Drilling Fluid Circulation

Basic Functions

Drilling Hydraulics

Overcoming formation pressure

Stabilizing the borehole

Cooling and lubricating the bit and drill string

Transport cuttings to the surface

Fundamental Drilling Fluids

Drilling Fluids Properties

Gas is highly compressible. Its volume is dependent on pressure and
temperature

There are 3 basic categories of drilling

fluids :
Gas

Foam is compressible, mixture of air/gas+water+chemicals

Liquid is slightly compressible, properties are changing with pressure and
temperature

Foam
Liquid

Mud Rheology

Drilling Fluids Properties

Properties that determine mud rheologyinclude :

Basic data :
Density
Funnel Viscosity
Viscosity (PV-YP)
Gel Strength
Solids Content

ppg kg/dm 3 SG
sec
cP -lb/100 ft2
lb/100 ft2
vol%

Density
Plastic Viscosity
Yield point
Gel strength
Acidity (pH)
Filtration

Chloride Content
Alkalinity
Calcium content
Solids content

How do you measure the rheological properties ?

Shear Rate, Shear Stress

Marsh Funnel
The time required for 1 U.S. quart (or 946 cm3 ) of fluid to drain through a
funnel.

Example : Water has a funnel viscosity of 26 seconds.

d

Rotating Cylinder Viscosimeter

Measures torque (usually at 600,300,200,100,6 and 3 rpm). Figures on the
dial are degrees of rotation. A conversion factor is required to convert the dial
readings to units of shear stress.

Shear rate :

D=

Shear stress :

Principle of
Rotational Viscosimeter

T=

v (m/s)
d (m)

1/s

F (lb)
= lb/100ft2
A (100 ft 2 )

6-speed
Rotating Cylinder
Viscosimeter

Fann Model 35
viscosimeter

6-speed
Rotating Cylinder
Viscosimeter

Rheological Models (1)

What the models do :
Mathematical formulae, allows us to calculate the shear stress
at any shear rate we wish

T = f (D)
The parameters of this function depend on the selected fluid mod el :

Fann Model 35
viscosimeter

for newtonic fluid model

PV, YP for the Bingham plastic fluid model
n, K for the Power Law fluid model

Rheological Models (2)

RheologicalModels(3)

From the shear stress and shear rate the viscosity can be calculated :

= T/D

Newtonic
Bingham-plastic
Power Law (pseudoplastic)
Yield-Power Law

This is the dynamic viscosity.

Casson

Viscosity of the water at 20C is 1centiPoise : cP (1 dyn-s/cm2).

Newtonic Flow Curve

Newtonic Model
t
Relationship :

D
T

T=

xD

Newtonic viscosity = tan a

lb/100 ft2

R600 - R300

viscosity, P, cP
shear rate,1/s
shear stress,lb/100ft2

Bingham-Plastic Model
Relationship :

T = PV x D + YP

511

a
511

1022

300

600

Bingham Model Parameters

When using a Fann viscometer with R1-B1-F1
rotor-bob-spring combination :

Shear Stress = (Plastic Viscosity)x(Shear Rate)+Yield Point

Yield Point is an initial stress at 0 shear rate, measure of electrical

attractive forces in the mud under flowing conditions
Once this yield stress is exceeded, equal increments of shear rate
produce equal increments of shear stress.

PV = (600rpm reading) - (300rpm reading) [ cP]

YP = 2(300rpm reading) - (600rpm reading) [lb/100 ft2 ]

Note : For field use, a conversion factor is neglected

D
1/s
rpm

Bingham-Plastic Flow Curve

t

Bingham-Plastic Flow Curve

t

Plastic viscosity = tan a

lb/100 ft2

lb/100 ft2

R600 - R300

a
511

YP

YP

D
511

Apparent viscosity = tan a (at 300 rpm)

tan (at 600 rpm)

1022

300

600

1/s
rpm

511

1022

300

600

D
1/s
rpm

Bingham Plastic Model

Power Law Model
Apparent viscosity varies with shear rate for non-Newtonian fluids

Water-based mud systems are typical

Apparent viscosity decreases with increased shear rate (called

shear thinning)

n and K values are used in the model

As shear rates approaches infinity, apparent viscosity reaches a

limit (the plastic viscosity).

