In Hinduism it is the Trimurti of
Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva and it is the saints Waliallah in Islam. In North American traditions there is the great Spirit, Gitche Manitu and Wakan and in Taoism
there is the Tao with three treasures of spirit, energy and essence. In Buddhism
there is emptiness, luminosity and energy of Bodhi or Enlightened Mind. All
converge further in a spiritual healing power called Holy Spirit in Israel, Chi in
China, Prana in India, Hakeem in Pakistan, Mana in Figi, Wakan in North America and N/um in Africa (Edwards, 1989).
Direct information we have about the earliest history of spiritual healing comes
from rock paintings created tens of thousands of years ago in many cave sites in
Southern Africa. It is therefore appropriate to describe a typical spiritual healing
dance by the "first" or "real" people, as the Southern African Kalahari !Kung refer
to themselves.
"!Kung healing involves health and growth on physical, psychological, social,
and spiritual levels; it affects the individual, the group, the surrounding environment, and the cosmos. Healing is an integrating and enhancing force, far
more fundamental than simple curing or the application of medicine. Sometimes, as often as four times a month, the women sit around the fire, singing
and rhythmically clapping as night falls, signalling the start of a healing
dance. The entire camp participates. The men, sometimes joined by the
women, dance around the singers. As the dance intensifies, n/um ("energy")
is activated in those who are healers, most of whom are among the dancing

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men. As n/um intensifies in the healers, they experience !kia ("a form of enhanced consciousness") during which they heal everyone at the dance. The
dance usually extends far into the night, often ending as the sun rises the
next morning. Those at the dance confront the uncertainties of their existence
and reaffirm the spiritual dimension of their daily lives" (Katz & Wexler 1989:
23).
Today, ancestral reality and reverence remains clearly present when breathing
through a Zulu diviner in a process called ukuphefumulela amadlozi or
ukububula kwedlozi. The first phrase literally means to be breathed by the
ancestors. The second has connotations of moaning or groaning as the energy
of the past lives of the ancestors is experienced in all their power, love and
wisdom. Depending upon the depth of the past evolutionary ancestral call,
diviners may breathe like roaring lions (ukubhodla kwengonyama) or even
pythons in their silent communication (inhlwathi igingile). The isangoma is typically breathed by recently departed ancestors who had previously appeared to
her in dreams. They call her to become a diviner and accompany her through a
creative illness in the form of a religious conversion experience until she completes her apprenticeship under a qualified diviner in a spiritual rebirth macroprocess called ukuthwasa. This is a marvellous way for society to care for
members to be cared for by them. First spiritually afflicted and then purified
(Edwards 1985, 1987; Mfusi, & Edwards 1985; Ngubane 1977).
The micro-process of being breathed by the ancestors during divination occurs
in response to a request by clients who consult the diviner for various reasons,
such as illness prevention, health promotion, prosperity and romance (Makunga,
Edwards & Nzima 1997; Sokhela, Edwards & Makunga 1984). While diviners
differ in divinatory methods, the essence of the process involves the diviner
invoking her ancestors and acting as medium for their messages concerning the
client. In an ongoing emotionally charged dialogue, the clients verbal and nonverbal responses become progressively more enthusiastic as the divination
experience becomes more true and real, in a form of consensual validation as to
the assessment of the problem and solutions offered. The process typically ends
with an agreement regarding some form of culturally accepted ritual ceremony
for the ancestors for example, rituals involving protection, appeasement and/or
thanksgiving (Edwards 1999; Gumede 1990; Ngubane 1977).
As noted above, there are various methods of divination. South African Zulu
diviners were also originally called izanuse (smellers). Gumede (1990: 80) notes
that a similar word isanusi is used in North Africa to describe a diviner involved in a smelling-out type of public divination in which praises are sung to
the king and are followed by a frenzy of bellowing, yacooning, sneezing and
roaring as ancestors are implored to identify an evil-doer in the community. In
Zulu history the story is often told of how the great king Shaka once secretly
poured blood in a kraal in order to test his diviners and only one true diviner was
able to correctly identify Shaka himself as the responsible person.
There are three basic categories of indigenous Zulu healers: the traditional
doctor (inyanga), the diviner (isangoma) and the faith healer (umthandazi). All