Drilling fluids behave more plastic than water when subjected

to increasing pressure and temperature

Advantage: easy to use, and represents most drilling fluids

Disadvantage: does not accurately represent drilling fluids at low
shear rates

Power Law Model

Relationship (pseudoplastic fluid) :

T = K x Dn

Power Law Flow Curve

t
lb/100 ft2

Shear Stress = (K Consistency Factor) x (Shear Rate)n

Consistency Factor (K) describes the thickness of the fluid
and somewhat analogous to apparent viscosity

511

(i.e., as K increases, mud becomes thicker)

Flow behavior index (n) indicates the degree of non-Newtonian behavior.
If n = 1, the fluid is newtonic.
If n > 1, viscosity increases as shear rate increases ( dilatant fluid)
If 0 < n < 1, viscosity decreases as shear rate increases (pseudoplastic fluid)

511

1022

300

600

D
1/s
rpm

Power Law Flow Curve

Power Law Model Parameters

log t
lb/100 ft2

To calculate n :

n = tan

n = 3.32 log (600rpm reading / 300rpm reading) [-]

f
K

To calculate K :
K = (300rpm reading) / 511n [lb-sn/100 ft2]
3.0095

300

600

1/s
rpm

Yield Power-Law Flow Curve

Power Law Model

l

log D

2.7084

Advantage of the model : represents the behavior of drilling fluids at low

shear rates more accurately

t
lb/100 ft2

Most drilling fluids are pseudoplastic

The viscosity is decreasing with increasing shear rate : shear thinning is
desirable

511
Y

Flow Curves of Different Fluids

shear
stress
lb/100 ft2

511

1022

300

600

Drilling Fluid Model Application

Ps.plastic n < 1
Newtonic n = 1
Dilatant n > 1

Best fits :
Bingham Plastic model for oil- based mud systems
Power Law model for water-, synthetic-oil or petrofree
fluid based mud systems

shear rate
511

1022

300

600

1/s
rpm

D
1/s
rpm

Time-Dependent Behavior
Most drilling fluids exhibit time-dependent
behavior.
Shear Stress is dependent on duration of
shear. Why?
Clay plates or fibers are broken into smaller
particles at higher rates of shear.
These small particles aggregate into layer
units as shear rate is decreased again.
Both of these events take a considerable
length of time.

Gel Strength
Gel strength describes the time-dependent flow behavior of a drilling
fluid.

Measures the attractive forces in the fluid under static conditions.

Increases steadily with time (strong) or only slightly with time
(weak gel).
Strong gels are the result of high clay concentration which may
require excessive pressure to break circulation.
May lead to lost circulation (i.e., strong gels are undesirabl e.)

Flow Regimes
Plug Flow

Flow Regimes
Laminar Flow

Fluid essentially moves as a single, undisturbed solid body or plug

Movement occurs by a thin layer of fluid slipping along a conductor

surface
Plug flow generally occurs at very low flow rates

Laminae are concentric cylindrical shells which slide or extend past

one another like sections of a telescope
The velocity at the pipe wall is 0; maximum velocity is at the center
of the pipe

Generally accepted upper limit for plug flow is at Nre= 100

3-D View of Laminar Flow in a Pipe

(Newtonian Fluid)

2-D Velocity Profile of Laminar

Flow in a Pipe (Newtonian Fluid)
dv = 0
dr

Velocity

VMAX

0
Radius

Flow Regimes

Laminar vs. Turbulent

A fluid layer adjacent to the surface of a conductor adheres to
the surface, and each successive fluid layer slides past the
previous with increasing velocity.
This is called laminar (layered) flow.
At higher velocities, the layers lose their order and randomly
crash into each other. This is called turbulent flow.

Turbulent Flow
Fluid moves as a plug essentially, due to the chaotic, random shearing
motion
Only near the walls of the pipe does an orderly shear exist (laminar boundary
layer)
Velocity gradient is very steep near the walls but essentially flat elsewhere formed by eddies

2-D Velocity Profile of Turbulent Flow in a Pipe

(Newtonian Fluid)

Velo city

VMAX

0
Radiu s

Flow
Regime
Comparison

F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

D
r
i
L
L
P
i
p
e

Determining Flow Regime

Determining Flow Regime

To calculate Nre you need to know the following :

The fluid flow can be either laminar, transitional or turbulent. How do we

determine which one?

Calculate Nre and compare to the critical Reynolds no. Nrec

Calculate critical velocity - based on the Nrec number - and
compare to the actual flow velocity
Note : Nrec = 2100 for water and Bingham plastic fluids
Nrec = 3470 - 1370n for pseudoplastic fluids

Pipe diameter

Average fluid velocity

Fluid density
Fluid viscosity

F
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

Drilling Fluid Circulation

Reynolds Number
Drilling fluid is pumped under pressure through the manifolds,
standpipe, kelly hose, swivel, kelly, drillpipe,drill collars and bit

Pipe Diameter x Average Fluid Velocity x Fluid Density

Nre =
Fluid Viscosity

Nre =

d
v
MW

Calculate the mean or bulk velocity through pipe as follows:

v = q/A
Typically, this is 1000 ft/min (300 m/min). Is it laminar or turbulent ?

1000 d v MW

The pressure required to circulate a fluid in turbulent flow is

approximately 1.8 times the power of flowrate
Pressure drop across drillstring represents 35% of total pump
pressure

pipe inside diameter, mm

fluid velocity, m/s
fluid density, kg/liter
viscosity, cP

Mud Pumps
l

Mud Pumps

Pump output - duplex pump

Qt = 1.5715 x 10-6 nL(D2 - d2/2)

Qt
n
L
D
d

Pump output - triplex pump

liter/min

theoretical flow rate, l/min

strokes per minute
length of stroke, mm
liner diameter, mm
piston rod diameter, mm

Qt = 2.356 x 10-6 nLD 2

Qt
n
L
D

theoretical flow rate, l/min

strokes per minute
length of stroke, mm
liner diameter, mm

Mud Pumps
Volumetric efficiencies
Single Acting pumps = 95% - 98%
Double Acting pump = 90%
Efficiency is affected by :
Discharge pressure
Pump operating speed
Suction line design
Fluid aeration
Mechanical wear

liter/min

Mud Pumps
l

Volumetric efficiency
v = Qout/Qt

Qout

measured output flow, l/min

Qt

theoretical flow rate, l/min

Mud Pumps
l

Mud Pumps

Hydraulic power

PQ
600

Ph =

Ph =

PQ
447.50

pump pressure, bar

pump output, flow rate, l/min

Engine power required

Pm = Ph / ( m v )

kW

hp

m
v

mechanical efficiency, 0.85 - 0.90

volumetric efficiency, best case is 0.98

Hydraulic Design
Select flow rate

Calculate annular velocity

Calculate annular pressure loss
Calculate string pressure losss
Calculate motor, MWD pressure losses
Calculate bit pressure loss available
Calculate TFA, nozzle sizes and jet velocity
Calculate SPP
Check HHP, HHP/sq.in
Calculate surface system pressure loss
Calculate pump pressure, spm, liner size
Calculate slip velocity and cuttings transportratio

Flow Rate Selection (2)

Flow Rate Selection (1)

Crucial factor for succesful hole cleaning, especially in deviated holes.
The operating requirements of the extra downhole tools must be considered
Min-max flow rate range specified for motors turbines and MWD tools.
Rough guide : use 2 x AV in holes between 50-60 than in vertical holes.
Use 100 fpm ( 30 m/min) annular velocity as a starting point, and adjust it,
if necessary.

Motor and MWD Hydraulic Requirements

Laminar - transitional - turbulent flow considerations :

Mud motor :
- pressure losses
- ECD
- hole erosion
MWD :

a) Flow rate range ( gpm, liter/min)

b) Max. operating differential pressure (psi, bar)
c) Bit Pressure Range (psi, bar)

a) Flow rate range ( gpm, liter/min)

b) Bit (back) pressure (psi, bar)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Example :
6-3/4 SperryDrill 4/5 lobe, 4.8 stage motor
a) 300 - 600 gpm (1135 - 2270 liter/min)
b) 590 psi (40.7 bar)
c) 200 - 1200 psi (13.8 - 82.7 bar)

Annular Flow Velocity

Annular Flow Velocity

To calculate average annular velocity ...

Vaverage =

Q
Dh
Dp

To calculate critical velocity in annulus :

4000 x Q
3.14(Dh2 - Dp2)

m/min

Vc =

3.04 {PV + PV2 + 40.05YP (Dh - Dp)2 x MW }

(Dh - Dp) x MW

PV
YP
Dh,Dp
MW

flow rate, liter/min

diameter of hole, mm
diameter of pipe, mm

plastic viscosity, cP
yield point, lb/100 sq.ft
hole size, pipe diameter, inch
mud weight, kg/l

Pipe Flow Velocity

Flow Regimes

To calculate critical velocity in pipes :

Vc =

To determine if flow is laminar or turbulent ...