AFRICAN BREATHING AND SPIRITUAL HEALING

work with breath/soul (umphefumulo) and spiritual power or energy (umoya). The
doctors methods are usually based on the active ingredients of local herbs,
plants, roots and bark administered in a culturally appropriate, holistic and
ceremonial manner. The faith healer typically belongs to an African Indigenous
Church (AIC) where Christian faith embraces ancestral spirituality (umoya),
which gains further meaning with reference to the third person of the trinity or the
Holy Spirit (Umoya Ongcwele). There are no petty, doctrinaire theological conflicts Christ is the Son of God, ancestral and divine. The peace, truth, power,
love and wisdom in inspirational African indigenous healing is experienced at the
same time and place in the body and breath of any particular individual in communal ancestral spirituality as graced and mediated by God, Christ and Holy
Spirit.
As noted above, healing implies a transformation from illness to health in becoming whole again. In South African society, this has meant caring humanity (ubuntu) and an ongoing everyday form of healing beyond truth and reconciliation
that has slowly made its way in the experience of generations of people growing up together from childhood into freedom. It has meant the harmonious
collaboration of all community-helping resources. At present there are some five
thousand psychologists, ten thousand social workers, thirty thousand medical
doctors and one hundred and twenty-five thousand nurses caring for over fortyfive million people in South Africa. This means that other community-helping
resources do the bulk of the work, especially the estimated two hundred and fifty
thousand traditional healers and one million AIC faith healers (Edwards 2002).
Gumede (1990) hasestimated that indigenous healers cater for 80% of the
health needs of the African population and are usually consulted before modern
doctors, particularly in the less developed and rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal. The
AIC movement, which has religious roots that formed a foundation for the African
National Congress in 1912, deserves special mention for its role as buffer in
preventing violent civil war between warring political groups during the Apartheid
struggles. It continues to promote communal spirituality, spiritual community and
practical public health in the form of food, money, surrogate family care and work
to those in need (Bakker 1996; Berglund 1976; Dube 1989; Gumede 1990;
Nyembe 1994; Oosthuizen, Edwards, Wessels & Hexam 1989). It still forms the
true spirit behind the African National Congress, guiding South Africa along a
healing highway of truth, reconciliation, celebration of diversity, power, wisdom
and love.
Meetings of the African Indigenous Churches take at any time across Africa. In
their brightly coloured attire, groups gather wherever convenient at the river or
the mountain, near the sea, at a vacant plot in town or at the bus stop. Spiritual
energy (umoya) is invoked through bible reading, prayer and singing in a healing
circle. During formal meetings held in churches, community halls or the houses
of faith healers or prophets (abaprofethi) windows and doors may be closed to
keep out distractions and amplify spiritual energy for an evening, a day or a
weekend of intense individual, family and community healing and spiritual purification (ukuhlambuluka). Such a religious ceremony may include rituals, music,

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drama and dance. This is a marvellous form of pastoral community psychology

where community development, healing and education are harmoniously integrated (Oosthuizen et al 1989; Nyembe 1994).
CONCLUSION
The idea that spirituality heals is not new. Long before the advent of modern
medicine, people looked to spirituality for cures. Our ancestors believed spirits
controlled everything, including sickness and health. In this system, the traditional healer is the person attuned to the spiritual world and is thus the archetypal healer. When members are ill, the traditional healer uses spiritual
intervention to bring the patient back into harmony with the sacred world and to
bring back their health. The Zulu traditional culture today still depends on the
traditional healer for much of its healthcare. Spiritual interventions heal sometimes when traditional psychotherapy and modern medicine fail because they
untie the mental and emotional knots that prevent the healing power of our life
force from doing its work. Traditional healers do not only use herbal preparations but also use rituals and procedures that surprisingly resemble contemporary psychotherapies: they establish rapport, they diagnose the problem and
they initiate a healing process that usually involves imagery, dream interpretation, self-regulation and group support.
Spirituality takes on many expressions. It includes the ability to see the sacred in
the ordinary and to know the passion of existence. It involves looking at the
world with fresh wonder, seeing the sacred in our lives and opening the door to a
life of passion and depth. These are the moments that feed helpless souls and
make lost lives worth living. Spirituality plays a significant role in the treatment of
illness and pain. What is any therapy without such phenomena? From the perspective of African spiritual healers, breath still means breath of life. It involves
seeing the sacred in the ordinary, feeling the poignancy of life, knowing the
passion of existence and giving ourselves over to that which is greater than
ourselves. Its aim is to bring about compassion; its effect is the promotion of
health for all.

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