2.48 {PV + PV2 + 73.57YP Dpi 2 x MW }

m/min

Dpi x MW
PV
YP
Dpi
MW

Vaverage < Vcritical = Laminar flow

plastic viscosity, cP
yield point, lb/100 sq.ft
pipe internal diameter, inch
mud weight, kg/l

Vaverage > Vcritical = Turbulent flow

Annular Flow Pressure Loss

To calculate pressure loss for annular laminar flow ...

PaL =

L
Q
Dh
Dp

PV x L x Q
40863(Dh+Dp)(Dh - Dp) 3

YP x L
bar
1326 (Dh - Dp)

length of section, m
flow rate, l/min
diameter of hole, inch
diameter of pipe, inch

Note: Calculate pressure drops for each section of annulus

Pipe Flow Pressure Loss

To calculate pressure loss for pipe laminar flow ...

PpL =

PV
YP
L
Q
D

PV x L x Q
61295 D4

YP x L
1326 D

plastic viscosity, cP
yield point, lb/100 sq.ft
length of section, m
flow rate, l/min
inside diameter of pipe, inch

bar

m/min

Pipe Flow Pressure Loss

Annular Flow Pressure Loss

To calculate pressure loss for annular turbulent flow ...

PaT =

PV 0.2 x L x Q 1.8 x MW0.8

bar

To calculate pressure loss for pipe turbulent flow ...

PpT =

70696(Dh+Dp) 1.8 (Dh-Dp) 3

PV
L
Q
MW
Dh
Dp

PV 0.2 x L x Q 1.8 x MW0.8

bar
90163 D4.8

plastic viscosity, cP
length of section, m
flow rate, l/min
mud weight, kg/liter
diameter of hole, inch
diameter of pipe, inch

PV
L
Q
MW
D

plastic viscosity, cP
length of section, m
flow rate, l/min
mud weight, kg/liter
inside diameter of pipe, inch

Equivalent Circulating Density

To calculate equivalent circulating density ...

ECD = MW +

Pa

Bit Nozzle Selection

SG or kg/liter

0.0981 x L

300 fps (100 m/s) jet velocity (or less in soft formations)
48-65% of the pump pressure as bit pressure loss

MW

mud weight, SG or kg/liter

Pa total annular pressure loss, bar

HSI = 2.5 - 7 (as per bit suppliers recommendation)

Sufficient pressure drop for downhole motor operation

length of annulus, m

Adequate back pressure for MWD, or other dh. tools

Bit Hydraulics

Bit Hydraulics
To calculate jet velocity ...

Vj =

Q
TFA

flow rate, liter/min

total flow area, mm2

16.666 Q
TFA

To calculate bit pressure drop ...

m/s

Pb =

Q
MW
C
TFA

1.465 Q2 MW
C 2 TFA2

flow rate, liter/min

mud weight, kg/liter
orifice coefficient, 0.95 for jet nozzle
total flow area, mm2

bar

Bit Hydraulics Optimization

Bit Hydraulics Optimization Criteria - BHHP

Maximizing Bit Hydraulic Horsepower requires

65% of available pump pressure to drop in the bit

Hydraulic Optimization is maximizing ...

Bit Hydraulic Horsepower

Bit Hydraulic Horsepower

Pb x Qj

or

BHHP = 447.50

Jet Impact Force

Pb

pressure loss in the bit, bar

Qj

flow rate through the nozzles, l/min

Bit Hydraulics
l

Bit Hydraulics Optimization Criteria - IF

Bit Hydraulic Horsepower per Square Inch :

Maximizing Jet Impact Force requires 48% of

available pump pressure to drop in the bit

Pb x Qj
HSI =1.836
hp/ in2
Db2

Pb

pressure loss in the bit, bar

Qj

flow rate through the nozzles, l/min

Db

bit size, mm

Jet Impact Force

IF = 2.24 x Vj x Pb x Qj x MW
Vj
Pb
Qj
MW

Surge & Swab Pressure

Annular Pressure Loss

MUD FLOW

jet velocity, m/s

pressure loss in the bit, bar
flow rate through the nozzles, l/min
mud weight, kg/liter or SG

Surge & Swab Pressure

PIPE
MOVEMENT

hp

SWAB

SURGE

Calculation Procedure

Calculate average pipe speed

Calculate maximum mud velocity each section
Calculate equivalent circulation rates
Calculate pressure loss gradients
Multiply pressure loss gradients times section lengths
Correct pressure losses to tripping mud weight
Add all section pressures for total surge or swab pressure

Surge & Swab Pressure

Surge & Swab Pressure

l

Mud velocity maximum

Average Pipe Speed

vm = (0.45 + (dp2 / (Dh2 - dp2))) (vp)(1.5)

vp = (ft/stand)(60) / (measured time in seconds/stand)

l

Example : Calculate the average pipe speed when 93 ft (28.3

m) stands of drill pipe are being pulled at 30 s/stand

Example : Calculate the mud velocity when tripping 5 inch (127 mm) drill pipe
from an 8-1/2 inch (215.9 mm) hole at an average pipe speed of 186 fpm (56.7
m/min).
vm = (0.45 + (52 / (8.52 - 52))) (186)(1.5)

vp = (93 ft/stand)(60)/30 s/stand)

vp = 186 ft/min

vm = 273 fpm or 83.2 m/min

or 56.7 m/min

Surge & Swab Pressure

Surge & Swab Pressure

l

Equivalent circulating rate

The circulating rate which produces the same annular mud velocity as caused
by movement of the drillstring into or out of the borehole

Find the surge/swab pressure for an equivalent circulating rate of 520 gpm when
tripping 9,000 feet of 5 inch drill pipe from an 8-1/2 inch hole. The mud weight is
13.0 ppg.
Find the annular pressure loss gradient for 13.0 ppg mud weight
Psi/1000 ft = 39
Calculate the annular pressure loss with 9,000 ft of drill pipe in hole
(39 psi/1000 ft) (9,000 ft) = 351 psi
The surge/swab pressure = 351 psi
The equivalent densities :

Example : Find the equivalent circulating rate for a 273 fpm (83.2 m/min) mud
velocity inside an 8-1/2 inch (215.9 mm) hole around 5 inch (127 mm) drill pipe.
GPM = 520 gpm
LPM = 1966 lit/min

13.0 + 0.75 = 13.75 ppg

13.0 - 0.75 = 12.25 ppg

Surge & Swab Pressure

Surge & Swab Pressure

l

Factors affecting the swab / surge pressures :

Depth
Hole size
Pipe size
Pipe acceleration and velocity
Mud weight
Mud rheology
Gel strength
Mud cake thickness

Maximum recommended pipe speed :

Establish maximum permissible surge or swab pressure

Select seconds/stand trip speed
Evaluate surge or swab pressure
Adjust pipe speed for change in pressure required and re-calculate
Continue re-calculating until desired pressure loss is realized
Record seconds/stand as recommended trip speed
Create table with trip speed vs. bit depth

Slip Velocity

Particle Reynolds Number

What is slip velocity?

N Res =

d Vs MW

eff

It is the rate at which cuttings fall back to the bottom of the hole in
static mud
For efficient hole cleaning, the average velocity (or annular velocity)
should be at least twice that of the slip velocity

d
Vs
MW

eff

particle diameter, cm
slip velocity, cm/s
mud weight, g/cm3
effective viscosity, P

Slip Velocity

Slip Velocity

If

If If

NRes < 10 Laminar slip

53.3 x (Wcuttings - MW) x d2cuttings x Vavg

Sv =

x 60
6.65 x YP x (Dh - Dp) + PV x Vavg

Note : for Bingham -plastic fluids

fpm

Sv = 0.2 x

NRes > 100 Turbulent slip

dcuttings x (Wcuttings - MW)

MW

Note : for Bingham -plastic fluids

Transport Efficiency

TE =

Va - Vs
Va

x 100 %

Drilling Hydraulics Basics

for
Deviated Boreholes

fpm

Why directional drilling hydraulics is more complex?

Because

Issues
l

Downhole motor, turbine and other hydraulically

operated tools are being used in deviated wells

l
l
l

Mud pulse telemetry is widely utilised in MWD and LWD

tools

l
l

Mud properties, circulating system

Flow rate selection
Bit nozzle selection
Hole cleaning, cuttings transport
Hole erosion
ECD

Cuttings transport is problematic and critical in highly

deviated boreholes

Mud Properties

Circulating System
Requirements :

Requirements :
Low solids, and particularly low sand content
Fresh water mud,or low aromatics OBM
Good rheologyfor low pressure losses, but efficient cuttings
transport
Low friction coefficient in high angle/horizontal holes

Minimum 2 - preferably triplex - pumps

Properly maintained and charged pulsation dampeners
Efficient suction filters
Ditch magnets
3 shakers for 16 or bigger hole sizes when motor drilling is
planned
Selection of different bit nozzles

Hole Cleaning
l

Hole inclination ranges :

near vertical

0 - 10

low

10 - 30

intermediate

30 - 60

high

60 <

Cuttings Transport Problems in Deviated Wells

<30 No beds formed, cuttings are suspended and transported

>30 Cuttings bed formed, bed slides down and cause pack-off
45 to 55 degrees is the most critical !
Cuttings on the low side could
form an unstable cuttings bed
cuttings bed builds up and slides down as a block,or
be transported at the bed / mud interface as ripples, or dunes
(saltation) - best induced by low viscosity fluids in turbulence

Hole Cleaning
Problem Indicators
l

Tendencious deviation from calculated torque and drag values

Cuttings volume decreasing, or lack of cuttings
Higher standpipe pressure after resuming circulation on connections
Low/Hi vis pills return carries volume of cuttings to surface
Cuttings are small and rounded

Hole Cleaning
l 30 to 60 degrees inclination :
Problems :
Cuttings bed formation tendency
Cuttings move as a bed or by saltation at bed/mud interface
Back sliding and packing off (at circulation stops)
Strategies :
Circulate cuttings above the critical inclination range on connections
Minimize circulation stops
Frequent short trips with backreaming
High pump rates
Frequent low-vis pills in turbulence followed by high vis sweeps

Hole Cleaning
l Source of increased torque and drag in high angle holes :
Wellbore contact on the HS of the hole
The wellbore is not clean, drill stem moves in a solid bed
Drillstring movement across rock fragments and filter cake on the LS
conventional lubricants offer little relief (use mechanical addi tives)
best to keep hole clean in the high angle section
cuttings form in valleys reducing effective hole size

0 to 30 degrees inclination :

Conventional methods clean the well good

Effective suspension of cuttings and barite by shear stress
No cuttings bed formation tendency
Application of slip velocity equations okay
Add 20 to 30% safety factor in circulation time for deviation from vertical
Use high viscosity sweeps
Adjust flow profile

Hole Cleaning
l 60 to 90 degrees inclination :
Problems :
Cuttings bed formation
Insufficient mud velocity to transport cuttings on low side
Excessive torque and drag
Strategies :
Circulate cuttings above the critical inclination range on connections
Minimize circulation stops, use top drive not kelly
Pump out on connections
Frequent short trips with backreaming
Low viscosity mud in turbulent flow in open hole annulus
Frequent low vis pills followed by high vis sweeps

Hole Cleaning
l Other considerations
When pumps shut down cuttings bed will slide in sections of holewith critical
deviation angle sticking pipe
have a back-up pump (or cementing truck) ready to go on-line in case of
main pump failure
intermittent reciprocation of drillstring with high flow rates well into
turbulence (backreaming the stand prior to connection)
watch returns when pumping sweeps to evaluate hole cleaning and keep
close watch on density and solids content of the mud

Excerpt from 28 Hole Cleaning Rule of Thumbs

RT1
The intermediate inclination range hole is typically the
most difficult to clean.
RT3
Boycott settling can accelerate bed formation, particularly
between 40-50 inclination.
RT5
Cuttings accumulate in intervals of decreased annular
velocity and can unload when circulation stops, if the
inclination is <50

RT18
Turbulent flow is effective in high-angle, small diameter
intervals in competent formations
RT19
Hole cleaning capacity in laminar flow is improved by
elevated low shear-rate viscosity and gel strength.
RT25
Pipe rotation and reciprocation can improve hole cleaning
RT26
Mud weight increases the buoyant force on the cuttings
and helps hole cleaning.

RT9
Cuttings beds are easy to deposit, difficult to remove.
RT14
An increase in annular velocity improves hole cleaning,
regardless of the flow regime.
RT16
The cuttings transport mechanism is largely a function
of annular velocity.
RT17
Laminar flow is preferred if formations are sensitive to
erosion